behind every great planner, is a great education: an invisible pedagogy.

behind every great planner, is a great education: an invisible pedagogy

Acknowledging the contribution and influence of Jaqueline Tyrwhitt to the development and education of town planning and urban design throughout the 20th century.

Sally Anne Lofthouse 19010953 | 10611256 Supervisor : Victoria Jolley Manchester School of Architecture Year 1 Masters of Architecture Manchester Metropolitan University and the University of Manchester

Contents Abstract ii Acknowledgement ii List of Acronyms

iii

List of Figures

iv

Introduction 1 Initial Research Introduction to the topic

1 1

Methodology 4

Research Aim 4 Literature Review 4 Methodology 4

Percy Johnson-Marshall

Introduction to Percy Johnson-Marshall Percy’s work

7

7 8

Jaqueline Tyrwhitt

13

The Founding Mother

23

The Impact

45

Early life and Education The SPRND and APRR Jacky’s School of Planning Developing a Network CIAM 6 Sigfried Giedion The Festival of Britain & CIAM 8 Crossing the Atlantic & Influence in India Harvard Graduate School of Design, Indonesia & Urban Design Ekistics, Delos and Sparoza The Founding Mother Central Lancashire New Town The Design Pedagogy

13 15 16

23 25 28 29 32 35 36 40 45 46

Conclusion 55 The Connection The Significance What have I learnt

55 55 56

Bibliography 59

Abstract This study investigates the international work of Jaqueline Tyrwhitt, understanding her influences and theories and how she disseminated them when helping establish planning schools around the world. It will look at how her town-planning pedagogy was formed and created, fundamentally based on principles from Patrick Geddes. It will investigate the influence Jaqueline had on events such as: the CIAM conferences, the MARS Group and the publications co-authored with Sigfried Giedion and C.A. Doxiadis, as well many other well-known and influential international town planners from the time. Her teaching will be traced through a case study and linked to of one of her students, and notable architect, Percy Johnson-Marshall to understand and locate how she affected planning history, not only in Britain, but worldwide.

Key words: Urban design, town planning, pedagogy, Geddesian theories, CIAM, MARS, modern movement, Ekistics, humanist.

Acknowledgement First I would like to thank my supervisor Victoria Jolley for her guidance through the project and for introducing me to the work of Jaqueline Tyrwhitt.

Secondly, thank you to all my peers and friends, your valued thoughts, comments and video calls have helped deepen my research, personal growth and whom without architecture school would surely not be worth it.

List of Acronyms AA APRR ACE

CIAM CLNT

GSD GSE

LCC

MARS

PEP

RIBA RMJM

SPRND SPRRD

TCPA TPI

UN

Architectural Association Association for Planning and Regional Reconstruction Athens Center of Ekistics Congres Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne Central Lancashire New Town Graduate School of Design (Harvard) Graduate School of Ekistics London County Council Modern Architectural Research Group Political and Economic Planning Royal Institute of British Architects Robert Matthews, Johnson-Marshall & Partners School of Planning and Research for National Development School of Planning and Research for Regional Development Town and Country Planning Association Town Planning Institute United Nations

List of Figures Fig. 1 : Murphy, E. F. (1985) ‘The skillful editor.’ Ekistics, 52(314/315) pp. 455–457. [Online] [Accessed 10th February 2020] http://www.jstor.org/stable/4362385

Fig. 15 : A Decade of New Architecture Book - Authors own photograph (2020) of Giedion, Sigfried. and CIAM (1951) A Decade of new architecture. Zurich: Editions Girsberger.

Fig. 2 : Huws, U. (2016) Jacky Tyrwhitt in 1938 ‘Being got. Or not.’

Ursula Huws’s Blog. 29th October. [Online] [Accessed on 22nd March 2020] https://ursulahuws.wordpress.com/tag/jaquelinetyrwhitt/.

Fig. 16 : Anon. (n.d.) CIAM 6. Cities Re-imagined. CIAM 6.

[Online] [Accessed on 11th January 2020] http://www.ciam6. co.uk/.

Fig. 3 : modernmoocher (2016) ‘County Archives – Preston.’ Modern Mooch. 19th March. [Online] [Accessed on 29th April 2020] https://modernmooch.com/2016/03/19/county-archives-preston/.

Fig. 4 : Anon. (2016) Dictionary of Scottish Architects.

Dictionary of Scottish Architects. [Online] [Accessed on 30th April 2020] http://www.scottisharchitects.org.uk/architect_full. php?id=401401.

Fig. 5 & 6 : Johnson-Marshall, P. (1966) Rebuilding Cities.

Edinburgh: Edinburgh U.P, p.

Fig. 7 : Authors own photograph of Johnson-Marshall, P. (1966) Rebuilding Cities. Edinburgh: Edinburgh U.P, p.

Fig. 8 : Image assembled by author from Jaqueline Tyrwhitt | The Toronto School Initiative (n.d.). [Online] [Accessed on 1st March 2020] http://thetorontoschool.ca/jaqueline-tyrwhitt/. and RIBA (1961) Conference in Athens. RIBApix. [Online] [Accessed on 30th April 2020] shorturl.at/aADR3

Fig. 17 : Tyrwitt, J. (1985) ‘CIAM 8: The core of the city Conversation at Hoddesdon.’ Ekistics, 52(314/315) pp. 472–474.

[Online] [Accessed on 10th February 2020] http://www.jstor. org/stable/43623866 Fig. 18 : Example of the grid devised to display work, CIAM 8, The Heart of The City, 1952. - Authors own photograph (2020) of Tyrwhitt, J., Sert, J. L. and Rogers, E. n. (1952) The Heart of the City: towards the humanisation of urban life. London: Lung Humphries (8).

Fig. 19 & 20 : Images from CIAM 8, The Heart of The City, 1952.

- Authors own photograph (2020) of Tyrwhitt, J., Sert, J. L. and Rogers, E. n. (1952) The Heart of the City: towards the humanisation of urban life. London: Lung Humphries (8).

Fig. 21 : Authors own photograph of : Shoshkes, E. (2013) Jaqueline Tyrwhitt: a transnational life in urban planning and design.

Fig. 22 & 23 : Authors own photograph of : Shoshkes, E. (2013) Jaqueline Tyrwhitt: a transnational life in urban planning and design.

Fig. 9 : Photograph by Author of : Shoshkes, E. (2013) Jaqueline Tyrwhitt: a transnational life in urban planning and design.

Farnham: Ashgate (Design and the built environment series).

Fig. 24 : Maki, F., Haar, C. M., Lim, W., Nagashima, K., Doebele, W., Jenkins, T. H. and Herdeg, K. (1985) ‘The Harvard years, 19551969.’ Ekistics, 52(314/315) pp. 436–441. [Online] [Accessed 10th February 2020] http://www.jstor.org/stable/43623849

Fig. 10 & 11 : Tyrwhitt, J. (1985) ‘A correspondence course in Town Planning, 1945.’ Ekistics, 52(314/315) pp. 424–428.

[Online] [Accessed on 10th February 2020]

Fig. 25 : ACE (1959) ‘Front Matter.’ Ekistics. Athens Center of Ekistics, 7(41). [Online] [Accessed 10th February 2020] www.jstor. org/stable/43613303

Fig. 12 : Papaioannou, J. G. (1985) ‘Memories of Jacky.’ Ekistics, 52(314/315) pp. 413–413. [Online] [Accessed 10th February 2020] http://www.jstor.org/stable/43623839

Fig. 26 : Authors own photograph of : Shoshkes, E. (2013) Jaqueline Tyrwhitt: a transnational life in urban planning and design.

Fig. 13 : ACE (1985) ‘Front Matter.’ Ekistics, 52(314/315).

[Online] [Accessed on 10th February 2020] http://www.jstor.org/ stable/43623828 Fig. 14 : Authors own (2020)

Fig. 27 & 28 : Maki, F., Haar, C. M., Lim, W., Nagashima, K., Doebele, W., Jenkins, T. H. and Herdeg, K. (1985) ‘The Harvard years, 1955-1969.’ Ekistics, 52(314/315) pp. 436–441.

[Online] [Accessed 10th February 2020] http://www.jstor.org/ stable/43623849

Fig. 29 : RIBA (1961) Conference in Athens related to the City of the Future research project with Jaqueline Tyrwhitt addressing the participants. RIBApix. [Online] [Accessed on 30th April 2020] shorturl.at/aADR3 Fig. 30, 31, 32 & 33 : Mediterranean Garden Society (n.d.) The house at Sparoza. [Online] [Accessed on 1st May 2020] http:// www.mediterraneangardensociety.org/building.html.

Fig. 34 : Authors own diagram (2020) [Based on RMJM (1967) Study for a City: consultants’ proposals for designation.]

Fig. 35 : Photograph of Robert Matthew, Johnson-Marshall and Partners (1967) Study for a City: consultants’ proposals for designation. London: H.M.S.O. page. 86.

Fig. 36 : Authors own diagram (2020) [Based on RMJM (1967) Study for a City: consultants’ proposals for designation. Page 55] Fig. 37.a-b : Authors own diagram (2020) [Based on RMJM (1967) Study for a City: consultants’ proposals for designation. page 57] Fig. 38 : Authors own diagram (2020) [Based on RMJM (1967) Study for a City: consultants’ proposals for designation. Page 69] Fig. 39 : Authors own diagram (2020) [Based on RMJM (1967) Study for a City: consultants’ proposals for designation. Page 85] Fig. 40 & 41 : BDP (n.d.) Preston Bus Station. [Online] [Accessed on 29th April 2020] http://www.bdp.com/en/projects/p-z/ Preston-Bus-Station/.

Fig. 42, 43 & 44 : modernmoocher (2018) ‘Preston Indoor Market - Epilogue.’ Modern Mooch. 27th March. [Online] [Accessed on 29th April 2020] https://modernmooch.com/2018/03/27/indoormarket-preston-epilogue/.

Fig. 45 : Central Lancashire Development Corporation.

(1974) Reprinted article on CLNT from the Financial Times (NTC/12/3/31). [Reprint of Newspaper Article] Central Lancashire Development Corporation records. Lancashire Archives, Preston.

Fig. 46 : Central Lancashire Development Corporation. (1978) Brochures advertising the living and social environment of New Town villages, with colour illustrations and plans 1978, Moss Side (NTC/12/3/20/1). [Printed Booklet] Central Lancashire

Development Corporation records. Lancashire Archives, Preston.

Fig. 47 : Central Lancashire Development Corporation. (1982) Guide to Development in Progress - No. 14 (NTC/12/3/6 (14)).

[Printed Booklet] Central Lancashire Development Corporation records. Lancashire Archives, Preston.

Fig. 48 : ACE (1985) ‘Illustration - Society At Work.’ Ekistics, 52(314/315) pp. 415–415. [Online] [Accessed 10th February 2020] http://www.jstor.org/stable/4362384 Fig. 49 : RIBA (1961) Conference in Athens related to the City of the Future research project with Jaqueline Tyrwhitt. RIBApix.

[Online] [Accessed on 30th April 2020] shorturl.at/aADR3 Fig. 50 : Mediterranean Garden Society (n.d.) The house at Sparoza. [Online] [Accessed on 1st May 2020] http://www. mediterraneangardensociety.org/building.html.

Fig. 51 & 52 : Hartocollis, Pitsa, Hartocollis, Peter, Tonuma, K., Stefanovic, I. L., Brammah, M., Demos, J. and Goulandris, N. (1985) ‘Friendships at Sparoza.’ Ekistics, 52(314/315) pp. 515– 519. [Online] [Accessed 10th February 2020] http://www.jstor. org/stable/43623889 Fig. 53, Back Matter : Authors own (2020)

Fig. 01: Jacky taking notes, as usual, at the Delos Symposion with Percy and Buckminster Fuller

“

Planners and architects, as the chief designers of our physical environment, should never forget that the most important thing about a city or town is the people.

Percy Johnson-Marshall

(Johnson-Marshall, 1966:349)

�

Introduction Initial Research

town planning after the Second World War, that woman is

My notional topics for dissertation study were inspired

Jaqueline Tyrwhitt (1905-1983).

by research on post-War British New Towns. Having gained knowledge about the New Towns program and their several

Initial research into Jaqueline’s life and work originated

phases across the country following the Second World War,

with a number of papers by Ellen Shoshkes, who is the main

it was surprising to learn that the city I call my home was

researcher, of only a handful, who have investigated Jacky’s

part of these forward-thinking ideas. This city is Preston,

life and career. This led me to Ellen’s 2013 book Jaqueline

which was to become the centre of what was designated as

Tyrwhitt: A Transnational Life in Urban Planning and

Central Lancashire New Town (hereafter CLNT) in 1970

Design (Shoshkes, 2013). Here I immediately found her

(tcpa, 2014).

remark that Jaqueline’s “life story is truly a gap in the urban and design literature” (Shoshkes, 2013).

A theme within my studio atelier PraXXis, which I

Jaqueline played a supporting role throughout her life

surmise has been derived from Gender, Space, Architecture

to many notable male architects, planners and educators,

(Rendell et al., 2000), is: ‘Always Personal, Always Political’.

rather than being recognised for her own substantial

It therefore seemed reasonable to apply this meaningful

and important work. But she played this role with such

mantra to my dissertation work. In studio I am exploring

enthusiasm, intelligence and passion, that had it not been

feminist theories in architecture, looking at women’s

for her, these men may have not been as significant as they

space, how we exist in a world where each thing has been

still are today.

specifically designed for human habitation, yet that design process often discounts women’s data and needs. Women

Introduction to the topic

are invisible, forgotten and unaccounted for, but finding a

‘Behind every great man is a great woman.’

link between invisible women and any New Town appeared

This proverb or saying is believed to have originated

unsubstantiated.

from feminist movements during the first half of the

However, my supervisor Victoria Jolley brought to my

19th century in an attempt to recognise the work done by

attention an ‘invisible woman’, one who taught the original

women who were married to, or supported, successful men

planner of CLNT and who had a great influence over

(CommsMEA, 2019). If coined by feminists, the saying

may have not intended to cause offence but rather highlight

connected within the post-Second World War Modern

inequality. Today, however, this adage may well be seen

Movement. Situated at the heart of the action, she played

as disrespectful, redundant in conversational language

a hugely influential, although not well documented, role

and evidence of the remarkable disparity in recognition

in the development and birth of urban design and town

and representation of women and their achievements

planning. This work is evident in the practice, education

throughout history. The saying conjures the image or idea

and recognition of town planning as profession, which we

of a woman, not only figuratively, but physically standing

still acknowledge today.

behind a man fulfilling a minor role or being the secondary While her sex was indeed female, Jacky confiding to

sex.

It is important to consider that this disparity between

her diary in 1924 aged 19, “Oh I wish, I wish I was a man!”

the sexes is not based on sex but on gender. Crucial to this

(Shoshkes, 2013:9), she longed “to travel widely” (Shoshkes,

is understanding the difference in definition between sex

2013:9) and pursue a career but at the same time felt trapped

and gender. The difference is that: Sex is male or female

and unable to, because she was a woman. She must have

- the explicit biological difference between bodies, but

felt pressure to follow what was the ‘right path’ at the time

gender is usually defined as masculine or feminine (man

for a woman of her stature, thinking that her “true desire

or woman) (Rendell et al., 2000). Gender is therefore a

and vocation is not to follow any profession (tho’ I do love

construct, what ‘society’ constitutes to the acts of being a

that which I have chosen) but to marry and beget children.”

man or a woman, it is culturally and historically produced,

(Shoshkes, 2013:9), but in the same breath documenting

meaning the definition of man or woman changes based on

how she felt an “ever growing horror of marriage restrictions

geographical location, race and over time.

& household duties.” (Shoshkes, 2013:9) as her life so far had been free of such responsibilities.

Jaqueline, who preferred to be known as Jacky

Jacky was never shy, as her former student Wolfgang

(hereafter Jacky), is a British town planner, educator, writer

Frankl remembers her saying “I ought to have been a man”

and editor who worked ferociously and relentlessly starting

(Fry et al., 1985:421), colleague and friend Gwen Bell

in London in the 1920s, across the Atlantic and back until

recalled that although “She always wanted a career… in

her death in Greece in 1983. She was extraordinarily well

that class at that time women did not pursue [one]” (Maki

et al., 1985:436). This did not deter strong-willed Jacky.

an invisible woman. A female powerhouse behind the

She never married or had children, but instead managed

formality of urban design who has been forgotten about in

to travel tremendously throughout her life as her career

the pages of history, pages that have instead been dedicated

took her to every corner of the globe. Nevertheless, she still

to ‘great men’. It is the intention for this paper to shed some

conformed to gender-norms of the time.

light on her ideas and how she influenced urban design,

I believe it is because of typical 20th century ‘gender roles’ and Jacky’s hidden role that she has not been acknowledged for her work and has thus become

Fig. 02: Image of Jacky aged 23

town planning and the education of these disciplines on a transnational scale.

Methodology Research Aim

I have reviewed literature written by Jacky over her life

I am investigating the lack of appreciation for Jacky

to understand how her ideas may have been formed, tracing

and her work, through critical analysis of literature she

them over publications she was linked to and movements

produced and that written about her. Through this review

she was affiliated with. I will see how the educational

I will gain an understanding of Jacky’s sphere of influence

programs she created as well as her teaching and leadership

over town planning education from the 1930s up to the late

style affected the presentation of ideas and I will look at how

1970s and the influence this had on her students.

she organised, exhibited and taught concepts differently to

Through a case study I will then identify her influence

her predecessors.

on Percy, a student of hers and notable 20th century architect

By tracing her work and publications I can see how

and planner, to see how her teachings are translated into

she may have influenced and affected the work and outputs

designs.

of main male figures in her life, such as Patrick Geddes, Sigfried Giedion and C.A. Doxiadis.

For example, by

Literature Review

republishing Geddes’ book, her influence on Giedion

There is very limited literature that has been written

and subsequent organisation and input into the Congres

which explores Jacky’s work, as expected due to her

Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne (hereafter CIAM),

supporting, unacknowledged role. But Jacky maintained

and the coordination of Doxiadis’s Delos Symposia and

an almost daily diary for her entire adult life and excerpts

Ekistics journal.

from this first hand source have helped form an idea of

Methodology

Jacky’s personality and understand her opinions.

Ellen Shoshkes has contributed the main bulk of

I have used primary sources but, as these may be

writing and research on Jacky; her book and papers

taken out of context due to the time they were written, I

document a detailed chronology of Jacky’s life.

Even

have supported them with contemporary literature as it

still, there is little to no evidence of Jacky’s connection to

is essential to have a critical view of what was happening

Percy Johnson-Marshall (hereafter Percy). Therefore, this

during the period at a more holistic level.

dissertation will review literature throughout to record the connection between Jacky and Percy.

I will use primary sources such as journal articles, her diary entries, survey maps, books, bulletins and broadsheets

published by Jacky and frame the ideas by referencing

Additionally, restrictions and closures of the university

secondary sources to contextualise.

and its facilities means that the inter-library loans service

This has included archival work and visits to the Lancashire Archives which contain all of the documents

has been suspended and I can no longer obtain requested books.

from the CLNT Development Corporation. However, this

Consequently, the writing up of this dissertation has

aspect of the research has unfortunately been interrupted

been adjusted accordingly and focuses on the influences

by the restrictions implemented due to the COVID-19

Jacky experienced throughout her life, the lack of

pandemic. My intention was to return to the archives to

recognition for her work during her lifetime and up to the

seek out more specific data and documentation relating

present day, finally framing her ideas through a case study

to CLNT. I also intended to visit the Royal Institute of

of Percy from data available from a limited selection of

British Architects Archives in London to further research

books and online resources due to the unfortunate lack of

into Jacky’s life and thoughts. Again, the restrictions put in

access to archival sources

place by the government to protect us has interrupted this.

Fig. 03: Lancashire Archives building, Preston.

Fig. 04 : Percy Johnson-Marshall at work

Percy Johnson-Marshall I will use a case study to align Jacky’s teachings through worked practice in the decades following her establishing

by Sir Charles Reilly until 1933, followed by Lionel Baily Budden until 1952 (Thistlewood, 1995).

and teaching at her first planning school in London. This

The school, and students, experienced a transition

will be via notable architect and planner Percy who, as

during the period the brothers attended. The change was

aforementioned, developed the plan for CLNT.

from a classical style of teaching to modernist methods and was supported by both heads of the school (Derbyshire,

Introduction to Percy Johnson-Marshall

2004). While Reilly fostered the Beaux Arts Atelier, he

Percy (1915-1993) was the younger of the two Johnson-

simultaneously invited visiting lecturers such as Modern

Marshall brothers. Born in January 1915 he was three years

Movement pioneer Walter Gropius1 (Johnson-Marshall,

younger than elder Stirrat Johnson-Marshall (1912-1981)

1990a). When Budden was appointed Head of School he

(hereafter Stirrat). Both experienced a colonial upbringing,

introduced a cohort of new teaching staff who had ties with

living across India and Iraq before returning ‘home’ to

the Modern Movement and groups such as CIAM2 and the

England. Both then attended the School of Architecture

English branch, the Modern Architectural Research Group3

at the University of Liverpool, Percy started in 1931,

(hereafter MARS).

the year after Stirrat (Johnson-Marshall, 1990a). Percy

A lecturer who remained constant for both brothers

graduated with an Architecture Diploma in 1936, a year

was Patrick Abercrombie (1879-1957), an architect and

after Stirrat. Percy then began working whilst undertaking

town planner who taught and researched at the School

a postgraduate certificate in Civic Design, similarly at the

of Architecture as well as the Civic Design department

University of Liverpool but from the Department of Civic

(Holford, 1957). Abercrombie was an avid Geddes follower

Design (University of Edinburgh, n.d.).

and in a 1991 interview, Percy recognises himself as “a disciple to both those great men” (Johnson-Marshall,

Liverpool School of Architecture was headed by the Roscoe Professor of architecture, this position was held

1990a:15:25).

Percy continued to seek guidance under those who

1. Walter Gropius: architect, and founder and teacher at the Bauhaus in Dessau, Germany, from its conception in 1919 to 1928 (Whitecross, 2020). Gropius helped formulate a radical and different new style of teaching. Including a year where all students conducted the same work, so embraced today, almost every art school or foundation course is based on these principles.

2. CIAM: an international organisation that held conferences to disseminate Modern Movement theories related to all aspects of architecture and planning from the 1920s to 1950s.

3. MARS Group: the British branch of CIAM, a collection of experts that were brought together to discuss the Modern Movement in Britain from the 1930s to when conflicting progressive ideas forced them to disband in the late 1950s.

followed Geddes. His affiliation with planning education

the newly formed Ministry of Town & Country planning.

during and after the War, plus attendance at the post-War

Percy explained that “[Rowse] set up his own school, school

school of planning in London, were saturated with Geddes

of planning and research…He set up quite independent,

followers and theories.

with his famous disciple, Jaqueline Tyrwhitt. Who was a

real dynamo!” (Johnson-Marshall, 1990a:48:35).

Percy

It is unsurprising that Percy not only intellectually,

accordingly attended the School of Planning and Research

but quite physically, followed Geddes his entire career.

for Regional Development (hereafter SPRRD), to gain a

After working notably in Coventry and London, Percy

Diploma in Town Planning.

ended up in Geddes’ hometown of Edinburgh. Becoming

Percy and Jacky had met briefly before the War (Fry

a lecturer, then professor at the University of Edinburgh,

et al., 1985). Following Percy’s completion of the SPRRD

he established a research unit and his own department of

course they worked together as she “persuaded me [Percy]

‘Urban Design and Regional Planning’. After retirement

to convene a committee” (Fry et al., 1985:417). Percy and the

Percy served as the Director of the Patrick Geddes Centre

committee launched the ‘School of Planning Club’, which

for Planning Studies until 1987 (University of Edinburgh,

arranged lectures and discussions that were supported,

n.d.).

organised and attended by former students and others.

In 1949, Percy also became a part-time member of staff

Percy’s work

at the school, while working in the Architect’s Department

When working for Coventry Council, Percy was

at London County Council (hereafter LCC) (University of

called for military service, and served with the Royal

Edinburgh, n.d.). He worked for LCC, becoming planning

Engineers in India and Burma. Whilst on duty he played a

officer, until 1959 when he moved to the University of

key role in the Service’s Architect’s Technical Organisation

Edinburgh (University of Edinburgh, n.d.). He founded

(SATO), teaching and lecturing on planning. He knew of

the planning consultancy, Percy Johnson-Marshall &

EAA Rowse (1896-1982) who also served with the Royal

Associates in 1960, known today as jmarchitects, with

Engineers in India and taught and lectured for the group

offices across the UK (jmarchitects, 2020).

too (Johnson-Marshall, 1990b:3).

After the War, Percy settled in London, working for

Percy worked on and off through his life with his brother and their long-term friend and colleague, Sir Robert

“

Jaqueline Tyrwhitt... a real dynamo!

Percy Johnson-Marshall

”

Fig. 05 : Percy Johnson-Marshall & Associates’ 1962 working model of University of Edinburgh master plan

Fig. 06 : Percy Johnson-Marshall & Associates’ 1962 working model of University of Edinburgh master plan

Matthew (1906–1975) (hereafter Robert) (Glendinning,

numerous attempts from Stirrat to coax him in, “Percy’s

2008). At the time Percy joined, Robert was reorganising

communist principles forbade any such entanglement with

the LCC Architect’s Department and transformed it to

private practice.” (Glendinning, 2008:205).

a renowned department of planning with over 250 staff (Glendinning, 2008). Robert also worked at the University

A specific relevant riff is documented in the book

of Edinburgh from 1952, becoming Head of School in

where Percy feared “Stirrat was encouraging confusion

1953 (Watters, 2010), and later inviting Percy to join the

over the Johnson-Marshall name in order to siphon off his

institution (Johnson-Marshall, 1966).

clients… Percy wrote… a lengthy and impassioned memo,

Like Percy, Robert was keenly and centrally involved in the Modern Movement, being a member of MARS, affiliated with CIAM and attending Delos symposiums (Glendinning, 2008).

emphasising the lasting bitterness caused by the Central Lancashire debacle.” (Glendinning, 2008:444).

This ‘debacle’ was the result of Percy working on

Both were also distinguished

the CLNT concept before he established his own practice

planners alongside being architects. Conversely, Stirrat

to complete it under. Not only was Percy disheartened

only practiced as an architect, saying “the average planner

when his rival won the job and used his design, but RMJM

was a mediocre bureaucrat, not a designer” (Glendinning,

poached Percy’s colleague and employee, planner and

2008:131).

architect George Duncan, who then oversaw the CLNT project for RMJM (Gazzard, 1997).

Certainly, Percy was more akin to Robert, however, Stirrat and Robert entered private practice together, founding Robert Matthew Johnson-Marshall & Partners (hereafter RMJM) in 1956 (RMJM, 2020). Within the huge volume of Modern Architect (2008), the tension that arose between the three men is chronologically laid out.

A particular point of contention was Percy’s dedication to upkeep his values; he undertook specific work and refused to enter private practice with his brother. Despite

“

It is ever a group-emotion, a group-enthusiasm, which makes and re-makes the cities…

Patrick Geddes (Geddes, 1968:338)

Fig. 07 : Percy’s 1966 publication Rebuilding Cities

”

“

Jaqueline Tyrwhitt: perhaps one of the most important people you never heard of.

Ursula Huws, Jacky’s niece (Huws:2016)

Fig. 08 : Jacky taking notes

”

Jaqueline Tyrwhitt Early life and Education

Aged 14, Jacky gained a scholarship to attend

Mary Jaqueline Tyrwhitt was born 24th May 1905 in

the esteemed St Paul’s Girls School in Hammersmith

Pretoria, South Africa to Thomas and Dorothy Tyrwhitt

(Nagashima, 1985). During her years here she began to

(Nagashima, 1985). Thomas was an architect who trained

appreciate gardening and was inspired by the school’s

at the Architects Association (hereafter AA), and his work

garden mistress, Chrystobel Procter, and continued

with the reconstruction effort took them to South Africa

studying under her in preparation for examinations for the

following the South African War (Shoshkes, 2013). Upon

Royal Horticultural Society. In March 1924 Jacky passed

completion of a two-year contract they returned to England,

the exams but failed to attend horticultural college due to

settling in Hampstead4, North London where Jacky became

family finances.

the eldest of five children.

Jacky’s educational direction altered and her father

Her father also contributed to post-War reconstruction

organised for her to attend a term at the AA. Here she was

efforts at home following service with the Royal Navy

exposed to a wide variety of people and a range of new

Voluntary Reserves during the First World War. He worked

ideas. After her short time at the AA, Jacky went to garden

for the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries overseeing the

at Warley Place, Essex, but returned to London in 1926 and

design of cottages with the goal “to establish an entirely new

lived with her grandmother.

standard for working-class housing” (Shoshkes, 2013:6) to

Soon after her 21st birthday Jacky drifted away from

meet public demand for better living conditions after the

gardening. She enrolled on a night course at the London

War.

School of Economics, the beginning of her scholarly path Jacky would have been 15 years old during this time

(Shoshkes, 2013). Alongside studying in London, Jacky

and although it is unclear how much she knew of her father’s

spent several years working in industry, initially for a small

work or the influence, it is unusual how both followed

firm of garden architects then for Political and Economic

similar humanistic paths through their professional lives

Planning (hereafter PEP), where over a 50-year period she

within the architectural sector.

was just one of five female members. Here she developed new connections which helped her move into economical and

4. Living in Hampstead is notable as it was a garden city, the movement that pre-dates ¬post-War new towns. Hampstead began housing people in 1907, when the Tyrwhitt’s returned to London. Hampstead was commissioned by Henrietta Barnett, who wanted to provide adequate housing for the working class (Davidson, 2015).

She appointed planner and Geddes follower Raymond Unwin to undertake a holistic plan as she felt “that the estate be planned not piecemeal, but as a whole” (HGS trust, n.d.).

non-political work particularly at the League of Industry. At

the Elmhirst family, who owned the estate. The year was

the League she worked on economic studies, employment

influential, perhaps what set her on the trajectory to become

planning, gained valuable leadership experience and began

a planner. She learnt about industry and agriculture and

an awareness of social and humanitarian spirit.

fused this with her established understanding of landscape

Jacky took advantage of paid leave at the league to

and architecture. It could have been in Elmhirst’s library,

begin travelling. She took the Trans-Siberian Railroad in

or through their friendship with the author, that Jacky

1934 to visit her brother Cuthbert, an army officer posted

discovered the book that would impact her life tremendously

in Shanghai. Even when travelling, Jacky kept a diary;

from then on.

she kept detailed recordings of the sites she saw, cultures experienced and things learnt, including the emergent regime in Germany upon returning from Shanghai.

Jacky then spent a year working at Dartington Hall for

Fig. 09 : Jacky’s diary entry from a visit to Egypt.

Jacky recalls: “It was Patrick Geddes’s Cities in Evolution that first got me started on an interest in town planning” (Shoshkes, 2013:26).

Geddes’s Cities in Evolution (1915) contained his experience whilst on a town planning tour of Germany

the AA and SPRND, subsequently the SPRND closed down (Welter, 2001).

and lessons he thought valuable. Geddes endorsed town planning tours as “a vivifying wealth of new impressions”

With the onset of the War Jacky enlisted for the

(Geddes, 1968:177), so impressed with German planning he

Women’s Land Army and started a timber measuring

concluded: “we town planners have to come to Germany”

course in 1940 at the Forest of Dean. During this time,

(Geddes, 1968:184).

she and Rowse were in constant correspondence regarding

Thus, it is not presumptuous to suppose the discovery

planning work, developing a new school and he encouraged

of Geddes’s book compelled Jacky to then depart for Berlin

her to return to London to assist him. But Jacky was

in 1937, where she spent nine months studying town

reprimanded to stay working for the Forestry Commission

planning and land settlement at Technische Hochschule in

as a matter of ‘national interest’ (Shoshkes, 2013:42). Rowse

Berlin (Shoshkes, 2013).

then established a commercial planning consultancy called the Association for Planning and Regional Reconstruction

The SPRND and APRR

(hereafter APRR), which he ran until being enlisted to the

Upon returning to London, Jacky enrolled at the

Royal Engineer’s in 1941. Rowse managed to get Jacky

School of Planning and Research for National Development

back to London by her taking over his role as Director at

(hereafter SPRND) (Shoshkes, 2013), the planning division

the APRR.

of the AA set up in 1933. Rowse, an advocate of Geddes, was

Rowse shared with Jacky his ideas of curriculum (it

Principal of both schools and sought to deliver a broader

is likely these ideas had forced him out of the AA) with

curriculum to a wider range of graduates (Shoshkes, 2013).

an important emphasis on creating a ‘composite mind’

Although Jacky described the school as “a maelstrom

which fundamentally meant interdisciplinary team-work.

of seemingly haphazard lectures from all sorts of people”

This idea can be traced back to Geddes, who frequently

(Shoshkes, 2013:33) it seems she graduated feeling fulfilled:

expressed the underlying need that “City Design… [must

“By the time I had finished the course I felt I really had

be] a veritable orchestration of all the arts, and … all the

been made to grasp how to go about a job” (Shoshkes,

social sciences.“ (Geddes, 1968:205).

2013:34). Internal politics forced Rowse’s resignation from

Although Rowse coined the term ‘composite mind’, it

was Jacky who carried it forward, starting to implement it

indeed her entire life. She had provided herself with a truly

into her practice at the APRR. Jacky ran the APRR based

well -ounded and comprehensive foundation upon which

on what she had learnt in industry, particularly from the

to approach and further the discipline and education of

management style at PEP (Shoshkes, 2015). Jacky steered

surveying, town planning and interdisciplinary working.

the broad research agenda and used Geddesian theories to develop interdisciplinary and innovative mapping and

Jacky’s School of Planning

survey procedures. Specifically, Jacky conceived research

In fulfilling the role of Director at the APRR, Jacky was

and maps defined by cultural relationships rather than

then asked by the board to revive and continue the work

purely historic geographic boundaries, for example

of the SPRND. She redesigned the school, this time as a

investigating cake-baking preferences across the country

branch of the APRR, rather than the AA, under the subtly

(Shoshkes, 2013).

different name of the School of Planning and Research for

The APRR’s output was in the form of Broadsheets;

Regional Development (SPRRD).

The curriculum was

by implementing formatting methods, along with ideas

delivered as a part correspondence course during the War,

of standardisation, Jacky was able to convey research and

followed by a studio-based survey course after the War,

encourage exchange between the specialised disciplines that

because as Jacky remarked “One can’t teach survey work by

town planning encompassed. These strategies unlocked

post” (Shoshkes, 2013:71).

the work to a broader audience, which was one of her main

Jacky devised not only the curriculum but almost all

goals, and something that was also expressed by Geddes,

the material that constituted it, allowing her to synthesise

who, talking of town planning work, said that it should be

techniques she had devised for analysing and presenting

“visited and studied by every… citizen” (Geddes, 1968:253).

data into an “integrated planning theory… [and] pedagogy for practice” (Shoshkes, 2013:77), which allowed her to

Noticeably, while Geddes and Rowse discussed the

disseminate Geddesian theory completely throughout.

worth of interdisciplinary work, it was Jacky who forged a

Lectures varied; they included understandable areas such as

new and proactive method of executing this. Jacky herself

architecture and geography, but also covered subjects Jacky

had independently attended a variety of schools, studying

knew were important to gain a holistic appreciation of town

a range of disciplines over her most formative years, and

planning like sociology and rural studies.

Fig. 10 : Documentation relating to Jacky’s Correspondence Course - Introduction and Lesson Descriptions

Fig. 11 : Documentation relating to Jacky’s Correspondence Course - Lesson Descriptions

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The course’s objective was to train people in relevant

Jacky feeling it was her most meaningful role, many others

professions or with a planning interest, in anticipation for

too have remarked on the significance that Jacky “trained

the reconstruction effort once the War was over. Jacky built

a small, but influential cohort who made significant

upon Rowse’s efforts at the SPRND to allow a wider range of

contributions to post-War reconstruction worldwide as

students to access the course. Unfortunately, following the

they assumed positions throughout the Commonwealth, in

initial post-War years, the Town Planning Institute (TPI)

developing nations, and as advisors to the UN and other

began institutionalising planning education, restricting

international development agencies, just when they were

courses to university-based programs, something that later

needed most.” (Frank and Silver, 2017:69). Percy also

contributed to the closure of SPRND.

recognised that: “Jaqueline… achieved fulfilment through

Jacky’s unique correspondence course was a resounding

the education of an astonishingly able group of students,

success, and had over 1,600 people enrolled (Shoshkes,

who… have made a significant contribution to planning

2013). Later, 172 individuals completed the residential part

during the last 30 years.” (Fry et al., 1985:417).

of the school in London, obtaining membership to the TPI (Welter, 2001). That included just two women, who without

When Rowse returned from duty in 1946, an APRR

the course and the breadth of students able to attend, may

bulletin announced he would return to ‘his position’ at the

not have had the opportunity.

SPRRD. This statement is unjust, as after all it had been

Most significantly, one student who attended upon returning from War duty, was Percy. In his own words he confirms, “I wasted no time in joining it… I was deeply impressed with her achievement.” (Fry et al., 1985:417).

Jacky who constructed the role, the new school and new town planning pedagogy.

Alas, it became apparent that Jacky would have to move on as those returning from War returned to their positions, closing spaces for women in the workplace

This first planning school Jacky created may well have

(Frank and Silver, 2017). She continued at the helm of the

been the most important. Diana Farr Louis, Jacky’s assistant

SPRRD and APRR, knowing Rowse would discharge her

production editor at Ekistics Journal, remembers it was “the

from the role. This happened in early 1948 when the last of

job she was most proud of - developing correspondence

those on her completion course graduated.

courses for servicemen” (Farr Louis, 2020). Along with

It is from around this period that, despite Jacky’s

Since Rowse’s return, Jacky found herself in an

devotion and tireless work, she does not gain recognition.

uncertain, but also free space. Continuing to work for the

For years she single-handedly ran, managed and furthered

APRR, she was open to explore new routes of inspiration.

research at the APRR whilst simultaneously establishing

Throughout the 1940s Jacky became more involved

and directing the SPRRD. Yet this work is not attributed

in lecturing overseas and with the MARS group, and

to her, instead many books reference Rowse as creating the

subsequently CIAM. As a result, she established a lifelong

SPRRD. Some contemporary papers collected in Man Made

friendship with Jane Drew5 (1911-1996), a fellow MARS

Future (Whyte, 2006) now, acknowledge the importance

member and editor of The Architect’s Yearbook. Jacky

of Jacky’s role in “cultivating the image of Geddes as the

wrote articles for her publication, including one titled

father of a research-based urbanism.” (Whyte, 2006:40).

‘Town Planning’ in the inaugural 1945 release.

However, within the same book, a paper by Iain Boyd

Because of such friendships and the connections Jacky

Whyte states the APRR was “directed after 1938 by Eric

nurtured throughout her professional career, she was able

Anthony Ambrose Rowse.” (Whyte, 2006:31), even giving

to launch herself into new and exciting opportunities that

“Thanks to Rowse” (Whyte, 2006:31) for the publication of

presented themselves to her during the second half of the

the illustrative Broadsheets, specifically referencing those

1940s, both close to home and around the globe.

from the mid 1940s after Jacky had taken hold of the reigns at the association.

Jacky realised that forming these associations was required for her to progress her career as a woman.

Undoubtedly forward-thinking, Jacky had new ideas and

After withdrawing as Director, Jacky continued

pure passion for what she did, as well as to be independent.

to work in a much smaller capacity at the APRR. Her last

But through unpacking her life it is a shame to see that she

work was the production of an educational publication, the

had to fit into the ‘secondary’ or ‘supporting’ role in order

Town and Country Planning Textbook, which attempted

to achieve the vocation she desired.

to guide professionals, students and universities on the fundamentals of town planning. It was published in 1950, just before Jacky left and prior to the closure of the APRR.

5. Jane Drew was one of a handful of well-known female architects from the 20th century, married to notable architect and Jacky’s good friend, Maxwell Fry. Jane and Maxwell were established members of CIAM and MARS, and spent a number of years in India working on the first new town, Chandigarh, alongside Le Corbusier (Jackson and Holland, 2014). Jacky’s first article for the Yearbook contains a drawing which bears close resemblance to the later plan for Chandigarh.

“

She was a magnificent editor who had as great a capacity for friendship as for good work Earl Murphy : President of World Society for Ekistics (Maki et al, 1985:436)

Fig. 12 : Jacky looking triumphant on a snorkelling trip

�

Fig. 13 : Jaqueline Tyrwhitt

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The Founding Mother Developing a Network

by artist and former Bauhaus tutor Lazlo Moholy-Nagy in

Jacky’s transnational career began forming when

Chicago, and celebrated her 40th birthday in New York.

she accepted an invitation from the British Ministry of

She also attended a party whilst in Manhattan and was

Information to conduct a lecture tour around Canada on

introduced to architectural and cultural historian, Giedion.

British post-War planning in 1945. The tour was extended

Giedion and Gropius were both significant delegates

to include America, consequently overlapping with a

of CIAM, being secretary general and a member of the

United Nations (hereafter UN) conference on International

council, respectively. They had mutual friends owing to

Organisation in San Francisco. The trip was a pivotal point

Jacky’s arising involvement with the MARS group and

in Jacky’s personal and professional life.

affiliation with CIAM. Jacky was welcomed across the

During her inaugural passage to North America,

Atlantic by many academics and professionals; from hereon

Jacky began what she nick-named the ‘Geddes job’. She

she began securing her place amongst them, working on

had been editing Geddes’ sporadic and jumbled notes

countless projects across various disciplines and continents.

from his time in India. With help from, and the blessing of, his son Arthur Geddes, Jacky published Geddes In

Jacky formed another noteworthy connection when

India in 1947, coinciding with India’s independence from

lecturing in America again in 1948. She spent an evening

the UK (Shoshkes, 2013). Two years later, she edited and

in discussion with renowned architect and inventor of the

re-published Geddes’ Cities in Evolution, adding a new

geodesic dome, Richard Buckminster Fuller (1895-1983)

introduction herself and deleting certain outdated chapters.

(Shoshkes, 2013). He introduced Jacky to the shapes and

A third edition published in 1968 had new images collected

forms he studied; the impact of their conversations6 can be

and curated by Jacky, and an updated introduction, this

seen in Jacky’s drawings which communicated her ideas on

time contributed by Percy.

a decentralised metropolis, fig. 14.

Jacky spent April and May of 1945 travelling around Canada and America for the first time. During the trip, she became acquainted with Gropius at Harvard, was hosted

6. Jacky was introduced to scientific images such as x-rays, molecular images and telescopic photos of the solar system and universe when she visited Hungarian artist György Kepes in Cambridge, US, in1950. This, fused with her conversations exploring shape, would have been a big influence in her forming these ideas.

level land : playing fields

hills : light industry

river : heavy industry

residential unit 3070,000 people industrial centre for 250,000 people commercial centre for 250,000 people agricultural & commercial centre metropolitan centre for 3,000,000 people industrial route: rail, road, water

good agricultural land: market gardens & orchards

hills : health & recreation

parkway residential road

good agricultural land: agriculture industries Fig. 14 : Jacky’s drawing of the ‘Urban Constellation’ concept

The analysis was her reaction to the Garden City,

for an American Institute of Architects convention. Jacky

which was being used as the model and standard for new

explored the theory when asked if the British new towns

towns being established in Britain following the New Towns

were ‘safe?’, she responded a categorical ‘no’. She explained

Act of 1947. Jacky appears to question if this model was

“There must be a vital city centre to which all parts of the

the correct one to implement, or could there be alternative

[urban] constellation have access” (Shoshkes, 2013:142),

solutions.

adding “The only defence against death is life” (Shoshkes,

Her idea expanded on Geddes’s concept of

2013:142). Jacky was critiquing the decentralisation policy

‘conurbation’. Jacky had coined her own term to describe

of the first wave of new towns by referring to how they were

the relationship between cities and surrounding towns

just satellite towns around London. But Jacky had grander

and villages: ‘the Urban Constellation’, an apt name when

visions, that of a constellation or metropolis, a collection

viewing her diagrammatic representation. Jacky’s crucial

of centres interspersed with industry and greenery, rather

point demonstrated that urban areas organically extend

than separate towns with belts of green suffocating them.

from a metropolitan centre, and always will.

Her idea focused on connecting and integrating existing

Jacky based several lectures on this, taking them across

urban areas, allowing them to be enriched then develop

the globe including a lecture titled “‘The next phase in city

and grow more organically. The established centres provide

growth - the urban constellation” (Shoshkes, 2009:281)

resilience, and by connecting them, together they reach

their full potential to sustain the ‘life’ of a town, city or

Due to the delay in production Jacky was able to include

region, together forming an ideal poly-centric city.

excerpts and reports from CIAM 7 and 8 meetings as well as characteristically injecting Geddesian and her own theories

CIAM 6

along the way. However once printed the book only bore

The sixth CIAM congress was held in Bridgewater,

one name; Giedion’s. Jacky’s significant contribution to

England, hosted by the English branch of the organisation,

the publication is obvious from a letter she received off

MARS. It is without a doubt that Jacky, with her exceptional

Giedion, where he explained: “I was only furious that they

organisational skills, would have helped orchestrate the

printed my name all over the place… It is not an SG book!“

conference with other MARS group members. The congress

(Shoshkes, 2013:137).

had a large attendance, with delegates coming from across

Despite the recurrent disregard for her involvement,

Europe, America and beyond. It accommodated people

working on such projects brought Jacky closer to those

such as Le Corbusier, Gropius, Arthur Ling, Jose Luis Sert, Wells Coates, Maxwell Fry, Jane Drew, as well as Jacky’s former student Percy. Surprisingly though, the conference was without a formal agenda. The objective was to regroup and discuss how to progress the seventh congress, following a decade-long hiatus due to the War. CIAM 6 resulted in the formation of seven commissions that would address CIAM 7. Jacky and Giedion both worked within the same commission.

From here on, Jacky fully embedded herself within CIAM. She took over the completion of Giedion’s book,

Decade of New Architecture (1951), as he was unable, or unwilling, to finish it. The book summarised the work CIAM was doing after the decade-long interlude, their response, and opinions of post-War planning activity.

Fig. 15 : A Decade of New Architecture Book

CIAM 6 | Cities Re-imagined

Percy Johnson-Marshall

Le Corbusier

Jose Luis Sert Sigfried G

Fig. 16 : CIAM 6 Delegates Attended but not in photograph: Bertram Carter UK • Denis Clark Hall UK • Hermann Field USA • Gabriel Guevrekian France • Mark Hartland Thomas UK • William Holford UK • Richard Llewelyn Davies UK • Leslie Martin UK • Peggy Richards UK • Eugene Rosenberg UK • Ralph Tubbs UK • David Seymour France, born Poland • Andre Sive France • Jaqueline Tyrwhitt UK, born South Africa • Christoper Tunnard USA • J.H. van den Broek Netherlands • Aldo (1896 van Eyck – Netherlands • P.Vassiliadis n.d.) – 2006) Bertram Carter 1986) UK • DenisUK Clark (Anon.

Hall (1910

Attended but not in photograph:

UK

Hartland Thomas (1906 – 1973) UK • William Holford (1907 – 1975) U

Richards (1904 – 1993) UK • Eugene Rosenberg (1907 – 1990) UK • R

Sive (1899 – 1958) France • Jacqueline Tyrwhitt (1905 – 1983) UK, b

Maxwell Fry Giedion Jane Drew

Walter Gropius

K • Hermann Field (1910 – 1979) USA • Gabriel Guevrekian (1892 – 1970) France • Mark

UK • Richard Llewelyn Davies (1912 – 1981) UK • Leslie Martin (1908 – 2000) UK • Peggy

Ralph Tubbs (1912 – 1996) UK • David Seymour (1911 – 1956) France, born Poland • Andre

born South Africa • Christoper Tunnard (1910 – 1979) USA • J.H. van den Broek (1898 –

on the council, particularly Giedion, and members who

limited recognition as translator. Particularly since he was

predominately worked in America. Jacky’s input became

apparently ‘furious’ over the lack of recognition in Decade

extremely valued, she made herself indispensable through

of New Architecture (Giedion and CIAM, 1951).

her efficient and essential work. It could be postulated that

Despite her extensive work, Jacky is mentioned

had Jacky not been so integral and influential at CIAM, it

just once within the 215 pages of Sigfried Giedion: An

would have taken longer to advance to holistic urban design

Intellectual Biography (Georgiadis, 1993). She is described

solutions.

simply as: “Giedion’s long-time colleague” (Georgiadis, 1993:121), and is quoted as saying about his writing style:

Sigfried Giedion

“Giedion had an obsession that certain words he happened

Sequentially, Jacky became “intimately involved”

to like should – and finally would – mean what he wanted

Their “profound

them to mean” (Georgiadis, 1993:121). But it’s likely it was

friendship” (Shoshkes, 2013:105) developed over many

actually Jacky who was choosing those words, to translate

years following her initial trip to America and CIAM 6.

and explain her interpretation of Giedion’s work.

(Shoshkes, 2013:102) with Giedion.

After gifting Giedion a copy of her book Geddes in India in 1947, she was invited to read proofs of his latest book

In 1949, utilising her influence, Jacky boldly suggested

Mechanization Takes Command (Giedion, 1948). This

to Giedion that “CIAM must have an assistant secretary”

started many years of Jacky’s position as Giedion’s informal

(Shoshkes, 2013:117).

editor and translator. He described her role for him, and

position as secretary, organised with members of the CIAM

in general, as: “active, but not intimidating men’s logic &

‘inner circle’ the creation of a ‘Secretary to the Council’ role,

rationalistic behaviour. But being a friendly, smooth female,

which Jacky accordingly filled and maintained until the end

behind the man’s activity” (Shoshkes, 2013:112).

of CIAM (Nagashima, 1985).

Giedion agreed, and from his

Jacky undertook a vast amount of work for Giedion

This ingenious side of Jacky’s personality has become

on much of his work over the following two decades, so

apparent through the research. She cleverly controlled

considering this, it’s difficult to understand why it was only

situations, swaying the outcome to her advantage, capable of

on the final edition of Giedion’s renowned book Space,

extracting the result she desired. This calculated attribute is

Time, Architecture (Giedion, 1967) that Jacky was given

echoed by her niece Ursula Huws who affectionately recalls

a life-lesson her Aunt instilled: “It is really useful to learn to touch-type. But when you apply for a job don’t on any account let them know that you can do it. If you do you will always be treated as a secretary.“ (Huws, 2016)

She once divulged to Giedion: “If one is to work in a profession that is mainly men, one has to be better at some parts of it at least - and the men don’t resent superiority in routine efficiency. They do resent any show of superiority in mental capacity.” (Shoshkes, 2009:283)

The Festival of Britain & CIAM 8 The Festival of Britain and CIAM 8 both occurred in 1951, each event provided Jacky with the opportunity to showcase her ideas and work.

Jacky chose to demonstrate that understanding explicit human needs was fundamental to planning

Fig. 17 : Jacky and H. T. Cadbury-Brown at Harlow New Town as part of the CIAM 8 conference in 1951

and could “contribute to a better life for more people” (Shoshkes, 2013:132). The festival was a fantastic platform to increase public awareness of and interest in planning.

She therefore ensured the exhibition was not too technical,

“

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If one is to work in a profession that is mainly men, one has to be better at some parts of it at least - and the men don’t resent superiority in routine efficiency. They do resent any show of superiority in mental capacity.

Jaqueline Tyrwhitt

”

Fig. 18 : Example of the grid devised to display work, CIAM 8, The Heart of The City, 1952.

it invited everyone to visit and facilitated understanding

Geddes’ ideas on conurbation and her own of the ‘urban

by only including schemes that were built and could be

constellation’. Jacky had been instrumental in the MARS

visited (Shoshkes, 2013). It was also extremely relatable, it

definition of the ‘core’ as “the element which makes a

portrayed a town and how the lives of eight conventional

community a community, and not merely an aggregate of

people weaved through it, they were; “…a baby, a

individuals” (Shoshkes, 2013:143). CIAM 8 was to be an

schoolchild, an industrial trainee, a young married woman,

extension of this research to define the ‘core’, the Heart of

a factory worker, an office worker, and an elderly couple.”

a City.

(Shoshkes, 2013:133).

This work undertaken and curated by Jacky is a clear

Her major role in the conference is known due to

demonstration of her belief in a holistic and humanistic

Heart of the City (Tyrwhitt et al., 1952), the companion

approach, rooted in the desire to provide socially responsible

book distilling the conference proceedings and her work on

planned urban spaces based on the end users. Notably,

the Core through analysis of several modern and historic

Percy attended the Festival and certainly saw Jacky’s work,

cores at varied scales, from several countries.

as his work for LCC was also commissioned for exhibition there (Johnson-Marshall, 1966).

The case studies are formatted in a strict way that facilities easy comparison at different scales. Jacky devised this grid, based on the previous CIAM grid, to help facilitate

CIAM 8, held in Hoddesdon, England, had been

understanding of how the urban designs function at each

coordinated by, and the proceedings devised by, Jacky,

level, like at the heart as well a whole. Jacky had used it

overseen by Sert from within their ‘inner circle’. The theme

in her work before, for example at the Festival of Britain.

was one Jacky had been interested in for years, based on

It also meant viewers could easily cross reference projects

from different architects and geographic locations.

In the book’s conclusion, Jacky summaries CIAM’s work over the previous 20 years, clarifying “the need to replace man himself in the centre, face to face with his fellows.” (Tyrwhitt et al., 1952:168). She explains that the role of designers and architects should also be to find “a means to transform the passive individual in society into an active participant of social life.” (Tyrwhitt et al., 1952:168), in other words, humanistic architecture that enhances an area and generates life and urban space for it’s inhabitants.

Fig. 19 & 20 : All images from CIAM 8, The Heart of The City, 1952.

Crossing the Atlantic & Influence in India

institution, expressing to the chairman “if the appointment

Like many modernists after the War, Jacky left England

of a woman is a stumbling block, here is a good opportunity

and headed west, following the waves she embarked on new

for us to part amicably.” (Shoshkes, 2013:153). This may

endeavours in North America. Jacky left London for New

have been Jacky’s attempt at a way out, as her sights were set

York in 1950 (and never returned save a few brief visits,

on Harvard where her peers, such as Spanish architect José

such as CIAM 8) with little money and no plan (Shoshkes,

Luis Sert and Groupis, taught. Albeit the friction, Jacky

2013).

remained at Toronto, conducting new work funded by the

After suffering a hospitalising asthma attack,

architect and UN housing officer, Ernest Weissmann (1903-

Ford Foundation7, while staying in touch with the UN.

1985) commissioned Jacky to write for the UN’s Housing and Town Planning Bulletin, which began her involvement

Jacky was then informed by Weissmann of a technical assistant position in India. Jacky professed: “I don’t think

with the UN. Feeling that British planning was no longer enough for

the UN will want a woman.” (Shoshkes, 2013:154), but her

her (Shoshkes, 2013), Jacky’s bold transatlantic move clearly

doubts were unfounded, she was accepted for the job, plus as

demonstrates her independence and faith.

With such

a Project Director to advise on low cost housing and arrange

determination to revolutionise town planning education,

the first UN seminar on housing in Asia (Shoshkes, 2013).

it is a shame to see that she had to quash her ambition to

She was the first woman to lead a UN technical assistant

fuel others. This is commented on by Wolfgang Frankl, a

mission, and regardless of her misgivings she achieved this

former student, who said she “subordinated her own great

in another traditionally male-dominated setting.

energies to the service of others” (Maki et al., 1985).

The 10 months she spent in India were very significant.

Jacky was able to explore much of Asia during the trip, like

Jacky spent a brief time lecturing at Yale before

Bangkok and Singapore, as well as other towns and cities

moving to Canada where she was a visiting professor at the

in India including Le Corbusier’s Chandigarh. Jacky was

University of Toronto from 1951 until 1955 (Nagashima,

responsible for planning a whole village, where her design

1985). She established the City and Regional Planning

touched on the human scale by detailing aspects such as

course, but experienced tension in the male-dominated

window heights and stove designs.

7. A private American philanthropic foundation established in 1936 by owner of Ford Motor Company. It supports and funds “scientific, educational and charitable purposes, all for the public welfare,” (Ford Foundation, 2020).

Fig. 21 : Jacky visiting the Village Centre with Mr Jawaharlal Nehru, Prime Minister of India

Jacky truly understood and implemented into her practice the importance of being immersed into a setting and culture. She appropriately applied Geddes’s mantra “diagnosis before treatment.” (Geddes, 1968:295), something she made a focus of throughout her teaching career. Thus, she was able to respond sensitively, resolving specific problems by drawing on local knowledge for inspiration and solutions.

The most notable event was organising the conference

Fig. 22 : The village centre and low-cost model homes were designed by Jacky and the UN’s contribution to the Low-Cost housing exhibition. The houses were all designed to cost less than 5,000 rupees, which was equivalent to $1,000 US.

on Low Cost Housing. It built on work she had been doing to help bring western education to the east, but simultaneously integrate and learn from eastern tradition.

She invited all the ‘big names’ in architecture and planning at the time.

It was an obvious success and she also

unknowingly coordinated her introduction to Doxiadis, who would become a highly important figure in her life.

Over her life Jacky quite literally followed in Geddes’s footsteps. She not only edited and publicised Geddes in India (1947) to a wide audience, but also gained a deeper understanding of his work through her own first-hand experience. She explored and learnt across cultures, not just in India, like Geddes, but continually as she expanded her network across the world. Her nomadic, transnational lifestyle was the perfect vessel to facilitate cross-fertilisation of east and west education, just as she aspired.

Fig. 23 : Jacky’s design of the community centre as part of the UN Low Cost Housing Conference Jacky arranged.

Harvard Graduate School of Design, Indonesia & Urban Design

Not only did Jacky lead the organisational side but she was additionally assigned as rapporteur, a common ‘behind-the-

Jacky was finally offered a job at Harvard Graduate

scenes’ role. As the conferences continued Jacky narrowed

School of Design (hereafter GSD) by Sert in 1955. She was

the field of discussion to “the design section of the planning

assigned Assistant Professor of City Planning, and later

process” (Shoshkes, 2013:185), this new emerging field was

Associate Professor of Urban Design, something she never

adopted as Urban Design. This advancement resulted in a

thought could happen.

new course launching at GSD in 1959, the Urban Design

Upon her appointment, and knowing both Jacky and

Program (Maki et al., 1985). Jacky was essential to this

her situation ‘intimately’, Giedion recommended: “The

advancement and in developing the curriculum for the

main thing for you will be: to be as female and silent as

program.

possible, and as little as possible a school master” (Shoshkes, 2013:173). Although this sounds sexist, it was probably

Another significant role Jacky had at GSD was forming

well intentioned, due to the chauvinistic environment Jacky

a link to the UN. After the UN conference she organised

occupied.

in India in 1954, there had been discussion of founding

As Head of School, Sert was restructuring the GSD. He

planning schools in Asia. This ultimately came to fruition

hired Jacky strategically, for her international connections,

in Indonesia as a joint venture of the UN, Harvard and the

interdisciplinary approach and as his friend and ally. She

Government of Indonesia. Her unique position within

would help him achieve his goal. Jacky was asked to co-

Harvard academia and established connections at the UN

teach the fundamental year-long course that every student

meant Jacky was undoubtedly best placed to visit Indonesia

had to undertake – Environmental Design Studio. For

and help establish the new School of Regional and City

Jacky, this was thrilling, it was a major and influential

Planning, part of the Bandung Institute of Technology.

role and worked within every department.

She could

The goal was to help establish the school, train the

confidently infuse Geddesian theory and interdisciplinary,

faculty in America and get the school self-sufficient in five

collaborative thinking into receptive students.

to seven years (Shoshkes, 2013). William Doebele, another

One of Jacky’s first achievements at GSD was in

professor at Harvard, was also involved. He and his wife

coordinating a new major conference on Urban Design.

spent the first year, 1959, in Indonesia setting up the school

“

as this incipient union of science and art becomes realised, our discouragement and our cynicism abate... a new age, a new enthusiasm, a new enlightenment are already dawning Patrick Geddes

and teaching, then Jacky spent the first six months of 1960

every corner of the globe.

”

at the institute. In all her experience Jacky said it was “the

Jacky deferred teaching at Harvard for a number

most efficient, and realistic and economic assistance that

of years and spent the summers in Greece (Shoshkes,

has yet been given in setting up a department” (Shoshkes,

2013). Pleased she had managed to obtain and maintain an

2013:199).

important role at Harvard, Jacky was able to focus the latter

By helping establish this school, Jacky facilitated the

part of her life on founding another planning discipline.

internationalisation of town planning and urban design discourse. Doebele recalls of Jacky, “her keen interest in each student as an individual… her concern to make education as relevant as possible to the needs of the students from developing countries… the need for sensitivity to cultural and social differences, and the dangers of Western planning methods and concepts being thoughtlessly or arrogantly imposed on others.” (Maki et al., 1985:440).

Jacky’s distinctive approach and teaching style meant success for the projects she was involved in, across cultural divides and boundaries. Jacky’s ability to determine specific

Fig. 24 : Jacky teaching at Harvard Graduate School of Design

needs of a wide variety of students, and too of clients with

Ekistics, Delos and Sparoza

design responses, shows how her careful survey, of space

The final chapter of Jacky’s life was anchored from

or people, is invaluable. Jacky practiced what she preached

Sparoza, the hill top abode she built near Athens. Although

This content from 2.30.202.187 on 30 Apr 2020 13:32:23 UTC sheThu, officially retired from Harvard in 1969, she had been and it was the greatest evidence that downloaded her pedagogy was a All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

successful one.

making moves back to Europe since 1963, having purchased

Her position at Harvard amplified her influence

a plot of land outside Athens (Tyrwhitt, 1985b). She was

amongst the next generation of architects and planners even

based here due to her association with Doxiadis. Their

more. The leading and international cohort of students that

friendship and professional relationship grew following

benefited from her teachings went on to pursue careers in

their first meeting at the UN conference in India.

ekistics

Both were extremely interested in similar things, what Doxiadis termed ‘Ekistics’, the “name for a new science of human settlements” (Shoshkes and Adler, 2009:200). Their work over the next 20 plus years was to establish Ekistics as a subject that could be formally studied across the world.

A truly international and interdisciplinary recognised field.

Jacky and Doxiadis had kept in touch since 1954 and because of Jacky’s nomadic lifestyle they were able to

noun, plural in form but singular in construction ekis·​tics | \ i-’ki-stiks \

: a science dealing with human settlements and drawing on the research and experience of professionals in various fields

(such as architecture, engineering, city planning, and sociology)

(Merriam-Webster, n.d.)

arrange meetings as she was back and forth to Europe. In August 1955 Doxiadis asked if Jacky would like to take charge in preparing a publication for him. It would contain helpful international information that he could distribute to his staff at Doxiadis Associates, an engineering consultancy, as their work and staff began to venture east and across continents.

Jacky accepted on the basis that it could also be distributed to UN experts and in developing countries (Shoshkes and Adler, 2009). In October of that year the first Tropical Housing & Planning Monthly Bulletin was released, which was a “cross-fertilisation of eastern and western social-aesthetic” (Shoshkes, 2013:179). Beginning as articles and book extracts, Jacky’s involvement meant it could include UN documents that would otherwise not have been accessible. She curated the bulletin, prioritising topics that had a social aspect of planning, housing or

This content downloaded from 2.30.202.187 on Thu, 30 Apr 2020 13:22:11 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms

Fig. 25 : Early cover of the Ekistics journal, showing the Dymaxion world map.

“

Jacky had enormous energy... she unselfishly gave herself to develop the ideas of others. She did for Doxiadis what she did for Sert and Giedion. She made possible their literary output in a way that would have been inconceivable without her William Doebele (Maki et al., 1985:440)

Fig. 26 : Jacky and Giedion in India.

�

community. After two years of continual development it

14 countries, including Giedion and Robert (ACE, 1963b).

was reincarnated as the journal: EKISTICS Housing and

Jacky’s role is yet again was of a hidden nature. She is

Planning Extracts.

not counted as a Delian in EKISTICS (ACE, 1963a). But Doxiadis opening comments say: “There were no formal

Alongside Harvard, Jacky was also working with Doxiadis throughout the 1950s and 1960s.

minutes or records, no stenographers and no tapes. If

From her

anyone wished to make a statement… he could… give it

experience, Jacky understood the significance of a subject

to the Secretariat. Professor Tyrwhitt of Harvard acted as

being institutionalised to gain legitimacy. In 1958 they

the only secretary of the meeting and took notes in order

succeeded, Ekistics was taught at the Graduate School of

to record the spirit of the discussions” (Doxiadis, 1963:204)

Ekistics (hereafter GSE) part of the Athens Technological

Delos was the ultimate fulfilment of a ‘composite

Institute.

mind’. The meetings ran for ten successive years; Jacky,

In 1963 Doxiadis, with Jacky’s help, secured funding from the Ford Foundation.

It is likely Jacky’s past

Doxiadis, his wife and Buckminster Fuller were the only attendees present at every event.

involvement with the foundation and her connection to Harvard helped obtain the funding. The support helped

Jacky worked for Doxidis on EKISTICS, Delos and as

formalise the Athens Centre for Ekistics (hereafter ACE)

a tutor in Planning at the GSE for many years (Nagashima,

and aided the realisation of Doxiadis’s floating symposion8.

1985). Jacky was editor of Ekistics until 1972, when her

Having witnessed the CIAM Athens Charter as a

friend, former student and co-editor Gwen Bell took over,

student, Doxiadis wanted to recreate the same spirit of

but Gwen said “it was really Jacky’s publication until she

excitement for ekistics, on a boat tour they named Delos.

died” (Maki et al., 1985). Jacky continued to teach and

Jacky’s unparalleled involvement in CIAM meant she was

lecture around the world and worked on a book for herself

well placed to manage and oversee the event. Although

with roots to her first career path, gardening, called: Making

based on the study of human settlements, architects and

a Garden on a Greek Hillside (Tyrwhitt, 1998). She passed

planners were not the only people on the guestlist. Those

away at home on February 21st 1983, her diary entries

invited were called ‘Delians’ (ACE, 1963a). Delos One was

detail that she was still working on EKISTICS articles and

comprised of 34 world leaders, experts and scientist from

her book until the very end (Tyrwhitt, 1985a).

8. Doxiadis insisted on it being called a Symposion as opposed to symposium to retain its Grecian roots.

The Founding Mother There is far too much to say about Jacky than can be contained within 10,000 words. The expansive lists of publications, books and journals she contributed to in

EKISTICS (Nagashima and Ladas, 1985) begins to reveal her extreme work ethic. But probably the most enlightening words one can read about Jacky are those from friends, students and colleagues remembering her charm, caring nature and her friendship.

Fig. 27 : Jacky on the Acropolis

Geddes is frequently dubbed a ‘founding father’ or ‘father of planning’. But without Jacky’s unparalleled efforts to disseminate palatable Geddesian theory to a greater audience, it is arguable that they may not have been so widely embraced. So, is it not only reasonable that Jacky too deserves such recognition as a ‘founding mother’?

The research presented in this study argues she does deserve such credit. It is clear that although there is a lot less written and recorded about Jacky, her substantial contribution to the widespread publicity and worldwide teaching of Geddesian theories means that without her, Geddes’s planning theology may not have been as influential, and town planning and urban design may look very different today.

Jacky became, like Geddes, a highly-influential

Fig. 28 : In Gambia on an official visit as a UN Technical Consultant, 1963.

representative and scholar of transnational urban design.

Her international and far reaching life’s work reveal how

effectively disseminate knowledge was akin to her male

her experiences helped evolve her method of planning and

counterparts, if not more.

teaching. She trained swathes of significant future architects, planners and landscape architects on collaborative working;

Her social and caring nature helped make her an

within practice, with local communities and harmoniously

internationally known name within major architectural and

with nature.

planning movements of the 20th century. Her personal and energetic nature was brought into her teaching style, and

Despite her misgivings about her non-traditional

this may have been the key to producing such influence and

training and gender, she was an academic in her own

causing such an impact of the next generation of designers

right.

she helped shape.

The dedication and commitment Jacky gave to

understanding, formulating ideas and devising ways to

Fig. 29 : Jacky speaking at a conference in Athens, 1961

Fig. 30, 31 & 32 : Internal and external shots of Jacky’s home, Sparoza, near Athens airport in Greece.

Fig. 33 : View of Jacky’s home on a Grecian hillside. Designed by American/Polish architect Jerzy Soltan. The house was built in stone and a few other houses were built close by that formed a small community which enriched Jacky’s later life greatly.

Longridge Grimsargh

Preston

Walton

Cuerden

Leyland Chorley

Fig. 34 : Diagram of the ladder-like conceptual design for CLNT, utilising the existing urban fabric and linking the seven townships with fast transport systems around the motorways.

The Impact Having explored Jacky’s life and contribution to the

never fully realised; when funding halted, the Development

education of town planning and urban design, the following

Corporation was forced to close after just 15 years (tcpa,

chapter will look at CLNT and the how Jacky’s philosophy

2014).

was incorporated in the design.

As

mentioned

previously,

Percy’s

working

Central Lancashire New Town

relationships with Stirrat and Robert were muddled and

The third wave of British New Towns emerged

fraught. He undertook the initial concept work on CLNT

following the 1965 New Town Act, passed under the re-

before splitting off to form his own practice, and RMJM

elected Labour government.

commenced delivering the proposal without him.

It was announced there

was the intention of a New Town development in central Lancashire.

Richard Crossman, the Minister of Housing and Local Government, then commissioned RMJM to conduct a report on the feasibility of a New Town in the Leyland/ Chorley area (RMJM, 1967).

Two years later RMJM

delivered Study for a City (1967). The document details the process to determine the scale and location of the development, along with initial proposals and the impact of such a development on the whole region.

This led to the designation of CLNT on March 26th 1970. It was 14,267 hectares of land that concentrated on the existing town of Preston and neighbouring townships (tcpa, 2014:35). CLNT was the final and biggest British New Town, intended to grow from a population of 253,000 to 503,000 by 1991 (RMJM, 1967:3). However CLNT was

Fig. 35 : CLNT Designation Area, set out in Study for a City.

The Design Pedagogy

her teachings and it was successfully employed here.

Despite the design being largely theoretical, the plans

The simple diagrammatic style utilised throughout

for CLNT can still be examined and parallels drawn which

the document visually aids anyone reading it. This way of

unite them with Jacky’s teaching.

portraying information is notable, because it was a public

CLNT is significant as it was conceived at a sub-

government document, so those assessing it may not have

regional level, which was one of the first lessons in Jacky’s

any architectural training. Like Jacky’s focus at APRR,

SPRRD course: ‘Regional Integration’, see figure 10. Study

the data has been specifically displayed in a way that is

for a City (1967) explains the design process throughout.

transparent and explains the planning methods.

It examines, in detail and at various scales, the potential of each area, then suggests development options at a regional scale. This holistic approach is one that Jacky reinforced in

80,000

60,000

18,000 15,000 5,000

1

4,000

neighbourhood

2 district

3 township

Fig. 36 : Representation of the scale of the neighbourhood, district and townships. Seven townships, made of districts and neighbourhoods will form the city or region of 500,000 people, the population aim for CLNT by 1991.

Fig. 37.a : Concentration of city functions in one centre Movement pattern, radial plan with all converging together

Fig. 37.b : Strategic dispersal city functions - Movement pattern, distributor system is engaged over centralised, everyone can access the city centre and local districts as easily

The design methodology interrogated the area at four scales: city or region (300,000 – 500,000 people), Township (60,000 – 80,000), District (15,000 – 18,000)

home

daily needs local shops

and neighbourhood (4,000-5,000), see fig. 36 (RMJM, 1967). Interrogation at different scales was a basis of Jacky’s pedagogy, this can be seen through her use of grids to

home

arrange and display work at set scales, as well as her work

small range of goods district shops

on the urban constellation.

CLNT’s striking curved ladder-like design is an arrangement of seven townships (fig. 34). The townships are connected by a fast three-strand transport infrastructure

home

wider range of goods town centre

and interspersed with green space and industry (fig. 38).

The townships are expansions of existing urban centres, strategically chosen due to their established functions and potential for development.

home

specialist shops regional centre

Fig. 38 : Sequencing transport movements from the home to services, from neighbourhood to city scale. The distribution of functions removes congestion at the centre.

urban planning was subject to searching examination

by Patrick Geddes, the great pioneer of contemporary planning ideas. He found, of course, that it was often a reflex of a complex social organization, and suggested that it might require a complicated form of conservation surgery rather than total demolition and redevelopment.

Percy Johnson-Marshall (Johnson-Marshall, 1966:53)

Transport, population density, commerce and growth are all studied at every scale. To avoid radial transport

also explored in fig. 37, and relates to Jacky’s lessons on decentralisation noted in ‘Lesson VI’, fig. 10.

systems, as seen in early New Towns and garden cities, the roads are used as distributors, enabling easy access not just to the main centre, but also between townships (fig. 37).

Rather than introduce satellite towns, the measured development of every centre allows the original core to be retained, respected and enhanced.

The decision is

Study for a City is a comprehensive document

synonymous with Jacky’s thoughts: “main Cores have

which conforms greatly with the idea of “diagnosis before

always grown around the first centre of development. It

treatment.” (Geddes, 1968:295), another process that Jacky

seems very difficult to change this. The first core to grow

schooled her students on and something she practiced

seems to remain the real centre.” (Tyrwitt, 1985:473).

since working in industry at PEP and the APRR.

This approach does not remove facilities from the main centre, but allows every centre to grow independently

Rather than employing a decentralisation policy to alleviate overcrowding in the centres, the concept for CLNT was a strategic ‘Distribution of Functions’ between

with its specialist draw, encouraging a sustainable regional growth as the centres are not in direct competition.

Preston remains the regional heart of administration,

the townships (RMJM, 1967:56). Each centre had a certain

retail and business.

Just south, Walton provides

focus of facilities based on existing conditions. This is

administration and education, whilst Cuerden is focused

Fig. 39 (right) : Development of concept design applied to typography of area. Industry, residential, urban and green space are all interspersed and accessed by the ring-like distributor roads.

M.6 Longridge Grimsargh

River Ribble

Preston Blackburn

Walton Leyland

Cuerden

River Yarrow

Chorley

existing urban areas general residential area industrial area town centre special ownership open space and landscape features land over 600 feet high speed road railway public transport route

M.6

M.61

Bolton

Fig. 40 : BDP’s Preston Bus Station, internal shot and promotional material.

Fig. 41 : External photographs of Preston Bus Station from shortly after it opened, circa 1969-1970. The brutalist architecture is now a iconic symbol of Preston’s skyline.

on recreation.

Further south, Leyland would still

accommodate industry and expand into education and retail, below that Chorley’s expansion emphasis is on becoming a cultural and entertainment hub (Jolley, 2017).

To the west of Preston there would be the large development of the small residential areas of Grimsargh and Longridge, concentrating on recreation, welfare and entertainment (RMJM, 1967:73).

Fig. 42 : Preston’s indoor market, displaying the warren of stairs and access from the car park to the markets and out to street level

Percy’s scheme acknowledges Preston’s historic core, it is where the heart, or the life, of the region is, and will continue to be. Accordingly, Preston’s core had a focused design, elements of this were delivered before the New Town halted.

This includes the bus station and indoor market, constructed in 1969 (BDP, n.d.) and 1973 (LEP, 2018) respectively. Both buildings were created at a city scale,

Fig. 43 : Preston’s indoor market, showing the pedestrian subways before demolition began in summer 2019.

ready for the expected regional population of 500,000 (RMJM, 1967). Their strategic location on the edge of the centre meant people could access by vehicles, then filter through the car parks or transport hubs, leaving the core vehicle-free.

Although in Preston the designers were dealing with a more established urban fabric, the separation of pedestrians and vehicles was a common experiment in most New Towns, indeed all shopping districts or precincts.

Fig. 44 : Internal view of the indoor market stalls

The main themes of Jacky’s pedagogy can be traced through these elements of CLNT design. There is a focus on the cores, intermingling industry and green space with homes, and extensive research and investigation of the site and population. These are fundamentals that Geddes pioneered and Jacky managed to disseminate across the world by formulating a teaching style that could be easily replicated.

Thanks to this work and Jacky’s involvement in movements like CIAM, Town Planning, Urban Design and Ekistics became recognised fields. With the need for Fig. 45 : CLNT Development Corporation promotional advertisements placed in local and national news papers.

an interdisciplinary and broader approach understood, the designers of third-wave New Towns had a vastly different education to those who planned the satellite first-wave and experimental second-wave. Third-wave towns, like CLNT, bare the influence of Jacky with a more humanistic, considered approach, which is respectful of existing conditions. They aim to provide a better quality of life for the new population they attract, as well as the existing.

Fig. 46 : Promotional and advertising information which shows a model of the proposals of a neighbourhood centre, highlighting what will be retained and how it will work

“

the Core is to serve as a place where adults can move about informally, and ... any provision for this kind of informal strolling within the city. Two important things seem to be that the Core should provide a sympathetic setting for varied moods ... There should be no distinct zones of separation ... The Core should be filled with a great diversity of people.

Jaqueline Tyrwhitt (Tyrwitt, 1985:473)

Fig. 47 : Ariel photograph showing work undertaken at Walton, CLNT,, note housing, green space and industry within close proximity with easy and fast transport links

�

“

As such women, such constructive pacifists, enter and lead the incipient civic and town-planning movement, their heavy-armed and bucklered men-folk will at length learn to grasp the trowel also; and next begin to lay their panoply aside. Through Region and City, and in course of their revivance and development, lies the peaceful yet strenuous way of survival and evolution.

Patrick Geddes (Geddes, 1968:83)

Fig. 48 : Jacky.

�

Conclusion The Connection

The Significance

This research reveals that the main traits of Jacky’s

The attitude towards women in architecture, and

planning theory can be traced through those she taught.

society in general, has changed dramatically over the 90 years

Percy is one of the more well-known architects of the

since Jacky first stepped foot in it. Whilst opportunities for

20th century, but his notoriety did not sway him from his

women in the workplace have unquestionably increased, it

training or routes. He refused to go into private practice,

is true that the gender gap in pay and representation across

favouring public architecture and planning (Glendinning,

the architectural profession still exists (Jessel, 2019).

2008).

It is a sure misfortune that it is only recently, 2013,

What Percy once said of Abercrombie is certainly

that Jacky’s story and influence has started to be told and

applicable to him too: he had a “deep social conscious”

acknowledged, chiefly through the work of Ellen Schockes.

(Johnson-Marshall, 1990a:16:00). This humanist quality is

But as the work of individuals, such as Jacky, rise

also true of Jacky’s character and what she taught.

Jacky’s self-proclaimed greatest achievement of

to the surface and become known, it is great to see the gaps in history start to be filled, little by little, with once

training those who shaped post-War reconstruction in

invisible women.

Britain is a legacy to be proud of. Like Percy, they planned

acknowledgement she deserves comes a way in proving that

and conceived many iconic schemes we know today.

women definitely do not just stand behind men.

Their impression is seen through New Towns, humanistic theories and the education of the next generation. Percy is just one example of many students who were inspired and motivated by Jacky’s principles.

Offering Jacky the recognition and

What have I learnt This study has revealed that outdated gender stereotypes can mean women are overlooked and forgotten, causing them to become invisible. I hope this paper can contribute to shedding light on the magnificent work of Jacky, and explain why her influence is of such importance.

Jacky’s humility and modesty for the great work she achieved is admirable. As is her enthusiasm for planning, architecture and life itself. She felt that “in work one is more satisfied to assist – to help forward – the work of someone else than to sit in the chief seat oneself ” (Shoshkes, 2013).

Although I’m sure many would not enjoy as modest a role, Jacky’s dedication and devotion to the cross-fertilisation of planning theories and disseminating knowledge all over the world truly paid off, through the work achieved by those she tutored and trained.

It has been stimulating tracing Jacky’s life and gaining an understanding of her. It’s a privilege to know her story and recognise the faint traces of her pedagogy on my, granted quite limited, knowledge of planning and architectural education.

One thing I found most interesting has been the humanistic emphasis of her work, which happens to align with the pedagogy within the PraXXis atelier. It is something I feel is of great importance to ensure an informed and considered design.

Fig. 49 : Jacky at the heart of the group and meeting.

Fig. 50 : Jacky at home, reading on the terrace.

Fig. 51 : A drawing of Jacky house on a Grecian hillside.

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