Language and Occupation Booklet

Language and Occupation

Making language work for you

Introduction So far, when studying the other language diversities, we have established that when people share a particular identity, it is almost inevitable that they develop ways of using common language features. If this is true of people of a similar age group or the same gender, how far is it true of those who work alongside each other, regardless of age or gender? This booklet will consider the ways in which language is used in an occupational context. Whilst working through this unit, you should consider the following key questions:  

What forms do spoken and written language of occupation take?

How do various occupational groups communicate with members of the public who are their customers or clients?

Your Own Experiences If you have worked part time, then answer the following questions for yourself. If you have not, find someone (a friend, sibling or parents) to ask them.

In your work place, do you use any specialised terminology?

Did you have to learn this when you started working there?

Is this terminology essential to your job?

How do you and your colleagues address each other?

How do you address your managers?

How do you managers address you?

Have you received any training in terms of how you should talk to customers/clients?

How do you adapt your ‘normal’, or non-occupational, language when you are at work?

Have you adopted any ‘in-house’ lexis when you talk to other employees?

Acronyms Research clearly shows that almost every occupation has its own special lexicon – a vocabulary that is specific to the occupation. Thinking about teachers, you may think you will be familiar with ‘teacher talk’ as you are in the same environment. However, how many of the following acronyms do you understand? Try to find out what they all mean.

Acronym AST APP AFL ALPS CPD EBD FSM IEP NEET PP MEG

Did you already know it? (Y/N)

What does the acronym stand for?

Acronyms are certainly one form of the specialised language used in various occupations. On the Metropolitan Police’s website there is a glossary section for all the acronyms used by the police (http://www.met.police.uk/foi/glossary.htm). Using this, find further examples of specialist acronyms: Acronym

What does the acronym stand for?

The list is extensive; there are 61 entries under ‘A’ alone. These include some we may be familiar with (ASBO, ABH), others which are used more generally (ASAP, A&E) and many which we are unlikely to understand (ASU – Air Support Unit; AFR – Automatic Fingerprint Recognition and ACPO – Association of Chief Police Officers). Other websites, including the Royal Navy, and Ministry of Defence, contain similar glossary pages, illustrating the importance of acronyms when consider key features of occupational language.

Why do you think acronyms are so prevalent in occupational contexts? Is there more than one explanation?

You must justify your answer with reference to specific examples.

Occupational Register A further common feature when looking at the lexicon of various occupations is the use of occupational register or jargon. This can be defined as words or phrases that are used solely in a particular job or, on occasions, have originated in a particular occupation before becoming more widely used.

There are several different purposes for jargon in occupational contexts:  Being deliberately obscure or vague to avoid a difficult question or ‘issue’  We have an ongoing tactical review situation at this moment in time.  Disguising an unpleasant reality with euphemistic or periphrastic words  We are downsizing the firm and we’re letting you go.  Making a relatively unimportant job sound much grander than it is  Vertical personnel distributor i.e. lift operator…  The opposite: bringing someone above you in the company hierarchy down to earth by belittling their role  Describing office staff as ‘pen pushers’ If we return to the US Navy and the glossary pages on their website, recruits are likely to use the following words: baboon ass, chow hall, deck, Jarhead, ladderwell, rain locker, rollers, salty, skivvies, maggot and banjo. You may know or be able to guess some of these terms (possibly, chow hall meaning dining area, deck for the floor, Jarhead for a Marine, ladderwell for stairs, rain locker for shower and skivvies for underwear). Others you may have struggled with: Baboon ass Salty Maggot Banjo Rollers

Corned beef Experienced Sleeping bag Sandwich Hot dogs

On occasions, the use of jargon in a particular occupation can be linked to various roles or specific jobs within that industry. Some of these titles are well known to us all: think about various teaching positions such as ‘Head Teacher’ or ‘Principal’. However, some are less widely known. In the mining industry, for example, the following job titles were used and, most likely, only understood by workers and the mining community. It is unlikely that those not connected to the mining industry at the time would have had the same level of shared knowledge and understanding:         

A banksman took of the loaded tubs from the cage and pushed empty ones in. he supervised the loading and discharging of men from the cage.

A checkweighman was paid for by the miners themselves to check the records of the man who weighed the coal as it was taken out of the mine.

A dataller, or day-man, was given work on a daily basis as required. One of his jobs may have been to build and repair roadways.

A hewer was someone who cut the coal.

A putter used to bring empty tubs up to the workers at the coal face and take loaded tubs to the pit bottom.

A shaftsinker was employed to sink the shafts of a new mine. He usually migrated to new coalfields as these were developed.

A shotfirer laid charges and carried out the explosions to bring down the coal.

A trapper was a child employed to open and close the door in a roadway through which coal was brought.

A winder was responsible for the winding engine which raised and lowered the cage, bringing up the coal and men out of the pit.

Source: National Coal Mining Museum for England

It is also important to recognise that there are many differences in the jargon used within the same occupation. An example of this comes, once again, from the UK’s mining industry (see text below). The National Coal Mining Museum for England addresses this use of, what can be termed, variant occupational language.

There are many words that are unique to the mining industry, and especially to coal miners. Not only does mining have, like any other industry, numbers of technical words or jargon, but also different dialects in different regions. A person who hauled the wagons or tubs might be known as a waggoner in one part of the country, a hurrier in Yorkshire, a drawer in Lancashire, a putter in Northumberland or a haulage-man in Scotland.

The language that a miner would use in the pit was usually confined to the pit, and he would use words there that he would not use at home. The use of a different language in mines emphasized and strengthened the brotherhood which existed amongst miners. Sometimes a particular pit word such as ‘cracket’ in Durham would be used in the mining community on the surface, meaning wooden stool.

The same mining words can mean very different things. In Yorkshire, ‘snap’ is the food a miner takes with him to eat. To a Durham miner, snap is an instrument used on the screens to cut waste material off coal.

The Durham miner calls his lunch ‘bait’, and in Scotland it would be a ‘piece’.

Local variations in dialect and use of words can vary even between villages within one area as well as between coalfields.

What reasons can you give for the regional variation that occurred in mining language? Consider the time at which this industry was prevalent in history.

Why do you think the miners wanted to establish a ‘brotherhood’?

Why do you think the miners used different language when they were at home?

Another example of jargon and, most likely, variant occupational language is somewhere we all visit: the local supermarket. On a recent visit to one particular store, a tannoy announcement asked ‘could all team leaders report for today’s 4 o’clock rumble’. While we could probably guess that a ‘rumble’ is some form of meeting, its purpose is less obvious. It is possible that the use of the word ‘rumble’ is unique to this company. In the section headed ‘How do we communicate with each other’, the staff handbook for another supermarket includes the following phrases which are unlikely to be understood by non-employees.

According to their handbook, communication in this company is achieved through ‘Team5’, ‘SQTs’,

‘Protector Line’ and ‘Steering Wheel’. It is also unlikely that they are used by other companies; they appear unique to this particular employer.

Can you think of any other examples of such occupational register that you have heard?

Why do you think companies may consciously adopt their own unique lexicon?

To summarise, jargon within an occupation can include common words or phrases understood and used by all employers in that particular industry. However, there is also evidence that within this, there are likely to be sub-groups within individual companies or places of work using their own shared lexicon among the employees.

Codes The use of codes within certain jobs is a further feature of occupational language. All retail and hospitality outlets, for example, have coded tannoy announcements which, it is expected, will only be understood by staff. These coded messages can be quite clear (‘This is a staff announcement. We have a code 3’) or less obvious by using a name to signify a situation (‘Can Mr Stack please report to the manager’s office’).

The use of codes to signify a specific situation is also used extensively by the emergency services. The British police, for example, will use a code to describe the ethnicity of a person. IC1 is the code for a white person while IC5 is used when referring to a person of Chinese, Japanese, or South-East Asian ethnicity. The American police also use codes to refer to a particular crime, for example: 215 refers to carjacking, 211 is used for a robbery and 586 for illegal parking.

What links such coded language together us the need for and expectation of shared knowledge and understanding by a particular occupational or professional group. This knowledge and understanding is not shared with others; it is used exclusively and could be seen as excluding ‘outsiders’.

Key related reading: The codes that tell you what your waiter is really thinking (The Guardian) on eSchools.

Convergence and Divergence In 1973, Howard Giles’s Accommodation Theory became an important and recognised aspect of linguistics.

In summary, Giles’s theory recognises how, at times, speakers will try to make their language resemble, and be more in line with, that of their audience to improve communication. In contrast, some speakers may

attempt to use language to distance and distinguish themselves from others. The former is known as convergence and the latter is known as divergence.

Convergence In some occupations, people may choose, or need, to converge with those they are speaking to. Take for example the role of a doctor. In giving a diagnosis, there will be some need to converge so that the patient fully understands the situation. Doctors are also likely to converge with other doctors to show their knowledge and, possibly, to meet certain expectations.

In the teaching profession, there is a need for teachers to converge with students to ensure they understand and learn new facts and skills. This is similar to the doctor/patient roles in that there is still a need to use some jargon but the convergence may occur through explanations that follow. Teachers may also use a mixed register. They may use some informal words or phrases as well as jargon that they know students will understand, thus not excluding those in the class.

In the transcription below, a history teacher (T) is talking to a Year 8 class about public health improvements. (S = pupil Sofia) T:

ok guys today we are going to be looking at this question (.) how did public health improve in 19th century Britain (.) now you know all about the gruesome nasty details of the industrial revolution so far (.) remember urghh (.) some were right nasty weren’t they (.) I just want you to think about what makes you healthy today (.) what makes you healthy (.) today the government talks about all these things that we should be doing (.) what makes us healthy (.) I want you to turn to the person next to you and think of three things that make you healthy (.) go

((Pupils discuss the task)) T:

ok have we got three things (.) put your hand up if you can give me one thing that makes you healthy today (.) Sofia

S:

vaccinations

T:

vaccination ooh (4) vaccinations what do vaccinations do

S:

prevent you from getting certain diseases

T:

well done (.) so we’ve got vaccinations they make us healthy (.) excellent (.) well done Sofia

How does the teacher converge with her class? You must respond with reference to specific language features present in the transcript and label these with relevant terminology.

Convergence may also occur due to certain expectations. For example, sports commentators would be expected by their audience to use a certain level of jargon to show their expertise. It is likely that this jargon will be based on shared knowledge and understanding. A football fan is likely to know some words and phrases specific or unique to this sport and, so that they are not being patronised, will expect the commentators to use it as part of their occupation and role.

Therefore, convergence is not about ‘dumbing down’ your language. It is about choosing a particular register appropriate to those around you. This may include predominantly using jargon (for example in a doctor/doctor conversation), using elements of an informal register or, in some contexts, an appropriate mix of both.

Divergence Now let us consider the other aspect of Giles’s Accommodation Theory: divergence. There are certain contexts when a particular occupation needs to diverge by using an appropriately formal register. It would not, for example, be appropriate for a parent to receive a letter from their child’s school like the one shown below: Hey there Jimmy and Betty, You’ll never guess what your son’s gone and done now!! I mean he’s only gone and drawn a life size picture of Smithy on the wall of the toilets and I have to say it’s not that flattering mind!!

Well I had a bit of a chinwag with the governors and they agree with me that we should get rid of your toe rag son straight away and to be honest we’re all a bit fed up with him I just don’t know how you cope with him. Well good luck with him cause he’s not my problem anymore I mean I’m just glad to see the back of him if you get my drift.

Laters, Davey Obviously, this is an extreme example but recognising how inappropriate the register is here will help you understand what is appropriate. Certain occupations require communication to be formal. Interaction from a school to parents is one such example. This is evident in this extract from a school report, which gives parents an overview of a Year 9 English curriculum: Students follow a course designed, not only to fulfil the requirements of the National Curriculum, but also to prepare them for end-of-key-stage examinations. All students study Shakespeare, are exposed to a variety of challenging texts, and further develop the skills required to write in a variety of forms for a variety of audiences and purposes. The level awarded reflect the standard achieved in Speaking & Listening, Reading and Writing.

Using an appropriate Occupational Register Using the letter sent to Jimmy and Betty, rewrite it using what you consider to be an appropriate register for this occupation and this audience:

Once you have rewritten the letter, list the language features you have used, grouping them under the headings provided. Please be aware, you may not have used all of these features.

To help you with this task and to provide an overview of language and occupation, the following table highlights some of these features which are common in written occupation texts.

Modal verbs

Occupational lexis

Jargon/specialist lexis

Politeness markers

Imperatives

Variety and complexity of sentence structure

Coded language

Standard English

Pronouns (often to converge)

Standard, clear font

Logo/crest

Abbreviations/Acronyms (when appropriate)

Mitigated imperatives

Lexis relying on shared knowledge

Clear precise vocabulary and avoidance of vague language

Terms of address

In this booklet, you have explored the language features one would expect to find in both written and spoken occupation texts. There is a clear sense of expectations regarding the language used in certain industries and the desire to create a sense of community among workers. You have also considered how occupational language may need to adopt a certain register if customers, an audience or other external stakeholders are involved.

While the validity of attributing age and gender to language variety has been much debated, it does seem that the area of occupational language is far less controversial.

On a final note, consider why this is the case. Is it because we are taking on a role and possibly adopting a different persona while at work? Or can we attribute the language of occupation to society’s expectations which we all must adhere to in the workplace? Record your thoughts, with justification, below:

Additional Ao1 Terms and Linguistic Features Sentence Functions Declaratives  Statements indicate knowledge.  Statements from those who are higher in the hierarchy might carry more authority particularly as the answers to questions from subordinates.

Interrogatives  Asking questions may be part of the job role, for example, a Doctor, people working in call centres.  A question can set the topic of conversation.  A question brings about turn-taking and, therefore, could be seen to control the structure of the discourse.  If an individual is named to answer the question, then this exerts further control over the structure of the discourse.

Imperatives  As imperatives are orders they suggest authority.  By issuing an imperative, the producer is assuming authority.  There will exist a shared understanding as to whether the producer has the authority to expect the imperative to be followed and thus whether the receiver will follow the imperative.

Essential AO2 Research and Summaries In order to be fully prepared to answer a question on this variety, there are a number of theories/theorists that you must also be familiar with. Copy out the following table and complete the reading/research and summarise the findings. You must be able to define and use all of the key terms also.

Theorist & Date

Name of Theory/Study

Key Findings

Key Terms/Concepts Associated

Goffman (1967)

Face Theory

Positive/negative face, self-image, maintaining face.

Giles (1973)

Accommodation Theory

Downward/upward convergence or divergence.

Sinclair and Coulthard (1975)

IRF Structure

Initiation, response, feedback.

Brown and Levinson (1987)

Politeness Theory

Face, face threatening acts, positive/negative politeness, bald on record, off-record-indirect.

Drew and Heritage (1993)

In Talk at Work

Goal orientation, turn taking rules/restrictions, allowable contribution, professional lexis, structure, asymmetry, inferential frameworks.

Koester (2004)

Relational Talk

Interpersonal relationships, phatic speech, non-essential work related speech.

Discourse Community

Public goals, methods of communication, information and feedback, specific lexis, genres and aims, relevant content knowledge and expertise.

John Swales (2011)

Applying Your Knowledge 1 Text A is from the BBC1 television commentary on the final of the men’s heavyweight coxless four rowing race from the Beijing Olympics Games. Great Britain won the gold medal in this event, which was rowed at 5.30 pm on 16 August 2008. There were six teams in the final. The Great Britain crew were: Andrew Hodge at 4 (the stroke – setting the stroke rate for his crew); Peter Reed at 3; Steve Williams at 2; Tome James at 1. Australia had led more or less from the start of the 2,000 metre race. The extract picks up the race in the second half when Australia were still leading by more than half a length. The main commentator is Gary Herbert, with Dan Topolski as the ‘expert’ co-commentator.

Key to Transcriptions (.) micropause (1.0) pause for time shown in seconds inner words in bold show emphatic stress // // overlaps in speech of participants so. incomplete word {laughs} paralinguistic features Some question marks have been included to aid greater clarity.

Tasks   

Annotate the features of occupational language that are apparent in this transcription – for guidance see section on convergence.

Consider what shared knowledge the speakers assume the listeners have.

Ensure all lexical features are labelled with precise AO1 terminology also.

Applying Your Knowledge 2 Annotate the following transcript using the same guidance as above. This transcript is part of a conversation among staff in a restaurant kitchen.

Text B

Answer the following question on separate paper. In your answer you should discuss concepts and issues from language study. You should use you own supporting examples and the data in Text B above. You may also wish to consider the impact of other language varieties.

Evaluate the idea that a person’s language might be affected by their occupation.

[30 marks]

Consolidating Your Knowledge And finally, you now have everything you need, including the further reading on eSchools, to make a language and occupation crib sheet. Go forth and do so.