SPRING 2023 V2 ISS. 2

THERUTGERSUNIVERSITY UNDERGRADUATELAW REVIEW

INASSOCIATIONWITHTHERUTGERSPRE-LAWSOCIETY

MelissaTan KeerthanaRao JuliannaMargolin Managing Editor Editor-in-Chief Marketing Director

THERUTGERS UNIVERSITY UNDERGRADUATELAW REVIEW

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RutgersUndergraduateLawReview

BoardofExecutives KeerthanaRao Editor-in-Chief

CurrentlyasenioratRutgersUniversity--NewBrunswick,Ms.RaoisaB.A.Candidatewithamajor inMarketingwithaminorinSpanish OutsideoftheUndergraduateLawReview,sheservesasthe liaisonforUndocuRutgers-astudentorganizationcommittedtohelpingmembersofthe undocumentedcommunityoncampus,isatutorforrefugeesthroughtheRefugeeAssistanceProgram (RAP)inNewJersey,andisaresearchassistantintheArestyResearchProgram Sheisgoingtolaw schoolinFall2023topursueaJ.D.toeitherstudyImmigrationorHumanRightsLaw.

MelissaTan Managing Editor

AsenioratRutgersUniversity-NewBrunswick,Ms.TanispursuingaB.S.inBusinessAnalytics& InformationTechnologywithminorsinEconomicsandPsychology AsidefromtheUndergraduate LawReview,shehasundertakentheroleofPeerInstructorfortheFirst-YearInterestGroupSeminar programatRutgers Shehasahighinterestinsports,servingasPresidentoftheRutgerClubField HockeyteamandinterningfortheNationalFieldHockeyLeague Intentonattendinglawschool,she wouldliketoexplorethefieldsofcorporate,civilrights,andsportlaw.

JuliannaMargolin Marketing Director

Ms MargolinisarisingseniorintheSchoolsofArtsandSciencesHonorsProgramofRutgers University-NewBrunswick,pursuingmajorsinJournalismandMediaStudiesandCriminalJustice. InadditiontowritingfortheUndergraduateLawReview,sheisamemberofPhiBetaKappa,the AlphaPhiSigmaCriminalJusticeHonorsSociety,andtheKappaTauAlphaJournalismandMass CommunicationsHonorsSociety.JuliannaisalsoaScarletAmbassador,conductingtoursforthe university,andSeniorHonorsProgramAmbassador,hostingandmoderatingpanelsforprospective studentsandtheirparents Sheisplanningacareerinthelegalfieldandisexcitedto exploreherinterestsinmedialaw.

EditorialTeam

ExecutiveEditorMarvinKimwon

CurrentlyarisingseniorattheHonorsCollegeofRutgersNewBrunswick,Mr Kimwonhasadouble majorinPhilosophyandPoliticalScienceandadoubleminorinEconomicsandBusiness Administration.OutsideofRutgersLawReview,heworksasacaseworkerfortheRedCross, specificallyunderMilitaryandVeteransProgramEmergencyCommunications Withexperiencein academicresearchandwriting,localandnationalgovernance,andaninterestincriminaljustice,he intendstostudycriminallaworcorporatelaw.

ExecutiveEditorMichaelShalanov

Currentlyathird-yearstudentattheRutgersBusinessSchool(RBS),MichaelShalonovismajoringin financeandconcentratinginbusinessanalytics Hecurrentlyservesasanexecutiveeditorandwas previouslyastaffwriterbeforehand Outsideoftheundergraduatelawreview,heisalsotheincoming PresidentfortheFutureBusinessLeadersofAmericaorganizationandwasalsoChairofthe AllocationsBoardatRBS Heintendstopursueacareerincorporatelaw

ExecutiveEditorSeanTonra

SeanTonraisa4thyearstudentstudyingPoliticalScienceandInternationalandGlobalStudies.Heis involvedinnumerousstudentorganizationsoncampussuchastheRutgersUniversityStudent Assembly,whereheservesasLegislativeAffairsChairandistaskedwithleadingadvocacyeffortson local,state,andfederalissues Furthermore,hehashadnumerousinternshipsandprofessional experience HewasaResearchAssistantfortheArestyResearchCenterandtheRutgersPolitical ScienceDepartment,bothunderDr.EricDavis,andanICCAEResearchFellowattheNational IntelligenceUniversityfocusingonstudyingawiderangeoftopicsincludingglobalpopulism,the intelligencecommunity,anddemocraticmovements.HealsohasworkedforNewYorkUniversity's GlobalSecurityOperationsCenter,theStudentDebtCrisisCenter,andNJAssemblymanRobert Karabinchak

ExecutiveEditorJanakiramRajaraman

Currently,ajuniorintheSchoolofArtsandSciencesatRutgersUniversity,NewBrunswick, JanakiramRajaramanisanEconomicsmajorandaPoliticalScienceminor Hewasinitiallyserving thelawreviewasastaffwriterbutisnowservingasanExecutiveEditor. "Ithasbeenawonderful changeofpacetoseemygrowthasbothawriterandeditoraftertransitioningfromastaffwriterto anexecutiveeditor.Inadditiontoimprovingmywritingskills,Ihavebeenluckytohavetheprivilege ofworkingwithsuchatalentedandzealousteamofstudentsthissemesterandguidingtheirwriting processes "Inadditiontothis,healsoworkedasaprivatetutorformiddleandhighschoolstudents Inhisleisuretime,JanakiramfocusesonsingingIndianclassicalandWesternchoralmusic,whichhe hasbeendoingsinceayoungage.

EditorialTeam

AssociateEditorMansiDesai

Ms DesaiisajuniorpursuingadegreeinCriminalJusticeandPoliticalSciencewithaminorin Psychology.Passionateaboutcriminaljusticereformandsocialjusticerights,Ms.Desaiplansto attendlawschoolandpursueacareerincriminallawandpotentiallyfamilylaw.Inadditiontoher workwiththeUndergraduateLawReview,Ms Desaiservesasayouthcoordinatorathertemple, wheresheoverseesateamofvolunteersandhelpsplanlocalreligious,cultural,andcommunity events.ShewillalsobeworkingasalegalassistantandsecretaryfortheBrause,Brause&Ventrice, LLC lawfirminMetuchen,NJ thissummer

AssociateEditorWassanAqil

CurrentlyasophomoreatRutgersUniversitymajoringinPoliticalScience MrAqilhopestoattend lawschoolaftergraduationwithhiseyessetonSportsLawasthroughouthiswholelifehehasbeen infatuatedwithessentiallyeverysport Mr Aqilbelievesthatthecombinationofhisknowledgeon sportsandhisloveforlawareaverygoodmatchforhispotentialcareerpath

AssociateEditorHaileyChoi

CurrentlyasophomoreattheRutgersBusinessSchool NewBrunswick,Ms.Choiispursuinga BachelorofScienceDegreeinFinanceandMarketing Outsideofacademics,sheisadebatecoachat KugnusActsinCloster,NJandalegalinternatRamundoLawinPalisadesPark,NJ Sheisa memberofSigmaPsiZetaSorority,Inc.andRutgersUndergraduateWomeninBusiness.Sheintends topursueacareerinthelegalfieldandinherfreetime,sheenjoysreadingandtraveling

AssociateEditorDevPatel

ArisingsophomoreatRutgersUniversity,MrPatelismajoringinPoliticalScienceandminoringin BusinessAdministrationandTheClassics.HeisaninductedmemberoftheRutgersPre-LawSociety andisacandidatefortheSchoolofArtsandSciencesHonorsProgram MrPatelhopestopursuea JD afterhistentativegraduationin2026

ExternalSubmissions

AnushreeChauhan-RowanUniversity

ArisingsenioratRowanUniversity,MsChauhanismajoringinPoliticalSciencewithminorsin ComputerScienceandInternationalStudies.SheisalsoapartofRowanDemocratswheresheserves asVicePresidentandAlphaPhiOmegawheresheservesasPresident.Ms.Chauhanplanstopursuea JD aftergraduation

IbrahimNazir-RutgersUniversity

CurrentlyasenioratRutgersUniversitymajoringinBiomedicalEngineering,Mr.Nazirisinterested inpursuingacareerinstartup/intellectualproperty/andpatentlawandplanstopursueaJD after graduation.

MissionStatement

TheRutgersUniversityUndergraduateLawReview(RUULR)wasfounded in2017inordertoenhancethepre-lawcommunityoftheUniversity.Itis focusedoncreatingacommunitywhichpromotesanalyzingandwriting aboutissuesrelatedtolawandpolitics.Weaimtomakesurethatstudentsat Rutgersandatuniversitiesacrossthestatehaveawaytoexpresstheir thoughtsonthedevelopments,events,andhistoryofthelegalworldthrough researchandargument-basedwriting.

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Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyform withouttheexpressconsentoftheExecutiveBoardoftheRutgers

UndergraduateLawReview.

DearReader,

OnbehalfoftheexecutiveboardandeditorialstaffoftheUndergraduateLawReview,I amdelightedtopresentthesecondissueofthesecondvolumeforourjournal's2022-2023 academicyear.AsEditor-in-Chief,Ihavehadthewonderfulopportunityandimmensepleasure ofworkingwithanexcellentexecutiveboardforthelawreviewandeditorialteamthispastyear. IamgratefulfortheopportunitiesRULRhasgivenmetogrowasafutureattorney.Iamexcited foryoutoreadoursecondissueforthisyear,andIlookforwardtoseeingtheteam'seffortsnext yearunderexceptionalleadership.Thankyoutoeveryonewhohelpedmakethispublication happenandtoalleditorialstaffmemberswhoputintheefforttoaccomplishourmission-your effortsaregreatlyappreciatedandhaveallowedustoputforthanexcellentpublicationforthis semester.Iwouldalsoliketothanktheexternalsubmittersforputtingintheeffortandhaving thepassionforlawtosubmitapiece.AspecialthankyoutotheRutgersPre-LawSociety executiveboardmembers,whichourUndergraduateLawReviewisapartof-your encouragementandinvolvementwerethoughtfulandconsiderate.

Itisthepleasureofmyselfandmyteamtopresenttoyoueightthought-provoking articlesthatcoverabroadrangeoftopicsfromtheTitleIXAct,theGunViolenceEpidemic,The January6Insurrection,andAntitrustLitigationinthePharmaceuticalIndustry Thevarious subjectscoveredinthispublicationholdthemultiplebeliefsofindividualsbutarealltopicsthat we,ascuriousandintellectualstudents,discuss.Inthiscurrentpoliticalclimate,wheremass shootingsoccur,andpeoplespreadhate,itiscrucialtodiscussthesematterstomakeachange. Thesocial,political,andlegalissuesoftheUnitedStatesandtheworldarecomplexmattersthat mustbeaddressedwithconsiderationandmindfulness,andoureditorialteamhasworkedto accomplishthat.

Toviewouronlinepublication,wehighlyencourageyoutopleasevisitourwebsite https://ruprelaws.wixsite.com/rupls.Ourteamhopestocontinueexhibitingourcriticalthinking, intellectualcuriosity,andacademicrigorthroughourpublications.Ihopeyouenjoythis publicationandthatitcompelsyoutodiscussyourlegalinterestsandcriticalsocialissues mindfullyandsensitively.

BestRegards, KeerthanaRao

RutgersUndergraduateLawReviewEditor-in-Chief

ARTICLES

THENATIONALDEBT:ATICKINGTIMEBOMBORNECESSARYCOMPONENT OFAMERICANGOVERNANCE

DEVPATEL|RUTGERS-NEWBRUNSWICK

Introduction:WhatistheNationalDebt?

Thenationaldebt,alsoknownasthefederaldebt,isthemoneytheFederalGovernment oftheUnitedStatesborrowedtosupportitspeopleandtheworld.Thedebtisapartofthemuch largerFederalbudget,abalancesheetthataccountsforeverythingfromF-22toFarmsubsidies, SocialSecuritytonationalsecurity,andnuclearweaponstonewbornchildsupport.TheFederal governmentspendsamassamountofmoney,buttocoverallthoseexpenseswithtaxdollars couldleadtothecollapseoftheUnitedStatesand,moreover,theglobaleconomy.So,the governmentpayswhatitcanwithtaxesandthencoverstherestbytakingondebt.Thisdebt comesintwoforms,marketabledebt,whichisheldbytheprivatecitizenryandcanbetradedon themarket,andnon-marketabledebt,whichisdebtthatcannotbetradedandisusuallyheldby privatefirmsandforeignallies.Thecurrentbudgetsitsat$6.27billioninspending,witha taxableincomeof$4.9trillion.ThatmeansthattheUnitedStateswilltakeon$1.38billionof debtthisyear.1 ThemajorityofAmerica’sspending,aswellasthemajoritysourceofitsdebt, comesfromtheU.S.MilitaryBudget(roughly15percent)andEntitlementpaymentslikeSocial SecurityandMedicare,whichmakeup49percentofthebudget.

SowhyshouldtheaverageAmericancarethattheirgovernmenttakesonbillionsof dollarsindebtyearly?Itkeepstaxesmanageableandthegovernmentworking.Thenationaldebt rightnowiscurrentlysittingat$31trillion,orabout$95thousandperpersonlivinginthe country.2 Thismeansthatifthegovernmentfailedtopayitsinterestpaymentsontimebecause

1 TreasuryDepartmentUnitedStates,“TheHistoryoftheDebt,”TreasuryDirect,2012, https://treasurydirectgov/government/historical-debt-outstanding/

2 UnknownAuthor,“YourGuidetoAmerica'sFinances,”America'sFinanceGuide|U.S.TreasuryFiscalData, 2021,https://fiscaldatatreasurygov/americas-finance-guide/

ofsquabblingoverthedebtceiling,theU.S.couldseeadefaultthatmaycrashtheglobal economy.Thisbegsthequestion;canthedebtbepaidoff?Inshort,itcannotandneverwillbe. ThesolutiontosolvingtheAmericandebtproblemistwofold.Removingthedebtlimitsoit cannotbeusedasapoliticalweaponandriskdefaultisthefirststeptowardsdebtsecurity The secondstepistocutbackspendingincertainareastoslowthemassiveinflationindebtseenin thepasttwentyyears.Thiswillhelpkeepthegovernmentontopofinterestpayments, preventingthedebtfromimpactingtheaveragecitizen.Thenationaldebtcannotberepaid;ithas becomesomassivethattheAmericanpeoplewouldbebetteroffifthegovernmentworkedto limititsgrowthandmaintaininterestpayments.

TheHistoryoftheNationalDebt

ThenationaldebtoriginatesfrombeforethenationwasevenwrittenintolawonJuly4, 1776.Thus,theUnitedStateshashaddebtforlongerthanithasbeenacountry Thedebtstarted atthebeginningoftheRevolutionaryWarand,liketoday,wasmostlymadeupofbondsissued bytheforminggovernmenttothepeople.Thisdebtwasmanagedbyanofficethatwouldlater becometheDepartmentoftheTreasury,thesamedepartmentthatsupervisesthedebttoday.This officealsobegantheyearlydebtreporttoCongressandthepresident,whichisalsoamodern principle.Bytheendofthewar,thedebtsatat$43millionandbecametheresponsibilityof AlexanderHamilton,aFoundingFatherandfirstSecretaryoftheTreasury,whowouldlaythe groundworkformanagingthedebtandthebudget.Heestablishedtwoinfluentialprecedentsin histimeingovernment.FirstwastheideathatCongressshouldhavethepowertoraiseand lowertaxes.Second,hefoundedthenation’sfirstcentralbankandusedittobeginpayingthe debtpaymentsthatthecurrentcentralbankisstillresponsiblefor.Hamiltonalsobelievedthat thecentralgovernmentshouldtakeupthestates’debtsandusedebtspendingtobetterthe

people’slives,aconceptpickedupbylateradministrationsinthenineteenthandtwentieth centuries.Hamilton’splantopayofftheinitialdebtwastoconsolidateit,paythecurrent interest,andpaynewinterestassoonaspossible.Hedesiredtocombinethispracticewithtaking aslowapproachtopayoffthelonger-termdebt.Thisapproachtodebtspendingiswhatmanyin governmentareadvocatingfornow.3

Theeighteenthcenturywasatimeofmassivefluctuationsindebt,butalsotheclosestthe countryhasgottentoeliminatingthisdeficit.TheJacksonAdministrationistheonly administrationtopayoffthedebtinitsentirety,thoughthereissomedebateastowhetherthisis becauseofJackson’spoliciesorsimplybecauseofthetrajectorysetbeforehispresidency.The Mexican-AmericanWarresurrectedthedebt,thefirstsignificanttimethattheU.S.primarily foughtawarthroughoverwhelmingforce.Thedebtsatatabout$65millionatthebeginningof theLincolnAdministration,breakingoverabilliondollarsnearthewar’smidpointandtopping $2.7billionbythewar’send.Thepre-WorldWarIdebtwasrelativelystableforthenextsixty years,onlygrowingslightlybecauseofinflation.Butthatwasabouttochangeinwhatmany wouldconsiderthemostimpactfulthirtyyearsinAmericanhistory.4

TocalltheWorldWarsandtheinterwardecadesatimeofintensechangeintheUnited Stateswouldbeanunderstatement.TheWorldWarsandtheGreatDepressionsawthegreatest Pre-ColdWarspendinginAmericanhistoryandthegreatestincreaseindebtinthenation’s history TheyearbeforetheoutbreakoftheFirstWorldWar,1913,sawthefoundingofthe FederalReserve,theorganizationthatregulatestheUnitedStates’debtandfinances.TheFirst WorldWarhadthesmallestdebtincrease,asthecountrydidnotbecomeanactiveplayeruntil

3 TreasuryDepartmentUnitedStates,“TheHistoryoftheDebt,”TreasuryDirect,2012, https://treasurydirectgov/government/historical-debt-outstanding/

4 MichaelA.Martorelli,“FinancingtheCivilWar-EssentialCivilWarCurriculum,”ESSENTIALCIVILWAR CURRICULUM,2008,https://wwwessentialcivilwarcurriculumcom/financing-the-civil-warhtml

thesecondhalfofthewarandamajorfighterinthefinalyear.Thestrikingoutcomeofthiswar regardingfinanceswastheU.S.beginningdeficitspendingtoenhanceitsmilitary.TheRoaring Twentiessawadecreaseinthedebtfrom$24billionto$17billionduetospendingand regulationcutsbyconservativeadministrations,whichculminatedinthecollapseofthe Americaneconomyin1929andthepreliminaryyearsoftheGreatDepression.TheDepression isnotableregardingfederaldebtasitwasthefirstmoderninstanceofanadministrationusing deficitspendingtohelptheaverageAmericancitizen.PresidentFranklinD.Rooseveltcuttaxes andincreasedspendingtotryandjumpstarttheeconomy,nearlyquadruplingthedebttoabout $50billionontheeveofWorldWarII.F.D.R.’spolicywascloselybasedonHamiltonianideas offederalspending,asthegovernmentnevermissedaninterestpaymentonthenationaldebtand plannedtoslowitsgrowthoncetheeconomysubstantiallyrecovered.However,America intervenedinWorldWarII,andthedebtbecameimpossibletoeradicate.TheU.S.accumulated $323billiondollarsindebttofighttheAxisPowersinthewar.Thewartimespendingwasa combinationofmilitaryandinfrastructureprojectsandwasmostlyfundedbythesaleofpublic warbonds.Manyofthesebondsweretradedforlong-termbondsafterthewarended.Leading intotheColdWar,thedebtwasalreadyinsurmountable,butitsoonbecameacrisis. 5

TheColdWarwasanideologicalconflictbetweentheUnitedStatesandtheUnionof SovietSocialistRepublics(USSR)thattooktheformofproxywarsandeconomic,scientific, andsocialcompetition.TheColdWarsawtheU.S.flexitsnewstatusasaworldsuperpoweras itincreasedspendingacrossvariousarenasdtocombatSovietinfluenceworldwide.Forthesake ofthenationaldebt,theperiodofroughlyfortyyearssawtheU.S.budgetincreaseincredibly, 5 LibraryofCongressFreeaccess,“Overview : GreatDepressionandWorldWarII,1929-1945 : US History PrimarySourceTimeline : ClassroomMaterialsattheLibraryofCongress : LibraryofCongress,”TheLibraryof Congress,2015, https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/great-depression-and-worldwar-ii-1929-1945/overview/

thoughitalsosawanincreaseinfederalincome.Thedebtduringthefirsttwentyyearswas primarilystableingrowthasspendingkeptpace.Manypresidentsfocusedoneconomicpolicy thatwouldkeepthedeficitincheckandputspendingtowardscombatingsocialproblems, initiatinggovernment-fundedsocialprograms.However,thesegoalschangedaftertheVietnam Warinthe1970sasthenationwashitwithadecadeofsocialuncertaintyandaging infrastructure.TheUnitedStatesmassivelyincreaseditsdebtbecauseofincreasedspendingand stagnationintaxationtoattempttoresolvetheseissues.TheTreasuryalsohadaconstantdrain frommilitaryexpendituresastheU.S.wasforcedtostayonthecuttingedgeoftechnologyto competewiththeSovietUnion.

6 FollowingtheColdWar,therewasa$914billiondebtin1980, doublingfrom$400billioninthe1960s.Thisperiodofeconomicvolatilityendedinthelate 1970sandearly1980sunderPresidentRonaldReagan,whoseeconomicpolicieshadaprofound impactondeficitspendingpolicy.

PresidentReagan’sfiscalpolicyisnecessarytoevaluateandunderstandmoderndebt.His policies,collectivelynicknamedReaganomics,generatedatemporaryeconomicexplosioninthe 80sand90s.Despitethisshort-termeconomicbook,hispoliciesarguablylaidthefoundations forthemassiveeconomiccollapsein2009.Concerningthefederaldebt,hispoliciessawan overalldecreaseinthegrowthofthedebtbutamassiveshiftinwhoheldthedebt.Atthestartof hisAdministration,thedebtsatjustbelow$1trillion;bytheendofhispresidency,itwould nearlytripletounder$3trillion,themostsignificantsingleincreaseinoneadministration.

Reaganshiftedmostofthedebtintothehandsofthepeoplebyencouragingcitizenstotakeon governmentbondsanddecreasingthetaxusuallyappliedtothem.Reaganalsotriedtoreignin socialspendingwhileexploringasignificantlymoreaggressiveforeignpolicyregardingthe

6 Clayton,JamesL “TheFiscalCostoftheColdWartotheUnitedStates:TheFirst25Years,1947-1971” The Western Political Quarterly 25,no.3(1972):375–95.https://doi.org/10.2307/446958.

U.S.S.R.,whichledtothemodern-dayballooningofthemilitarybudget.Hehadanintense impactonthedebtthatwouldbecomeapparentinthefollowingdecades.Furthermore,itis notablehowcloselylinkedthefederaldebtandAmericanhistoryare.Itisevidenthowimpacted theUnitedStates'financialsituationisbysocial,political,andculturalevents.

HowDidtheDebtGrowSoLarge?

WhenPresidentGeorgeW Bushtookoffice,thenationalfederaldebtsatat$2.8trillion;in thirtyyears,atthebeginningoftheBidenAdministration,thedebtsatat$28trillion,atenfold increase.Insixadministrations,theU.S.hasseenanuclearexplosioninthedebt,andtherateat whichthedebtisgrowingisonlyincreasing.Thefederalgovernmenthasbeenaggressively spendingonmilitaryandsocialprogramsandraisingtaxestocovertheseexpensesadequately. However,therearevariousunderlyingcausesofthefinancialcrisisinrecentyears.

The2004BushAdministration’sbudgetwasfocusedonevolvingthenationoutofthe9/11 climateandthewaronterror Theadministrationbudgetednearly$380billiondollarsforthe militaryand$41billionforthenewlyfoundedDepartmentofHomelandSecurity.Thetax incomeforthisyearwasestimatedtobeabout$1.9trillion,withthegovernmentplanningon spendingabout$2.2trillion.Thismarkedoneofthefirstyearswherethedeficitspending substantiallyoutpacedthetax-basedspending.Furthermore,2004sawthegrowthofthemilitary budget,whichincreasedbyroughly5percent(about$19billion.)7 Thisdevelopmenthighlights thedefiningAmericantacticforwinningwars:overwhelmingforce.Thisstrategynecessarily leadstomassivespending,yetitsefficacyremainsinconclusive,exemplifiedbytheIraqand AfghanWar.TheUnitedStatesdominatedtheirrespectiveopponents,SandhamHusainandthe

7 BushAdministrations,“BudgetoftheUnitedStatesGovernment,FiscalYear2023-GovInfo,”Budget Department,2004,https://wwwgovinfogov/content/pkg/BUDGET-2023-BUD/pdf/BUDGET-2023-BUD-26pdf

Taliban,withinayear;however,itfailedtopermanentlyholdtheterritory.Thesetwowarsand theincreasedspendingtheybroughtsawthefirstsubstantialballooningofthedebtinmodern history ThedebtonthedayPresidentObamatookofficewas$9.5trillion,openingaseaof changeinAmericanspending.

TheObamaadministrationwasplaguedbyTheWaronTerror,the2009Financial Disaster,andthebeginningofwidespreadpoliticalpolarizationthathasonlyexpandedin Americatoday;thesestrugglescanalsobeseeninhisbudget.The2009budgetwasimperative asitcameontheheelsofoneofthegreatestfinancialcollapsesinAmericanhistory.Thisbudget wasarecoveryplanseekingtoregainlostgroundintheeconomyandrelievetheAmerican peopleofinsurmountablefinancialburden.Asiscommonplacewithrecessionrecovery,this courseofactionwasmainlyfundedbygovernmentdeficitspendingandmarkedasharpincrease inthedebtgrowthrate.PresidentObamaandhisgovernmentalsobudgetedadecreasein defensespending;however,changesonthebattlefieldrequiredemergencyappropriationin deficientbondsleadingtoanoverallincreaseinthedebt.TheAdministrationplannedon collecting$2.1trillionintaxesandspending$3.5trillion,adeficiencyofabout$1.4trillion,yet thenationaldebtoftheAdministrationclosedoutat$19.4trillion,nearlydoublingineight years.

ThisdiscrepancywasinpartduetoachangeinAmericanspending.Thenationneededto spend,butitrefusedtoincreasetaxesonthepeopleorcorporations,despitebothrequiring massivefederalfunding.Obamacouldnotforcearegulationoncompaniesthatcausedthe financialcollapse,insteadhavingtohelpthroughthefinancialcrisis.

8 ObamaBarack,“FederalBudget2009,”Internetarchive:DigitalLibraryofFree&BorrowableBooks,movies, Music&WaybackMachine,2009,https://archiveorg/searchphp

FollowingtheObamaErawasPresidentDonaldTrump.PresidentTrump’stimeinoffice wascategorizedasarefocusingonAmerica,payinglessmindtoforeignpolicy,unlikeBushand Obama.TrumpalsocampaignedonloweringtaxesfortheaverageAmericanandcutting corporatetaxesandregulationstomakeU.S.businessmorerobustandappealing.Withthisin mind,the2019budgetwascreatedwithanexpectedgovernmentrevenueof$3.5trillionand spendingofabout$4.4trillion.ThisfundingwasoverwhelminglyallocatedtoSocialSecurity anddefensepolicy;however,SocialSecurityout-passeddefensespending,mostlikelybecause ofthedwindlinginvestmentbyemployersandemployeesintothebenefitsprogram.9 Overall, Trump’spoliciesledtoareductioninthedebtaccruedbyhisAdministration,thoughmany disagreewiththetacticstheformerPresidentusedtoaccomplishthis.Significantly,theTrump Administrationcuthealthcareandsocialsafetynets,andhepulledtheUnitedStatesoutofkey climate,peace,andsecuritytreatieswithothernations.Thoughtheseactionsloweredthe increaseinthedebt,manylawmakersandcitizensalikequestionthelegitimacyofthesepolicies inthegeneralbettermentofthenation.ThedebtattheendofTrump'stermwas$27.7trillion,up only35percentfromwhenhetookoffice.Despitethis,thecostofthisrapiddecreasein spendingwouldbeseeninthenextadministration.

FollowingDonaldTrump,PresidentBidenassumedthepositionofHeadoftheExecutive Branchandwithit,assumedthenationaldeficit.BidenhasbeenfacingpressurefromDemocrats andRepublicansalikeintheHouseofRepresentativestoaddressthefederaldebt.However,he hasbeenfacingpushbackinattemptingtoraisethedebtceiling.Furthermore,PresidentBiden hashadtoaddressthefalloutofTrumpErapolicies,thelastingandpressingimpactofthe COVID-19pandemic,andtheloomingeconomicrecession.Justlikeinothertimesoftrouble,

9 UnknownUnknown,“TheFederalBudgetin2019:AnInfographic,”CongressionalBudgetOffice,April15,2020, https://wwwcbogov/publication/56324

thenationalgovernmentwasforcedtotakeondebttopullthenationbackoutofcrises.The federalbudgetfor2022showcasesaclearfocusonfightingtheeffectsofthepandemicand rebuildingthenation.Thebudgetplannedforusualhighmilitaryspendingandentitlement coveragebut,notably,wasplanningontakinga14percent,or$2.1trillion,deficittoaccountfor publichealthrecuperation.10 ThoughtsonhowPresidentBiden’scurrentutilizationofAmerican financeswillpanoutareinconclusive;however,somearguetheplanisnecessaryforassisting thepeople,whichisthemostvitalroleforademocraticsociety.

Budgetsarehighlyvariabledependingontheyearandcircumstances,whichispartly whythedebtexpandedsoheavilyyearafteryearinthepastfourpresidentialadministrations. Recently,budgetwritinghasbecomeanincrediblydivisivepoliticalissue,oftenleadingto unnecessaryspendinganddifficultyincompromisingonhowtoallocatespending.Thepresident andtheirCabinetwritetheinitialbudgetbasedonestimatesofprojectedgovernmentrevenue, suchastaxes.Then,theymatchthatwiththepreviousyear’sbudgetandadjustforcurrent events.Next,theysubmittheirfinancialplantoCongressinearlyFebruary,whichgoestothe HouseandSenatebudgetcommittees.Thesecommitteeswilleitherrevieworpassonthe President’sbudgettothebroaderchamber,usuallydecidedonpoliticalaffiliation.Ifthe Committeeismadeupmainlyoflegislatorsinanopposingpoliticalparty,theywillwritetheir ownbudgetandpassit.Thespecificsectionmustthenvoteonwhichbudgettheywillselect,the originaloranewone.Significantly,ifthewiderchamberdecidesthebudgetisnottotheirliking, theycansenditbacktothecommitteeforanotherrewrite.Whenthebudgetpassesthechamber, itisputbeforetheotherchambersofCongress,whichcanrewriteit.Ifbothhousesagreeon differentbudgets,theywillcreateacommitteetoformulateanewunitedbudget,whichtheythen

10 JoeBiden,“BudgetoftheUS Government-WhiteHouse,”TheWhiteHouse,2022, https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/budget

fy22.pdf.

sendbacktobothhousestopass.Eventually,thebudgetwillfinditswaybacktothePresident, whocansignorvetoit.11

Thisisanincrediblycomplicatedprocess,evenintimesofpoliticalunityandpeace.The currentsituationinWashington,D.C.,isanexemplificationofagovernmentincrisis.President Biden,amoderateDemocrat,holdsthePresidency TheSenatehasaveryslimfifty-oneto forty-nineDemocraticmajority,withastrongradicalDemocraticminoritycallingforsweeping socialchange.TheHouseofRepresentatives,theonlygoverningbodywiththepowertoraise federaltaxes,isheldinaverysharp222to213Republicanmajority,withasolidradical Republicanblockpushingforcuttingtaxesandsocialspending.12 Thishascreatedan unwaveringdebatesurroundingthedebtceiling.Theceilingisapolicylimitinghowmuchdebt thegovernmentcantakeout,buttheceilingisrelativelymeaninglessasitisalwaysraisedwhen thedebtapproachesit.Oftenthecapcanbecomeanissueofpoliticalfootball,wheretwo opposingpartiespassaproblembackandforth,blamingeachotheranddoingnothingtosolveit. Thecurrentsituationcouldleadtoadefaultoninterestpaymentsonthedebt,whichcouldthen causeanothercollapseoftheAmericaneconomyandhurttheglobalmarket.

APossibleSolution

Theissuessurroundingthenationaldebtisnotaredorablueproblem,assomemay believe.Thedebtproblemhasgrownastronomicallymorepressing,anditwillonlybe exacerbatedbeforeitcanbeimproved.TheUnitedStateswillneverbeabletopayoffitsdebt.

Thisnotionisdifficultforsomeinpowertograpplewith,astheythinkitispossibletoeradicate thedeficitthroughcuttingspending,butitisnot.Expertsineconomicsandpublicdebtfeelthe

11WhiteHouseBudgetStaff,“FY2023BudgetDocuments:InternetandGPOAvailability-Congress,”TheFederal Archive,2004,https://crsreportscongressgov/product/pdf/download/R/R43475/R43475pdf/

12 AnthonyZurcher,“DebtCeiling:America'sBudgetCrisisofItsOwnCreation,”BBCNews(BBC,January20, 2023),https://wwwbbccom/news/world-us-canada-64341875

bestwaytocombatthedebtisthree-fold.13 First,removethedebtceilingsothedebt’sgrowth willnotcauseadefaultcrisis,andthegovernmentcanborrowasneeded.Second,stemspending toslowthegrowthofthedebt,whichisthemostdifficultstepincombatingthedebtcrises,as thequestionofwhattocutandhowispoliticallyfraught.Finally,theyestablishtheneedfora focusonpayinginterestonthedebttoavoidadefaultandcreateafundtopayinterestyearafter year.Thesethreeplans,inconjunctionwitheachother,couldsignificantlyflattenthedebtand eliminatetheimpendingpossibilityofAmerica’seconomicdestruction.

Further,thegovernmentneedstocurbspendingtoreigninthedebt’sgrowth.

RepresentativesinCongressfeelthatacutinspendingmustoccurinareaslikewelfare,social programs,science,andinnovation.Othersbelievethesolutionistoincreasethegovernment's incomebyraisingtaxestoavoidcreatingabudgetdeficit.Bothplanswoulddomoreharmthan good.TheUnitedStatesdoesnotdirectlyspendmuchfederallyforsocialprograms,with individualstatesassumingmuchofthisburden.Raisingtaxeswouldalsohurtthepoorest citizens,withthewealthiest,whoarguablyshouldbepayingmore,findingloopholesinthelaw toavoidthebulkoftaxation.TheseplansalsoignoretheideathatHamiltonproposedearlyin Americanhistorythathavingfederaldebtisnotnecessarilydamagingtoanationanditsfuture.

TheformerTreasurySecretarytoldhiscolleaguesthedebtwouldhelpestablishthenation withoutfinanciallyencumberingthepeople.Throughouthistory,Americahasrecoveredfrom economicdepressionsandwarsbyspendingindeficit.Raisingtaxestopayoffthedebtwould crushthealreadyflounderingAmericanmiddleandlowerclass.14 Thenthequestionbecomes: Whatshouldthegovernmentcut?

13 US GovernmentAccountabilityOffice,“FederalDebt&DebtManagement,”US GAO,2021, https://wwwgaogov/federal-debt

14AlbertoAlesinaandCarloAFavero,“ImprovingEconomicGrowth:CutSpendingorRaiseTaxes?-IMFF&D Magazine,”IMF,March1,2018,https://wwwimforg/en/Publications/fandd/issues/2018/03/alesina

TheUnitedStatesofAmericaspendsmoreonitsmilitarythananyothercountry.Cutting militaryspendingisthefirstbudgetcutpeopleconsiderwhenattemptingtoresolvethenational debt,anditappearstobethemostlogicalchoice.However,ifdonecarelessly,withoutregardfor foreignpolicy,itcouldcausearecessionintheAmericaneconomy,thecollapseofseveral foreignstates,andanuclearwar.

Thenation’smilitarydominancecomesfromthefactthatitsmilitaryisonthebleeding edgeoftechnologyandhasasuperfluousamountofhigh-techweapons.Forexample,themost advancedgenerationoffighteraircraftistheAmericanF-22andF-35,theChineseJ-20,andthe RussianSu-57.TherearebelievedtobearoundtenSu-57s,andabout100J-20s,puttingthetotal numberofnon-Americanfifth-generationfightersbetween100and210.Thereareaconfirmed 200F-22soperatedexclusivelybytheUnitedStatesandroughly1,000F-35acrosssixteenNorth AtlanticTreatyOrganizationandUnitedStatesallies.TheU.S.excessivelyspendsonfighterjets andsuppliesitsallieswithsimilarcutting-edgetechnology.However,thereiscredencetothe argumentthatifthegovernmentweretomassivelyreducetheUnitedStatesmilitarybudget, realistically,thiscouldweakentheUnitedStatesanditsalliesinthelongterm.Further,the military-industrialcomplexalsoemploysmillionsofAmericans,aswellasmillionsofactiveand semi-activedutymenandwomenintheArmedServices.SeverecutstotheMilitarybudget woulddirectlyimpacttheseAmericanswhogreatlycontributetotheeconomy

Therefore,themostsuccessfulsolutionmightnotbecuttingthemilitarybudget,but ratherrefocusingit.TheU.S.Militarywastesasignificantportionofitsbudgetonunnecessary expenditures.Thereisasystemwhereofficersaregivenaportionofthefundingforthatfiscal yearindepartments.ThebudgetissplitbetweentheArmy,Navy,andAirForce,withtheAir Forcerequiringthemostmoneyat$234.116billionin2023.Todissectthisfurther,theAirForce

spends$46.326billiononpersonalsalaryandbenefits,$59.96billiononresearchand development,and$73.1billiononoperationscosts.15 Thegovernmentmustevaluatethese shockingexpenses.TheU.S.istheoreticallyburningbillionsonoperatingcostsoutsidecombat and“hotzones.”Thismoneyisgoingintoextravagantspendingonnon-necessarybasesand buyingexcessivesupplies,primarilytoensurethatbudgetcutsarenotmadebyregulators evaluatingthebudgetwithamagnifyingglassandfine-toothcomb.Whatisneededthenismore powerfulindependentregulatorswhowillforcethemilitarytousethebudgettheyreceiveonly whenabsolutely necessary.Thiswillslowlycreateasurplusinthemilitarybudget,whichcanbe reallocatedtoothersectorsinneed,likehealthcareandhumanitarianaid.

Thegovernmentmustalsoreexaminetaxationandrevenueflow Indoingso,substantial untappedtaxdollarscouldgobacktothegovernmentandthepeople.Thisreservoirofcashis heldbyprivatemega-corporationsandultra-wealthyindividualswhoskirttaxlawsand regulationstoavoidpayingtheirfairshare.Corporationsspecificallyareoftengivenunnecessary taxbreaksthatcouldtricklebackdowntothepeople,butneverendupdoingso.Corporations wouldratherkeepprofitinthetopfivepercentoftheiremployeesthanseeitgototheremaining ninety-fivepercentortheconsumersthey“serve.”Theultra-wealthyhidetheirmoneyinshell bankaccountsinforeignnationstoavoidpayingtaxes,andthecorporationstheymanageare aidedbytaxdollarstheydonotcontributeto.

16 TheU.S.governmentneedstore-evaluatethe trickle-downeconomicsdreamandtakeamorecomplexapproachtoensuretheeliteare accountableforthesameamountoftaxrevenueasregularcitizens.Thiscouldbedonethrougha

15 ResearchDepartmentStatistica,“BudgetPlanUS ArmedForcesbyDepartmentandAppropriation2023,” Statista,January31,2023,

https://wwwstatistacom/statistics/239280/budget-plan-of-the-us-armed-forces-by-department-and-appropriation/#:~

16 DaveDavies,“HowtheUltrawealthyDeviseWaystoNotPayTheirShareofTaxes,”NPR(NPR,August25, 2022),

https://wwwnprorg/2022/08/25/1119412217/how-the-ultrawealthy-devise-ways-to-not-pay-their-share-of-taxes

combinationofhighercorporationtaxesandgivingmorepowertoregulatorstoenforcethese newpolicies.Thiswould,atfirst,seeanincreaseinspending;however,itwouldultimately benefitthepeopleastheincomewouldhelpcovernewcostsandclosethedeficit.

Therewillneverbeanidealsolutionthatwillfullypayoffthedebt;itissimply impracticaltopayoffsomuchmoneywithouttotaleconomicruin.Thesolutionwillrathercome fromreexaminingspendingandrestructuringhowthebudgetthatleadstothedeficitispaid. Realistically,thegovernmentshouldturnitsfocustokeepingupwithinterestpaymentsandnot payingoffthedebt,astheformerisfeasiblewhilethelatterisimpossible.

WhatHappensNow?

TheUnitedStateshashititsdebtlimitandenteredtheexpectedpoliticalcontestthat alwaysstemsfromattemptingtoreconcilethedebtceiling.Thisloomingcrisisismorepressing thanusualbecause,unlikeinthepast,theUnitedStatesisdangerouslyclosetodefault,or reachingtheinabilitytopay AdefaultwouldreduceAmerica’screditrating,makingfuture borrowingharderandhurtingtheeconomy.Furthermore,thesepoliticalandmonetaryissues haveonlybeenexacerbatedduetothefightsoverinflation,abortion,andtheUkraine-Russia War.

Conclusion

Toconclude,thefederaldebtisaproblemthatmanygovernmentshaveaddressedand attemptedtosolve.Thetruthisthereisnosolutiontothedebtcrisis.Thegovernmentshould insteadfocusonpayingtheinterestonthedebtandslowthegrowthofthedeficitfromits currentexponentialgrowth.Thecurrentissuewiththedebtisthatitsdevelopmentisexploding morethanatanyothertimeinhistory.Thenationaldebtwasdesignedasatooltohelpthe

peoplebyalleviatingthetaxburden.Amodernnationcannotexistwithoutdebt,andtheUnited Statesneedstoexamineitsrelationshipwithit.

Introduction

THEFTXFALLOUT-AREWEPROTECTEDENOUGH?

WASSANAQIL|RUTGERS-NEWBRUNSWICK

A. The History of Cryptocurrencies

Cryptocurrencyisadigitalorvirtualcurrencythatusescryptographyforsecurityand operatesindependentlyofacentralbank.Cryptocurrenciesaredecentralized,meaningtheyare notcontrolledbyasingleentity,butrather,byanetworkofusers.Thefirstcryptocurrency, Bitcoin,wasintroducedin2009byanunknownentityunderthepseudonymSatoshiNakamoto.

Sincethen,thepopularityofcryptocurrencieshasexploded,withthousandsofdifferent cryptocurrenciesnowinexistence.Oneofthekeyfeaturesofcryptocurrenciesisitsutilizationof blockchaintechnology,adecentralizedledgerthatrecordstransactionsacrossanetworkof computers.Blockchaintechnologyensuresordinarytransactionsaresecure,transparent,and virtuallyimpossibletohack.17Cryptocurrenciesalsoofferfasterandcheapertransactions comparedtotraditionalpaymentmethods,andcanbeusedforvariouspurposes,including investing,thepurchaseofgoodsandservices,andevenasameansofpaymentforonlinegaming transactions.

Whiletheyhavebeenpraisedfortheirinnovativeandpositivelydisruptivepotential, cryptocurrencieshavealsofacedcriticismandskepticismduetotheirassociationwithillicit activities,suchasmoneylaunderingandterrorismfinancing.Additionally,thevolatilenature ofcryptocurrencymarketshasmadethemasubjectofconcernforregulatorsandinvestors alike.OnesituationthatencapsulatesallofthesecriticismsandissuesinvolvesFTXTrading Ltd.18 Thisparticularfallouthasraisedcriticalconcernsabouttheoversightofcentralized

17 Crypto,Nightly “HistoryofFTXandSBF-NightlyCrypto-Medium” Medium,19Dec 2022, nightlycryptomediumcom/history-of-ftx-sbf-12551ff07364

18 How FTX Has Created a Leading Crypto Brand Overnight | the Better Blog

. mediashowercom/blog/how-ftx-has-created-a-leading-crypto-brand-overnight

exchangesandtheregulationofcryptocurrencies.

B. FTX – The Issue at Hand

FTXTradingLtd.,commonlyreferredtoasFTX,wasacryptocurrencyderivatives exchangefoundedin2019.Knownforitsinnovativeproductsandfeatures,includingleveraged tokensandapredictionmarketplatform,FTXveryquicklyemergedasoneoftheworld’s largestandmostpopularcryptocurrencyexchanges,withareporteddailytradingvolumeofover $10billion.However,inOctober2021,FTXfounditselfinhotwaterafteritwasrevealedthat thecompanyhadbeenofferingderivativestradingtousersinseveralcountries,includingthe UnitedStates,Canada,theUnitedKingdom,HongKong,andItaly,withoutproperregulatory authorization.Derivative-basedtradinginvolvestheuseoffinancialinstrumentswhosevalueis basedonanunderlyingassetorbenchmark,suchasastock,index,orcommodity Derivatives areutilizedtohedgerisk,speculateonfutureprices,and/orgainexposuretodifferentmarkets.

However,theyarealsoconsideredhigh-riskinvestmentsthatrequirecarefulregulation,and althoughtheseinvestmentsnecessarilyrequirealargeamountofoversight,thecryptoindustry intentionallyfailedtooffersuch.Onthecontrary,manycryptocurrencieswerecreatedwiththe purposeofavoidingregulationsoinvestorscouldenjoyincreasedfreedomintheirinvestments.

FTX,inparticular,managedtoavoidhavingtoadheretotheproperregulatoryprocedures.As such,itwasnottreatedlikeitwasafinancialcompany–whenitindeedwas–anditwasnot subjecttoanyoftheordinaryconsumerorsecuritylaws.FTX'sunauthorizedofferingof derivative-relatedtradesinthesecountriesraisedconcernsamongregulators,whoaccusedthe companyofviolatinglocallawsandregulations.Shortlyafterthesituationcametoahead,FTX wasforcedtosuspendtradingforusersintheaforementionedcountriesandpromisedtowork withregulatorstoresolvetheissue.Theincidenthighlightedthechallengesandrisksassociated

withthefast-pacedandrapidlyevolvingworldofcryptocurrencytrading.Whiletheyhavethe potentialtorevolutionizethefinancialindustry,digitalcurrenciesandblockchaintechnology alsorequirecarefulattentionandregulationtoensurethattheyoperatesafelyandsecurelyfor allusers.ThelegaldisputebroughtupagainstfounderSamBankman-Friedduetothemisuseof hisinvestors’moneywillsignificantlyimpactthefutureofcryptoregulationandwhetheritwill changeorremainasis.ThroughtheexaminationofaspectsoftheFTXfalloutcase,itcanbe surmisedthattheregulationofcryptocurrencymustbestrengthenedinordertoproperlyreflect andaddresstheuniquechallengesofthegrowingcryptoecosystem.

In2019,amonumentaleventtookplace.FTXTradingLtd.wasbornfromthemindsof co-foundersSamBankman-FriedandGaryWang,precipitatingatimebombonthestateof cryptocurrencyregulationsastheyexistedatthatpoint.

19 Thecryptoexchangetookoff immediately,andinatimewhencryptocurrencieswerebecomingmoreandmorecommon, manypeoplespeculatedastowhyFTXinparticularenticedcryptousers.Suchanotionwas exploredbyNightlyCryptooftheMedium,stating,“FTXwasfoundedwiththegoalofbuilding abettercryptocurrencyexchangeforprofessionaltraders.Bankman-Friedsawanopportunityto createaplatformtailoredtothismarketsegment'sneeds,whichwasunderservedbyexisting exchanges.Todifferentiateitselffromitscompetitors,FTXfocusedonbuildingaplatformwith highliquidity,lowfees,andadvancedtradingfeaturesthatwouldappealtoprofessional traders.”20 Theideaof“highliquidity”essentiallyistheabilitytohaveassetsandpayoff 20 Crypto,Nightly.“HistoryofFTXandSBF-NightlyCrypto-Medium.” Medium,19Dec.2022, nightlycryptomediumcom/history-of-ftx-sbf-12551ff07364

19 Blackstone,Tom “TheRiseandFallofSamBankman-FriedandFTX” Security org,22Nov 2022, wwwsecurityorg/news/rise-and-fall-ftx/#:~:text=The%20Rise%20of%20Sam%20Bankman%2DFried%20and%20 FTX&text=FTX%20quickly%20drew%20the%20interest,million%20in%20Series%20C%20funding

FTX–WhatItWasandWhatItBecame

C. Background on FTX

short-termdebtswhereinanindividualcouldeasilyextractmoneyfromFTXoncegainswere realized.Inregardtothe“fees”aspectofcryptoexchanges,thatishowmuchauserpaysoneach tradetheymake.Onaverage,cryptoexchangeschargea1.5%feeontheamounttradedforevery singletrade–quiteobviously,itisthegoalofinvestorstomaximizetheamountofmoneymade, soitisinthisareawhereFTXattractedmuchofitsusers.RickieHoustonofBusinessInsiders highlightedthefactthatFTXonlychargedamaximumof0.4%onfees,aratesignificantlyless thantheaverage.21 ThisfurtherexplainsthebroadinfluenceofFTXasitofferedmoremodern featuresandafargreaterprofitmaximizationthanothercryptoexchangesatthetime.Assuch, theacceleratedgrowthandrecognitionofFTXwouldbeensuredbytheseveryfeatures.

FTXTradingLtd.anditsmultitudeoffeaturesattractedalotofattentionand, consequently,manydifferentusers.SuchastoundinggrowthcanbeattributedtoFTX’starget, whichisthoroughlyexaminedinTomBlackstoneofSecurity.Org’swriting.Blackstoneexplores FTX’sgrowthandstates,“Theexchangefocusedonattractinghigh-risktraderswhowantedto makeleveragedbetsoncryptocurrency…FTXquicklydrewtheinterestofVCcryptoinvestors. Binanceinvestedastakeinthecompanysixmonthsafteritlaunched,andinJanuary2022,right afterthecryptoboomhadpeaked,FTXraised$400millioninSeriesCfunding.These investmentsputthecompanyata$32billionvaluation,allowingBankman-Fried’sshareto catapulthimintotheNo.1positionforbeingthemostaffluentcryptoinvestor.”

22 Blackstone putsforwardaplatformformuchextensivedebate.Tobegin,reasoningcreditsFTX’s capitulationtothecontinuousinvestmentsmadebyBinance,whichisarguablythebiggest

21 Crypto,Nightly “HistoryofFTXandSBF-NightlyCrypto-Medium” Medium,19Dec 2022, nightlycryptomediumcom/history-of-ftx-sbf-12551ff07364

22 Blackstone,Tom “TheRiseandFallofSamBankman-FriedandFTX” Security org,22Nov 2022, www.security.org/news/rise-and-fall-ftx/#:~:text=The%20Rise%20of%20Sam%20Bankman%2DFried%20and%20 FTX&text=FTX%20quickly%20drew%20the%20interest,million%20in%20Series%20C%20funding

D. The Notorious Rise of Sam Bankman-Fried

cryptoexchangemarketinpresent-dayAmerica,takingintoaccounthowitsinvestmentshelped acceleratethegrowthofFTX.Furthermore,thoughtheseinvestmentsmaynotholdmeaningto theaverageperson,aquickglanceatFTX’stimelineofexpansionsummarizesitsincredible potential:inlessthan5years,anuntestedanduncertaincryptoexchangewithfunctionallyno userscatapultedintoacompanywith32billiondollars.Tomany,theexchange’sgrowthseemed incredible,buttoothers,therelayaclearcorrelationbetweenFTX’smeteoricriseandthe unconventionaland,attimes,questionablemarketingtacticsofSam-BankmanFried.

E. FTX’s Unconventional Marketing Strategy and First Signs of Controversy

ThemarketingtacticsofFTXandBankman-FriedcanexplainFTX’sexpeditiousgrowth toanexchangethat,atitspeak,handled$10billiondailytradingvolumeinasingularday.

PatrickGallantofMediaShowerstates,“FTXisfamousforitssportssponsorshipsandcelebrity endorsements,whichgetsthebrandinfrontofmillionsofpeople.Thesesponsorshipsmake peoplecuriousaboutcrypto,whichFTXlocksinwitheducationalcontentdesignedtoconvert thecuriousintocustomers”.SomearguedthatFTXandBankman-Fried’smarketingtactics wereingenious,butmuchcontroversywasattachedtoit.Regardingthemarketingtactics,FTX recognizedandunderstoodthattheirallurewasdirectedatthosewhoenjoyedtakingrisksand thosewho,forexample,engagedinsportsbetting.Assuch,theydecidedtoassociate themselveswithbothprofessionalathletesandprofessionalsportsteams.Theexchangegained particularnotorietyforsponsoringbothTomBradyandStephenCurry,bothlegendaryathletes withunparalleledfanbasesintheirrespectivesports.However,itsbiggestmovewasto associatethemselveswiththeMiamiHeat,aprofessionalbasketballteamundertheNational BasketballAssociation.In2021,itofficiallyandverypubliclytieditselftotheteambygaining thenamingrightsoftheHeat’shomearena–formerlyknownasAmericanAirlinesArena,and

thearenawasthuslyknownasFTXArena23.Othermarketingstrategiesutilizedincluded creatingeducationalcontent,whichmadetheplatformsubstantiallymoreaccessibleandeasyto navigateforbeginnerusers.FTXalsoreleasedpodcastswithfinancialcelebritiessuchasKevin O.Leary AlthoughthesemarketingstrategiesweresuccessfulandFTXappearedtobeonthe upandup,someunsavorysignsbegantopeekthrough.Themajorpointofcontroversywas FTXsrelationshipwithTether,acryptocointhattieditsvaluetothevalueoftheU.S.dollar. TheissuewithTether,whichisoneofthemostwell-knownstablecoins,arosefromits consistentlackoftransparencywhenitcametotheiroperations.Investorswerenotprivyto wherealltheirmoneywasbeinginvested,nordidtheyknowexactlyhowreserveswereput backintotheircrypto.24 Despitethis,FTXcontinuedtogrowuntilitsfoundercameundervery publicfire.

F The Case Against Sam Bankman-Fried

AcasewasbuildingagainstSamBankman-FriedbehindthescenesofFTX’srise. Accordingtoprosecutors,hewasnamedinasupersedingindictment.Therewasadocumentthat didindeedcontainagreatdealmoreinformationabouttheclaimsmadeagainstthefounder, includingmoredetailedaccusationsaswellassomenewones.Thenewandoldindictments containclaimsthatBankman-Friedfoundedoroversawthefoundingofnumerousbusinesses thatcouldopenbankaccounts,whichFTXalonewasunabletodo.AccordingtotheDOJ, Bankman-Friedsupervisedthemisappropriationofclientfundsandspecificallytoldhisstaffto hidetheoriginofdonationsmadetopoliticalcampaigns.Theapproximately20chargesare

23 Crawley,Jaime “CryptoExchangeFTXSecuresNamingRightsforMiamiHeatArenafor$135M” CoinDesk

Latest Headlines RSS 24March2021

https://wwwcoindeskcom/markets/2021/03/24/crypto-exchange-ftx-secures-naming-rights-for-miami-heat-arena-fo r-135m/

24 How FTX Has Created a Leading Crypto Brand Overnight | the Better Blog. mediashowercom/blog/how-ftx-has-created-a-leading-crypto-brand-overnight

variousandrangefromwirefraud,securityfraud,conspiracytocommitfraud,andconspiracyto commitbankfraud.ThedocumentdiscusseshowBankman-Friedreportedlyoversawthe establishmentofNorthDimension,aU.S.business,solelyforthepurposeofservingasa middlemanbetweenFTXandU.S.banks.25 Inordertopassabank'sduediligenceprocedure, accordingtotheprosecution,Bankman-FriedliedaboutNorthDimension'srealpurpose.Healso reportedly"usedtheFTXcustomerfundshemisappropriatedandcausedtobemisappropriated to,amongotherthings...financeinsubstantialpart[his]unlawfulpoliticalinfluencecampaign, whichinvolvedfloodingthepoliticalsystemwithtensofmillionsofdollarsinillegal contributionstobothDemocraticandRepublicancandidates."Thesedocumentsclearlyshow thattherewasmisappropriationateverylevelthatcausedthecollapseofFTXwhichdoesnot bodewellforBankman-Friedandhisimpendingcaseaccordingtomanydifferentlegalexperts. Forexample,LaRitaWillisBaskerville,anactingattorneyatlawandlegalexpert,stated,

“[Bankman-Friedwill]probablyfacejailtime,butthepeoplethatinvestedinFTXwillneverget theirmoneyback.WhethertheyinvestedinAlamedaorFTXitself.”Anotherattorneyatlaw, RobertMoreton,furtherdiscussedhowallthechargespresentinthedocumentarenotfinalized andbelievesthatthereisalistofmanymorechargesbeingcompiledatthismomentthatthe generalpublicdoesnotyetknowabout.Althoughthepublicmayfeellikethecaseisprogressing slowly,giventheeagernesstoseeBankman-Friedindicted,inreality,thatiscontrarytothefact.

Moretonexplainsthatittakesalongtimetoactuallyindictsomeone,andthoughthereisstilla longwaytogo,thecasehasbeenmovingfasterthananyotherhehaseverseen.Verysoon, Bankman-Friedwillfaceatrialbyjurytodeterminehisfate.

G. The Downfall of FTX

25 Newmyer,Tory.“Bankman-FriedSaysHeWasCarelessatFTX.ProsecutorsSayIt’sFraud.” Washington Post,16 Dec 2022,wwwwashingtonpostcom/business/2022/12/15/sbf-fraud-docs.

Inspiteofitsmeteoricriseandunparalleledsuccesses,FTXwouldcometofallalmostas quicklyasithadrisen.OnNovember11,2022,alittleoverthreeyearsafteritsfounding,FTX andFTX.US,itsAmericansubsidiary,filedforChapter11bankruptcy Bankman-Friedwas detainedonDecember12,2022intheBahamasandextraditedtotheUnitedStates.The SecuritiesandExchangesCommission(SEC)filedacomplaintallegingthatBankman-Fried usedclientmoneyasa"personalpiggybank"toinvestinrealestateandcontributetopolitical campaigns.

AccordingtoaCoinDeskarticlefromNovember2,2022,AlamedaResearch,atrading companyconnectedtoFTXandsecretlyownedbyBankman-Fried,heldasizablequantityof FTT,theexchangetokenforFTX.Followingthisreveal,Binance,arivalcryptocurrency exchangethathadpreviouslyinvestedinFTX,declareditwouldsellitsFTT,causingthetoken's marketpricetoplummet.TheactionalsoresultedinasurgeinFTXwithdrawals,forcingthe exchangetohaltwithdrawalscompletelyandcausingliquidityissues.Whenitwasdiscovered thatBankman-FriedownedAlamedaResearch,therewasalotoffearduetothefactthatit openedpeople’seyesthatFTXwasvulnerableto“rugging”,26 wherehypeandpromotionisbuilt foracertaincryptoonlyforthedevelopertoabandontheprojectandrunwiththeinvestors’ money ThiswaspossibleasBankman-FriedownedabigpartofFTXwhichnobodyknewand thenthisledtothisliquidityissue.27 ThisfallofFTXasawholehasaffectedandmaygreatly affectthecryptomarketasawhole.

TheCryptoMarketAsAWhole

H. Effects from FTX’s Downfall

26 Allison,Ian “DivisionsinSamBankman-Fried’sCryptoEmpireBluronHisTradingTitanAlameda’sBalance Sheet.” Coin Desk,9Nov.2022, wwwcoindeskcom/business/2022/11/02/divisions-in-sam-bankman-frieds-crypto-empire-blur-on-his-trading-titanalamedas-balance-sheet

27 Goforth,CarolR.“RegulationofCrypto:WhoIstheSecuritiesandExchangeCommissionProtecting?” American Business Law Journal,vol 58,no 3,Wiley,Sept 2021,pp 643–705

https://doiorg/101111/ablj12192

Whenalargecryptoexchangeemerges,amonopolyofsortstendstoarise,whichis exactlywhathappenedwithFTX.Ithadclosetoatotalholdonthecryptoexchangeand,ata point,wasconsideredthefaceofthecryptomarket.Consequently,whenFTXcollapsed,the entirecryptocurrencymarketfellslightlyaswell.Therewerethreemaineffectsthatresultedasa consequenceofFTX’sfall.28Thefirsteffect,asmanyexpertsargue,isthattherewillbefewer cryptoexchangescreatedinthecomingyears.Thisisduetothefactthatmanypeoplearenow seeingthatthereismoretolosethangainwhenstartingupacryptoexchangeandarebeginning tofearpotentialinvestmentsincrypto.Thesecondeffectisthattherewillbeagreateramountof inventionsinthecryptoexchangeaspeoplehaverealizedthattechnologywillbetheformof innovationsthatwillsavethecryptocurrency WiththeinventionsofNFTsandmetaverses, technologyhasmadeasignificantimpactinthecryptoworldandmorewillcontinuetobemade inordertomitigaterisk.Finally,thefinaleffect,andperhapsthemostimportant,istheimminent needandemergenceofregulationoncrypto.29

TheArgumentforBetterFederalRegulation

I. Why is this needed?

Atfirstglanceofthestockmarket,theregulatoryagenciesandthepoliciestheyenact andenforcetoprotectinvestorsarecleartosee.TheSECandtheFinancialIndustryRegulatory Authority(FINRA)arethemostrelevant,creatingrulesandactivelyregulatingthestock market

inadirectcontrasttocrypto,wherethereisnoregulationandinvestorvulnerabilityis

28 FranklinR.Edwards,KathleenHanley,RobertLitan&RomanL.Weil(2019)CryptoAssetsRequireBetter Regulation:StatementoftheFinancialEconomistsRoundtableonCryptoAssets,FinancialAnalystsJournal,75:2, 14-19,DOI:10.1080/0015198X.2019.1593766

29 Alvarez,Michelle "AComparativeAnalysisofCryptocurrencyRegulationintheUnitedStates,Nigeria,and China:ThePotentialInfluenceofIllicitActivitiesonRegulatoryEvolution"ILSAJournalofInternationaland ComparativeLaw,vol 25,no 1,Fall2018,pp 33-56 HeinOnline, https://heinonline-orgproxylibrariesrutgersedu/HOL/P?h=heinjournals/ilsaic25&i=64

30 Goforth,C.R.(2021),RegulationofCrypto:WhoIstheSecuritiesandExchangeCommissionProtecting?.Am BusLawJ,58:643-705 https://doiorg/101111/ablj12192

high.31 GeorgeSutton,anattorneyatJonesWaldoHolbrook&McDonough,arguesthatthe regulationdeficiencyis,infact,notbeneficialforcryptoinvestors.Hestates,“Thelackof regulationallowspromoterstoattractinvestorswithalotofridiculoushypeandmisinformation. Tradinghasthusfarproducedsomebigshort-termprofitsforpromotersandearlyinvestors,but itisusuallyfollowedbybiglossesthatlatelyhaveincreasedintowhatiscalled‘cryptowinter.’ Somelossesresultedfromthefailureofseveralpoorlyordishonestlyrunexchangesand businessesthatheldthetokensorservedthemarketinotherways.”Thisideaisexpandedupon byMichelleAlavarez,aJurisDoctorcandidateatNovaSoutheasternUniversity;sheexplains that“[c]ryptocurrenciesprovideindividualsandcriminalsaliketheabilitytomovefunds efficientlywithoutbeingsubjecttoanycentralauthorityorgovernment.”32Bothprofessional expertsmaketheirstancesclearonhowwhatwasonceapplaudedaboutcryptoisessentially leadingtothedemiseofmanyfinancially.Withoutanyregulation,thereisnobodyprotectingthe consumersandinvestors33 leavingthemandtheirmoneyexposed.AftertheFTXcollapseand thedevastatingassociatedconsequencestoinvestors,cryptoregulationmustbestrengthened.If therewasproperregulationinplace,theninvestorswouldhavefoundoutthatSam Bankman-FriedownedAlamedaResearchandwouldhaveknowntostayawayfromFTX.The absenceofregulationwaswhatallowedBankman-Friedfromdoingthisfromthestart.Without regulation,therehavebeentoomanyinstancesthathaveleftpeopledeceivedandhadtheir

31 FranklinR Edwards,KathleenHanley,RobertLitan&RomanL

14-19,DOI:101080/0015198X20191593766

33 Alvarez,Michelle

ComparativeLaw,vol 25,no 1,Fall2018,pp 33-56 HeinOnline, https://heinonline-orgproxylibrariesrutgersedu/HOL/P?h=heinjournals/ilsaic25&i=64

"AComparativeAnalysisofCryptocurrencyRegulationintheUnitedStates,Nigeria,and China:ThePotentialInfluenceofIllicitActivitiesonRegulatoryEvolution."ILSAJournalofInternationaland

32 Cryptocurrency–Cryptoscam–WhyRegulation,DepositInsurance,andStabilityMatter,GeorgeSutton,Utah BarJournal

Weil(2019)CryptoAssetsRequireBetter Regulation:StatementoftheFinancialEconomistsRoundtableonCryptoAssets,FinancialAnalystsJournal,75:2,

hard-earnedmoneystolenfromthem.34

ThePlantoImproveCryptoRegulation

J. Suggested Federal Regulatory Actions

ThedevelopmentofefficientfederalregulationfortheBitcoinmarketisadifficulttask withmanyfacets.Toincreaseandenhancefederalcontrolinthisarea,thereareafewcrucial initiativesthatcanbeperformed.Establishingpreciseregulatoryrulesandnormsforthebitcoin businessisthefirststep.Thiswouldentaildeterminingtheprecisecategoriesof cryptocurrency-relatedactivitiesthathavetoberegulated,suchasexchanges,wallets,and initialcoinofferings(ICOs),aswellastheregulationsandspecificationsthatthesecompanies mustadhereto.Thesecondstageistogivefederalregulatoryagenciesmoretoolsandresources sotheycansuccessfullyoverseeandupholdtheseregulations.Thiswouldincludefundingthe creationoffreshtechnologyandinstrumentsthatmaybeusedtomonitorandexamine cryptocurrencytransactionsaswellasgivingregulatoryofficialsmoretrainingandknowledge.

Engagingwithstakeholdersinthebitcoinsectortobetterunderstandtheirneedsandconcernsis anothercrucialstep.Inordertoreceivecontinualfeedbackandinput,thismayinclude organizingpublichearingsandconsultations,aswellascreatingindustryadvisorypanels.To ensurethatregulatoryactivitiesarecoordinatedanduniformacrossmanyjurisdictions,itis crucialtocreatesuccessfulinternationalpartnershipsandcollaborations.35Thiscouldentail collaboratingwithothernationstoshareinformationandresourcesaswellascooperatingwith internationalorganizationsliketheFinancialActionTaskForce(FATF)tocreateuniversal standardsforcryptocurrencyregulation.Ingeneral,strongerfederalregulationofthe

34 Shulman,Rani “AreCentralizedCryptocurrencyRegulationstheAnswer?ThreeCountries;ThreeDifferent Directions”BrooklynJournalofInternationalLaw,vol 45,no 2,Jan 2020,pp 835–78 EBSCOhost, searchebscohostcom/loginaspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=145250665&site=ehost-live

35 Gurinovich,AlexanderG,etal “AboutApproachestotheDefinitionofConceptandProblemsofLegal RegulationofDigitalFinancialAssets.”PublicOrganizationReview,vol.22,no.4,Dec.2022,pp.1005–24. EBSCOhost,https://doi-orgproxylibrariesrutgersedu/101007/s11115-021-00549-x

cryptocurrencysectorwouldnecessitateacoordinatedanddiversifiedstrategythatincludes preciseguidelines,resourcesbeingraised,involvementofstakeholders,andinternational cooperation.Theseactionsmaymakeitpossibletocreateamoreefficientandsecureregulatory frameworkforthisquicklychangingsector

Conclusion

Theriseofcryptocurrencyinthepastcoupleofyearshasbeenanincrediblesightas thetransitiontotechnologyandvirtualcurrencyhasbeennearlyinstantaneous.Inother situationsorindustries,thisgrowthlikelywouldhaveraisedsomeredflags,butthehypeand constanttalksurroundingitessentiallyswayedthemassesandconvincedthemintobelieving thiswasthenextbigthing.Ratherthanquestioningthelackofregulation,peoplesawitas liberation.Itluredthemtocryptocurrency,intendingtomakethemostmoney,butintheend, thatiswhathurtthem.Withoutanyregulationoranycentralizedforce,peoplearefreeto investastheyplease,butmoreimportantly,criminalsarefreetodeceiveandmisuseinvestors’ money,ofwhichtheFTXfiascoisaprimeexampleof.Insteadofactingasapathtowardsthe future,ithassetthedigitalworldastepbackandhasmadepeoplemorecautiousaroundthe useoftechnology ThoughtheoutcomeofBankman-Fried’scasewillundoubtedlyhavemajor implicationsforthefutureofcrypto,theonlythingthatcanbedoneatpresentistositand waitwhiletherelevantauthoritiesdiscuss.AlthoughthefallofFTXwasfinancially devastatingtomany,itisanecessaryeventthatwillinspirecryptotoadvanceintermsof consumersecurityandeventually,risetoevengreaterheights.

INCITEMENTVS.FREESPEECH:THEAFTERMATHOFTHEJANUARY6 INSURRECTION

JULIANNAMARGOLIN|RUTGERS-NEWBRUNSWICK

Introduction

A. The Political Climate of Early 2021

Ontheheelsofaglobalpandemicandburgeoningpoliticalpolarization,theelection seasonof2020andthetransitionthatfollowedwereamongthemosttumultuousperiodsin recentAmericanhistory Asthen-PresidentDonaldTrumpandDemocraticcandidateJoseph Bidencampaignedforthepresidency,citizensweremoreinvestedinanddividedonpoliticsthan atanytimeinthemodernera.CoupledwiththeCOVID-19pandemicthatresultedinnationwide lockdowns,therewerequestionsabouthowpeoplewouldbeabletofulfilltheircivicdutyto vote.Withsocialdistancingandmaskguidelinesinplace,someAmericanstookadvantageofa votingmethodthathasbeenaroundsincetheRevolutionaryWarEra:mail-invoting.36 Mail-in ballots,predominantlyfavoredduringwartimes,becameapopularmeansofvoting,tothe dismayofPresidentTrump;asmorestatesbeganexpandingtheirearlyandvote-by-mail procedures,hepubliclyquestionedthevalidityoftheseballots.37

IntheweeksanddaysleadinguptoElectionDayonNovember3,38 PresidentTrump tweetedandspokeoutregardinghowmail-inballotswouldleadtomassivevoterfraud.39 Trump spreadmisinformationaboutvote-by-mailballots,andTrumployalistsclungtotheconspiracy thattheelectionwasgoingtoberiggedbeforecountingcouldbeginandawinnerwaseven

36 Waxman,OliviaB.“VotingbyMailHistory:WhenMail-inBallotsStartedinU.S.” Time,Time,29Sept.2020, https://timecom/5892357/voting-by-mail-history/

38 Almukhtar,Sarah,etal “2020PresidentialElectionCalendar” The New York Times,TheNewYorkTimes,13 May2019,https://wwwnytimescom/interactive/2019/us/elections/2020-presidential-election-calendarhtml

39 Parks,Miles.“FactCheck:TrumpSpreadsUnfoundedClaimsaboutVotingbyMail.” NPR,NPR,22June2020, https://wwwnprorg/2020/06/22/881598655/fact-check-trump-spreads-unfounded-claims-about-voting-by-mail

decided.AsElectionDaycameandwent,andthemail-inandin-personvoteswerecounted,Joe Bidenwasdeclaredthevictor.But,electiondeniersandTrumpsupportersralliedbehindthe formerPresident,failingtoacknowledgethenewPresidentandpursuingtheideathatmajor electionfraudoccurred.Asinvestigatorscontinuedtoproducenoevidencethatanymalpractice orirregularitieswerepresentintheelection,TrumpRepublicansunleashedeffortstofightthe resultsandappealtheoutcome.Thoughthesemoveswereineffectiveandfailedtoproduceany tangibleresultsthatfavoredtheformerPresident,theyescalatedintothemajorrevoltatthe Capitol,aninarguableattackonAmericandemocracy.

40

InthemiddleofthenightonDecember19,2020,followingasix-hourmeetinginthe OvalOffice,DonaldTrumptweeted,“Statisticallyimpossibletohavelostthe2020Election.Big protestinD.C.onJanuary6.Bethere,willbewild!”

41 Thistweetlitupvariouscornersofthe internet,uniting“right-wingmilitiagroups,[online]conspiracists,andordinarycitizens”intheir questforelection“justice”fortheirleader,Trump.

42 OnJanuary6,2021,whenajointsessionof Congressmetwiththen-VicePresidentMikePenceandHouseSpeakerNancyPelosipresiding inordertocertifytheelectionresultsandofficiateJoeBiden’svictory,riotersstormedthe Capitoltointerrupttheproceedings.Withthenationwatchingtheeventsunfoldinrealtime,a rallyhostedbyTrumpbecameaninsurrection.EncouragedbytheformerPresident’sspeechthat endedwith,“Wefight.Wefightlikehell,andifyoudon’tfightlikehell,you’renotgoingto

40 Klemko,Robert,etal “TrumpSupportersLaunchSmall,DisparateEffortstoFightElectionResultsasNoGOP orTrumpAllegationsofIrregularitiesHaveBeenProved.” The Washington Post,WPCompany,9Nov.2020,

https://wwwwashingtonpostcom/national/trump-voters-reaction/2020/11/09/7377cb30-220a-11eb-a904-17bc971d4 db8 story.html.

41 Dreisbach,Tom “HowTrump's'WillBeWild!'TweetDrewRioterstotheCapitolonJan 6” NPR,NPR,13July 2022,

https://wwwnprorg/2022/07/13/1111341161/how-trumps-will-be-wild-tweet-drew-rioters-to-the-capitol-on-jan-6

42 Dreisbach,Tom “HowTrump's'WillBeWild!'TweetDrewRioterstotheCapitolonJan 6” NPR,NPR,13July 2022,

https://wwwnprorg/2022/07/13/1111341161/how-trumps-will-be-wild-tweet-drew-rioters-to-the-capitol-on-jan-6

B. The Capitol Riot

haveacountryanymore.Solet’swalkdownPennsylvaniaAvenue,”theprotestors,some wieldingweaponsandotherscarryingConfederateflags,overpoweredCapitolsecurity,breaking windows,injuringlawenforcement,andkickingdowndoors.

CongresscalledanimmediaterecessasVicePresidentPencewasevacuatedbythe SecretServiceamidreportsofthemobapproachingtheSenatefloor.Astheviolencecontinued forhours,PresidentTrumpfinallyurgedhissupporterstoleavetheCapitolwhilecallingthem “greatpatriotswhohavebeentreatedbadlyandunfairly.”43 Asaresultoftheriots,fourpolice officersdied,andover150lawenforcementofficerswereinjured;fourriotersalsodiedin connectionwiththeirattackontheCapitol.44

TheJanuary6insurrectionwasapolitically,culturally,andhistoricallysignificantevent.

Aspro-Trumpextremistsandright-winggroupsstormedtheCapitolwithConfederateflagsand assaultweapons,itwasadefinitiveactofraciallymotivatedmobviolence.Furthermore,though theCapitolhasseenpolitically-drivenattacksinthepast,noeffortshavesoclearlyanddirectly attemptedtohaltthedemocraticproceduresoftheUnitedStates.45 Concurrently,resultingfrom oneofAmerica’s“darkestdays”wasover“$1.5millionworthofdamage”totheCapitol building,aswellasaJusticeDepartmentgrapplingwithhowtoholdtheinsurrectionists accountable.46

Twoyearsaftertheriot,over1,000peoplehavebeenarrestedfortheiractionsonJanuary 6,“withchargesrangingfromobstructionofanofficialproceedingtoassault.”Abouthalfof thosearrestedhavereceivedtheirsentences,withthelongestbeingtenyearsandthemedian

43 “CapitolRiotsTimeline:WhatHappenedon6January2021?” BBC News,BBC,9June2022, https://wwwbbccom/news/world-us-canada-56004916

44 Cameron,Chris “TheseArethePeopleWhoDiedinConnectionwiththeCapitolRiot” The New York Times,The NewYorkTimes,5Jan 2022,https://wwwnytimescom/2022/01/05/us/politics/jan-6-capitol-deathshtml

45 Magazine,Smithsonian “TheHistoryofViolentAttacksontheUS Capitol” Smithsonian com,Smithsonian Institution,8Jan 2021,https://wwwsmithsonianmagcom/smart-news/history-violent-attacks-capitol-180976704/

46 “OneYearsincetheJan.6AttackontheCapitol.” The United States Department of Justice,30Dec.2021, https://wwwjusticegov/usao-dc/one-year-jan-6-attack-capitol

beingsixtydaysinjail.However,theFederalBureauofInvestigationisstillpursuing260rioters whotheybelieve“committedviolentactsontheCapitolgrounds.”

47 Asmanyinvolvedinthe January6riotfacetheconsequencesoftheiractions,thereisalegaldebatesurroundingthe breadthofprotectionsofferedbytheFirstAmendmentandhowtoholdaccountablethosewho attackedtheCapitol.

C. Free Speech and the First Amendment

TheFirstAmendmenttotheBillofRightsappearsclear:“Congressshallmakenolaw respectinganestablishmentofreligion,orprohibitingthefreeexercisethereof;orabridgingthe freedomofspeech,orofthepress;ortherightofthepeoplepeaceablytoassemble,andto petitiontheGovernmentforaredressofgrievances.”

48 TheFirstAmendmentguarantees

Americanstherighttofreethoughtandthefreeexpressionoftheirthoughts,privilegesatthe bedrockofdemocracy.Further,theamendmentestablishesthefreedomofreligion,freedomof speech,freedomofthepress,freedomtoassemble,andtherighttopetitionthegovernment.

ManyregardtheFirstAmendmentasthemostsignificantandvitalamendment;49 however,itis frequentlymisunderstoodbythegeneralpublic.

Coupledwithmassmisinterpretationbyordinarycitizensandvaguelanguageinthetext, theSupremeCourtoftheUnitedStateshashadtoredefineandclarifythesafeguardsofferedby theFirstAmendmentthroughouthistorywhencaseswerebroughtseekingtolimitorexpandits protections.Landmarkcasesthatestablishedmodernprecedentregardinghowthisconstitutional amendmentshouldbeunderstood,evaluated,andinterpretedinclude Schenck v. United States,

47 Popli,Nik,andJuliaZorthian “Jan 6CapitolRiotersArrestsandSentencessoFar” Time,Time,8Mar 2023, https://timecom/6133336/jan-6-capitol-riot-arrests-sentences/

48 “The1stAmendmentoftheUS Constitution” National Constitution Center – The 1st Amendment of the U S Constitution,https://constitutioncenterorg/interactive-constitution/amendment/amendment-i

49 Policinski,Gene “SurveySaysWeLikeOurFirstAmendmentRights–WhateverTheyAre” Freedom Forum, 22Sep.2021,

https://wwwfreedomforumorg/2021/09/22/survey-says-we-like-our-first-amendment-rights-whatever-they-are/

Brandenburg v. Ohio,and Texas v. Johnson.Subsequently,inutilizingjudicialreview,thelegal principlethatallowsSupremeCourtJusticestheflexibilitytoadapttheconstitutiontothe modernworldandoverrulepastdecisions,theSupremeCourthasbothexpandedonandlimited theFirstAmendmentovertime.50

51

Expandingonthenotionthatfreespeechisnotas“free”asmanyAmericansbelieve,the FirstAmendmenttakesaclearstanceindistinguishingincitementfromprotectedspeech.The SupremeCourthasupheldtherulingthathatespeechislegalpertheConstitution;despite seeminglyallowingforpeopletoexpresstheirthoughtsthat“vilify,humiliate,orincitehatred againstagrouporaclassofpersonsonthebasisofrace,religion,skincolorsexualidentity, genderidentity,ethnicity,disability,ornationalorigin,”thehighestcourtintheU.S.hastaken matterstoensurethisspeechdoesnotturnintomotivatedandtargetedviolence.

Legalinterventioniswarrantedinincidentsofhatespeechthatincites“imminentlawless action”,threatensharmtoothers,or“causesanimmediatebreachofpeace.”

52 Furthermore,in thelandmarkcase Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire,theCourtcontinuedtoclarifythatwhile speechofallkinds,includingmaliciousandvilesentiments,isprotected,therearelimitstohow thatspeechcanbeinterpretedandacteduponbywitnesses.

ItisundertheseparametersthattheDepartmentofJusticeiswithinitsjurisdictionto pursueandprosecutetheCapitolriotersfortheirrolesintheinsurrection.Thoughtheywere expressingpoliticalthought,oneofthemostsafeguardedformsofspeechundertheUnited

50 “JudicialReview” Legal Information Institute,LegalInformationInstitute, https://wwwlawcornelledu/wex/judicial review

51 Ward,KennethD “FreeSpeechandtheDevelopmentofLiberalVirtues:AnExaminationoftheControversies InvolvingFlag-BurningandHateSpeech”,52U MIAL Rev 733(1998)

Availableat:https://repositorylawmiamiedu/umlr/vol52/iss3/4

52 “IsHateSpeechProtectedbytheFirstAmendment?” The Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression,8 Feb 2022,https://wwwthefireorg/news/hate-speech-protected-first-amendment

D. Incitement and the First Amendment

StatesConstitution,theirconvictionscomeintheformofcriminalchargesfortheirviolentand hatefulactions.53 DespitetheperceptiontheFirstAmendmentisanall-encompassinglegal protectionforallformsofspeech,theCapitolriotersarebeingprosecutedandchargedwith federalcrimesasthelawdelineatesadistinctionbetweenfreespeechandincitementofviolence. PoliticalUnrestandWakingUpFromtheTrumpEra

E. The Politics

Thehyper-politicalclimateof2020laidthegroundworkforatumultuouselectioncycle. Themixtureofadivisiveincumbentpresident,aglobalhealthcrisis,andhot-buttonpolitical issuesdrewAmericanstopollingbooths.Furtherincentivizingcitizenstofulfilltheircivicduty andsubmitballotswastheturnoftheSupremeCourt.Long-servingJusticeRuthBader

Ginsburg,agroundbreakingpioneerofwomeninlawwhowasanotoriouschampionforwomen andotherminoritygroups,diedofpancreaticcancerwhileservingonthebenchonSeptember 18,2020.ThelateJusticeGinsburg’sdyingwishwastobereplacedbyaDemocraticpresident;54 however,then-PresidentTrump,withtheassistanceandclearanceofaRepublicanCongress, rushedthenominationandconfirmationprocessofconservative-leaningJusticeAmyConey Barrett.55

WhilesomewereskepticalofthelegalityofJusticeBarrett’sapprovalprocessasitwas lessthantwomonthsawayfromapresidentialelection,othersbecameconcernedabouthow Barrett’spositionontheCourtsignificantlyalteredtheideologicalmakeupofthejudiciary.With

53 “ProtectionofCorePoliticalSpeech” Civil Rights, https://civilrights.uslegal.com/freedom-of-speech-and-expression/protection-of-core-political-speech/#:~:text=The% 20First%20Amendment%20elevates%20core,serve%20a%20compelling%20state%20interest

54 Lozano,AliciaVictoria “RuthBaderGinsburg'sDyingWish:NottoHaveDonaldTrumpChooseReplacement” NBCNews com,NBCUniversalNewsGroup,19Sept 2020, https://wwwnbcnewscom/politics/supreme-court/ruth-bader-ginsburg-s-dying-wish-not-have-donald-trump-n12405 07

55 Bruggeman,Lucien,etal “PresidentTrumpNominatesAmyConeyBarrettforSupremeCourtSeat”ABCNews, ABCNewsNetwork,26Sept.2020, https://abcnewsgocom/Politics/president-trump-nominates-amy-coney-barrett-supreme-court/story?id=73247654

theadditionofTrump’snewappointee,theSupremeCourtswayedfromafive-fourconservative bendtoasix-threeconservativemajority.56 ManyAmericansworriedhowthehighestcourtin thenationcouldshapethefutureofthecountrywithitsnewright-wingperspective,andwith abortionaccess,votingrights,andguncontrollegislationonthedocket,citizensweremotivated toexercisetheirrighttovote.57

AccordingtotheCensus,the2020PresidentialElectionhadthehighestvoterturnoutof anytwenty-first-centuryelection.Furthermore,theracebetweenTrumpandBiden“featuredthe largestincreaseinvotersbetweentwopresidentialelections,”withseventeenmillionmorevoters thanin2016.58 With67percentofalleligiblevotersexecutingtheirchoiceforpresident,Biden won81,283,098votes(51.3percent).Comparatively,theincumbentwon74,222,958votes(46.8 percent).59 Furthermore,PresidentBidendefeatedTrump306-232intheElectoralCollege, resultinginalandslidevictoryfortheDemocraticParty.60

Whenevaluatingtheuncharacteristicresultsofthe2020Electionvoterturnout,itis impossibletoignorethemassshifttowardalternativevotingmethods.Inaccordancewiththe CentersforDiseaseControl’srecommendationtosocialdistanceduringtheheightofthe coronaviruspandemic,thegeneralelectionsawmassamountsofearlyvotingandvotingby

56 Axios.“ThePoliticalLeaningsoftheSupremeCourtJustices.” Axios,1June2019, https://wwwaxioscom/supreme-court-justices-ideology-52ed3cad-fcff-4467-a336-8bec2e6e36d4html

57 Smith,Zack,andAlexanderPhipps.“5SupremeCourtCasestoWatchinthe2021-22Term.” The Heritage Foundation,28Sept 2021, https://www.heritage.org/courts/commentary/5-supreme-court-cases-watch-the-2021-22-term.

58 Bureau,USCensus “2020PresidentialElectionVotingandRegistrationTablesNowAvailable” Census gov,8 Oct.2021,

https://wwwcensusgov/newsroom/press-releases/2021/2020-presidential-election-voting-and-registration-tables-no w-availablehtml

59 Lindsay,JamesM “The2020ElectionbytheNumbers” Council on Foreign Relations,CouncilonForeign Relations,https://wwwcfrorg/blog/2020-election-numbers

60 Nadeem,Reem “BehindBiden's2020Victory” Pew Research Center - U S Politics & Policy,PewResearch Center,17Nov 2022, https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2021/06/30/behind-bidens-2020-victory/#:~:text=Joe%20Biden%20defeated% 20Donald%20Trump,margin%20in%20the%20popular%20vote

mail.61 ThoughthenumberofindividualsvotinginpersononElectionDayhadslowlybeen decliningthroughouthistory,therehadneverbeenasharperdecreasethanin2020,whenonly27 percentofvotersreportedpollinginpersononelectionday,62 comparedto55percentin2018.63

Theanticipatedmagnitudeofmail-inandearlyvotingworriedtheRepublicanParty,as Democratstypicallyfavoralternativevotingmethods,whiletheformerfavorthetraditional method.Thisdiscrepancyrelatesbacktopartisanattitudesrelatingtovotingaccessibility,with progressivesencouragingallthosewhoareeligibletovotetocastaballotandconservatives desiringmorerestrictivevotereligibility.64 ThefearthatDemocraticvoterturnoutwouldleadto theParty’svictorywasacatalystforthen-incumbentTrump’svoterfraudplatform.

AsNovember3approached,thepresidentledaverbalassaultonmail-inandearlyvoting practices.Trumpcorrelatedalternativevotingmethodstofraudulentandillegalvotingand encouragedhisfollowerstodenouncetheelectionresultsshouldhelose.65 PresidentTrumpeven triedtointervenelegislatively,attemptingtosuestatesthatallowedvote-by-maillikeCalifornia andPennsylvania.66 However,thesecriesofvoterfraudwereprovenfalseandmisguided.

ApoliticalscientistfromtheUniversityofChicago,AnthonyFowler,reported“voter fraudisveryrare,andtheriskofwidespreadfraudisprobablyveryminimal,evenwithall-mail

61 Everyone Has a Role to Play to Reduce and Slow the Transmission ... - CDC. https://wwwcdcgov/socialmedia/videos/covid-19/asl/social-distancing/316132-A SocialDistancing COVID19 AS L.pdf.

62 Atske,Sara “3 TheVotingExperiencein2020” Pew Research Center - U S Politics & Policy,PewResearch Center,5Dec.2020,https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2020/11/20/the-voting-experience-in-2020/.

63 DeSilver,Drew “AmidPandemic,theLongDeclineofin-PersonVotingonElectionDayIsLikelytoAccelerate ThisYear.” Pew Research Center,PewResearchCenter,4Jan.2023, https://wwwpewresearchorg/fact-tank/2020/11/03/amid-pandemic-the-long-decline-of-in-person-voting-on-election -day-is-likely-to-accelerate-this-year/.

64 Nadeem,Reem “RepublicansandDemocratsMoveFurtherApartinViewsofVotingAccess” Pew Research Center - U S Politics & Policy,PewResearchCenter,18Nov 2022, https://wwwpewresearchorg/politics/2021/04/22/republicans-and-democrats-move-further-apart-in-views-of-voting -access/

65 Parks,Miles “FactCheck:TrumpSpreadsUnfoundedClaimsaboutVotingbyMail” NPR,NPR,22June2020, https://wwwnprorg/2020/06/22/881598655/fact-check-trump-spreads-unfounded-claims-about-voting-by-mail

66 Morgan,Billy.“WhyFearsaboutVotingbyMailAreUnfounded.” University of Chicago News, https://newsuchicagoedu/story/does-voting-mail-increase-risk-voter-fraud

elections.”Furthermore,hecalledthe“onlinedisinformationandconspiracytheoriesthatcould undermine”theelection“unfounded,”failingtobebasedonempiricalevidenceandnot addressingtheargumentthatvoterfraudispossibleinallelections.Fowleralsonotedthata majorbenefitofsomeformofmail-invotingisadramaticincreaseinparticipationamongvoters whoareunabletophysicallycastaballotattheirlocalpollingplace.67 Despiteexperts’assurance thattheelectionresultswouldstillbevalidregardlessofpreferredvotingmethods,thepresident maintainedhisclaimsthathewouldnotaccepttheoutcomeifhelost,convincinghisfervent supporterstostandwithhim.

AsPresidentTrumppubliclydenouncedthe2020Electionresultsbeforevoteswere submittedandcounted,hisloyalistsassumedhisdefense.Trump’sfollowersquicklyspreadthe samedamagingrhetoricofthepresident,questioningtheintegrityoftheelectionandsayingthey wouldrejecttheoutcomeshouldTrumplose.68 Thesebaselessassertionscounterthevery essenceofAmericandemocracy,whichcallsforthepeacefultransitionofpowerandthe acceptanceofelectionresultsasanindicationofwhatthepeoplewanttheirgovernmenttolook like.69 However,PresidentTrumpencouragedthosearoundhimandthosewhoworshipedhimto actundemocratically,attemptingtobreakdownthefoundationalprincipleoftheUnitedStates governmentalsystemandobstructapeacefultransitionofpower

67 Morgan,Billy “WhyFearsaboutVotingbyMailAreUnfounded” University of Chicago News, https://newsuchicagoedu/story/does-voting-mail-increase-risk-voter-fraud

68 Kapur,Sahil “TrumpHasSignaledHeWon'tAcceptanElectionLoss ManyofHisVotersAgree” NBCNews com,NBCUniversalNewsGroup,30Oct 2020, https://wwwnbcnewscom/politics/2020-election/trump-has-signaled-he-won-t-accept-election-loss-many-n1245304

69 Potter,Trevor.“It'sOurDutyasAmericanstoAcceptElectionResults.” Campaign Legal Center, https://campaignlegalorg/update/its-our-duty-americans-accept-election-results

F The Insurrection at the Capitol

OnNovember7,2020,threedaysaftertheactual“ElectionDay”occurred,theelection wascalledforJoeBiden.70 Withtwomonthsleftinoffice,aspromised,Trumpcontinuedhis attackontheelection,fosteringthegrowthofthemovementtodenytheresults.PresidentTrump leanedintoconspiraciesofvoterfraudandstatedhewouldnotgiveuphispositionastheheadof theExecutiveBranch.71 SomeRepublicanslaunchedlegalbattles,tryingtoappealthe2020 PresidentialElectionresultsincourttonoavail.72 Withnolegalsuccessandlimitedoptions,as January6,2021approachedquickly,PresidentTrumptooktoTwitter.

Trumpweaponizedthesocialmediaplatform,promotingviolenceandlies.OnDecember 19,hetweeted,“Statisticallyimpossibletohavelostthe2020Election.BigprotestinD.C.on January6.Bethere,willbewild!”73 Trumployalistsandconspiratorsfromallcornersofthe internetheardTrump’scallsloudandclear,and,emboldenedbyhiswords,preparedtheirattack ontheCapitol.AmongthosewhoplannedtoprotesttheelectioncertificationinWashington, D.C.,wereright-wingmilitiagroupsliketheOathKeepersandProudBoys,Trump-worshippers andQAnonfollowers,electedofficials,andordinaryAmericans.74 Bandingtogetherintheir blindsupportofPresidentTrump,thesegroupsralliedtogetherinthenation’scapitalonwhat wascoinedas“anotherworstdayinUnitedStateshistory.”75

70 “PresidentialElectionResults:BidenWins.” The New York Times,TheNewYorkTimes,3Nov.2020, https://wwwnytimescom/interactive/2020/11/03/us/elections/results-presidenthtml

71 Liptak,Kevin,andMaeganVazquez.“TrumpRefusestoCommittoaPeacefulTransitionofPowerafterElection Day|CNNPolitics” CNN,CableNewsNetwork,24Sept 2020, https://www.cnn.com/2020/09/23/politics/trump-election-day-peaceful-transition/index.html.

72 Shamsian,Jacob “TrumpandHisAlliesFiledMorethan40LawsuitsChallengingthe2020ElectionResults All ofThemFailed.” Business Insider,BusinessInsider, https://wwwbusinessinsidercom/trump-campaign-lawsuits-election-results-2020-11

73 Dreisbach,Tom.“HowTrump's'WillBeWild!'TweetDrewRioterstotheCapitolonJan.6.” NPR,NPR,13July 2022, https://wwwnprorg/2022/07/13/1111341161/how-trumps-will-be-wild-tweet-drew-rioters-to-the-capitol-on-jan-6

74 Barry,Dan,etal “'OurPresidentWantsUSHere':TheMobThatStormedtheCapitol” The New York Times,The NewYorkTimes,9Jan 2021,https://wwwnytimescom/2021/01/09/us/capitol-riotershtml

75 Suza,Walter “Opinion:TheJan 6CapitolRiotWasAnotherWorstDayinUnitedStatesHistory” The Ames Tribune,AmesTribune,5Jan 2022, https://www.amestrib.com/story/opinion/columns/guest/2022/01/05/january-6-us-capitol-riot-another-worst-day-unit ed-states-history-walter-suza/9090410002/

76

OnJanuary6,2021,membersofCongressandsenatorsmettocertifytheresultsofthe 2020PresidentialElection,withformerVicePresidentMikePencepresidingastheheadofthe Senate.Meanwhile,nearbyattheWhiteHouse,Trump’sarmyofsupportersattendedtheformer President’sdemonstration.Inhisspeech,PresidentTrumpimploredthoseinattendancetotaketo theCapitoltoshowtheirdisdainforthehistoricallyAmericantraditionofagracefultransitionof presidents.Atnoon,Trumpshoutedtothecrowd,“Wewillnevergiveup.Wewillnever concede.”HealsoexpressedhisdisappointmentwithhisVicePresidentandwelcomedtheidea ofhissupportersinterferingwithBiden’svictory.Inclosing,PresidentTrumpsaid,“We'regoing totheCapitol.We’regoingtotryandgivethem[Republicans]thekindofprideandboldness thattheyneedtotakebackourcountry.”

Incitedbyhisferventanddemandingwords,themobofprotestersmarchedtowardsthe CapitolbuildingasPresidentTrumpdisappearedintotheWhiteHouse.Holdingweaponsand Confederateflagsandshouting“U.S.A.,”thecrowdoverwhelmedCapitolpoliceandpushed pastthebarricadesby1:30P.M.Withtheworldwatchingasthetelevisedchaosconsumedallof themajornewschannels,angryTrump-Republicansenteredthebuildingwhilelawmakerswere “unawareofthemayhem”aroundthem.

77

TheCapitolriotersbrokewindowsandkickeddowndoors,seriouslydamagingthe buildingattheheartofAmericandemocracyandgovernment.Justthirtyminuteslater,Congress calledanimmediaterecess,andVicePresidentPencewasremovedfromtheSenatefloorbythe UnitedStatesSecretService.Congressmembersbeganshelteringinplaceaslawenforcement

76 Lonsdorf,Kat,etal “ATimelineofHowtheJan 6AttackUnfolded-IncludingWhoSaidWhatandWhen” NPR,NPR,9June2022,

https://wwwnprorg/2022/01/05/1069977469/a-timeline-of-how-the-jan-6-attack-unfolded-including-who-said-what -and-when

77 Lonsdorf,Kat,etal “ATimelineofHowtheJan 6AttackUnfolded-IncludingWhoSaidWhatandWhen” NPR,NPR,9June2022,

https://www.npr.org/2022/01/05/1069977469/a-timeline-of-how-the-jan-6-attack-unfolded-including-who-said-what -and-when

workedtokeeptheviolentmobawayfromthelegislators.However,theprotestersmanagedto breakintotheSenatefloorandvariousoffices,includingtheofficeoftheSpeakeroftheHouse ofRepresentatives,DemocratNancyPelosi.AstheycontinuedtheirassaultontheCapitol,they brutallyinjuredandbeatCapitolpoliceofficers.78 TheNationalGuardwaseventuallycalledto helpintervene.

Around4:00P.M.,JoeBidenaddressedthecountry,“[calling]onPresidentTrumptogo onnationaltelevision”and“fulfillhisoath[to]defendtheConstitution,...[demanding]anendto thissiege.”Hecontinued,“Thisisnotaprotest itisaninsurrection.”79 Live-tweeting throughouttheunfoldingevents,TrumptooktoTwittertoaskthe“greatpatriots”toleavethe Capitol,andfivehoursaftertheprotestorsstormedthebuilding,theywereevacuatedfromthe premises.”80 WhilethemayhemensuedattheCapitolbuilding,Trumpsupportersalloverthe countryheldralliesoftheirown.BackinWashington,D.C.,policefoundpipebombsatthe RepublicanNationalCommitteeandDemocraticNationalCommitteeheadquarters,andthose buildingswerealsovacated.

FollowingtheinsurrectionontheCapitol,fourpoliceofficersdied.OfficerBrianD. SicknickoftheCapitolPolicediedfromhisinjuries,whileOfficerHowardS.Liebengoodofthe CapitolPoliceandOfficersJeffreySmith,GuntherHashida,andKyleDeFreytagdiedbysuicide afterJanuary6.Additionally,morethan150policeofficerswereinjuredbytherioters.

Furthermore,therewerecasualtiesonbothsides.AshliBabbitt,anAirForceveteran,wasshot byCapitolPolice,KevinD.GreesondiedofaheartattackontheCapitolsidewalk,Rosanne

78 Cameron,Chris “TheseArethePeopleWhoDiedinConnectionwiththeCapitolRiot” The New York Times,The NewYorkTimes,5Jan 2022,https://wwwnytimescom/2022/01/05/us/politics/jan-6-capitol-deathshtml

79 Lonsdorf,Kat,etal “ATimelineofHowtheJan 6AttackUnfolded-IncludingWhoSaidWhatandWhen” NPR,NPR,9June2022, https://wwwnprorg/2022/01/05/1069977469/a-timeline-of-how-the-jan-6-attack-unfolded-including-who-said-what -and-when

80 “CapitolRiotsTimeline:WhatHappenedon6January2021?” BBC News,BBC,9June2022, https://wwwbbccom/news/world-us-canada-56004916

81

Boylandwasstampededbyfellowrioters,andBenjaminPhilips,“thefounderofapro-Trump websitecalledTrumparoo,diedofastroke.”

InasurveyconductedonthenightofJanuary6,manyAmericanssaidtheywereshocked andhorrifiedbytheeventsattheCapitol,with63percentsayingtheyviewedtheattackasa “threattodemocracy.”

82 However,withmoredistanceandperspective,Americansonceagain becamedividedacrosspartylinesintheirbeliefsonhowtoviewtheinsurrectionandwhether theriotersshouldbeprosecuted.Despitethis,LarryDiamond,aMosbacherSeniorFellowin GlobalDemocracy,calledtheJanuary6insurrection“thegravestassaultonAmerican democracysincetheCivilWar…[thatinsteadof]providingasoberinglessonofthedangersof politicalpolarization…intensifiedour[political]divisions.”

83

Tofurtherinvestigatethedeadlyprotest,abi-partisanHouseSelectCommitteewas created.TheserepresentativesalsoplannedtouncovertheformerPresident’sinvolvement.

84

Whiletheselawmakersbegantheirresearchandexaminationoftheinsurrection,theUnited StatesDepartmentofJusticealsoinitiatedlegalactionagainsttherioters.

UnderstandingtheLaw

G. The Limits and Protections of the First Amendment

ManylegalscholarsconsidertheFirstAmendmenttobethemostvitalamendmentin protectingtheuniquelyAmericandemocracy.However,thetexttroublesmanyAmericans becauseofitsintentionalvagueness.TheFramerswrote,“Congressshallmakenolawrespecting anestablishmentofreligion,orprohibitingthefreeexercisethereof;orabridgingthefreedomof

81 Cameron,Chris “TheseArethePeopleWhoDiedinConnectionwiththeCapitolRiot” The New York Times,The NewYorkTimes,5Jan 2022,https://wwwnytimescom/2022/01/05/us/politics/jan-6-capitol-deathshtml

82 Kafura,Craig “WhatAmericansMakeoftheJanuary6ChaosattheCapitol” Chicago Council on Global Affairs,TheChicagoCouncilonGlobalAffairs,7Jan 2021, https://globalaffairsorg/commentary-and-analysis/blogs/what-americans-make-january-6-chaos-capitol

83 Morgan,Melissa “TheLegacyofJanuary6” FSI,https://fsistanfordedu/news/legacies-january-6

84 Jacobson,Louis.“Politifact-theLegitimacyoftheJan.6Committee,Explained.” @Politifact,8June2022, https://wwwpolitifactcom/article/2022/jun/08/legitimacy-jan-6-committee-explained/

speech,orofthepress;ortherightofthepeoplepeaceablytoassemble,andtopetitionthe Governmentforaredressofgrievances.”

85 InmanyareasoftheConstitution,itisdifficultto deciphertheoriginalintentbehindcertainlawsandstatutes;theFirstAmendmentisno exception.However,thispurposefulobscurityallowsforfreedomofspeechtoevolveandgrants theSupremeCourttheabilitytoapproachcaseswithflexibility.

LeadingFirstAmendmentscholarRodneySmollastates,“Onecankeepgoingroundand roundontheoriginalmeaningoftheFirstAmendment,butnoclear,consistentvisionofwhatthe Framersmeantbyfreedomofspeechwilleveremerge.”Thissentimentisreinforcedbythehistory oftheConstitution,asonlytenyearsafteritwasratified,Congressmenandcitizenswereatodds overthepassageoftheSeditionActof1798,whichbanned“falseandmaliciouscriticismsofthe federalgovernment.”

86 Despitetheconfusion,theFramerswereawarethatunrestrictedspeechinthe publicsectorcouldleadtodangerousoutcomeswiththepossibilityofincitement;however,the specteroftyranny,alltoorealtotheConstitution’sdrafterswhowereproductsoftheRevolutionary WarEra,wasmorepressing,andthewritersknowinglytookthisrisk.

87

Astheworldhasevolved,theFirstAmendmenthaschangedovertime,constantly reinterpretedinthenewcultural,political,andlegallandscape,withthemeaningofallofthe enumeratedrightsbeingdebatedand“[playing]outinthecourts.”

88 TheAmericanjudiciaryhas continuallygrantedcertioraritocasesinwhichthelimitsoftheFirstAmendmentaretestedto clarifytheAmendment’smeaning.Someoftheselandmarkdecisionsinclude Schenck v U.S., Brandenburg v Ohio,and Texas v Johnson

85 “ProceduralMattersandFreedomofSpeech:Vagueness” Legal Information Institute, wwwlawcornelledu/constitution-conan/amendment-1/procedural-matters-and-freedom-of-speech-vagueness

86 “WhatDidtheFirstAmendmentOriginallyMean?” Richmond Law Magazine - University of Richmond,9July 2018,lawmagazinerichmondedu/features/article/-/15500/what-did-the-first-amendment-originally-meanhtml

87 Miller,Jodi “FreedomofthePressGuardsagainstTyranny” New Jersey State Bar Foundation,24Feb 2023, njsbforg/2020/11/11/freedom-of-the-press-guards-against-tyranny/

88 Davis,DerekH.“OriginalIntent.” Original Intent,2009, wwwmtsuedu/first-amendment/article/823/original-intent

Schenck greatlydeterminedhow“free”freespeechis.CharlesSchenckwaschargedwith conspiracytoviolatetheEspionageActafterencouragingotherstodefythedraftonthegrounds ofitviolatingtheThirteenthAmendment.Schenckappealedhisconviction,citingitimpededhis FirstAmendmentRights.Inaunanimousdecision,theJusticesagreedthat“ifspeechisintended toresultinacrime,andthereisaclearandpresentdangerthatitactuallywillresultinacrime, theFirstAmendmentdoesnotprotectthespeakerfromgovernmentaction.”89 Furthermore,it wasinthisdecisionthatJusticeOliverWendellHolmesnotoriously“[articulated]...the‘clearand present’dangertest,’”declaringonecannotshout“Fire!”inacrowdedtheaterandstillbe protectedunderthesafeguardsoftheFirstAmendment.90

TheFirstAmendmentwasyetagaintestedandevaluatedinthecontextof Brandenburg

v Ohio Aftergivingaspeechthaturgedlistenerstoexecuteviolenceagainstpoliticalauthorities who“continuetosuppressthewhite,Caucasianrace,”KuKluxKlanleaderClarence

Brandenburgwasconvictedofadvocatingfor“crime,sabotage,violence,[and]unlawful methodsofterrorism”toachievepoliticalreformunderOhiostatelaw.Hewasfined$1,000and sentencedtouptotenyearsinprison.

91 However,theUnitedStatesSupremeCourtreversed Brandenburg’sconvictionandoverturnedthisOhiostatelaw,unanimouslyrulingtheKlan’s leaderwaswithinhisFirstAmendmentrightsoffreespeech.Subsequently,theCourtdrewa distinctionbetweenhatefulspeechandincitement,stating,“Astatemaynotforbidspeech advocatingtheuseofforceorunlawfulconductunlessthisadvocacyisdirectedtoincitingor producingimminentlawlessactionandislikelytoinciteorproducesuchaction.”92

89 “Schenckv UnitedStates,249US 47(1919)” Justia Law,supremejustiacom/cases/federal/us/249/47/

90 “Schenckv UnitedStates” Oyez,wwwoyezorg/cases/1900-1940/249us47

91 “Brandenburgv Ohio(1969)” National Constitution Center – ConstitutioncenterOrg, constitutioncenter.org/the-constitution/supreme-court-case-library/brandenburg-v-ohio.

92 “Brandenburgv Ohio,395US 444(1969)” Justia Law,supremejustiacom/cases/federal/us/395/444/

93

Inanotherpivotalruling,thehighestcourtfurtherrefinedthesafeguardsofferedbythe FirstAmendmentin Texas v. Johnson.ThislandmarkdecisionstemmedfromGregoryLee Johnson’spetitionoftheCourtafterbeingconvictedofviolatingTexaslawforsettingan Americanflagonfire.TheSupremeCourtevaluatedthiscase,determiningwhethertheburning oftheflagconstituted“symbolicspeech”notmeanttoinciteviolence.Ina5-4majority,the CourtruledinfavorofJohnson,statingflagburningis“symbolicspeech”thatisprotectedbythe FirstAmendmentsinceitcausesnoharmtoothers.

Additionally, Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire showcasedamajordefiningmomentinthe historyofFirstAmendmentinterpretation.ThecaseinvolvedWalterChaplinsky,aJehovah’s witness,whowastargetingotherformsofreligion,callingthetownmarshal“aGod-damned racketeer”and“adamnedFascist.”94 Afterbeingconvictedforintentionallybeingoffensiveand derisiveinapublicarena,Chaplinskyappealed,citingFirstAmendmentviolationsand excessivelyvaguelanguage.Inthisgroundbreaking,unanimousruling,theCourtupheld Chaplinsky’sconviction,statingcertainexceptionstotheFirstAmendment,like“fighting words.”TheCourtfoundthatChaplisnky’swordsfellunderthe“fightingwords”classification, asthey“[inherentlycaused]harmor[were]likelytoresultinanimmediatedisturbance.”

95

WhiletheSupremeCourtoftheUnitedStateshasanalyzedtheFirstAmendmentina multitudeofdifferentcontexts,theprinciplesunderlyingitsdecisionsremainsimilar TheCourt willmaintainthefreedomsguaranteedandprotectedbytheFirstAmendment;however,one’s righttofreespeechandthoughtcannotimpedeanyoneelse’srights,includingtheirrightto expressionorrighttolive.Thus,wordsoractionsdesignedandexecutedtoinciteharmand

93 “FactsandCaseSummary-Texasv Johnson” United States Courts, wwwuscourtsgov/educational-resources/educational-activities/facts-and-case-summary-texas-v-johnson

94 “Chaplinskyv.NewHampshire.” Oyez,www.oyez.org/cases/1940-1955/315us568.

95 “Chaplinskyv NewHampshire,315US 568(1942)” Justia Law,supremejustiacom/cases/federal/us/315/568/

violencearedeemedillegal.Whileonemightwanttoblissfullyassumetheycansayordo anythingtheywantandstillenjoyalloftheprotectionsgrantedbytheFirstAmendment,they mustremembertheboundariesofthisamendmentwhenitcomestointerferingwiththeliberties ofothers.

H. The Aftermath of January 6, 2021

Despiteoccurringmorethantwoyearsago,theJanuary6insurrectionisstillpertinentin politicalandlegalnews,asover1,000riotershavebeenarrestedandchargedfortheir involvement,withtheFederalBureauofInvestigationbelievingtherearemorethan250 insurrectionistsyettobepunishedfortheircrimes.Theviolentprotestersarrestedinconnection withtheCapitolriothavefacedvariouschargeslikeobstructionofdemocraticproceedingto assault.96

WhilesomeRepublicansandTrumployalistssubscribetothenotionthatthemob consistedof“patriots”andprotectorsofdemocracy,theDepartmentofJusticehashadsuccessin prosecutingtheperpetratorsbecauseofthecurrentprecedentsthathaveformedthemodernFirst Amendment.97 Thoughexercisingtheirrighttofreedomofexpressionandshowingtheirdistaste fortheactionsoftheirgovernment,theriotersturnedtoviolencetodisplaytheirfrustration; therefore,causingdangertoothersisneverprotectedbyU.S.law

Furthermore,aselectcommitteeintheHouseofRepresentativeswastaskedwith investigatingtheincidentsonJanuary6,2021.TheJanuary6Committeewasinstructedto understandhowandwhytheinsurrectionoccurred,specificallydocumentingformerPresident Trump’srole.Thebi-partisantaskforceidentifiedTrumpasplayingacriticalpartinthe

96 Popli,Nik,andJuliaZorthian “Jan 6CapitolRiotersArrestsandSentencessoFar” Time,Time,8Mar 2023, https://timecom/6133336/jan-6-capitol-riot-arrests-sentences/

97 “CapitolRiotsTimeline:WhatHappenedon6January2021?” BBC News,BBC,9June2022, https://wwwbbccom/news/world-us-canada-56004916

instigationandcontinuationoftheviolentprotest.Consequently,theCommittee’sinvestigation producedevidencethatthethen-Presidentactedknowinglyandintentionallywhentryingto “overturnthe2020Election,”andthegroup“[recommended]barringformerPresidentDonald Trumpfromholdingofficeagain.”98

AlthoughtheHouseCommitteeprovidedtheserecommendations,thefutureofthe formerPresidentliesinthehandsoftheDepartmentofJustice.TheJanuary6Committee suggestedtherewasenoughevidencetochargeTrumpwithcriminalconspiracy,convictionsthe DepartmentofJusticehasyettomake.99 However,theJusticeDepartmenthasstateditwillallow forlawsuitstobebroughtagainsttheformerheadoftheExecutiveBranchbyCapitolofficers andlawmakersforhisactionsinrelationtoJanuary6,despitehisclaimsthatheisimmunefrom allpunitivemeasures.100

Asthelegalconsequencesoftheinsurrectioncontinuetounfold,Trumphasofficially announcedhiscandidacyinthePresidentialElectionof2024.101 Thispresidentialbidhasbeen unsurprisinglycontroversial.TrumpsupportingRepublicansareoverjoyedbyTrump’s “long-[awaited]returntothecampaigntrail.”However,otherRepublicansarefearfulofhowthe candidatecouldnegativelyimpacttheRepublicanPartyafterdisappointingresultsfor Republicansinthe2022midtermelections.102

Thecourtofpublicopinionhasyettodefinitivelyruleonitsthoughtsforthelatest Republicanpresidentialcandidate.However,theconsensussurroundingtheformerpresident’s

98 Cohen,Zachary,etal “January6CommitteeReleasesFinalReport,SaysTrumpShouldBeBarredfromOffice| CNNPolitics.” CNN,23Dec.2022,www.cnn.com/2022/12/22/politics/jan-6-committee-final-report/index.html.

99 Broadwater,Luke,andAlanFeuer “Jan 6CommitteeLaysoutPotentialCriminalChargesagainstTrump” The New York Times,3Mar 2022,wwwnytimescom/2022/03/02/us/politics/trump-criminal-charges-jan-6html

100 Tucker,Eric “TrumpCanBeSuedforJan 6RiotHarm,JusticeDept Says” AP NEWS,3Mar 2023, apnewscom/article/trump-jan-6-capitol-police-congress-immunity-d18d0c6369837c725578cf6e13c18883

101 Inskeep,Steve,andDanielleKurtzleben “DonaldTrumpIsOfficiallyRunningforPresidentin2024” NPR,16 Nov 2022,wwwnprorg/2022/11/16/1137076815/donald-trump-is-officially-running-for-president-in-2024

102 Gunia,Amy.“RepublicansReacttoTrump’s2024WhiteHouseBid.” Time,16Nov.2022, timecom/6234301/trump-2024-announcement-republican-reactions/

roleintheinsurrectionisglaring.Whilemorethan90percentofDemocratsblameTrumpforthe Capitolriotandamajorityofindependentsagreewiththisdetermination,roughly25percentof Republicanshavereachedthisconclusion.Aboutfourinfiveconservativesdonotbelieve Trumpplayedacrucialpartintheviolenceandincitementofthemob.

103 Thisclearpartisan divideisindicativeofhowAmericansviewmanypoliticalactsinthetensesocialclimate. DespitebeingtwoyearsremovedfromtheJanuary6insurrection,thereisstillalackofclarity andblameplacedonthemainagentsresponsible.

Conclusion

ThoughUnitedStatescitizensmightbelievetheCapitolriotersshouldbeimmunefrom legalconsequencesbecauseoftheextensiveprotectionsofferedbytheFirstAmendment,thelaw clearlydelineatesthedifferencebetweenfreespeechandincitement,withthelatterbeing punishableinafederalcourtoflaw.TheCenterforAmericanProgressiscallingontheJustice DepartmenttocontinuetoholdTrumpandhisfollowerswhoexecutedtheriotresponsiblefor theirunlawfulandundemocraticbehaviorattheCapitol.Theybelievethat“withoutfull accountabilityfortheeventssurroundingtheunconstitutionalplottooverturnthe2020 PresidentialElection,U.S.democracyremainsundersubstantialthreat.”

104 Americapridesitself onitsunwaveringdemocracy,andonJanuary6,2021,theworldwatchedthisdemocracyfalter Ifsocietyfailstolearnfromthisinsurrection,historycouldrepeatitself,andthefutureofthe UnitedStatesgovernmenthangsinthebalance.

103 Santhanam,Laura “NewPollAsksAmericansWhetherTrumpShouldFaceCharges,TopMidtermPriorities” PBS,21July2022, wwwpbsorg/newshour/politics/poll-trump-should-be-charged-for-jan-6-about-half-of-americans-say#: :text=While %20a%20majority%20of%20Americans,one%20in%20five%20Republicans%20agree

104 Sozan,Michael,andWilliamRoberts “TrumpandHisAlliesMustBeHeldAccountablefortheJanuary6 Insurrection.” Center for American Progress,24Apr.2023, wwwamericanprogressorg/article/trump-and-his-allies-must-be-held-accountable-for-the-january-6-insurrection/

THEBASISTOEVIDENCE HAILEYCHOI|RUTGERS-NEWBRUNSWICK

Introduction A. The Fourth Amendment Forcenturies,theFourthAmendmenthasundergonedebateconcerningthepremiseofprobable causeandreasonablesuspicion.Theamendmentprotectscitizens“...againstunreasonable searchesandseizures,shallnotbeviolated,andnoWarrantsshallissue,butuponprobable cause,supportedbyOathoraffirmation,andparticularlydescribingtheplacetobesearched, andthepersonsorthingstobeseized.”

105Reasonablesuspicion,firstestablishedincriminal procedure,isagaugeforthelegalityconcerninganofficer’sabilitytosearch.106Ontheother hand,probablecauserequiresawarrantbeforemakinganarrestandusuallyundergoesjudicial determination.

SomeofthefirstexamplesofreasonablesuspiciondatebacktoTerryv Ohio,which establishedthatifanindividualthatmaypossessaweaponposesathreattoapoliceofficer,the officerisentitledtosearchtheindividual.

107 Theterm“stopandfrisk”cametolightafterthe courtcasewasenacted.108 Searchandseizurehavebeenfrequentlydisputedoverthepastfew centuries,raisingthequestionofthepossiblescopeoftherighttosearchanindividualwithouta warrant.

AstheamendmentgoesforallcitizensoftheUnitedStates,ageisnotalimitingfactor forsearches.ThesettingtowhichtheFourthAmendmentappliesnotonlytotheoutsidesetting

105 “FourthAmendment:HistoricalBackground”LegalInformationInstitute,LegalInformationInstitute, https://wwwlawcornelledu/constitution-conan/amendment-4/fourth-amendment-historical-background

106 “ReasonableSuspicion.”LegalInformationInstitute,LegalInformationInstitute, https://wwwlawcornelledu/wex/reasonable suspicion

107 “Terryv Ohio,392US 1(1968)”JustiaLaw,https://supremejustiacom/cases/federal/us/392/1/

108 “GeofenceWarrantsandtheFourthAmendment.”HarvardLawReview,3Apr.2023, https://harvardlawrevieworg/2021/05/geofence-warrants-and-the-fourth-amendment/

butalsowithinschoolgrounds.Therefore,whetherstudentscanbesearchedandunderwhich premisesorcircumstancesitcanturnunreasonablearises.Manycourtcasestouchuponthis subject,includingdrugtesting,stripsearches,andanonymoustips.Thebreachofprivacyand therightsofanindividualhasthepotentialtobeinfringeduponbythesesearches.However,the safetyofthegeneralpublicistakenintoconsideration.AlthoughtheFourthAmendmenthas impactedsocietyinitsendeavorstoutilizeprobablecauseorreasonablesuspicionandcontinues toundergoquestioningfromthepublic,thereareholeswithintheregulationthatcontinueto growamidstsociety.

TheCorrelationandDetrimentstoSociety

B. Applied School Setting

TheFourthAmendmentespeciallyhasreal-worldimplicationsforschoolsacrossthe UnitedStates.Forexample,whenstudentsarepresentwithinaschoolsetting,schoolsareheld responsibleforthemandareundertheguiseofaguardian,otherwiseknownas“inloco parentis,”meaninginplaceofaparent.

109 Schoolsthentakeonlegalresponsibilityforstudents whiletheyareintheenvironment,meaningtheycanhandlecasesofreasonablesuspicionand probablecause.

Grantingschoolstheabilitytosearchandinspectstudentscanbreachprivacy.However, therearesafetymeasuresthatalsomustbetakeninordertoensureasecureenvironment.The questionboilsdowntowhatextentschoolsshouldbegrantedauthorityoverstudents—as randomsearchescouldbedetrimentaltothosebeingsearchediftheyareproclaimedinnocent.

Inaddition,searchescanbeinvasive;drugtestsorevenstripsearchescouldleadtoheightened

109 StrippingdowntheReasonablenessStandard:The...-HofstraUniversity. https://scholarlycommonslawhofstraedu/cgi/viewcontentcgi?article=1764&context=hlr

distrustwithintheconceptandscopeof“inlocoparentis.”

Regardingsearchesinaneducationalenvironment,inthecaseofSaffordv.Redding, thirteen-year-oldSavanaReddingwassubjecttoastripsearchbyschoolofficialsaftertheyhad foundprescriptiondrugsthatwereagainstschoolrulesandregulations.Theschoolofficials continuedinterrogatingRedding,exposingmostofherbodyduetothesearch,butnothingwas discovered.ThecourtdeemedthesearchofSavana’sunderwearviolatedtheFourthAmendment asheraccountofitremained“embarrassing,frightening,andhumiliating.”110 Thevulnerability ofadolescentswiththislevelofintrusivenessisboundtointrudeonthedegreeofprivacylaid outintheFourthAmendment.

Stripsearchescanresultinsevereemotionaldamagetoadolescentsastheyareexposed forasearchbecauseofanaccusationtheywerenotpreviouslyawareof.Whenstudentscannot feelsafeinaschoollearningenvironment,whichshouldbedeemedaplaceofeducationand safety,searcheslikethesehindertheirabilitytofunctionastheyaresubjecttojudgmentatany givenmoment.Forthisreason,manycommunitieshaveheldthatstripsearchesinschools shouldbebannedandthattheyareunjustifiableundertheguiseofreasonablesuspicion. However,theindignityofstripsearchesfailstooutlawit,butthegaugeofreasonableness remainsrecognizable.Reasonablesearchesareexpectedtobewithinthescopeofthe circumstance.InthecaseofSaffordv.Redding,itwasunnecessarytocheckSavana’s underwearasitwasanexcessivelyintrusiveact“...inlightoftheageandsexofthestudentand thenatureoftheinfraction.”111

Anotherformofsearchisdrugtesting,asexemplifiedinthecaseofVernoniav

110 “SaffordUnifiedSchoolDist #1v Redding,557US 364(2009)”JustiaLaw, https://supremejustiacom/cases/federal/us/557/364/

111 “SaffordUnifiedSchoolDist.#1v.Redding,557U.S.364(2009).”JustiaLaw, https://supremejustiacom/cases/federal/us/557/364/

Acton.

DistrictofficialsintheVernoniaschooldistrictproposedaStudentAthleteDrugPolicy programtopreventstudent-athletesfromusingdrugs.Thepolicyappliestoallstudent-athletes whomustsignaconsentformwiththeirparentsforrandomizeddrugtestingatthebeginningof eachseason.Thetestsinvolvedaurinalysisinwhichgirlsandboyswereaccompaniedbyan adultmonitorofthesamesextoensuretheywerevisibleorheardtoprovethatthetestswere notfalsified.JamesActon,aseventhgrader,wasdeniedparticipationinschoolathleticsbecause heandhisparentsrefusedtosigntheconsentformtobetested.AftertheActonfamilyfiledsuit, theUnitedStatesCourtofAppealsfortheNinthCircuitheldthatthepolicyviolatedtheFourth Amendmentandlacked“reasonableness.”

112 Onceagain,therecurringthemeisabreachof privacybroughtuponstudentsduetoviolationsoftheFourthAmendmentonsearchandseizure protocol.

Anonymoustipsareawidelyknownformofsearch,andinthecaseoftheStateofNew Hampshirev Drake,thetopicconcernsasafeschoolenvironment.KirklandRoss,an administrativeassistanttotheprincipal,receivedananonymoustipviaphonecallconcerning Drake,aseniorinhighschool,sayingthathewouldcometoschoolcarryingillegalobjects consideredharmful.TeachershadexpressedconcernaboutDrakeinthepastandthattherewasa possibilitythatDrakehadbeenusinganddistributingdrugs.Rossquicklynotifiedtheprincipal, requestingDraketocomeintohisofficeandemptyhispocketsandbackpack.Therehe discoveredcigarettes,marijuana,LSD,andanunloadedsemi-automaticpistol.Inthiscase,the searchwasreasonableunderallthecircumstances,andthedefendant'smotiontosuppresswas denied.113

112 Scalia “VernoniaSch Dist 47Jv Acton,515US 646(1995)”LegalInformationInstitute,LegalInformation Institute,26June1995,https://wwwlawcornelledu/supct/html/94-590ZOhtml

113 “Statev.Drake,139N.H.662:N.H.,Judgment,Law,Casemine.com.”Https://Www.casemine.com, https://wwwcaseminecom/judgement/us/5914bd5fadd7b049347a204c

Administratorsmusttakepreventativeanddisciplinarymeasures,andDrake’s possessionsdidindeedposethethreatofimmediatephysicalharmtootherstudentsashehada firearmanddrugsthatcouldheavilyinfluencewrongfulactions.Swiftnessandefficacyaretwo keycomponentswhendealingwithsearchandseizure,asevidencecanbeeasilydestroyedor disposedof,whichiswhyasearchdelaycouldbehighlydetrimentaltoeveryoneinthe surroundingenvironment.114 Schoolofficialsmusttakediscretionasschoolsettingsplacethem inchargeofthechildrenandtheenvironmentwheretheystudy,eat,andplay.Incaseswhere eminentdangerinfringesupontheschoolenvironment,reasonablesuspicionisarguablythe safestdecisionforsearchandseizure.

Withasurgeintheusageoftechnology,theissueofonlineprivacyisalsosubjecttothe questionofwhetherornotitshouldberegulated,andinthecaseofG.C.v.OwensboroPublic Schools,G.C.,ahighschoolstudentcarriedarecordofdisciplinaryinfringementssuchasusing profanitywithintheclass,leavingschoolgrounds,beingconsistentlytardy,andfighting.In addition,itwasknowntoschoolofficialsthatheuseddrugsandsufferedfromangerand depression.G.C.violatedtheschoolcellphonepolicy,whichprohibitstextinginclass,andthe teacherconfiscatedhisphoneandhandeditovertotheassistantprincipal.Theassistant principalreadG.C.’stextmessages,justifyingtheiractionbystatingtheyweresimplychecking toseewhatG.C.wasgoingthroughandifhewasplanningtoharmhimselforothers.115 Eventually,histextmessagesresultedintheeventualexpulsionofG.C.fromschool.He eventuallyfiledsuit,statingthatthesearchofhisphoneviolatedhisconstitutionalrightsasthe assistantprincipaldidnotpossessreasonablesuspicionatthetimeofthesearch.

114 “Statev.Drake,139N.H.662:N.H.,Judgment,Law,Casemine.com.”Https://Www.casemine.com, https://wwwcaseminecom/judgement/us/5914bd5fadd7b049347a204c

115 Clavin.“FouronFourth:FourCasesThatImpacttheFourthAmendment(Search&Seizure)inSchools.” BRCSM,3Aug 2022, https://wwwbrcsmcom/four-fourth-four-cases-impact-fourth-amendment-search-seizure-schools/

Thecourtsstatethatstudentshaveareasonableexpectationofprivacywithinthe groundsofcontentsonacellphone,andschooladministratorsmusthaveaspecificbasisfor examiningitscontent.Whilethesearchwasreasonablewhentheschoolhadinformationabout G.C.’sintentiontoharmhimself,thesearchonthesecondoccasionwasunjustifiedashisphone wasconfiscatedbecauseheviolatedschoolrules.

116 Intheend,theevidenceforsearchingG.C. 'sphonewasinsufficientatthetimeofthesearchasitscontentwasirrelevanttothe circumstances.Ultimately,thisdecisionimpactsfutureprecedentforcourtstobemore consciousaboutstudents’constitutionalrights.Inaddition,thedecisiontolimitschool administrators’discretiontopartakeinsearcheswherethereisnoimminentthreattothesafety oftheschoolenvironmentdemonstratestheemphasisonprivacyprotectionswithintheFourth Amendment.

C. General Settings

TheFourthAmendmentappliestostopandfrisksandanonymoustipsoutsideofschool settings.InthecaseofTerryv.Ohio,thecourtheldthat“...apoliceofficermaystopasuspecton thestreetandfriskhimorherwithoutprobablecausetoarrestifthepoliceofficerhasa reasonablesuspicionthatthepersonhascommitted,iscommitting,orisabouttocommita crimeandhasareasonablebeliefthattheperson‘maybearmedandpresentlydangerous.’”

117 SimilartothecaseoftheStateofNewHampshirev Drake,ifdangerisimminenttothoseinthe sameenvironment,itisparamounttotakeactionbeforeitistoolate.Itcouldbecomean irreversibleissuewithsevereconsequences,soreasonablesuspicioniswell-justified.

116 Clavin.“FouronFourth:FourCasesThatImpacttheFourthAmendment(Search&Seizure)inSchools.” BRCSM,3Aug 2022, https://wwwbrcsmcom/four-fourth-four-cases-impact-fourth-amendment-search-seizure-schools /

117 “ProbableCausevs ReasonableSuspicion”DavidAWebster,18Aug 2022, https://thewebsterlawofficecom/2021/06/probable-cause-vs-reasonable-suspicion/

However,inthecaseofFloridav.J.L.,anonymoustipsarefoundtonotbeprevalent withintheFourthAmendment.AnanonymouscallerreportedtotheMiami-DadePolicethata youngblackmalewasstandingbyaparticularbusstopinpossessionofagun.Whenthe officerswenttothebusstopanddidnotobserveanysuspiciousactivityfromthepotential suspectapartfromthetip,despitethisfact,oneoftheofficersfriskedJ.L.andseizedagunfrom hispocket.J.L.,agefifteen,wasthenchargedunderstatelawforunderagepossessionofa concealedfirearmwithoutalicense.118 TheSupremeCourteventuallyheldthesearchinvalid undertheFourthAmendment.ATerrystopcannotbeconductedifthereisnoreliable reasonablesuspicionbesidesatipstatinganindividualiscarryingagun.

Ontheotherhand,theplainviewdoctrineexplicitlystatesthatofficersareallowed“...to seizeevidenceofacrimewithoutawarrantwhentheevidenceisvisible.”119 Servingasan exceptiontotheFourthAmendment,thisruleofcriminalproceduremakesitsothatofficers possessmorerightstosearchastheyhavealimitedbasistosearchwithinconstitutionalgrounds ofprotection.Theabilitytoperformasearchandseizurebasedonvisibilityensuresthe protectionofthosewithintheenvironment.Itisjustifiedasanypossessionthatmayservethe purposeofacrimeshouldbesearchedandfurtherexamined.Whileanonymoustipsdonotstand wellincourt,othermeansofreasonablesuspicionbasedontheplainviewdoctrinetieintothe notionofstopandfrisk.

Forfurtherclarification,forprobablecausetooccur,theprocessisprolongedasapolice officerorotherofficialseekingawarrantwouldhavetogotoajudgeandmakeanoathtotheir case.Inaddition,searchwarrantsareinvalidiftheareaofconcernistoobroadandwarrantsare

118

notconductedatnight.Accordingtofederallaw,itshouldoccurbetween6:00amand10:00pm unlessthereareexceptionalcircumstances.120

Officersmustalsofollowtheknock-and-announcerule,awaittimebeforeforcedentry. Thelimitationsofthesearchremainonthewarrant,andofficerscannotgobeyondthewarrant’s scope.Theprocesscanbeextendedortediousastheofficermustbringhimselftoajudge, affirmhiscase,andwaitforagranttosearch.121 Eveniftheofficergrantsawarrant,the confinedboundsareclearlydefined,sothereareambiguousareasconnectedtosearchwarrants.

Legallyspeaking,officerscanonlygowithinthescopeofthesearchwarrantissuedbythe judge.

QualifiedImmunity

D. Definition

Qualifiedimmunityprotectsgovernmentofficialsfromindividualcivilliabilitywhere theirconductfailstoviolateestablishedstatutoryorconstitutionalrightsthatareasonable personwouldhaveacknowledged.Essentially,qualifiedimmunitypreventsgovernmentofficials frombeingsuedasittypicallygrantsthemthebenefitofthedoubtregardingsearchand seizure.122 However,qualifiedimmunityalsoholdsthepowertoholdpublicofficials accountablewhennecessary,suchaswhentheyabusetheirpowerinsomeshapeorform. Immunityappliestosuitsagainstgovernmentofficialsasindividuals.

E. Controversy

120 “TheSearchWarrantRequirementinCriminalInvestigations”Justia,13Apr 2023, https://www.justia.com/criminal/procedure/warrant-requirement/.

121 “SearchWarrant”LegalInformationInstitute,LegalInformationInstitute, https://wwwlawcornelledu/wex/search warrant

122 FourthAmendmentSearchandSeizure,QualifiedImmunityandthe...-Aele. https://aeleorg/law/2012all06/2012-06MLJ501pdf

Sincequalifiedimmunitylimitsthescopeinwhichgovernmentofficialscanbesubject tolawsuits,officialsoftendonothavetogothroughthecostsofatrial.Thegeneralpublicsees thisasathreatasofficialsmightfeelmoreentitledtotheirauthority Asofficialsaregranted moreleewayinthesecircumstances,publicinterestsleanawayfromqualifiedimmunity Onthe otherhand,theCourtdoesrequirefederalofficialsthatqualifyforimmunitytoprovethatpublic policyrequiresanexemptionofthescope.Theymustsatisfyatwo-parttestdisplayingtheir position’sresponsibilitiesanddischargefromtheirprotectedfunction.123

Toexpandonqualifiedimmunity,thecaseofMalleyv.Briggsestablishedthatimmunity doesnotapplytoofficerswhentheywrongfullyarrestsomeonebasedonawarrant.Afaulty warrantwouldprohibitofficersfromactingonqualifiedimmunity,whichdiminishesthe controversyandunderminestheauthoritywithwhichofficerscanexerttheirpowertosearch.In addition,theSupremeCourtheldthatifofficerscouldnotreasonablybelievethebasisfor probablecauseforaparticularwarrant,theywouldnotbeentitledtoqualifiedimmunity 124This wouldfurtherprovethatqualifiedimmunityisnotalwaysapplicable,althoughanofficermay possessprobablecauseorawarrant.

TheStatusQuo

F Current State of the Supreme Court

TheshiftinSupremeCourtjusticescouldalterthecourseofprivacyprotectionasthe lawconstantlycatchesuptotechnology DifferingviewpointsintheSupremeCourtcouldvastly adjustthescopeoftheFourthAmendmentprotectionsdependingonthetechnology’simpacton governmentpower Technologymakestheissueofprivacymattersmorecomplicatedasitis

123 FourthAmendmentSearchandSeizure,QualifiedImmunityandthe -Aele https://aeleorg/law/2012all06/2012-06MLJ501pdf

124 “QualifiedImmunity.”LegalInformationInstitute,LegalInformationInstitute, https://wwwlawcornelledu/wex/qualified immunity

ever-evolving,andadjustmentsmustbemadetokeepupwithmoderntimesconstantly.125 The courtstillrefusestooverturnqualifiedimmunityandhasremainedrelativelysilentonFourth Amendmentcases.Eventually,thecourtisboundtodecideonotherdecisionsconcerning privatesearches,computerwarrants,andmoreadvancementsthatdealwithtechnology However,theseallfallintotheprivacyissueandinfringeoncitizens’righttotheFourth Amendment.Asmorepredicamentsariseduetothestateofthecurrentlegalsysteminthecourt, newdecisionsneedtobemadetoregulatetheagendaforthegeneralpublic.Settingmore precedentswillacknowledgeuniquecircumstancesandgivemoreperspectiveonhowcases shouldbeapproachedwithinthisage.Holeswithinqualifiedimmunityandprivacysearchesare stillaworkinprogress.However,previouscasesdemonstratetheimportanceofthebalance betweenensuringsafetyforthepublicandthepeoplebeingsearched.

Conclusion

ThevastapplicationoftheFourthAmendmentfromschoolgroundstoexternal environmentstovirtuallandscapesmakestheissueofprivacyandsearchesgroundbreaking.

Whilesomeaspectsjustifysearches,thereareplentyofcircumstancesinwhich theyintrudeonthequalityoflifeofindividuals.Reform,especiallyafter-deathcases,mustbe consideredwithintheFourthAmendment.AstheFourthAmendmentservesprominencefrom unreasonablesearchesineverydaylife,itisacriticalprotectionthatshouldbeinherent.Rather thanhavingtheamendmentfocusonthecircumstanceofthevictims,itisvitaltorecognizethat theissuelieswithintheactionsofthoseconductingthesearches.

126 Byexpandingthemeaning

125 “CouldBetterTechnologyLeadtoStronger4thAmendmentPrivacyProtections?”BrennanCenterforJustice, 25Apr.2023, https://wwwbrennancenterorg/our-work/analysis-opinion/could-better-technology-lead-stronger-4th-amendment-pr ivacy-protections

126 “AReformandRevolutiontoFourthAmendmentJurisprudence.”HarvardCivilRights-CivilLibertiesLaw Review,https://harvardcrclorg/a-reform-and-revolution-to-fourth-amendment-jurisprudence/

behindsearches,policewouldbelesspronetocommittingprivacyviolationswithoutthe guidanceofprobablecause.Instead,athoroughinvestigationwouldoccur,andtheFourth Amendmentcanpersistsuccessfullyinthedigitalage.

Existingjurisprudenceenablespolicetosearchforinvestigatoryinformationwithouta warrant,andwithtechnologybecominganever-growingissue,predicamentsconcerningunjust intrusionsworsen.Asitappliestoall,thescopeisextensive,andtheissueofformsofsearches andqualifiedimmunitymakesitsothatmoredebatearisesonthesubjectarea.Theinfringement onthesesearchesisbasedonthepublic’ssafetyandprivacy,bothprotectedundertheFourth Amendment.Thereby,probablecauseandreasonablesuspicionareinvolvedintheefficacyof searchandseizuresregardingwhatisorisnotreasonableundercertaincircumstances.Allinall, theFourthAmendmentisconstantlyunderreformbasedonpastprecedentandfuture considerations.

GUNVIOLENCEINAMERICA:AMAJORPUBLICHEALTHCRISIS

MANSIDESAI|RUTGERS-NEWBRUNSWICK

Introduction

A. What is Gun Violence?

HundredsofthousandsofAmericanslosetheirlivestogunviolenceeveryyear.Gun violencecanaffectanyone,butitdisproportionatelyimpactslow-incomecommunities, populationsofcolor,andwomen.127 Gunviolencerestrictshumansfromenjoyingthe fundamentalrighttolife.Manyindividualshaveexpressedhowthemerepresenceofgunshas hinderedthemfromcontinuingdailyactivitiesintheircommunitiesoutoffear.Oneofthe leadingcausesofgunviolencetodayistheeasyaccesstofirearmsintheUnitedStates.While thecountryisresponsibleforprotectingAmericans’SecondAmendmentfreedoms,itisalso responsibleforprotectinghumanrights,hence,theoverwhelmingneedforinterventionto establishasaferenvironmentforallindividuals.

Onaverage,over40,000peopledieyearlyfromgun-relateddeathsintheUnited States.128 Victimsofgunviolencearestakeholdersinthisdebate.Gunshotinjuriesare life-changingastheycanimpactavictim’smentalandphysicalhealth.Manyvictims’injuries fromfirearmconflictshinderthemfromworkingandsupportingthemselves,leavingthem helpless,especiallysincelifelongcareorrehabilitationprogramsarevirtuallynonexistent.129 In thisway,gunrightsproponentsarerobbingmanygunviolencevictimsoftheirfundamental humanrightto“life,liberty,andthepursuitofhappiness,”asstatedintheDeclarationof

127 “GunViolence” Amnesty International,https://wwwamnestyorg/en/what-we-do/arms-control/gun-violence/ Accessed21February2023

128 “Howdoesgunviolenceimpactthecommunitiesyoucareabout?” EveryStat - EveryStat org,July2022, https://everystatorg/ Accessed21February2023

129 “GunViolence.” Amnesty International,https://www.amnesty.org/en/what-we-do/arms-control/gun-violence/. Accessed21February2023

Independence.130 Physicallyunafflictedwitnessesarealsovictimsofgunviolence,aswitnessing suchaseveretragedycansignificantlyaffectanindividual’smentalandemotionalwell-being.

B. Lack of Firearm Regulation in America

GunviolencekillsthousandsofAmericansdaily,yetthefederalgovernmenthasnot implementedfederalregulationsmonitoringit.Thelackofgunregulationinmanystateshasled tonationwidegunviolence.Inparticular,lessregulatedstatesallowpeopletotraffickfirearmsto moreregulatedregionsandprofitfromillegalfirearmtradeoperations.Thelackoffederal backgroundcheckguidelinesmakesitpossibleforsomestatestohavemorelenientbackground checksthanothers.Inturn,backgroundchecksnationwidearenotasstrongastheyshouldbe.If morevigorousbackgroundcheckswereenforcednationwide,firearmhomiciderates,firearm suiciderates,andfirearmtraffickingrateswouldlikelybereduced.Furthermore,theheightened politicalclimatehasincreasedtensionsbetweenconservativeandprogressivelawmakerswho wishtoderegulateandregulateguns,respectively.Despitethestandstill,legislatorscanstilltake action.Stateofficialscanmakemoreofanefforttostrengthengunregulationonthelocallevel soelectedofficialscancreatemorerobustandcohesiveguncontrollegislationonthefederal level.

C. Gun Violence as a Public Health Crisis

Recognizinggunviolenceasapreventablepublichealthcrisisisthefirststepin developingsolutionstoresolveit.Viewingfirearmviolenceasapublichealthcrisisallows lawmakersandexpertstoformulatepotentialsolutionsusingscienceandresearch.Inan

interviewwithProfessorRichardBarnes,anesteemedassociateoftheRutgersGunViolence ResearchCenter,hesuggeststhatthepublichealthapproachrequirescontinuedinvestmentin

researchandstudyingdataonallformsofgunviolencetobetterunderstandvariousriskfactors. Thisgoesbeyondconsideringtheimplicationsofgunaccessandincludesconsideringadditional factorsthatcontributetoahealthycommunity Barnesnotedhow“fundingforgunviolence research,andpreventionandinterventionprograms,isnoteasytosecure,sohaving evidence-basedsolutionsthatsupportcommonsensepolicieswillensureitismoneywell spent.”131 Usingevidence-basedpoliciesandprograms,suchascommunityintervention programsandextremeriskprotectionorderlaws,caneffectivelyhelpreducegunviolencerates inAmerica.132 Accesstoaffordableandqualityhealthcareservicesisanexampleofoneservice thatcouldhelpmediatetheaftereffectsofgunviolence.Throughthis,individualswouldhave accesstolong-termhealthinterventionsthatcanassistwithlong-termpainmanagement, rehabilitation,mentalhealthcare,andothersupportservices.133 Crisishotlinesthatprovide immediateresponseservicesandlong-termsupportareanothersolutionthatwouldaidinthis epidemic.Workingwithindividualcommunitiestoimplementeffectivestrategiestodecrease gunviolencecanbeoneofthebestwaystopreventgunviolenceiflawmakersfailtointervene usinglegislation.

D. A History of Gun Violence

GunviolenceinAmericaisnotanewissue.Extremegunviolencedatesbacktotheearly 2000s.Arguablythemostpertinentexampleofgunviolenceacrossallsettingswasthe

ColumbineMassShootingonApril20,1999.Columbinemarkedthebeginningofmainstream gunviolenceawarenessasschoolsbeganimplementingactiveshooterprotocolsandthenation startedconsideringtheenforcementofguncontrolatthenationalandstatelevel.Columbine

131 Desai,Mansi,andRThurmanBarnes “GunViolenceasaPublicHealthCrisis”Apr 2023

132 “Community-ledPublicSafetyStrategies”EverytownResearch&Policy,15October2020, https://everytownresearchorg/report/community-led-public-safety-strategies/ Accessed2March2023

133 “GunViolence.” Amnesty International,https://www.amnesty.org/en/what-we-do/arms-control/gun-violence/. Accessed21February2023

highlightedthetremendousinfluencementalhealthcouldhaveonanindividual’sabilityor desiretocommitviolence.IntheyearsafterColumbine,therewasaconsiderableincreasein mentalhealthandviolencepreventionprogramsandstrategies.134 Unfortunately,theprotocols andlawsenactedpost-Columbinewerenotstrongenoughtodeterfuturemassshootings. SinceColumbine,366schoolshootingshaveimpactedover338,000students.135 Oneof themostnotableshootingsafterColumbineoccurredatStonemanDouglasHighSchoolin Parkland,FloridaonFebruary14,2018.TheParklandshootingsparkedasocialjustice revolutionamongmanystudents,encouragingGenerationZtotakeastandagainstgunviolence andbringattentiontotheneedformorerobustguncontrolthroughtheMarchForOurLives movement.136 Despiteenactingseveralgunviolencesafetylawsinschools,thenumberofschool shootingsisstillontherise.Schoolshootingsareoneofthemanyconsequencesoflenientgun controllawsinAmerica.

E. The Second Amendment

TheSecondAmendmentoftheConstitutionisthelawthatgrantsAmericanstherightto ownfirearms;however,thevagueandoftenmisinterpretedphrasinghasallowedpeopleand legislatorstointerpretthelawinwaysthatalignwiththeirownmoralandpoliticalvalues.The Amendmentsays,“Awell-regulatedMilitia,beingnecessarytothesecurityofafreeState,the rightofthepeopletokeepandbearArms,shallnotbeinfringed.”137 Simplyput,theSecond AmendmentgrantsAmericancitizenstheindividualrighttoarmthemselvesandusefirearms, withminimalinterferencefromthegovernment,dependingonthestate.Theframersincluded

134 Guzman,Nicole ABriefHistoryofColumbineandItsEffect UniversityofColoradoDenver,Denver,Colorado, USA,https://clasucdenveredu/nhdc/sites/default/files/attached-files/entry 434pdf Accessed21February2023

135 Cox,JohnW,etal “Therehavebeen366schoolshootingssinceColumbine” The Washington Post,14February 2023,https://wwwwashingtonpostcom/education/interactive/school-shootings-database/ Accessed21February 2023

136 “Mission&Story”MarchForOurLives,https://marchforourlivescom/mission-story/ Accessed7April2023

137 “ConstitutionoftheUnitedStates.” Senate gov, https://wwwsenategov/civics/constitution item/constitutionhtm Accessed15February2023

thisamendmentasawayforAmericanstoprotectthemselvesinthepost-RevolutionaryWarera. Itisimplausiblethattheframerscouldhaveforeseenthecurrentclimatepertainingtogunrights. Monumentalcaseslike District of Columbia v Heller (2008) and McDonald v Chicago (2010) havefurtherexaminedthisrightandattemptedtoexplainthefullscopeofthefreedomsoffered bytheAmendment.Throughjudicialreview,theSupremeCourthascometorecognizethe SecondAmendmentasaself-defenseright,makingitmorechallengingforCongresstoregulate gunstoday.138 Manystatelegislatureshavemisinterpretedandtakenadvantageofthis “self-defenseright”bycodifyingprincipleslikethe“castledoctrine,”whichallowsindividuals tousereasonableforce,includingdeadlyforce,toprotectthemselvesagainstanintruderintheir home.139

ThecurrentSupremeCourthasboldlyexpresseditssupportforlessrestrictivegunlaws.

InlightoftherecentrulinginNewYork,theNationalRifleAssociation(NRA),alongwith RepublicansbackedbytheNRA,arethrilledbytheSupremeCourt’sdecisiontonotinfringeon anindividual’s“guaranteed”righttobeararms,asconservativethinkersfrequentlypreferaless restrictivecentralgovernmentthatfavorstherightsoftheindividual.140 WayneLaPierre,the ExecutiveVicePresidentoftheNRA,viewedtherulingasanactof“life-savingjustice”that wouldprotectmanylaw-abidingAmericans.Hebelievesthedecisionwillbemostimpactfulfor Americanswholiveinstateswith“revolvingdoorcriminaljusticesystems,nocashbail,and

138 “TheSupremeCourt&theSecondAmendment” Giffords, https://giffordsorg/lawcenter/gun-laws/second-amendment/the-supreme-court-the-second-amendment/ Accessed15 March2023

139 “SummarySelfDefenseand“StandYourGround”” National Conference of State Legislatures,9February2022, https://wwwncslorg/civil-and-criminal-justice/self-defense-and-stand-your-ground Accessed15February2023

140 McCarthy,Justin.“MajorityinU.S.PreferStateOverFederalGovernmentPower.” Gallup News,11July2016, https://newsgallupcom/poll/193595/majority-prefer-state-federal-government-poweraspx Accessed7April2023

F Guns and the Supreme Court

increasedoppositiontolawenforcement.”

142

141 Ontheotherhand,manyNewYorkers,likelocal healthcareprofessionals,districtattorneys,andstatesenators,worrythatthisprecedent compromisesthesafetyoftheircommunitiesandhindersthestatefromcreatinglawsthatwould protectotherNewYorkersfromgunviolence.

G. What Is Being Done

Fordecades,thegunviolenceepidemichasplaguedtheUnitedStatesinunimaginable ways.Thehighlypartisanissueofguncontrolhasmadelegislationflimsyandlenient,especially underaveryconservativeSupremeCourt.PresidentBiden’sadministrationhastakenthefirst stepbyworkingtopassmorevitalguncontrollegislation,liketheBipartisanSaferCommunities Act,butitdoesn’tstopthere.Significantfirearmlegislationmustcontinuetobeimplementedto protectthesafetyofAmericansnowandinthefuture.

Background

A. Gun Violence By The Numbers

Gunviolenceistheleadingcauseofdeathamongpeopleagesonetonineteen.

144

143 Asof March13,2023,therehavebeen109massshootingsand3,558non-suicidegunviolencedeaths thisyear Furthermore,6,224peoplehavebeeninjuredduetofirearm-relatedviolencethis year

Comparedtootherdevelopednations,theUnitedStateshasoneofthehighest

141 “NYGunLaw:Leaders,NRA,PublicReacttoSCOTUSOverturningConcealedCarryLaw”NBCNewYork, 23June2022,

https://wwwnbcnewyorkcom/news/local/hochul-blasts-outrageous-scotus-decision-on-nys-gun-permit-law-heres-w hat-local-leaders-say/3746435/.Accessed22February2023.

142 “NYGunLaw:Leaders,NRA,PublicReacttoSCOTUSOverturningConcealedCarryLaw”NBCNewYork, 23June2022,

https://wwwnbcnewyorkcom/news/local/hochul-blasts-outrageous-scotus-decision-on-nys-gun-permit-law-heres-w hat-local-leaders-say/3746435/ Accessed22February2023

143Goldstick,JasonE,etal “CurrentsCausesofDeathinChildrenandAdolescentsintheUnitedStates”TheNew EnglandJournalofMedicine,vol 386,no 20,2022,pp 1955-1956, https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/nejmc2201761.

144 Gun Violence Archive,https://wwwgunviolencearchiveorg/ Accessed13March2023

gun-relateddeathrates.

145 AccordingtoastudybytheFederalBureauofInvestigation,active shooterincidentshavebecomemorecommonintheUnitedStatesinrecentyears.In2000,there werethreeactiveshooterincidents.Bycontrast,thatfigureincreasedtofortyby2020.

146 In 2000,justunder29,000peoplediedfromfirearmviolence;by2019,almost40,000peoplehad beenkilled.147

Thetrendingunviolencehasbeenconsistentlyincreasingforyears.Accordingtoa studybyEverytownforGunSafety,anAmericannon-profitorganizationthatadvocatesforgun control,“stateswithstrongergunownershiplawshavelowerratesofgundeaththanstateswith morelaxlaws.”

148 ThisisclearlyshownbyMississippi'slaxlawsandhighgundeathrate. Mississippihasthehighestgundeathrateamongallstates,scoringonlythreepercentongun controllaws,withroughlytwenty-ninegundeathsper100,000residents.Ontheotherhand, Californiahasthestrongestgunlawswithascoreofapproximatelyeighty-fivepercent,with onlyninegundeathsper100,000residents,lowerthanthenationalaverageofaboutfourteen.

149

Thedataclearlyshowsthatstateswithweakergunlawsarepronetogreatergun-relateddeaths andinjuriesthanstateswithstrongergunlaws.Therefore,creatingandenforcingstricterlawsis alegallyacceptableandeffectivesolution,asitallowsAmericanstoexercisetheirSecond

145 Gramlich,John “GundeathsintheUS:10keyquestionsanswered” Pew Research Center,3February2022, https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2022/02/03/what-the-data-says-about-gun-deaths-in-the-u-s/.Accessed13 March2023

146 Gramlich,John.“GundeathsintheU.S.:10keyquestionsanswered.” Pew Research Center,3February2022, https://wwwpewresearchorg/fact-tank/2022/02/03/what-the-data-says-about-gun-deaths-in-the-u-s/ Accessed13 March2023.

147 “NumberoffirearmdeathsintheUS 2019” Statista,5October2022, https://www.statista.com/statistics/258913/number-of-firearm-deaths-in-the-united-states/.Accessed13March2023.

148 Tucker,Emma,andPriyaKrishnakumar “Stateswithweakergunlawshavehigherratesoffirearmrelated homicidesandsuicides,studyfinds” CNN,27May2022, https://wwwcnncom/2022/01/20/us/everytown-weak-gun-laws-high-gun-deaths-study/indexhtml Accessed14 March2023

149 Tucker,Emma,andPriyaKrishnakumar “Stateswithweakergunlawshavehigherratesoffirearmrelated homicidesandsuicides,studyfinds” CNN,27May2022, https://www.cnn.com/2022/01/20/us/everytown-weak-gun-laws-high-gun-deaths-study/index.html.Accessed14 March2023

Amendmentrightwhileensuringtheirsafetyaswell.Theaimofmorerobustguncontrolisnot totakegunsawayfromAmericans,buttoensurethatAmericansexercisethisright only when necessary

B. The History of Gun Laws in America

TheNationalFirearmsAct(NFA)of1934wasthecountry’sfirstsignificantpieceofgun controllegislation.Itimposedataxonthemakingandtransferringoffirearms,withaspecial occupationaltaxonthoseinthebusinessofimporting,manufacturing,anddealing.Thelawalso requiredunregisteredfirearmownerstoregistertheirweapons.In1968,Congressamendedthe Act,expandingthedefinitionof“firearm”toinclude“destructivedevices”andbroadeningthe definitionof“machineguns.”Byexpandingthesedefinitions,thegovernmentcouldregulate variousfirearmsundersimilarprovisions.Anunderlyingtargetofthislawwastoreduce ganglandcrimes,asmostoffensescommittedweregang-affiliatedandinvolvedfirearmuse.

150

FouryearsafterestablishingtheNationalFirearmsActof1934,thefederalgovernment passedtheFederalFirearmsAct(FFA)of1938.Thislawrequiredfirearmmanufacturers, importers,andsellerstohaveafederalgunlicenseandmaintainanorganizedrecordofcustomer sales.TheActalsoprohibitedsellingfirearmstocertainclassesofpeople,likeconvicted felons.

151

TheFFAdidnotlastlong,asitwasrepealedwiththepassingoftheGunControlAct of1968,butmanyofitsprovisionsremaininthe1968law.TheGunControlActof1968 combinedtheNFAandFFAbyimposingfederallicensingrequirementsonallfirearms

150 “NationalFirearmsAct|BureauofAlcohol,Tobacco,FirearmsandExplosives”ATF, https://wwwatfgov/rules-and-regulations/national-firearms-act Accessed9March2023

151 “KeyFederalRegulationActs”Giffords, https://giffords.org/lawcenter/gun-laws/policy-areas/other-laws-policies/key-federal-regulation-acts/.Accessed9 March2023

152

manufacturersanddealers,alongwithplacingabanonallinterstatetransportofweaponstoand fromnon-licensedmanufacturers,dealers,sellers,collectors,andimporters.

OnJune25,2022,PresidentBiden'sadministrationenactedthelatestcomponentof UnitedStatesfirearmlegislation.TheBipartisanSaferCommunitiesActof2022wasdesigned toreenacttheAssaultWeaponsBan,initiallyestablishedin1994.Thisrevampedversionofthe lawbansassaultandhigh-capacitymagazineweaponswhileraisingthelegalfirearmpurchase agetotwenty-one.Thislawfocusesonintensifyingbackgroundchecksandrequiresadditional investigativestepstobetakenbeforeaneighteentotwenty-year-oldcanpurchasealonggun.

Further,itclarifieswhichsellersmustobtainalicenseandconductbackgroundcheckswhile establishingmoreprecisefederalstatutesregardingthedefinitionandpenaltiesoffirearm traffickingandstrawpurchasing.Thislawalsoencompassesthe“boyfriendloophole”by prohibitingpersonsconvictedofaviolentmisdemeanoragainstacurrentorex-partnerfrom possessingafirearmforfiveyears.

153 TheBipartisanSaferCommunitiesActisalandmark federallawasitisthefirstpieceofgunsafetylegislationinthirtyyearsthatwillprotect Americansfromgunviolencethroughservicessuchasmentalhealthprograms,schoolsafety programs,andgunsafetylaws.

GunsandtheLaw

C. Flaws in Legislation

Despitetherisingratesingun-relatedinjuries,deaths,andshootings,somelegislators believethatcurrentlawsregulatingfirearmsareenoughandinsomecases,arepushingtofurther

152 “Handguns,HomicidesandtheGunControlActof1968(FromHandgunControlLegislation-Hearings,P 318-338,1982-SeeNCJ-93399)” Office of Justice Programs, https://wwwojpgov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/handguns-homicides-and-gun-control-act-1968-handgun-control Accessed9March2023

153 “KeyFederalRegulationActs”Giffords, https://giffords.org/lawcenter/gun-laws/policy-areas/other-laws-policies/key-federal-regulation-acts/.Accessed9 March2023

relaxthem.Therearemanyloopholesincurrentlawsregulatinggunpossession.Thethreemost pertinentbeingthe“boyfriendloophole,”“gunshowloophole,”and“backgroundcheck loophole.”Federallawprohibitsdomesticabusersfromowninggunsonlyiftheyhaveoncebeen marriedto,livedwith,orhadachildwiththevictim.Thecommonlyreferredto“boyfriend loophole”takesadvantageofthisbyenablingunmarriedpartnersandstalkerstoownguns,even iftheyhavebeenpreviouslyconvictedofdomesticabuse.The“gunshowloophole”isanother exampleofhowgunpurchaserscantakeadvantageofcurrentlawsbyevadingbackground checks.Throughthis,individualswhowanttopurchaseaguncandosowithoutsubmittingto backgroundchecks,asfederallawsdonotrequireunlicensedprivatesellerstoperform backgroundchecks.Thisrelatestothe“backgroundcheckloophole”foundintheBrady HandgunViolencePreventionActof1994enactedbyPresidentClintonwhichimplementsthe nationalsystemofBradyBackgroundChecksonfirearmsales,whichhasstoppednearly4 millionfirearmsalestoprohibitedgunpurchaserssofar.Nearly90%ofAmericansbelieve firearmpurchasersshouldhavetogothroughtheBradyBackgroundCheck,yet20%ofgun salestodaytakeplacewithoutabackgroundcheck.Theseareonlyafewloopholesthat exemplifywhystrongergunlawsareneededtoeffectivelyprotectAmericansfromallformsof gunviolence.

D. Firearms as Defense Weapons

TheCastleDoctrineisoneofmanyself-defenselawspassedinlightoftheSupreme Court’srecognitionoftheSecondAmendmentasaself-defenseright.InJune2022,a conservativeSupremeCourtmadealandmarkdecisiononNewYork’sconcealedcarrylaw, permittingindividualstopubliclycarryapistol.Thisdecisioncompletelychangedtheway judgesinotherstatesmadedecisionsregardingguncontrolandrestrictionlaws.Witha

limitationonhowthegovernmentcanregulategunsinAmerica,thereappearstobeanapparent connectionbetweengunownershipandviolence.Astudyconductedfrom1981to2010revealed thatgunownershipwasasignificantpredictoroffirearmhomiciderates.154 Thisfindingwas furthercorroboratedbyaHarvardstudythatfoundthatnationsandstateswithhigherlevelsof gunownershiphadelevatedratesofhomicides,includingfirearmhomicides.155 Thesestudies serveasjustoneexampleforwhystrongergunlawsarenecessary,giventhatgunownershipis stronglylinkedtogunviolence.

E. The Supreme Court and Decisions on Gun Safety Legislation

Inrecentyears,theSecondAmendmenthasbeengreatlyscrutinizedintermsofwhat exactlyisguaranteedandprotectedinthatright,alongwithwhenandwhereAmericansshould beabletoexerciseit.Aftertheriseinmassshootingsinrecentyears,manyAmericansare worriedthattheSecondAmendmentallowstoomuchfreedomandputscitizensindanger.

StronggunlegislationseemsunfeasiblewithahighlyconservativeSupremeCourt,especially followingthe2022 New York v. Bruen decision.

TheSupremeCourtruledontheSecondAmendmentforthefirsttimein70yearsin2008 whenDickHellersuedtheDistrictofColumbiaforitsbanonkeepinghandgunsathome.The CourtultimatelyruledinHeller’sfavor,assertingthatindividualshavetherighttokeep handgunsintheirhomesforself-defense.DespiterulinginHeller’sfavor,conservativeJustice AntoninScaliaemphasizedthelimitednatureoftherulinginthemajorityopinion.Henoted, “Likemostrights,therightsecuredbytheSecondAmendmentisnotunlimited.[Itis]notaright

154 Siegel,Michael,etal “TheRelationshipBetweenGunOwnershipandFirearmHomicideRatesintheUnited States,1981–2010”AmericanJournalofPublicHealth,vol 103,no 11,2013,pp 2098-2105 AmericanJournal ofPublicHealth,https://ajphaphapublicationsorg/doi/abs/102105/AJPH2013301409?role=tab Accessed22 February2023

155 Hepburn,Lisa,etal “Homicide|HarvardInjuryControlResearchCenter|HarvardTH ChanSchoolofPublic Health.”HarvardT.H.ChanSchoolofPublicHealth, https://wwwhsphharvardedu/hicrc/firearms-research/guns-and-death/ Accessed22February2023

tokeepandcarryanyweaponwhatsoeverinanymannerwhatsoeverandforwhatever purpose.”

156 Initsopinion,theCourtprovidedexamplesoflawsitconsideredtobe “presumptivelylawful,”includingthosewhichprohibitfirearmpossessionbydangerouspeople andinsensitiveplaces,suchasschoolsandgovernmentbuildings.Furthermore,itimposes variousconditionsonthecommercialsaleoffirearms,liketheaforementionedtaxes.The Heller decisionwasnottherulinggunlobbyistshopedfornevertheless,itprovidedanoutletfor legislatorstoprotectindividuals’gunrightswhilesimultaneouslyimplementingmanyofthe lifesavinggunlawsinplacetoday.

Twoyearslater,theSupremeCourtheardasimilarcaseaboutahandgunbaninChicago whenOtisMcDonaldandthreeotherresidentssuedthecityovertherestriction.Ina5-4

SupremeCourtruling,theCourtruledthattheSecondAmendmentappliestostateandlocal governments,aswellasthefederalgovernment.TheCourtstatedthat,“itisimportanttokeepin mindthat Heller,whilestrikingdownalawthatprohibitedthepossessionofhandgunsinthe home,recognizedthattherighttokeepandbeararmsisnot‘arighttokeepandcarryany weaponwhatsoeverinanymannerwhatsoeverandforwhateverpurpose.’”

157 Inbothinstances, theCourtemphasizedtheneedtorecognizethelimitedpoweroftheSecondAmendmentand howconstitutionallypermissiblegunlawscanbeenforcedatthelocal,state,andfederallevels. Sincebothrulings,lowercourtshavenotonlyacknowledgedthatgunlawsareconstitutional,but alsothattheyarecriticalforthesafetyofthecommunity.Lowercourtshaveevenupheldawide rangeoflawsregulatingguns,includinglawsrestrictingconcealedandopen-carryfirearmsin

156 “TheSupremeCourt&theSecondAmendment” Giffords, https://giffordsorg/lawcenter/gun-laws/second-amendment/the-supreme-court-the-second-amendment/ Accessed15 March2023

157 “TheSupremeCourt&theSecondAmendment” Giffords, https://giffords.org/lawcenter/gun-laws/second-amendment/the-supreme-court-the-second-amendment/.Accessed15 March2023

public,bansonassaultweapons,silencers,largecapacitymagazines,private-salebackground checks,licensinglaws,andmore.

Currently,thefar-right-leaningSupremeCourtseemstobemakingdecisionsbasedon varyinginterpretationsoftheConstitution.ThewaymanyJusticesontheCourtinterpretSecond AmendmentfreedomstendstodifferfromthatoftheaverageAmerican,consideringthehighly progressiveclimateofAmericansocietytoday.OnJune23,2022,theSupremeCourtdecided,in New York v. Bruen, that“NewYork’sproper-causerequirementviolatestheFourteenth Amendmentbypreventinglaw-abidingcitizenswithordinaryself-defenseneedsfromexercising theirSecondAmendmentrighttokeepandbeararmsinpublicforself-defense.”

158 Throughthis decision,theCourtcurtailedastate’sabilitytorestrictcitizensfromcarryingfirearmsinpublic asaself-defensemeasure.Therulingsignificantlylimitedastate’sabilitytoenforcegunsafety measures.InadissentingopinionauthoredbyJusticeStephenBreyer,joinedbyJusticesSonia SotomayorandElenaKagan,“JusticeBreyerarguedthatstatesshouldbeabletopassrestrictions inanefforttocurbthenumberofdeathscausedbygunviolence,andtheCourt’sdecision ‘severelyburdenstheStates’effortstodoso.’”

159 Ironically,JusticeSamuelAlitoarguedinhis concurringopinion“thattheeffectofgunsonAmericansocietyisirrelevanttotheissue.”

160 The conflictingviewsoftheJusticesontheCourtclearlyshowhowthehighestcourtofthelandfails toagreeonhowtheSecondAmendmentandgunlegislationshouldbepassedandenforced, mimickingthedivisivenatureofthisissueinCongress.

Oneofthemosteffectivewaystohandlethegunviolenceepidemicisbyenforcing strongergunsafetylegislation.ContrarytoJusticeAlito’spoint,theeffectsofgunsonAmerican

158 "NewYorkStateRifle&PistolAssociationInc v Bruen"Oyez,wwwoyezorg/cases/2021/20-843 Accessed16 Mar 2023

159 "NewYorkStateRifle&PistolAssociationInc v Bruen"Oyez,wwwoyezorg/cases/2021/20-843 Accessed16 Mar 2023

160 "NewYorkStateRifle&PistolAssociationInc.v.Bruen."Oyez,www.oyez.org/cases/2021/20-843.Accessed16 Mar 2023

societyarecentraltothisissueasitsuggeststhattheCourtismistakeninitsrulingandneedsto findabetterwaytoprioritizeAmericans'publicsafetywhilealsoprotectingtheirrights.As JusticeScaliamentionedin Heller,“therightsecuredbytheSecondAmendmentisnot unlimited.”161 Placingrestrictionsonanindividual’sabilitytoownandusefirearmsisessential toprotectingthegeneralpublicfrominsensiblegunviolence.

F. Politics of Guns & the NRA

TheNationalRifleAssociation(NRA)wasformedin1871byWilliamC.Churchand GeneralGeorgeWingatetopromoteandencouragerifleshootingonascientificbasis.TheNRA InstituteforLegislativeAction,foundedin1975,servesastheleadingforceforthelegislative andpoliticaldefenseoftheSecondAmendment.TheNRAidentifiesitselfasapremierfirearms educationorganizationdedicatedtoeducatingfirearmownersoncorrectlyusingandvaluinga gun.

162

Throughouttime,theNRA’smissionchanged,andtheorganizationbecameincreasingly conservativeduringthe1970s.After1977,theorganizationextendeditsmembershiptofocuson partisanissuesandformingpoliticaltieswithconservativepoliticians.Forthisreason,many RepublicanstendtobacktheNRAandstronglyadvocatefortheSecondAmendment.In2020, theNRAspentroughly$250millionadvocatingforitsownguncontrolpolicies.Annually,the NRAspendsabout$3millioninfluencinggunpolicy.NRAlobbyistswhobackRepublican candidatesintheirpoliticalendeavorsutilizethissupportsystemtogetlegislationpassedthat wouldnotrestrictgunownership,insteadadvocatingforlawsthatexpandgunrights,suchasthe “open-carry”lawdisputedin New York v. Bruen.Aspoliticalfavors,theNRAandRepublican

161 “TheSupremeCourt&theSecondAmendment” Giffords, https://giffordsorg/lawcenter/gun-laws/second-amendment/the-supreme-court-the-second-amendment/ Accessed15 March2023.

162 “History|NRAExplore” NRA Explore,https://explorenraorg/interests/history/ Accessed16March2023

Partyarefrequentlylinkedandworktogetherascandidatesprovidepoliticalsupportandthe NRAprovidesfinancialsupport.

TheGunViolenceEpidemic

163

G. Mass Shootings & Legal Access to Firearms

AsofMarch27,therehavebeenmoremassshootingsthandaysin2023,with128mass shootingstakingplacein86days.Themostrecentshootingtomakeheadlinesoccurredata privateChristianelementaryschoolinNashville,Tennessee.Usingtwoassaultriflesanda handgun,a28-year-oldshooteropenedfireonstudentsandfaculty,killingthree9-year-old childrenandthreestaffmembersinfourteenminutes.Likemanyothermassshooters,the shooterobtainedhisweaponslegally,purchasingsevengunsinthelasttwoyears,threeofwhich wereusedinthisshooting.ThisiscommonlythecasewithmassshootersintheUnitedStates,as 77%ofallgunmenbehindthesemassacres,from1966to2019,haveobtainedtheirweapons legally.

164

Comparedtootherhigh-incomecountriesandterritories,theUnitedStateshasthe highestlevelsofgunviolence.

165 Oneofthebiggestreasonsforthisisthelackofrigid,in-depth backgroundchecksinAmerica.Atthefederallevel,anindividualonlyneedstopassaquick backgroundcheckthat only considerscriminalconvictions,domesticviolence,andimmigration statusasthesolecriteriaforobtainingagunlegally,failingtoevaluateothervitalcharacteristics, likementalhealth.Forthisreason,manystateshaveenactedredflaglaws.Theredflaglawisa gunpreventionlawwhichpreventsindividualswhoshowsignsofbeingathreattothemselvesor

163 “USguncontrol:WhatistheNRAandwhyisitsopowerful?” BBC,27May2022, https://wwwbbccom/news/world-us-canada-35261394 Accessed16March2023

164 Thrush,Glenn “WhatDoMostMassShootersHaveinCommon?TheyBoughtTheirGunsLegally”TheNew YorkTimes,16May2022, https://wwwnytimescom/2022/05/16/us/politics/legal-gun-purchase-mass-shootinghtml Accessed31March2023

165 “Ongunviolence,theUnitedStatesisanoutlier.”InstituteforHealthMetricsandEvaluation|31May2022, https://wwwhealthdataorg/acting-data/gun-violence-united-states-outlier Accessed31March2023

othersfrompurchasingorpossessingafirearm.166 Federallawdoesnotrequirebackground checkswhengunsareobtainedfromaprivateseller.Theremaininggunpurchaseanduselaws arelefttothestates,creatingalackofuniversalaccountabilityduetopartisangunpolitics.

TheNashvilleshootingisjustoneexampleofthemanydeadlyeventsthatoccurbecause ofunrestrictedgunaccess.TheTennesseelegislaturewasscheduledtomeetonMarch28,the dayaftertheshooting,tovoteonbillsthatwouldexpandgunaccessinthestate.U.S.

RepresentativeAndyOgles,aRepublicanfromTennessee,representstheNashvilledistrict wheretheshootingoccurred.Oglesisapartofthemanypro-gunbillsprogressinginthestate’s HouseCommittee,includingbillsthatwouldloweragerequirementsforconcealedcarry,expand concealedcarryfromhandgunstoallfirearms,permitcarrierstobringhandgunsoncollege campuses,andallowschoolfacultytocarryconcealedhandgunsatschool.Concurrently,sheis oneofmanyRepublicanswhoadvocateforbroadeningfirearmuseasameansofsafetyand protectionforAmericans.

OtherdevelopednationslikeChina,Japan,England,India,Canada,andGermanyhave tightlawsensuringminimalcasualtiesandviolencefromgunownership.Mostofthesecountries requiregunownerstobeproperlytrainedandtestedinfirearmoperations.Othershavestricter backgroundchecksthatincludementalhealthhistory,drugaddiction,andpersonalinterviews withfamily,friends,andpoliceofficers,inadditiontoevaluationsofcriminalconvictionsand domesticviolence.Requiringgunownersintheaforementionedcountriestoallfollowthesame lawsandregulationswithminorexceptionsisoneoftheprimereasonsthesecountrieshave minimalshootingsandgunviolence-relateddeathsandinjuries.TheUnitedStateswouldgreatly benefitfromimplementingsimilarpolicies.

166 “RedFlagGunProtectionLawNowinEffect.” New York State, https://wwwnygov/programs/red-flag-gun-protection-law Accessed20April2023

H. What’s Next?

Asofnow,thefutureofAmerica,asitpertainstogunviolence,isuncertain.Thefirst stepincombatingtheunknownisacknowledginggunviolenceasapublichealthcrisis.

Understandinghowitbecamesuchacrisisiscrucialtounderstandinghowtofixit,and analyzingwhathasfailedsofariskeyfordevisingrealisticsolutionsforthefuture.Accordingto ProfessorRichardBarnes,anesteemedRutgersGunViolenceResearchCenterAssociate,“the decades-longfreezeinfederalfundingforgunviolenceresearchundoubtedlysetusbackinour abilitytounderstandandpreventallformsofgunviolence.”Barnesexplainshowduringthis freezeinfederalfunding,thetotalnumberofliveslosttogunviolencewasstaggering,andthere wasanunprecedentedsurgeinfirearmsales.Heacknowledgedthat,“althoughwehavemade progressandmanyscientistshavehelpedustobebetterpositionedtoaddresstheissue,thereis simplynoquestionthatourfailuretofundresearchinthisareacontributedtothispublichealth crisis.”167 Classifyingthegunviolenceepidemicasapublichealthissuerequirespublic-health relatedsolutions,anditappearsthatProfessorBarnes’primarysolutionismorefederalfunding forgunviolenceresearch.AnothersolutionBarnescreditsforgunviolencepreventionand reductionisgrassrootsoutreach.Workingwithmayors,communityleaders,localgroups, faith-basedleaders,andresidentstoensurecommunitysafetyisagreatwaytoreducegun violenceandincreaseoverallpublicwell-being.Giventhatthismethodhasproventobe effective,thegeniusandexpertiseoftheseindividualsandgroupsshouldbehighlyvaluedand implemented.Barnesalsoreiteratestheneedforfundingcommunity-basedviolencereduction strategiesastheyaresuitableinvestments.Heexplainshow“community-basedviolence intervention/interruptionprogramsprovidecomprehensivesupportthroughthehiringand trainingofoutreachworkersandhigh-riskinterventionistswhoworkproactivelytopreempt 167

disputesandengagethoseindividualsinthecommunitywhoareatthegreatestriskofbecoming avictimorperpetratorofviolence.Thesecommunity-drivenandevidence-basedprogramsare showntoreducefirearmdeathsandshootingsinneighborhoodsmostimpactedbygun violence.”168 Usinghisknowledgeandexpertiseingunviolenceresearch,Barnesconfidently sharesplausiblesolutionstogunviolencereductionandpreventioninAmerica.Itisthe responsibilityof lawmakersandelectedofficialstousetheresearchandproposedstrategiesto createlawsthathelpreducegunviolence-relateddeathsandinjuriesacrossAmerica.

Thepartisanbarrierisoneoftheleadingreasonsforthedivideovergunpolicyin America.Theextremepolarizationofpoliticalissuestodaymakesitnearlyimpossiblefor legislatorstobeproductiveinpassingmostlaws,especiallythoserelatingtoguns Whenasked aboutthepoliticizationoftheissue,ProfessorBarnessaid,“Itisunfortunate.Whenanissue becomespoliticized,solutionscanbeslowedandresourcesdelayed—substantiallyharming thosecommunitiesmostimpacted.”AlthoughBarnesbelievespolicymakersofdifferentpolitical partiescanworktogethertoenactcommonsensefirearmlegislationandpolicies,heimpliesthat hisbeliefisratheroptimistic,giventhenation'stensepoliticalclimate.Regardingwhat policymakerscando,Barnesbelievesitheavilydependsonwhetherthepolicymakerisonthe stateorfederallevelandhowtheyeachviewthegunviolenceissue.Forthoseconcernedabout gunviolence,Barnessuggestsconnectingwithanorganizationornonprofitthatworksongun violencepreventionorpolicy.Reachingouttorespectiveelectedofficialsthroughlettersand emailsisanotherwayforpeopletoexpresstheirconcernsregardinggunviolenceintheirstate andcountry.

Livinginapoliticalclimatethatishighlydivided,officialsonbothsidesoftheaislehave vastlydifferingopinionsontheguncontrolissue.Traditionally,Republicanswanttoexpandgun accessandlimitguncontrol,whileDemocratswanttorestrictgunaccessandbroadengun controllaws.TherivalrybetweenDemocratsandRepublicansregardingtheSecondAmendment hasexistedfordecades.Eachsidehasitsownopiniononthesituationanditsownideaof practicalsolutions.ForDemocrats,thisincludespassingstrongerregulation;forRepublicans, thismeansexpandinggunaccesssomoreAmericanscanprotectthemselves.Foranyprogressto bemade,bothpartiesmustbewillingtoextendtheolivebranch.

Inlightofthemanyschoolshootingsinthelastyear,PresidentBidentweeted,“Ourkids shouldbelearninghowtoreadandwrite,notduckandcover.”169 AftertheNashvilleshootingin lateMarch,DemocraticSenatorCoryBookerfromNewJerseysharedavideoonTwittersaying, “Weknowthingsthatwecandotoprotectourselves.Othernationshavedoneit.Wearean outlier!”170 BoththePresidentandSenatorBookerinsistthatactionbetaken,butthewaytogo abouttakingthisactionisupfordebate.RepublicanslikeformerPresidentDonaldTrumpand TexasSenatorTedCruzhavedifferentapproachestosolvingtheissue.Theformerbelieves highlytrainedteachersshouldbeallowedtocarryconcealedfirearmstoprotectchildren.Atthe 2022NRAConvention,Trumpsupportedallowingteacherstocarryconcealedfirearmsto protectchildrensaying,“Ourschoolsshouldbethesingle-hardesttargetinourcountry.”171 Days later,SenatorCruztweetedfromanNRAeventsaying,“Whatinevitablystopsthesehorrific crimes:Armedgoodguysstoppingarmedbadguys.”172 ForRepublicans,gunsarethesolution;

169 Biden,Joe JoeBidenonTwitter,22September2022, https://twittercom/JoeBiden/status/1573064670101049344 Accessed31March2023

170 “Home”YouTube,28March2023, https://twittercom/CoryBooker/status/1640739773416448001?cxt=HHwWgoC9tbCIisUtAAAA Accessed31 March2023

171 “Home”YouTube,https://twittercom/nra/status/1530313201367363584?lang=en Accessed31March2023

172 Cruz,Ted.TedCruzonTwitter,31May2022,https://twitter.com/tedcruz/status/1531631895703846914?lang=en. Accessed31March2023

forDemocrats,gunsaretheproblem.Ifbothsidescannotagreeonthecommonissue,thereis littlehopeforanagreed-uponsolution.

ThegunviolenceepidemichasplaguedtheUnitedStatesinunimaginablewaysfor decades.Thisepidemichasdisproportionatelytargetedmarginalizedgroups.Everyyear, countlessAmericanslosetheirlivestofirearmviolencethatcanbeprevented.Thesolutions havebeenlaidoutveryclearly,yetahighlypartisanCongressrefusestopasseffectivegun violencelegislationactively.Americansdeserveagovernmentthatcaresmoreabouttheirlives thanpartypolitics.Americansdeserveagovernmentthatwillensuretheirsafetyandprotection. FederalguncontrolisaninarguablenecessityintheUnitedStatestoday.Withoutit,gun violencewillcontinuetodestroythelivesofhundredsofAmericansdaily

ATHLETICEQUALITYFORALL:TITLEIXANDTHEFIGHTFORTRANSGENDER ATHLETES’RIGHTS

MELISSATAN|RUTGERS-NEWBRUNSWICK

Introduction

A. The History of Title IX

ThePatsyTakemotoMinkEqualOpportunityinEducationActoftheEducation Amendmentsof1972,morecommonlyknownasTitleIX,isalandmarkactinthefightfor genderequality.Priortoitspassage,womeneitherhadrestrictedaccesstoorwerebarred altogetherfromprogramsofhighereducation.If,followingamorerigorousselectionprocess,a womanwasgrantedtheexclusiveprivilegeofadmittancetoauniversity,shewouldbesubjectto certainrulesandrestrictionsthatamanwouldnotbeandoftenwouldnotbeallowedto participateincertainprogramsofstudy,likemedicine.

173

ThejourneytowardsTitleIXasitisknowntodaybeganinJune1970,whenUnited StatesHouseRepresentativeEdithGreenproposedanamendmenttotheCivilRightsActof 1964(CRA).Theactprohibitedsegregationanddiscriminatorypracticesonthebasisofrace, color,ornationalorigin.Onthewhole,however,theCRAfailedtoincludesex,saveforTitle VII,whichaddressedsexdiscriminationonlyinemployment.Whentheinitialproposalproved tobeunsuccessful,RepresentativePatsyT.Minkjumpedintoaction,drivenbyherown experiencesinbattlingtherepercussionsofdaringtobebornanAsianAmericanwoman.

AlongsideRepresentativeGreenandSenatorBirchBayh,174 RepresentativeMinkauthoredthe EducationAmendments,whichincludesthenow-iconic37wordsofTitleIX.

175 Theclausestates

173 UnitedStatesDepartmentofJustice.“EqualAccesstoEducation:FortyYearsofTitleIX.”23June2012. https://wwwjusticegov/sites/default/files/crt/legacy/2012/06/20/titleixreportpdf

174 “TitleIX-theNine” American Civil Liberties Union https://wwwacluorg/other/title-ix-nine

175 Bell,Danna.“PatsyTakemotoMink’sTitleIXLegacy:TeachingwiththeLibrary.”23June2022. https://blogslocgov/teachers/2022/06/patsy-takemoto-minks-title-ix-legacy/

that“[n]opersonintheUnitedStatesshall,onthebasisofsex,beexcludedfromparticipationin, bedeniedthebenefitsof,orbesubjectedtodiscriminationunderanyeducationprogramor activityreceivingFederalfinancialassistance.”

176 AfterpassingthroughCongresswithbipartisan support,TitleIXwassignedintolawbyPresidentRichardNixononJune23,1972.Inthe almost51yearssinceitspassage,thelegislationhasplayedasignificantroleinadvancing equalitybetweenmenandwomenineducationalprogramsandassociatedactivities.

B. From the Classroom to the Playing Field

Despiteenjoyingbipartisansupport,TitleIXwasnotwithoutitsdetractors.Many legislatorsattemptedtocurtailitsreach,particularlywithinsports.In1975,PresidentGerald FordsignedintolawadditionalTitleIXprovisionsthatofficiallyextendedtheprohibitionofsex discriminationtoathleticsandgrantededucationalinstitutionsthreeyearstoreachfull compliancewiththenewrequirements.

177 Althoughsomeestablishments,liketheNational CollegiateAthleticAssociation(NCAA),attemptedtochallengetheprovisions,178 theirefforts ultimatelyprovedtobeunsuccessful,withtheDepartmentofHealth,Education,andWelfare (HEW)issuingafinalinterpretationin1978thataffirmedtheobligationofeveryinstitutionto providebothsexeswithequalopportunitiesinathletics.

179

ThoughtheinitialfocusofTitleIXwasonensuringequalopportunitiesforwomen withineducation,anddespitenevermentioningathletics,thereputationofthelawhassince becomepredominantlyassociatedwithitsapplicationinsportsandhowithasadvancedthe women’ssideexponentially.AccordingtoLisaKaplowitz,RutgersBusinessSchoolprofessor

176 “TitleIXoftheEducationAmendmentsActof1972” EPA https://www.epa.gov/external-civil-rights/title-ix-education-amendments-act-1972

177 “TitleIX” Encyclopedia Britannica 20April2023 https://wwwbritannicacom/event/Title-IX

178 Samuels,JocelynandKristenGalles “InDefenseofTitleIX:WhyCurrentPoliciesAreRequiredtoEnsure EqualityofOpportunity” 14 Marq Sports L Rev 11 2003 https://scholarshiplawmarquetteedu/sportslaw/vol14/iss1/21/

179 “HistoryofTitleIX.” Women’s Sports Foundation 19July2021. https://wwwwomenssportsfoundationorg/advocacy/history-of-title-ix/

andformerDivisionIgymnastatBrownUniversity,44%ofcollegeathletestodayarewomen, comparedtoameager15%priortoTitleIX’spassage,andoverthreemillionmoregirlsnow havetheopportunitytoplay 180 Professionalwomen’ssportsleagues,liketheWomen’sNational BasketballAssociationandtheNationalWomen’sSoccerLeague(NWSL),havealsoemerged, creatingnewavenuesforfemaleathletestopursueandfurtherencouragingequaland meaningfulopportunitiesforwomeninsports.TheimpactofTitleIXonwomen’ssportshas beenextraordinary,notonlyinregardstoparticipation,butinshiftingthesocietalperceptionof andsupporttowardsfemaleathletes.

However,thereisstillfartogointhefightfortotalequalityinathleticsasdecreedby TitleIX.Lessthan20%ofeducationalinstitutionshaveachievedfullcomplianceasof November2019,181 despitetheHEW’smandatefromover40yearsprior Femaleathletesatthe collegiateandprofessionallevelscontinuetoreceivesignificantlyfewerresourcesthantheir malecounterparts,tosaynothingofthedisparityinopportunitybetweenfemaleathletesofcolor andwhitefemaleathletes.182 Significantly,theprovisionsofTitleIXandhowtheymayormay notapplybeyondthetraditionalnotionsofgenderandgenderidentityhavebeenplacedunder intensescrutinyastherightsoftransgenderindividualshavecomeunderincreasingfireby governmentandcitizensalike.

C. Defining “Transgender” And Related Terms

AccordingtotheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation,“[t]ransgenderisanumbrella termforpersonswhosegenderidentity,genderexpressionorbehaviordoesnotconformtothat

180 Kaplowitz,Lisa “TitleIXIncreasedOpportunitiesforWomenAthletes,butThere’sStillWorktoDo” Rutgers Business School - Newark and New Brunswick 23June2022.

https://wwwbusinessrutgersedu/business-insights/title-ix-increased-opportunities-women-athletes-theres-still-work -do

181 “WhatisTitleIX?” Women’s Sports Foundation 26November2019

https://wwwwomenssportsfoundationorg/advocacy/what-is-title-ix/

182 Igram,QuinnI.“GirlsCanPlay:AnalysisofRacialandEconomicBarriersofEntryforWomenofColorin Sport” Student Publications 693 2018 https://cupolagettysburgedu/student scholarship/693

typicallyassociatedwiththesextowhichtheywereassignedatbirth.Genderidentityreferstoa person’sinternalsenseofbeingmale,femaleorsomethingelse…”

183 Conversely,“cisgender” referstopersonswhosegenderidentitydoesconformtothesexofwhichtheywereassignedat birth.

Inreferencetotheprovideddefinition,afurthernecessarydistinctiontobemadeisthe differencebetweensexandgender.Sexdesignatesapersonasmaleorfemale,andis biologicallydeterminedatbirthusingfactorslikechromosomesandphysicalanatomy.Gender, ontheotherhand,encompassesthesocietalroles,attributes,andbehaviorsassignedtoand deemedconventionallyappropriateforeachsex.

184

Whileitisuptoeachtransgenderpersontodecidehowtheywouldliketoexpresstheir identityandwhichactionstheywishtotakeintheirtransitionprocess,includinghormone therapytreatmentandgender-affirmingmedicalprocedures,itshouldbemadeabundantlyclear thatbeingtransgenderinandofitselfisnotachoice.Similarly,whilethereisnosingular explanationastowhysomepeoplearetransgender,185 itisextremelyimportanttonotethatitis notasymptomofamentaldisorder,norisitone.

D. Why Does This Matter?

Firstandforemost,transgenderpeoplearepeople.Itisastatementthatshouldgowithout saying,yetdiscrimination,violence,andgeneralotherismagainstthemisrampant.Accordingto a2021study,transgenderpeopleovertheageof16areoverfourtimesmorelikelythan cisgenderpeopletofallvictimtoviolentcrime,whichincludes,butisnotlimitedto,rapeand

183 “AnswerstoYourQuestionsaboutTransgenderPeople,GenderIdentity,andGenderExpression” American Psychological Association 9March2023.

https://wwwapaorg/topics/lgbtq/transgender-people-gender-identity-gender-expression

184 GovernmentofCanada,CanadianInstitutesofHealthResearch “WhatIsGender?WhatIsSex?” CIHR https://cihr-irscgcca/e/48642html

185 “AnswerstoYourQuestionsaboutTransgenderPeople,GenderIdentity,andGenderExpression” American Psychological Association 9March2023.

https://wwwapaorg/topics/lgbtq/transgender-people-gender-identity-gender-expression

aggravatedassault.186 Inthelegalsphere,conservativelawmakershavelaunchedabarrageof attacksontransgenderrights–frombathroombillstotherestrictionofgender-affirming procedures,sucheffortshaveonlyintensifiedoverthepastfewyears.187 In2021,theHouseof RepresentativespassedtheEqualityActforthesecondtimeinasmanyyears.Thoughthe SupremeCourthadruledthatemploymentdiscriminationonthebasisofgenderidentityand sexualorientationwasunconstitutionalunderTitleVIIoftheCRAin Bostock v. Clayton County, Georgia188 theyearprior,theEqualityActwouldhavebeenamorethoroughwinforLGBTQ+ rights,amendingtheCRAtoincludeunequivocalprotectionsfortheaforementionedclassesin allfederallyfundedprogramsandplacesofpublicaccommodation.189 However,theactdidnot gainthesufficientamountofvotesintheRepublican-controlledSenatetoproceed.Withits failuretopass,thereisnofederallawatpresentthatdefinitivelyprohibitsgenderidentity-based discriminationinrealmsoutsideofemployment190,makingitsubstantiallymoredifficultfor transgenderpeopletoseeklegalrecourseindiscriminatorysituations.

Athleticsisonesuchrealm.AlthoughTitleIXbanssex-baseddiscriminationinsports, theissueathandarisesinthelaw’sfailuretodifferentiatebetweensexandgender,leaving transgenderathletesandtheirrighttoparticipateatthemercyoflawmakers’personaldiscretion andinterpretations.Sportsprovideanescapeformany,buttransgenderpeople,especially transgenderwomen,oftenfindlittlereprievefromdiscriminationontheplayingfield.

186 Dowd,Rachel “TransgenderPeopleoverFourTimesMoreLikelythanCisgenderPeopletoBeVictimsof ViolentCrime.” Williams Institute.21December2022.

https://williamsinstitutelawuclaedu/press/ncvs-trans-press-release/

187 Narea,NicoleandFabiolaCineas.“TheGOP’sCoordinatedNationalCampaignAgainstTransRights, Explained” Vox 10March2023

https://wwwvoxcom/politics/23631262/trans-bills-republican-state-legislatures

188 “Bostockv.ClaytonCounty.” Oyez.https://www.oyez.org/cases/2019/17-1618

189 Birenbaum,Gabby “HousePassestheEqualityActinaVictoryforLGBTQAmericans” Vox 26February2021

https://wwwvoxcom/2021/2/26/22303053/house-passes-equality-act-lgbtq-senate

190 (OCR),OfficeforCivilRights.“SexDiscrimination.” HHS Gov 20January2023. https://wwwhhsgov/civil-rights/for-individuals/sex-discrimination/indexhtml

Althoughthereareveryfewpubliclyouttransgenderathletescompetingonthehighest stagesofsport,andfewerstillarehouseholdnames,thisdoesnotmeanthereareonlyafew transgenderathletesatlarge.Onthecontrary,transgenderpeopleparticipateinsportsatall differentlevelsandage-groups–everysingleindividualdeservesachancetoplayandcompete inthesporttheydesirewhilesimultaneouslyexpressingtheirgenderidentityinthewaythey wish.ThoughtheinclusionoftransgenderathletesintheUnitedStateshascreatedmuch controversyandhaschallengedthetraditionalconceptsofgender-separatedcompetition, transgenderpeoplehaveasmucharighttoequalopportunityinsportsasanyotherAmerican. Asthelandscapeofsportscontinuestoevolve,itisimperativethatTitleIXbeinterpretedin suchawaythatprotectsandenforcestherightsoftransgenderathletes,aswellasupholdsthe valuesofprivacy,fairplay,andequalopportunityinathleticsforall.

TheStateofPlayforTransgenderAthletes

E. Do Transgender Athletes Have an Advantage?

Oneofthemostpolarizingaspectssurroundingtheinclusionoftransgenderathletesis whetherornottheyhaveanunfairadvantageovercisgenderathletesbynatureoftheirtransition. Whencoupledwithalackofinformation,itisnotinherentlywrongforacisgenderwomanto initiallybereluctanttotheideaofcompetingagainstatransgenderwoman.Suchasentiment becomeswrongwhenitisaccompaniedbytheabsenceofkindness,tolerance,and understanding,andtherefusaltoeducateoneself,particularlygiventhatthereisnoevidencethat transgenderathleteshaveanysignificantadvantageovercisgenderathletes.Infact,theevidence statesthecontrary:a2015studyfoundthatrunnerswhotransitionedfrommaletofemalesaw theirracetimesslowsignificantly,reachingtimescomparabletothoseofcisgenderwomen.191

191 PerezOrtega,Rodrigo.“WorldAthleticsBannedTransgenderWomenfromCompeting.DoesScienceSupport theRule?” Science,4Apr 2023,

LiaThomas,formermemberoftheUniversityofPennsylvania’sswimteam,wasthrustintothe spotlightafterbecomingthefirsttransgenderathletetowinanNCAAtitle.Afterundergoing hormonetherapy,duringwhichshesteppedawayfromcompetitiveswimming,Thomaslost musclemass192 andbecamenoticeablyslower DespiteswimmingherwaytoanNCAAtitle,she farfromdominatesthecompetition,placingfifthandeighthinthe200and100freestyle, respectively.193

Thereislegalbackingtothis,aswell.In Soule et al. v. CT Association of Schools et al., threecisgenderhighschoolgirlsclaimedthattheConnecticutInterscholasticAthletic Conference(CIAC)’stransgender-inclusivepolicieswereaviolationofTitleIXasitdeprived cisgenderathletesofalevelplayingfieldand“opportunitiesforparticipation,recruitment, and…thechancetobechampions…”

194 ThecasewasrecentlyheardattheSecondCircuitCourt ofAppeals,wherethecourtaffirmedthedecisionofthelowercourtanddismissedtheclaim, plainlystatingthattheplaintiffshadnostandingwhatsoeverand,additionally,citingmultiple instanceswhereinthecisgenderplaintiffsdirectlycompetedagainstandbeattheirtransgender opponents.

195 NotonlydidthecourtsfindtheCIAC’spoliciestobeTitleIX-compliant,the plaintiffs’claimsthattransgenderathleteshadunfairadvantagesweresummarilyfalse.

Thenotionthattransgenderathleteshaveacompetitiveadvantageduetotheirtransition decisivelyholdsnovalidity.Notably,manycisgenderathletesatthehighestlevelsoftheirsport

www.science.org/content/article/world-athletics-banned-transgender-women-competing-does-science-support-rule#: ~:text=A%20rare%20performance%20study%20on,no%20advantage%20over%20cisgender%20women

192 “LiaThomasBreaksSilenceSayingTransitionMadeHer‘SlowerandWeaker.’” UNILAD, wwwuniladcom/news/lia-thomas-breaks-silence-transition-made-slower-weaker-20220531

193 Barnes,Katie.“FormerUniversityofPennsylvaniaSwimmerLiaThomasRespondstoCritics:‘TransWomen CompetinginWomen’sSportsDoesNotThreatenWomen’sSports’” ESPN 31May2022 https://www.espn.com/college-sports/story/ /id/34013007/trans-women-competing-women-sports-does-not-threaten -women-sports

194 “Souleetalv CTAssociationofSchoolsetAl” American Civil Liberties Union 12February2020 https://wwwacluorg/cases/soule-et-al-v-ct-association-schools-et-al?document=Complaint

195 Soule et al v Connecticut Association of Schools et al ,No 21-1365-cv(2ndCir Dec 16,2022)

havephysicaladvantagesthatothercisgendercompetitorsdonot,yetthereisnevercontroversy surroundingsuchindividuals.MichaelPhelps,acisgenderman,isoneofthegreatestandmost decoratedswimmersofalltime.Interestingly,hissuccessinthepoolcanbepartlyattributedto hisbody Dr MichaelJoyneroftheMayoClinichasindicatedthatPhelps’armsarelongerthan average,hislegsarerelativelyshort,andhasanelongatedtorso.196 Heisquiteliterallybuiltfor swimming,afactthathascontributedtohissuccessinthepool.However,hisidealphysiqueis notthesolereasonforhisaccomplishments.Phelpshasundoubtedlyputintheefforttohonehis craft,andhisdriveandcompetitivenessareunparalleled.Giventhatnoonehasevernegated Phelps’achievementsonthebasisofhisprovenphysicaladvantages,itdoesnotfollowthatthe publicnegateThomas’achievementsonthebasisofherperceivedphysicaladvantages.Andraya Yearwood,atransgenderathletenamedin Soule,assertsthat,likecisgenderathletes,transgender athletesvaryinathleticability,andtoattributesuccesssolelytothebodyisabaselessargument.

Shearguesthat“Onehighjumpercouldbetaller…thananother,buttheothercouldhaveperfect form…Onesprintercouldhaveparentswhospendsomuchmoneyonpersonaltrainingfortheir child,whichinturn,wouldcausethatchildtorunfaster.”197 Intheeventthatatransgender athletedoesoutperformtheircompetitors,thereisnolegitimatereasontoattributeitsolelyto theirtransgenderstatus.

F Participation at the Collegiate and Professional Levels

196 Loria,Kevin “Here’sanExactBreakdownofWhy6’4"MichaelPhelpsHasthePerfectBodyforSwimming” Business Insider,wwwbusinessinsidercom/michael-phelps-rio-olympics-body-swimming-2016-8

197 ChaseStrangio,GabrielArkles “FourMythsaboutTransAthletes,Debunked:ACLU” American Civil Liberties Union,5July2022,wwwacluorg/news/lgbtq-rights/four-myths-about-trans-athletes-debunked

TheFederationInternationaledeNatation,whichistheworld’sgoverningbodyfor aquaticsports,declaredinJune2022thattransgenderwomenareineligibletocompeteinthe women’scategoryunlesstheyhavetransitionedbeforetheageof12.198 Ontheotherhand, 198 Kliegman,Julie. Transgender Athletes: Which States, Sports Federations Have Bans ,6July2022, wwwsicom/more-sports/2022/07/06/transgender-athletes-bans-policies-ioc-ncaa

accordingtotheInternationalOlympicCommittee(IOC),athletesshouldbepermittedto competeinthegendercategorythatbestalignswiththeiridentity,andnoneshouldbe “precludedfromcompeting…ontheexclusivegroundofanunverified,alleged,orperceived unfairadvantageduetotheirsexvariations,physicalappearanceand/ortransgenderstatus.”

199

Atthecollegiatelevel,theNCAAalignswiththeguidanceissuedbytheIOC,andhas implementedathree-phasepolicythataimstoprotectathleticopportunitiesfortransgender student-athletes,whilebalancingsafetyandfairplay.AsperPhaseTwo,whichtheNCAAis currentlyundergoing,transgenderstudent-athletesarerequiredtoprovidemedical documentationindicatingthattheymeettherequiredminimumtestosteronelevelfortheir sport.

200

In2016,thePremierHockeyFederationwasthefirstAmericanprofessionalwomen’s sportsleaguetoreleaseapolicyregardingtheeligibilityoftransgenderwomen,statingthatthey areallowedtocompeteprovidedtheyhavebeen“livingintheirtransgenderidentity”

201 forat leasttwoyears.Similarly,theNWSLallowsparticipationoftransgenderwomenprovidedthey haveidentifiedasfemaleforaminimumoffouryearsandtheirtestosteronelevelsis“withinthe typicallimitsofwomenathletes…10nmol/L”

G. Recent Laws and their Implications

202

Thoughrecentcourtrulingsseemtobetrendingtowardtheinclusionoftransgender athletes’rightsunderTitleIX,conservativestatelawmakershavenotbeendeterred.In2021,

199 IOC Framework on Fairness, Inclusion, and Non-Discrimination on the Basis of Gender Identity and Sex Variations. International Olympic Committee. 2022.

https://stillmedolympicscom/media/Documents/Beyond-the-Games/Human-Rights/IOC-Framework-Fairness-Inclu sion-Non-discrimination-2021.pdf

200 “TransgenderStudent-AthleteParticipationPolicy” NCAA org https://www.ncaa.org/sports/2022/1/27/transgender-participation-policy.aspx

201 PHF Transgender and Non-Binary Player Inclusion Policy Premier Hockey Federation 2021

https://wwwpremierhockeyfederationcom/phf-transgender-and-non-binary-policy

202 NWSL Policy on Transgender Athletes National Women’s Soccer League 2021

https://prod-nwsl-cdn s3 amazonaws com/wp/uploads/2021/03/2021-NWSL-Policy-on-Transgender-Athletes pdf

206

IdahopassedtheFairnessinWomen’sSportsAct,whichwasthefirstlawintheU.S.toplacea totalbanontheparticipationoftransgenderwomenandgirlsinsports.203 Challengedin Hecox v. Little (2020),thelawistemporarilyfrozen.204 However,therulinghasnotdiscouragedwithupto 20otherstates205 introducingpoliciesrestrictingtherightsoftransgenderathletes.Kansas, specifically,hasrecentlypasseditsownFairnessinWomen’sSportsAct.Claimingtoprotectthe rightsofcisgenderfemaleathletes,itsimilarlybanstransgendergirlsandwomenfromjoining sportsteamsspanningfromkindergartentocollege,effectiveJuly1,2023.

InApril2023,theBidenadministrationproposedafederalrulechangethatwouldpermit certainrestrictionsontransgenderstudentathletes,butfindanypolicythatwould “categorically”207 banathletesduetotheirgenderidentitytobeinviolationofTitleIX.Itisthe mostdefinitiveactiontakenbytheadministrationyet,thoughitseffectivenesswillremaintobe seen,especiallyinthefaceoftheaforementionedacts.

H. Title IX on Gender Identity: The Precedent at Play

Despitetheinclusionoftransgenderathletesseeingoverallsupportfromthegoverning bodiesofsportintheU.S.andworldwide,thereremainssomelegaldissension.Themainlegal controversysurroundingtheinclusionoftransgenderathletesstemsfromthefactthatTitleIX doesnotexplicitlydifferentiatebetweensexandgender,openingthedoortovariouspossible

203 “2020–HB500–barringTransgenderGirlsinSports” ACLU of Idaho 6Apr 2020 www.acluidaho.org/en/legislation/2020-hb-500-barring-transgender-girls-sports.

204Jones,Blake “CourtTemporarilyBlocksTransgenderAthleteBan” Idaho Press,18Aug 2020, www.idahopress.com/news/court-temporarily-blocks-transgender-athlete-ban/article 738f8d75-e4d9-5d78-8a79-184 8fd185bfahtml

205 “ProtectingTransgenderYouths’RighttoParticipateinSports.” Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health 25February2021

www.publichealth.columbia.edu/news/protecting-transgender-youths-right-participate-sports.

206 Forrest,Jack “KansasLawmakersOverrideGovernor’sVetotoEnactAnti-TransSportsBan|CNNPolitics” CNN 4April2023

https://wwwcnncom/2023/04/05/politics/kansas-veto-override-transgender-sports-ban/indexhtml

207 Fossum,SamandDevanCole “BidenProposesRuleforTransgenderStudentAthletesThatAllowsforSome Restrictions,OpposesCategoricalBans|CNNPolitics.” CNN 7April2023.

https://wwwcnncom/2023/04/06/politics/title-ix-transgender-student-athletes-biden-rule/indexhtml

interpretations.Manymaintainthatbecausethelegislationdoesnotmentiongenderidentity,its protectionsdonotsummarilyextendtotransgenderathletes.TitleIX’sfailuretoexplicitly prohibitdiscriminationonthebasisofsexualorientationand/orgenderidentityistheleading legalargumentforthoseopposedtotheinclusionoftransgenderathletes.

However,onecaseinparticularshinednewlightonthefifty-year-oldlegislation,leading thewaytowardsamoredefinitiveinterpretationofitsprovisions– Bostock v. Clayton County, Georgia.UponlearningthatemployeeGeraldBostockparticipatedinagayrecreationalsoftball league,thecountyinquestionterminatedhisemployment,citing“unbecoming”208 conduct.

BostockfiledalawsuitagainstClaytonCounty,allegingaviolationofTitleVIIoftheCivil RightsActof1964,whichprohibitsdiscriminationinemploymentonthebasisofrace,color, religion,sex,andnationalorigin.209 GiventhatTitleVIIdoesnotexplicitlymentionsexual orientation,thequestionbecamewhetherornotitwascoveredundertheprovisionof“sex”.In 2020,theSupremeCourtruledina6-3decisionthatsexualorientation,alongsidegender identity,wasindeedcovered,andthatClaytonCountyhadcorrespondinglyviolatedTitleVII. Though Bostock didnotdealwithTitleIXdirectly,thedecisionhashadsignificantimplications fortheinterpretationofsexdiscrimination.AspertheU.S.DepartmentofJustice’sCivilRights Division,theSupremeCourt’sinterpretationof“sex”anditsinclusionofgenderidentityand sexualorientationasitpertainstoTitleVIIextendstoTitleIX.210

BeyondtheScoreboard

I. The Benefits of Inclusion

208 “Bostockv.ClaytonCounty.” Legal Information Institute https://wwwlawcornelledu/supremecourt/text/17-1618

209 “TitleVII” Legal Information Institute https://wwwlawcornelledu/wex/title vii

210 Karlan,PamelaS Application of Bostock v Clayton County to Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 26 March2021

https://www.justice.gov/crt/page/file/1383026/download#:~:text=We%20conclude%20that%20Title%20IX,Federal %20financial%20assistance%E2%80%9D%2020%20USC

Participationinsports,inconjunctionwithsimplyhavingthefreedomandoptiontoplay, providesamultitudeofbenefitsfortransgenderpeopleindividually,particularlyinregardsto mentalhealth.Transgenderpeoplefacedisproportionateratesofdepression,anxiety, posttraumaticstressdisorder,andsuicide,whichundoubtedlystemsfromintenseandextensive discriminationandsystemicexclusion.Researchershavefoundthatwhentransgenderchildren andadolescentsareallowedtoparticipateinphysicalactivitiesthatalignwiththeirgender identity,theyexperiencelowerlevelsofdepressionandhigherlevelsofself-esteem.

211 Transgenderyouthwhoenjoyfullandinclusiveaccesstosportsarealso14%lesslikelyto considersuicidethanthosewhodonot.

212Aspreviouslystated,beingtransgenderisnota choice.AsLiaThomasexplained,“Thebiggestmisconception,Ithink,isthereasonI transitioned.Peoplewillsay,‘Oh,shejusttransitionedsoshewouldhaveanadvantage…’I transitionedtobehappy,tobetruetomyself.”

213 Transgenderpeopletransitionforthemselves andnooneelse.Despitewhatsomemaychoosetobelieve,nosingularpersonwouldchooseto transitionandfacetheunfortunatelyassociatedprejudiceforthesolepurposeofdominatinga sport.

Onasimilarnote,muchoftheanimosityinthisissuestemsfromalackofempathyand fromtherefusaltounderstandthattransgenderpeoplearepeopletoo.Byfosteringinclusivity andallowingtransgenderathletestoopenlyandconsistentlyparticipateinsports,thefactorsthat perpetuatediscriminationcanbebrokendownandreplacedbyempathyandunderstanding.

211 Ferguson,LoisandKateRussell “GenderPerformanceintheSportingLivesofYoungTrans*People” Journal of Homosexuality, 70:4, 587-611 1November2021 https://doiorg/101080/0091836920211996099

212 Coleman,Madiaetal “FactSheet:TheImportanceofSportsParticipationforTransgenderYouth” Center for American Progress,18March2021

wwwamericanprogressorg/article/fact-sheet-importance-sports-participation-transgender-youth/#:~:text=Participati on%20in%20athletics%20in%20general,at%20school%20for%20LGBTQ%20students

213 Barnes,Katie “FormerUniversityofPennsylvaniaSwimmerLiaThomasRespondstoCritics:‘TransWomen CompetinginWomen’sSportsDoesNotThreatenWomen’sSports’” ESPN 31May2022

https://www.espn.com/college-sports/story/ /id/34013007/trans-women-competing-women-sports-does-not-threaten -women-sports

Transgenderathletescanbepresentedforwhotheytrulyare–athletes–andpeopleofallgender identitiescancometogethertoappreciatetheskill,dedication,andpassionthatathletespourinto theirsport.

Conclusion

Fromunequalresourcestoacontinuedlackofopportunity,thereareamultitudeofissues relatedtogenderequityinsportsthatTitleIXmustaddress–peoplewantingtoplayasport shouldnotbeoneofthem.However,asitstands,TitleIXcontinuestobemisinterpretedby conservativelegislatorswhoarguethatallowingtransgenderwomentoparticipateinsportsrobs cisgenderwomenofathleticopportunitiesandunderminesthevaluesofTitleIX.Such politiciansfailtorealize–orchoosetowillfullyignore–therealitythat,throughtheirefforts, transgenderpeoplearetheonesbeingrobbedoftheirAmericanrighttoplayandcompete.By supportingdeliberatelyexclusionarypolicies,detractorsfurtherdenytransgenderpeopleofthe physical,emotionalandsocialbenefitsthatsportsprovide.AsRepresentativeMinkonce proposedanewlegislationtoaddresstheshortcomingsoftheCivilRightsActof1964,itwillbe uptolawmakersofthepresenttodraftnewmeasuresthatwillfirmlyentrenchprotections againstgenderidentity-baseddiscriminationintoUnitedStateslaw Inthemeantime,itisupto thecourtsandregulatoryagenciestodoeverythingpossibletoconstrueandapplyTitleIXin suchawaythatunambiguouslyprotectstherightsoftransgenderathletes,astheoutcomesof thesebattleswillhaveimplicationsthatgofarbeyondtherealmofsports.Iftransgenderpeople losetheabilitytoparticipateinsports,itwillonlybeamatteroftimebeforetheyloseaccessto thefundamentalrightsgrantedtoallAmericans.Ifsuchapointevercomes,itwilleffectively enddemocracyandtheprincipleofjusticeinAmericaasweknowit.

ANANALYSISOFANTITRUSTLITIGATIONINTHEPHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY

IBRAHIMNAZIR|RUTGERS-NEWBRUNSWICK Introduction

A. The Pharmaceutical Industry and Litigation

TheUnitedStatespharmaceuticalindustryisconsideredthelargestintheworld regardingdrugdevelopment,revenue,advertising,andacceptance.TheU.S.marketcurrently accountsforabout48%oftheglobalpharmaceuticalmarketand,in2019,generatedover$484.4 billion.

214Althoughthisisquiteasignificantstatistic,itisalsoessentialtounderstandthat variousparametersareatplaywhenstudyingtheeconomicsofthepharmaceuticalbusiness. Therefore,developinganinsightintothepatentlaw,regulation,andantitrustlitigationingrained intheindustryiscrucial.Thecurrentpharmaceuticalandbiotechnologymarketissubjecttohigh levelsofgovernmentinterventionandregulationsincecomplexproductscanhavesignificant riskstoapatient’shealth.Thistypeofsupervisionisreferredtoaspharmacovigilance.

215Oneof thebiggestissuesthatarisefromthisistobeabletomaintainproperregulationwhilestill allowingforlong-termeconomicproductivityandinnovationforpharmaceutical/biotech companies.

Pharmaceuticalproductscangenerallybebrokendownintoafewcategories.These includespecialtydrugs,brandnames,genericdrugs,andover-the-countermedicines.

216 Specialty

21415astonishingstatisticsandfactsaboutUS PharmaceuticalIndustry Pharmapproachcom (2020,November21) RetrievedApril11,2022,from

https://wwwpharmapproachcom/15-astonishing-statistics-and-facts-about-u-s-pharmaceutical-industry/#:~:text=In %202019%2C%20the%20United%20States,of%20the%20global%20pharmaceutical%20market

215 Pezzola,A,&Sweet,C M (2016,December20) GlobalPharmaceuticalRegulation:Thechallengeof integrationfordevelopingstates-globalizationandhealth BioMedCentral RetrievedApril11,2022,from https://globalizationandhealthbiomedcentralcom/articles/101186/s12992-016-0208-2

216 Ellis,L (2019,October28) SnapshotoftheAmericanPharmaceuticalIndustry ExecutiveandContinuing ProfessionalEducation.RetrievedApril11,2022,from https://wwwhsphharvardedu/ecpe/snapshot-of-the-american-pharmaceutical-industry/

drugsaregenerallyavailableinlimitedsupplyandusedtotreatrarediseases.Onekeythingto noteisthattheyusuallycarryaprohibitivecostwhichwillbeimportantwhendiscussing pharmaceuticalpricing.Brandandgenericdrugsaretheonesthattendtobemorecommon.

Brandeddrugsrefertodrugssoldbyapharmaceuticalcompanyowningthepatent.Comparedto mostindustries,patentsmayonlysometimesbeconsideredattheforefrontregarding significance.However,thisisdifferentinthepharmaceuticalspace,aspatentsallowforcrucial marketpower,especiallysincetheyareusuallyavailableforonly20years.217 Comparedtoother industries,thisisconsideredauniquephenomenonasmostpatentsareirrelevantforperiodsof thislength.Drugmanufacturersusethisexclusiveperiodtoselltheirproductsatahigherprice tocompensatefortheiroriginalinvestmentandreapaprofit.Accordingtoindustryestimates, professionaleconomistsclaimthatdrugdevelopmentmaycostasmuchas2.6billiondollars.

218

Whenthismarketpowerends,andapatentexpires,othercompaniescanproducegeneric versionsofthedrug.Beforeadrugcanbesoldonthemarket,itmustbeapprovedbytheU.S. FoodandDrugAdministrationortheFDA.Thisapprovalcertifiesthatadrughasbeenshownto providebenefitsthatoutweighitspotentialriskstoitsgeneralintendedpopulation.

219 Underthe Hatch-WaxmanActof1984,itisstatedthatdrugmanufacturersmustlisttheirpatentsthatclaim thedrugasapartoftheapplicationprocesspriortoreceivingFDAapproval.

220 TheFDA includestheinformationonlistedpatentsinapublicationknownastheOrangeBook.The processforgenericdrugapprovalconsistsofaseriesofparametersthatmustbecertified.These featuresmaintainthatnopriorpatentsarelisted,expirationoftheoriginalpatentisstated,and

217 Id

218 Drugsapprovedfornewindicationsafterbeingsubjected (nd) RetrievedApril12,2022,from https://researchgatenet/figure/Drugs-approved-for-new-indications-after-being-subjected-t o-DRPx tbl2 286670692

219 (DRUGS@FDA: FDA-approved drugs)

220 CenterforDrugEvaluationandResearch (nd) Hatch-WaxmanLetters US FoodandDrugAdministration

RetrievedApril11,2022,from

https://wwwfdagov/drugs/abbreviated-new-drug-application-anda/hatch-waxman-letters

thatthepatentisnotinfringinguponapreviousone.221Complexlitigationcasescanoftenoccur becausethereareseveralfactorsatplaywhengoingthroughapatentapprovalforadrug.

AnotherstandardapprovalprocessiscreatedbytheBiologicsPriceCompetitionand InnovationAct,ortheBPCIA,whichutilizesdifferentprocedurestoresolvepatentdisputes.222 Thissystemisappliedforbiologicdrugs,asubsetofcomplexsmallmolecularpharmaceuticals. Theseareusuallymadethroughacell-engineeredprocessandaremoreexpensivethan generics.223Becauseofthesepivotaldifferences,differentconsiderationsareusedtodetermine thepatentapprovalprocess.Forinstance,thereisacontrastinapproachcomparedtotheHatch WaxmanActsincepharmaceuticalmanufacturersarenotrequiredtoprovepatentinformationto theFDA.224Instead,thesedisputesareresolvedthroughthe“patentdance.”Thissysteminvolves anelaboratecourseofactionbetweenthebrand-namebiologicsandbiosimilarmanufacturers, exchangingcriticalinformationabouttheirpatentstoprepareforlitigation.225Thevitalthingto

noteaboutthisprocessisthattheSupremeCourtheldthatbiosimilarmanufacturersarenot judiciallyobligatedtoengageinthepatentdance;therefore,thisimpliesthatthemanufacturers ultimatelycanchoosetoinitiatethepatentdance.226Thesignificanceofthisbecomesevenmore apparentwhenanalyzingvariouscourtcasesinwhichthetimingofthesedisputesiscritical.

Anexampleofthiswouldbeinthecase Amgen v Hospira,inwhichthecourtsruledthat HospirahadinfringedontwopatentsindevelopingabiosimilarforAmgen’sanemiatreatment product.227 Thiscasesignifiestheimportanceofthetimingofthepatentdance.Itshowcaseshow

221 IdatHatchWaxmanLetters

222 Westlawnext|practicallaw (nd) RetrievedApril13,2022,from https://contentnextwestlawcom/Document/I0f9603d4e15811e698dc8b09b4f043e0/View/FullTexthtml?contextDat a=(scDefault)

223 Id,Westlaw

224 Id,Westlaw

225 Menchaca,A (nd) TheinnerworkingsoftheBPCIApatentdance TheCenterForBiosimilars RetrievedApril 14,2022,fromhttps://wwwcenterforbiosimilarscom/view/the-inner-workings-of-the-bpcia-patent-dance

226 Id,Mecnchaca

227 Id,Mecnchaca

theBPCIArequiredthebiosimilarapplicanttonotifythemanufacturerwithin20daysofthe FDAacceptingthebiosimilarapplication.228 Furthermore,theFDAacceptedHospitra’s biosimilarapplicationinJuly2019;however,AmgensuedHospirainFebruary2020.229 This back-and-forthisestimatedtohavelastedover200daysandisnottheendofthestory,asthe partiesonlylitigatedasinglepatentinthefirstlitigation.Thissignifiesthattherearestillmore patentsthatAmgenwouldbeabletolitigateinthesecondlitigation.

B. Antitrust Legislation

Duetotheintricatenatureofthepatentingandlitigationprocessinthe pharmaceutical/biotechindustry,ahighvolumeofantitrustlawsandcasesmustbeconsidered. Itisfirstvitaltounderstandthelegalstructurethatsurroundstheseissues.The1890Sherman AntitrustActauthorizedthefederalgovernmenttopursuelegislationagainsttrustsor monopoliestomitigatethem.Specifically,thisactstatesthatanyformoftrustthatrestrains trade,limitscommerce,orpursuesconspiracytomonopolizeisoutlawed.230Monopolization referstoseverelyrestrictingcompetitionwhichexclusivelygivesoneconglomeratetheultimate marketpoweroverothers.231 Thisisoneofmanynecessaryregulationsthatthegovernment passed.TheFederalTradeCommission(FTC)Actof1914explicitlypreventsunfairmethodsof competitionanddeceptiveactsorpracticesaffectingcommerce.232 Whenitcomestobiologics andpharmaceuticalmanufacturing,thisactishighlycrucialasthereisalwaysathinline betweenestablishingapatentforadrugandsellingitwhilealsorefrainingfromlimiting

228 Id,Mecnchaca

229 Id,Mecnchaca

230 NationalArchivesandRecordsAdministration (nd) ShermanAnti-TrustAct(1890) NationalArchivesand RecordsAdministration RetrievedApril15,2022,from https://wwwarchivesgov/milestone-documents/sherman-anti-trust-act

231 Staff,theP N O,&ThisblogisacollaborationbetweenCTOandDPIPstaffandtheAIStrategyteam (2022, March4) Monopolizationdefined FederalTradeCommission RetrievedApril15,2022,from https://wwwftcgov/advice-guidance/competition-guidance/guide-antitrust-laws/single-firm-conduct/monopolization -defined

232 Id,2022

long-termcommerceoftheproductforothercompanies.Manypharmaceuticalexecutivesmay usethistoencouragemergersandacquisitionswithotherbiotechconglomeratestomaximize shareholdervalueandlimitcompetitionforapharmaceuticalproductorproducts.However,the ClaytonTrustAct,alsopassedin1914,prohibitsmergersandacquisitionsinwhichthe long-termeffectwillgreatlyextenuatecompetitionwhilepotentiallycreatingamonopoly 233In ordertofurtherregulatetheindustryandaccountforlargertransactions,additionallegislation waspassed,suchasthe1976HartScottRodino(HSR)AntitrustImprovementsAct.Thisact specifiedthatprosecutorsplanningmoresignificantmergersoracquisitionsmustspecifykey antitrustagenciestovalidatethattheirdealdoesnotgoagainstantitrustregulations.234

Severalexamplesofprominentmergeracquisitionsinthepharmaceuticalindustrycan provideaplethoraofdetailwhenanalyzingtheapplicationoftheantitruststatute.However, beforedivingdeeperintothesespecificcases,itiscrucialtoevaluatethereasoningastowhy thesemergersaresocommoninthepharmaceuticalindustry.Specifically,thepreviousconcepts discussed,suchasthegenericandbiologicsdrugmarket,areinfluentialinincentivizingmore mergers.Forexample,itiscommontoseepotentialcompetitionmergersoccurinwhicha competitorchoosestobuyacompanyplanningonenteringitsmarket.

235 Theissuewiththese typesofacquisitionsisthattheycanultimatelylimittheamountofcompetition.Inotherwords, asingledrugmanufacturercanusethistocontrolawholemarketoflong-termpharmaceuticals. Subsequently,thiscandrasticallyaffectthepricesforthesedrugssincethereisnoincentivefor thepharmaceuticalmanufacturertomaintainorlowerpricesastheydonothaveother

233 TheClaytonantitrustact USHouseofRepresentatives:History,Art&Archives (nd) RetrievedApril15, 2022,fromhttps://historyhousegov/HistoricalHighlight/Detail/15032424979

234 NavigatingtheHart-Scott-RodinoAct NavigatingtheHart-Scott-RodinoAct|ThomsonReuters (nd) RetrievedApril15,2022,from

https://legalthomsonreuterscom/en/insights/articles/navigating-the-hart-scott-rodino-act-#:

~:text=The%20Hart%2DScott%2DRodino%20Antitrust,Antitrust%20Division%20for%20antitrust%20review

235 Staff,theP N O,&ThisblogisacollaborationbetweenCTOandDPIPstaffandtheAIStrategyteam (2022, March4).Competitiveeffects.FederalTradeCommission.RetrievedApril15,2022,from https://wwwftcgov/advice-guidance/competition-guidance/guide-antitrust-laws/mergers/competitive-effects

competitorstobeconcernedaboutwhoaresellingasimilarproduct.236Thisresultsinan economictug-of-warinwhichpharmaceuticalcompaniesleveragemarketpoweranddrug pricingtotheiradvantagewhilelimitinglegitimatecompetitivepractices.TheFTChas specificallyinvestigatedmanymergersthatmaybedoingpreciselythis.

AnexamplewouldbeWatsonPharmaceuticals'acquisitionofRobinHoodHolding, ownerofArrowPharmaceuticals.Arrowwasknownforbeingoneofthefewlimitedsuppliesof agenericdrugcalledCabergolineknowntotreatParkinson’sdisease.237 Watsonconsequently receivedFDAapprovaltosellthesamegenericversionofthedrugandwasexpectedtoenter themarketintwoyears.TheFTC,however,claimedthatWatson'sacquisitionofArrowwould eliminatetheentryofWatson’sproduct.238TheexcitingthingaboutthismergeristhattheFTC didnotlimititsargumenttoonedrugorproduct.Inanothercase,Watsonwasagenericsupplier ofanHIVtherapeuticknownasdronabinol;however,asecondarybranchofArrowwasalso developingthesamedrug.Becausethemarketforthisdruglackedcompetitionandother players,theFTCarguedtheacquisitionwouldendupharmingtheentryofArrow’sincoming genericandsignificantlyimpactingthedrug’spricing.239Specifically,thedrug'spricinginthe genericmarketisheavilyinfluencedbythenumberofcompetitors.240 Therearetwocentral takeawaysfromthiscase.Thefirstoneistheimportanceofanalyzingthemarketforacertain drugandhowmanyotherpharmaceuticalbranchesareinvolvedwhenproposingapotential merger.Thisalsoshowcaseshowheavilypricingcanbeaffectedbasedonthenumberof competitorsinthesamemarket.

236 Id,2022

237 Staff,theP N O,&ThisblogisacollaborationbetweenCTOandDPIPstaffandtheAIStrategyteam (2021, July7) WatsonPharmaceuticals,Inc,acorporation,andRobinHoodHoldingsLimited,alimitedliabilitycompany, inthematterof FederalTradeCommission RetrievedApril15,2022,from https://wwwftcgov/legal-library/browse/cases-proceedings/091-0116-watson-pharmaceuticals-inc-corporation-robi n-hood-holdings-limited-limited-liability-company-matter

238 Id,2021

239 Id,2021

240 Id,2021

Antitrustlawsalsoplayasignificantroleinothermonopolizationissuesthatmayarise inconjunctionwiththeonesdiscussedpreviously.Thisincludesaninstanceinwhich manufacturerswouldmodifyolddrugsslightlyandpatentthemasnewinventions,referredtoas patentevergreening.241Theissuethatcomesupwiththisisthatthereisusuallynogood physiologicalorhealthadvantagethatisassociatedwiththisprocess,anditisinsteadprimarily conductedinordertoachieveaneconomicadvantagebypharmaceuticalcompanies. Furthermore,thisactoffrivolouslypatentingminormodificationscanincreasethecostof generics,especiallythoseinthesamemarketastheonedonethroughevergreening.242 Froma monopolisticperspective,thiscanbeprettydangerousasitallowsforlimitedmarket competitionwhilealsoabusingthepatentsystem.Notonlythat,butitmayinevitablyraise healthcarecostsforconsumersandresultinahighervolumeofpatentfilingsinthepatent office,therebylimitingtimeandresources.Anothersimilarpracticeisproducthopping,in whichamanufacturerwouldlimittheproductionofanolddrugformulationwhosepatentis closetoexpirationandthenincentivizepatientstoswitchtoitsnewpatentedformulation.243

Thisachievesasimilareffecttopatentevergreeningandcanbeusedtomonopolizeamarket further,ultimatelyenablingtheabilitytoexploitdrugpricing.Tocombatthis,federallawmakers haveintroducedbillssuchasTheAffordablePrescriptionforPatientsThroughPromoting CompetitionAct,whichexplicitlyaidstheFTC’sabilitytobringcasesagainstdrug manufacturerspracticingsomeformofproducthopping.244Forexample,thisactemphasizes

241 Collier,R.(2013,June11).Drugpatents:Theevergreeningproblem.CMAJ:CanadianMedicalAssociation journal=journaldel'Associationmedicalecanadienne RetrievedApril15,2022,from https://wwwncbinlmnihgov/pmc/articles/PMC3680578/#:~:text=In%20the%20pharmaceutical%20trade%2C%20 when,lot%20to%20improve%20people's%20health

242 Id,Collier

243 Hong,P (2019,October11)

Stoppingthepharmaceutical"Producthop" BillofHealth RetrievedApril16, 2022,from

https://blogpetrieflomlawharvardedu/2019/10/11/stopping-the-pharmaceutical-product-hop/#:~:text=%E2%80%9 CProduct%20hopping%E2%80%9D%20in%20the%20drug,%E2%80%93%20and%20newly%20patented%20%E2 %80%93%20formulation.

244 Id,2019

howapharmaceuticalcompanywillbepenalizedformonopolisticpracticesifitcausesa“hard switch”or“softswitch.”245 Ahardswitchwouldinvolveamanufacturerremovingtheoriginal productordrugfromthemarkettoswitchtoanewformulation,akintoproducthopping.In addition,asoftswitchwouldbesimilar.However,inthiscasetheoriginalproductorthedrug, wouldstillbeonthemarket.Still,otherformsofmarketingwouldbeutilizedtopromoteanew drugformulationthatisnotphysiologicallybeneficial.Inordertobringalawsuitinadistrict courtseekinganinjunctionorremedy,theFTCmustprovethatthesepracticesare,insome form,takingplace.246

C. Defendant Strategies for Pharmaceutical Conglomerates

Pharmaceuticalcompaniesmaytakeseveralkeystepstoavoidbeingconsumedby antitrustlitigationissues.Whenanalyzingthesemethods,thereisaclearwinner:tobeas proactiveaspossibleandworktogetherwiththeFTCbeforeengaginginthecourtroom.Thisis morecomplexthanitmightsound.However,itisanidealwayforpharmaceuticalcompaniesto pursueoperations.Tofurtherelaborate,beforeenteringintosettlementswithcompetitorsthat involvesomeformofantitrustconflict,pharmaceuticalcompaniesshouldplayaroleinreaching outtotheFTCandworkingtogetherwiththemtoensurethattheirconductisappropriate.

247 ThiscanbedonethroughtheFTCletterreviewsoradvisoryopinionsfromFTCstaff.248 Two mainbenefitscomefromthisprocess.Theprimaryoneisthatiftheagencyapprovesthe conduct,thenthisendsupsavingcopiousamountsoftimeandresourcesbyavoidingpotential litigation.Inaddition,thisalsosetsagoodprecedentandfacilitatesaproperrelationshipwith theFTCandotherantitrustregulators,whichcanbegreatforthelongterm.249 Moreover,this

245 Id,2019

246 Id,2019

247 Hittinger,C W (nd) Antitrustconsiderationsinpharmaceuticallifecycle RetrievedApril16,2022,from https://wwwbakerlawcom/files/uploads/News/Articles/LITIGATION/FDA/Hittinger-Antitrust-Web-02-08-2016pdf

248 Id,Hittinger

249 Id,Hittinger

enablestheFTCtoworkmorecloselywithacompanyastheycanassurethattheexecutives maintainhighintegrityandresponsibility.

Anothercommonstrategypharmaceuticalcompaniesusetoavoidlong-termantitrust violationsisa“payfordelay”agreement.Inthistypeofdeal,abrand-namepharmaceutical companycanpayagenericcompetitortoprolongtheproduct'slaunchfromthemarket.250This strategybenefitsapharmaceuticalcompanyasitcanpotentiallyavoidlong-termlitigationwhile takingadvantageofmonopolisticprofits.Thegenericcompetitor,inaddition,islesslikelyto pursueanyformofchargesastheyarealsoreapingprofits.However,thisproblemmayalso benefittheconglomerateswhenitcomestolitigation.Since2005,afewappellatecourtshave appliedtheantitrustlawtoupholdthepay-for-delayagreements.251 Itcanbedebatedthatthis formofsettlementgoesagainstvariousantitrustregulations;however,thereisnotnecessarily concretelegislationfromCongresstoprecludetheseagreements.

D. Case Background: Federal Trade Commission v. Actavis, Inc.

FTCv.Actavis,Inc.iscrucialinbalancingthecomplexityofpatentandantitrust regulationwhileansweringthecriticalquestion:“Arereversepaymentagreementsperselawful, ratherthanpresumptivelyanticompetitive?”.252 First,itisnecessarytounderstandthecontextual backgroundofthiscase.In2000,SolvayPharmaceuticalspatentedatropicgelmedication calledAndroGel.Subsequently,theyreceivedFDAapprovalforthemedication,andmany genericmanufacturersbegandevelopinggenericversions.Inresponse,Solvayfiledapatent infringementsuitagainstsomegenericdrugmanufacturers,suchasWatsonPharmaceuticalsand PaddockLaboratories.However,thedefendantsrespondedbyclaimingthatSolvay’soriginal

250 Paydelay:Howdrugcompanypayoffscostconsumers (nd) RetrievedApril16,2022,from https://wwwftcgov/sites/default/files/documents/reports/pay-delay-how-drug-company-pay-offs-cost-consumers-bil lions-federal-trade-commission-staff-study/100112payfordelayrptpdf

251 Id

252 Fed.tradecomm'nv.Actavis,Inc.,570U.S.136(2013).JustiaLaw.(n.d.).RetrievedApril18,2022,from https://supremejustiacom/cases/federal/us/570/136/

patentwasinvalid;therefore,nocasesupportsthattheyinfringeduponit.Tomitigatethis, SolvayenteredintoareversepaymentagreementwithWatsonandPaddocktoensuretheir originalpatentwasnotremoved.Afterward,Solvayendeduppayingthemanufacturersadecent feetoallowfortheircurrentpatenttoremaininthemarket.Thiscanbeanalogoustoa pay-for-delayorotherpreviouslydiscussedstrategies.However,theFTCnoticedthisand claimedthatSolvayandtheotherpharmaceuticalcompaniesviolatedantitrustregulations.253 Themanufacturersclaimedthisargumentwasinvalidastheoriginaldealwasmeanttopurely protectSolvay’sexistingpatent.Inotherwords,theyclaimthattheFTCistoobroadly interpretingthisdealandusingittoaccusethemofmonopolisticpractices.TheUnitedStates DistrictCourtfortheNorthernDistrictofGeorgiaagreedwiththemanufacturersanddismissed thecase.254Nonetheless,theFTCappealedtotheUnitedStatesCourtofAppealsforthe EleventhCircuittorehearthecase;however,theyultimatelyagreedwiththelowercourt’s decision.255TheAppellateCourtarguedthatthemanufacturer'sreversepaymentsettlementis lawfulifitlimitscompetition,similartohowpatentscandothesamething.

JusticeStephenG.Breyerdeliveredtheopinionforthe5-3majority.Themainrebuttal wasthateventhoughpatent-basedsettlementscansometimesviolateantitrustlaws,itdoesnot necessarilyentailthatthereversepaymentsettlementwasunlawful.256Furthermore,thedecision wasmadethattheFTC’slawsuitshouldhavebeenallowedtoproceed.Further,thecourt emphasizedthatsomestrongconsiderationstechnicallynullifiedtheFTC’scase.Themainone isthatifthereversepaymentsettlementwasdonetoleadtosomeformofanticompetitiveharm,

253 Id

254 Id

255 Id

256 Doe,J (2019,December11) Article:FTCV Actavis:Thefutureofpharmaceuticalpatentsettlementsafterthe Court'sadoptionofa"ruleofReason"framework QuinnEmanuelTrialLawyers-QuinnEmanuelUrquhart& Sullivan,LLP RetrievedApril18,2022,from

https://www.quinnemanuel.com/the-firm/publications/article-october-2013-ftc-v-actavis-the-future-of-pharmaceutic al-patent-settlements-after-the-court-s-adoption-of-a-rule-of-reason-framework/

258

thenthepatentholdermostlikelybringsaboutasimilareffect.257 Thisisagroundbreaking decisionasitshowcaseshow,eventhoughlargeunjustifiedsettlementsmayleadtoantitrust liability,itdoesnotjustifytheabsoluteimmunitythatthelowercourt’sdecisionallowed.Chief JusticeJohnRobertsdissented,arguingthatthemajoritydecisiondisincentivizespharmaceutical companiesfromproducinggenericdrugversionssinceitdoesnotallowforrelevantsettlements. Inotherwords,hisargumentemphasizesthatgenericcompaniescouldmoreefficientlyhandle negotiationsthroughsettlingratherthanpursuingcostlylitigation,whichseemstobethe long-termeffectoftheCourt’sdecision.

Conclusion

E. Long-Term Effects – Post FTC v Actavis, Inc.

BasedonthepriorSupremeCourtdecision, FTC v Actavis, Inc, therehavebeen evidentchangesinhowpharmaceuticalcompaniesnavigatesettlementsandnegotiations, particularlyconcerningpatentandantitrustdisputes.Priortothisdecision,theinitialconcern wasthatgenericpharmaceuticalcompanieswouldavoiddevelopinglower-costequivalentsto brandedproductsinconjunctionwithsettlinglessinpatentlitigationsincereversepayments wouldbesubjecttoantitrustscrutiny

259However,basedonthedata,pharmaceuticalcompanies aresettlingmorecasesbasedontheirproductsthanbeforetheSupremeCourtdecision.260 For example,in2016,pharmaceuticalcompaniesfiled232finalpatentlitigationsettlements,which was35%morethanthepreviousyear’srecord.261Thisismostlikelybecausepharmaceutical

257 Id,2019

258 Id

259 Staff,theP N O,ThisblogisacollaborationbetweenCTOandDPIPstaffandtheAIStrategyteam,Albert,J T andB,Vedova,H,&Levine,H V andS (2019,May28) Then,now,anddowntheroad:Trendsin pharmaceuticalpatentsettlementsafterFTCv Actavis FederalTradeCommission RetrievedApril18,2022,from https://wwwftcgov/enforcement/competition-matters/2019/05/then-now-down-road-trends-pharmaceutical-patent-s ettlements-after-ftc-v-actavis

260 Id,2019

261 Id,2019

companiesarenotfindingotherwaystosettle,whichwasunexpected.Thepositiveaspectof thisdecisionisthattypicalsidedealsandothernon-reversepaymentshavedeclinedinrecent years.262Thiscanenablemorereasonabledrugpricing,asmanufacturersarenolonger encouragedtomaximizedrugpricingwithgreatercompetitioninthesemarkets.Inaddition, thisdemonstratesthateventhoughthenumberofsettlementshasdeclined,antitrust enforcementissignificantinensuringmonopolisticpracticesdonotharmconsumers.

ANUNDERSTANDINGOFTHESEXUALASSAULTEPIDEMICWITHRELATED

SOCIALMOVEMENTS,POLICIES,ANDUNIVERSITYPROGRAMMING

ANUSHREECHAUHAN|ROWANUNIVERSITY

Introduction

Sexual Assault canbedefinedasanynonconsensualsexualactproscribedbyFederal, tribal,orStatelaw,includingwhenthevictimcannottoconsent,accordingtotheDepartmentof Justice.263 SexualAssaulthasbeenalong-standingissueincommunitiesglobally IntheUnited States,sexualassaultcrimesclassifiedasanyofthefollowingactions:rape,statutoryrape, datingviolence,fondling,incest,domesticviolence,ormore,canbelabeledasanepidemic, especiallyincollegesanduniversities.264 Overtime,socialmovements,liketheMeToo movementandthreewavesoffeminism,havepushedthegovernmenttopasslegislationto condemnsexualcrimes.Asaresult,federallegislation,suchasTitleIX,CleryAct,andCampus SaVEAct,havebeencreatedtoestablishprotectionandcombattheseverityofthisepidemic.265 Theselegislationshaveschoolsimplementprogramstoaidtheirstudentpopulationwith resources,likecateredstudentgroupsandmandatedreporting;however,“[a]mongundergraduate students,26.4%offemalesand6.8%ofmalesexperiencerapeorsexualassaultthroughphysical force,violence,orincapacitation.”

266 Fromtheraisedawarenessinthisfieldtotheadaptionof policies,theprevalenceofthesexualassaultepidemiccontinuestopersist.Therefore,going forward,itisvitalthateffectivesolutionsareadoptedbasedonthepreviouslegislationand encourageinstitutionstoestablishinitiativesandcateredprogrammingtolessensexualviolence.

CurrentSexualAssaultPoliciesandLaws

TheUnitedStateshasdevelopedaseriesoflegislationtopreventsexualassault.Title Ⅸ, theCleryAct,andtheCampusSaVEActexistamongstthesepolicies..

WhenTitle Ⅸ oftheCivilRightsActwasconsidered,itneverinitiallysoughttoinclude sexualassault.Instead,itwasmeanttodetergenderdiscrimination.Passedaspartofthe EducationAmendmentsof1972,TitleIXnevermentionsthewords‘sexualharassment’or ‘sexualassault’,instead,merelyprovidingthat‘[n]opersonintheUnitedStatesshall,basedon sex,beexcludedfromparticipationin,bedeniedthebenefitsof,orbesubjectedto discriminationunderanyeducationprogramoractivityreceivingFederalfinancialassistance.’

TheEducationAmendmentof1972wasintendedtodiminishdiscriminationagainstfemales' chancesincollegeadmissionsandthedistributionofgender-basedathleticfunding.The inclusionofSexualAssaultinTitle Ⅸ arrivedadecadelaterwithaSupremeCourtruling, FranklinVGwinnettCountyPublicSchools,whichallowedvictimstoseek“monetary damages.”

267

268 Throughunanimousdecision,itbecameclearthatitisafederalrightforvictimsto seekappropriateremediesandprotectionsundertheeffectsofemotionalstress,whichsexual assaultcrimescancreate,andredirectfederalfundingfromschoolsthatmaintainhighratesof sexualcrimes.269 TheseissuesintersectwithhowcriminaljusticeandTitle Ⅸ merge,whichhas beenanongoingissuewithcurrentrelatedcasesandinvestigations.270 Therefore,Title Ⅸ was addedtouniversitiestopreventsexualassaultandgenderdiscrimination.Title Ⅸ hasmade

267 Cyphert (2018) Thedevilisinthedetails:Exploringrestorativejusticeasanoptionforcampussexualassault responsesunderTitleIX DenverLawReview,96(1),51–85

268 Cyphert (2018) Thedevilisinthedetails:Exploringrestorativejusticeasanoptionforcampussexualassault responsesunderTitleIX DenverLawReview,96(1),51–85

269 Wright (1992) “FRANKLINV GWINNETTCOUNTYPUBLICSCHOOLS”:THESUPREMECOURT IMPLIESADAMAGESREMEDYFORTITLEIXSEXDISCRIMINATION VanderbiltLawReview,45(5), 1367–

270 Javorka,&Campbell,R (2021) “ThisIsn’tJustaPoliceIssue”:TensionsbetweenCriminalJusticeand UniversityResponsestoSexualAssaultamongCollegeStudents.AmericanJournalofCommunityPsychology, 67(1-2),152–165

wavesinnewuniversityprogramstoincreasereportingandaidstudents.

271 However,afterthe passageofTitle Ⅸ,universitiesworkedtopasspoliciesincludingmandatedreporting,butthere havebeen“ambiguousdefinitions,peervictimization,andconfusionofdisclosure.”

272 Title Ⅸ, though,hasbeenaninfluentialandneededsourceforchange,asithasestablishedsystemsfor survivoraidandmandatedreportingpolicies.

273

“In1998,theFederalGovernmentenactedlegislationknownastheCleryAct,whichwas intendedtomandatethereportingofcampussecuritypoliciesandcrimestatisticsbyinstitutions ofhighereducation(20USCS§1092(f),2012)toprotectstudents.TheCleryActisnamedin honorofJeanneClery,awomanwhowasrapedandmurderedinhercampusresidencehall.The statutewasimplementedtoincreasepublicawarenessoncollegecampusesandhelpstudents protectthemselvesfromvictimization.”

274 TheCleryActhasworkedtospreadawarenessbuthas alsobroughtlighttothewidespreadissueofunderreporting.PriortotheCleryAct,numerous caseswerenotreported,creatingunreliablestatistics.Therefore,itmayseemthatratesofsexual assaulthaveincreasedoverrecentyears;however,sexualassaulthasexistedwithoutbeing reported.TheCleryActdoesnotholdliabilitytothereporterandthereforeisproactivein increasingthenumberofreports.

275 Liability tothereportercanbedefinedasholdingtheir accountabilitytotheirreport.Whilemanyconsideralackofliabilityunreliable,theCleryAct hasincreasedawarenessofthenumberofcasesprevalentoncollegecampusesandbrought

271 Holland, & Cortina, L M (2017) The Evolving Landscape of Title IX: Predicting Mandatory Reporters’ Responses to Sexual Assault Disclosures. Law and Human Behavior, 41(5), 429–439.

272 Weiss,&Lasky,N V (2017) MandatoryReportingofSexualMisconductatCollege:ACriticalPerspective JournalofSchoolViolence,16(3),259–270

273 Mancini,Pickett,J T,Call,C,&Roche,S P (2016) Mandatoryreporting(MR)inhighereducation:College students’perceptionsoflawsdesignedtoreducecampussexualassault CriminalJusticeReview(Atlanta,Ga), 41(2),219–235

274 Gardella,Nichols-Hadeed,C A,Mastrocinque,J M,Stone,J T,Coates,C A,Sly,C J,&Cerulli,C (2015) BeyondCleryActStatistics:ACloserLookatCollegeVictimizationBasedonSelf-ReportData Journalof InterpersonalViolence,30(4),640–658

275 DUNN.(2019).PreventableTragedyintheLaurenMcCluskeyCase:AddressingCampus-BasedIntimatePartner ViolenceUndertheCleryAct FamilyLawQuarterly,53(3),213–242

attentiontotheneedtoreport.276 Concerningthelegislation,therehavebeenpositiveeffortsto counterthesexualassaultepidemic.

TheCleryActwasamendedwiththeCampusSexualViolenceElimination(Campus SaVE)Actin2013.Enforcedbystateinstitutionswithfederalfunding,“[thisactencourages] greatertransparencyandaddsadditionalrequirementsforinstitutionstoaddressandprevent sexualviolenceoncampus.”277 Thelegislationaimstoimprovetransparency,accountability,and preventionofsexualassaultonuniversitycampuses.Schoolsareobligedtosubmitanannual safetyreport,disclosestatisticsofsexualcrimes,and“providepromptnoticeofoutcomes,and thattheschoolwillinformpartiesoftheavailabilityofinterimmeasures,”thus,leadingtothe implementationofeffectiveuniversityprogramming.278 TheCampusSaVEActhasbeena positivestepinestablishinguniversityprogramminginstitutions.However,withtheprimary focusonpublicreputation,“[universitieswouldrather]riskfinesandinvestigationsthantoadmit toproblemswithsexualassaultoncampus.”

279 TheCampusSaVEhasprovidedasolutionfor thesexualassaultepidemicbutprovesthepersistingissueofschools'tabooandunwillingnessto remedythesituation.However,itisnotablethattheselegislationshaveestablishedreporting policiesineveryschoolwithofficesforTitle Ⅸ andtheCleryAct.

EffectofSexualAssaultPoliciesandLawsonEducationalInstitutions

FederallyfundedinstitutionshaveestablishedofficesforTitle Ⅸ andtheCleryAct.

Therefore,non-complianceschoolsarefinanciallydisadvantagedbyfacingfinesand

276 DUNN (2019) PreventableTragedyintheLaurenMcCluskeyCase:AddressingCampus-BasedIntimatePartner ViolenceUndertheCleryAct FamilyLawQuarterly,53(3),213–242

277 RAINN (2018,October4) CampusSaVEActhttps://wwwrainnorg/articles/campus-save-act

278 Cox (2018) SavingTitleIXValues:TheCampusSaVEActasaCriticalToolforSurvivorsandAllies Harvard JournalofLaw&Gender,41(2),429–

279 Cox.(2018).SavingTitleIXValues:TheCampusSaVEActasaCriticalToolforSurvivorsandAllies.Harvard JournalofLaw&Gender,41(2),429–

investigations.

280 “UnderTitleIX,asexualharassmentvictimcanfileaprivatelawsuitata federalcourtiftheircollegeisnotcomplyingwithitsTitleIXobligations…withoutfilinga priorcomplaintwiththeOfficeforCivilRights(OCR).”

281 Thereareapproximately“2197 [p]endingCasesCurrentlyUnderInvestigationatElementary-SecondaryandPost-Secondary SchoolsasofMay8,2023,7:30am;”forexample,thereareongoinglawsuitsagainstWest VirginiaUniversityforviolationofsexualharassmentunderTitleIXasofJanuary19,2022.

282 Thesevictimscanseekfinancialcompensation,amongstotherremedies,forthecriminal proceduresorviolationsseeninDoeVUniversityofDelaware.Inthiscase,theplaintiffwas foundguiltyofsexualcrimesandputona2-yearsuspension.Althoughhehassincefiledfordue processclaims,theplaintiffwasfoundguiltyof“sexualmisconduct.”283 Ithasbecomeevident thatfederallegislationspushpublicinstitutionstoshowaccountabilityintakingactioninsexual assaultcases.InthevaryingcasesspreadamongsttheUnitedStates,federalinvestigationsalso pushschoolstotakeactioninremedyingcases.

284

SurvivorPenaltiesofEducationalInstitutions

Someinstitutionsignoretheprevalenceofsexualassaultbyrefusingtoreporttheir statisticstosustaintheirpublic-standingreputations;however,thisiscausingstudentstosuffer academically “Individualswhohavebeensexuallyassaultedaremorelikelytodropoutof

280 Cox.(2018).SavingTitleIXValues:TheCampusSaVEActasaCriticalToolforSurvivorsandAllies.Harvard JournalofLaw&Gender,41(2),429–

281 KnowYourIX TakingLegalActionUnderTitleIX

https://knowyourixorg/legal-action/taking-legal-action-title-ix/#:~:text=Under%20Title%20IX%2C%20a%20sexual ,for%20Civil%20Rights%20(OCR)

282 US DepartmentofEducation,OfficeforCivilRights (nd) TitleIXInvestigations:OpenInvestigations https://www2edgov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/investigations/open-investigations/tixhtml?page=110&offset=2180

283 Doev UniversityofDelaware,No CA No 19-1963-MN,UnitedStatesDistrictCourtfortheDistrictof Delaware(Oct 14,2020) https://casetextcom/case/doe-v-univ-of-del/

284 ShubinLaw.AListofUniversitiesThatAreUnderInvestigationforTitleIXViolations.

https://wwwshubinlawcom/a-list-of-universities-that-are-under-investigation-for-title-ix-violations/

university,havelowerGPA,andexperienceself-regulatedlearningproblems.”

285 Thisviolence causescoststhateconomicallyimpactindividuals.“A2008studyplacedthetotalper-offense societalcostofrapeandsexualassaultat$240,776in2008dollars,or$265,400in2015dollars.

A1996studyfoundthatwhenlostproductivity,medicalandmentalhealthcare,propertyloss, andlostqualityoflifeweretallied,eachrapeorsexualassaultcostthesurvivor,onaverage, $87,000.This‘rapetax’is$143,678,in2015dollars.”

286 VaryingDepartmentsofEducationlack adequatesolutionstothiseconomicdisparity;thus,collegesfaceasignificantsurvivordropout rate.“34.1%ofstudentswhohaveexperiencedsexualassaultdropout,higherthantheoverall dropoutrate,[and]morethan40%ofcollegestudentswhoweresexuallyvictimizedalso reportedexperiencesofinstitutionalbetrayal.”

287 Thereisacalltochangeforinstitutionalreform channeledbyvaryingsocialmovements.

EffectonFeministMovements

Eachwaveoffeminismhasbroughtnewstrategiestoaddressgenderinequalities, includingsexualviolence.Theanti-rapemovementhashighlightedmomentswhensexual assaulthasbeendemandedtobechangedandmitigated.The#MeToomomenthasraised awarenessandpushedthegovernmenttocreatesolutionsviapolicy Bothhavecausedeffectson stateinstitutionsandpushedforbetterprogrammingandchange.Socialmovementshave centeredthediscussionaroundvictimsandbroughtwidespreadattentiontotheproblem.

Historically,womenhavebeentacklingsexualassaultintheprivaterealmofthehome foryearswithdomesticandrelationshipabuse.Therootissuesofdomesticandrelationship

285 Molstad,T D,Weinhardt,J M,&Jones,R (2023) SexualAssaultasaContributortoAcademicOutcomesin University:ASystematicReview Trauma,Violence,&Abuse,24(1),218–230

https://doiorg/101177/15248380211030247

286 Ziegler,R L (2014) GenderViolence,Costs,andBenefits:TheRoleofLegalRemediesintheWakeofTitleIX YaleLawJournal,123(8),2386-2441

https://www.yalelawjournal.org/feature/gender-violence-costs-schools-financial-obligations-under-title-ix

287 It'sOnUs AboutSexualViolencehttps://wwwitsonusorg/about-sexual-violence/

abusehavealsooccurredoncollegecampuses.Forexample,therehasbeenprominentvictim blamingoncampusesandoverwhelmingstatisticsondaterapeincollegeswhereapproximately 20to25percentoffemaleshavebeenforcedintosexualbehaviors.288 Fromthesedisturbances, feministmobilizationoncampuseshasgrownthroughstudentgroupsandscholarlyfeminists fromtheNationalCouncilofFamilyRelations(NCFR)andFeminismandFamilyStudies(FFS) section.289 Thediscourseinschoolshasshiftedtobringsuitableprogramsforstudentsasfeminist groupsvoicetheneedforchangeinschools.290 Thefeministmovementshavehadactivism throughprotestsandmoreonbehalfofwomentofightfortheirrights.Theyhavecoveredtopics ofintersectionalityandhowdiscriminationhasuprootedsexualcrimesoncampuses.291 Students’ workhaspushedforprogramsandchange;however,goingforward,thegoalistorecognizethe bestprogramtoprovideinclusivityandproficiency

Thefirstwaveoffeminismfocusedonwomen’ssuffrageandreachingequalityviathe constitution;however,thereweresomestridestowardsolvingthesexualassaultepidemic,such asthefirstrapecrisiscenter,establishedin1971intheUnitedStates.292 Thiscenteradvocated andsupportedvictimsofsexualcrimesintheBayareaandstillhelpshundredsofpeopleeach year Unfortunately,theimpactsofthefirstwaveoffeminismdidnotsignificantlyimpactsexual violence,andthiscultureremainedembeddedinsocietalstandards;therefore,howthefirstwave

288 Cantalupo (2009) Campusviolence:understandingtheextraordinarythroughtheordinary JournalofCollege andUniversityLaw,35(3),613

289 Krause,Miedema,S S,Woofter,R,&Yount,K M (2017) FeministResearchwithStudentActivists: EnhancingCampusSexualAssaultResearch FamilyRelations,66(1),211–223

290 Krause,Miedema,S S,Woofter,R,&Yount,K M (2017) FeministResearchwithStudentActivists: EnhancingCampusSexualAssaultResearch FamilyRelations,66(1),211–223

291 Ricci,&Bergeron,M (2019) TacklingRapeCultureinQuébecUniversities:ANetworkofFeministResistance ViolenceAgainstWomen,25(11),1290–1308.

292 BayAreaWomenAgainstRape(BAWAR) https://bawarorg/

waslimitedtowhitemiddle-classwomenandwasalsolimitedintacklingdifferentculturaland systemicissues.293

Thesecondwaveoffeminismhappenedinthe1960sand1970s.Theprevalenceof sexualassaultandviolencerose,especiallyagainstwomen.Theanti-rapemovementrosein popularityandwasoftheutmostimportanceinraisingawarenessaboutvictimblamingandthe severityofsexualassault.Thefeministsalsoadvocatedforlegislativechangestocondemnrape andrelatedoffenses.294 Thenotionofrapecrisiscentersalsospreadinordertoaidsurvivors. Thissecondwavealsobecamemoreinclusionaryandbroadeneditsfocustothatofwomenof colorandminorities.

Thethirdwaveoffeminismstartedinthe1990s.Thethirdwavewascuratedaround themesofintersectionalityformarginalizedgroups.Feministsinthiswaveevolvedtheir perspectiveandestablishedsexualassaultasagenderedissuethatintersectswithitself.Itcan combinewithproblemsrelatingtoracism,homophobia,ableism,andotherformsofsubjugation. Duringthistime,victim-basedapproachesbecameapopularmethodtohelpsurvivors.These methodsworkedtoempowerthevoicesofsurvivorstospeakabouttheirmistreatmentfrom sexualcrimesinthejusticesystem.295 Socialmediaalsoincreasedprevalencetoincrease survivors'perceptionandawarenessofsupportsystems.Inaddition,themediaactedasa platformforvictimstoconnectandcallforchange.However,difficultiespersistinrapeculture, blamingattitudesandmore.

293 Marino,&Ware,S.(2022).Rethinking“FirstWave”Feminisms:AnIntroduction.Signs:JournalofWomenin CultureandSociety,47(4),811–816 https://doiorg/101086/718868

294 Molony,&Nelson,J (2017) Women’sactivismand“secondwave”feminismtransnationalhistories(Molony& J Nelson,Eds) BloomsburyAcademic https://doiorg/105040/9781474250542

295 Snyder-Hall (2010) Third-WaveFeminismandtheDefenseof“Choice”PerspectivesonPolitics,8(1), 255–261.https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592709992842

AnotablemovementthathasledtochangeistheMeToomovement.TaranaJ.Burke,the founderofthemovement,hadthegoalofassistingvictimsofsexualassaultthatwerealsoof color Shealsofactoredinintersectionality,“fueledbyacommitmenttotheinterruptionof sexualviolenceandothersystemicissuesdisproportionatelyimpactingmarginalizedpeople particularlyBlackwomenandgirls.”

296 TheMeToomovementhasinspiredmanytospeakout abouttheirexperiencesassurvivorsofsexualcrimes.Thismovementdidhaveanincreaseinthe numberofcampusreportsfiledonthepremiseofsexualassault.

297 Thecombinationofsocial mediaandtheMeToomovementwasdynamicincreatinganavenueforvictimstocome togethertorepresentthisissue.Theinclusionofsocialmediacreatedaplatformfor“healing.”

298 Increasingly,“collegeshaveanopportunitytoutilizepreventioneducationprogramsandcampus climatesurveystointerveneinandunderstandthescopeoftheseissuesamongtheirstudent population[,and]studentsmaybeincreasinglyidentifyingtheirpastsexualexperiencesas unwanted,whichisafirststepinconsideringreachingoutforhelp.”

299 Theaspectof intersectionalityinthisissuehelpedbandtogetherdifferentcommunitiesincollectiveaction.For example,womencanrepresentasawholeinsteadofindividualidentities.Thishasprovided supportforidentitiesthataresubjugatedtosexualassaultatgreaterrates-“bisexualwomen experiencedsignificantlyhigherlifetimeprevalenceofrapeandothersexualviolencebyan intimatepartnerwhencomparedtoheterosexualwomenandsignificantlyhigherlifetime prevalenceofrape,physicalviolence,andstalkingbyanintimatepartnerwhencomparedto

296 MeTooMovement (2023) TaranaBurke,founder https://metoomvmtorg/get-to-know-us/tarana-burke-founder/

297 Jaffe,Cero,I,&DiLillo,D (2021) The#MeToomovementandperceptionsofsexualassault:Collegestudents’ recognitionofsexualassaultexperiencesovertime PsychologyofViolence,11(2),209–218

298 Alaggia,&Wang,S (2020) “Inevertoldanyoneuntilthe#metoomovement”:Whatcanwelearnfromsexual abuseandsexualassaultdisclosuresmadethroughsocialmedia?ChildAbuse&Neglect,103,104312–10

299 Palmer,Fissel,E.R.,Hoxmeier,J.,&Williams,E.(2021).MeTooforWhom?SexualAssaultDisclosuresBefore andAfter#MeToo AmericanJournalofCriminalJustice,46(1),68–106

lesbianandheterosexualwomen.’”

300 Theabilityofanonymityalsohelpedthosenotreadytobe involvedinvoicingtheirconcerns.TheMeToomovementhascreatedacatalystforchangethat affectsbothfederalandcampuspolicies.

Womenarethemostprominentgroupsubjecttosexualviolence,with“1outofevery6 Americanwomen[have]beenthevictimofanattemptedorcompletedrape.”301 Althoughthere hasbeenadvocacyandimplementationtocreatelawscombatingsexualcrimes,thereisstill neededactionforthepersistingratesofsexualcrimes.Moreover,ithasbeenproventhatgender andsexualminoritystudentsaregreatertargetsofsexualcrimesshowingthatconsiderable involvementofintersectionalityisneededinresources.

302 Therehavealsobeendueprocess concernsregardingadequatehearingsforallpartieswhenconsideringadequatereprimandsfor sexualcrimes.303 Persistentcasesexistamongcollegesandarecontinuouslybeingfiled,raising concernsaboutpolicyeffectiveness.Withthenumerousinvestigationsandhearings,evolving currentreformsandproposingnewsolutionsmaybemoreeffective.

ProposedReformsandSolutions

TitleIX,TheCleryAct,andCampusSaVEActhavecompelleduniversityinvolvement toresolvethesexualassaultepidemic.Therearemultipleopinionsinwhichschoolsand researchersbelievethistobeexecuted.Fromtheambiguity,victimization,anddisclosure challengeshappeningfromTitleIX,effortsareneededtofixtheseissuestopromoteTitle Ⅸ positivelyandkeepstudentssafe.Reinforcingstrategiesinclude“socialnormcampaigns,

300 OfficeforVictimsofCrime Sexualviolencestatistics InR A McMahon&A R Koss(Eds),Thetraumaof sexualassault:Treatment,prevention,andpractice(2nded)

https://ovcojpgov/sites/g/files/xyckuh226/files/pubs/forge/sexual numbershtml

301 RAINN VictimsofSexualViolence:Statistics

https://wwwrainnorg/statistics/victims-sexual-violence

302 Fisher,B W,Miles,J R,&Napper,L E (2019) SexualViolenceAmongGenderandSexualMinorityCollege Students InstituteonDomesticViolence&SexualAssault,TheUniversityofTexasatAustin https://sitesutexasedu/idvsa/files/2020/09/Sexual-violence-among-gender-and-sexual-minority-college-students-20 19pdf

303 AmericanAssociationofUniversityProfessors(AAUP).(2019).DueProcessinSexualHarassmentComplaints: AnAAUPReport Retrievedfromhttps://wwwaauporg/report/due-process-sexual-harassment-complaint

trainingvolunteers,andstudentoutreach.”

304 WeissandLasky(2017)promotetheconceptof volunteersandstudentoutreachtogetstudentinitiativesagainstsexualcrimes.Thegoalisto encouragechangebyinvolvingstudentbodiespassionateaboutlesseningtheepidemic.Theact ofcampaignsandvolunteerismisacommunity-engagedmethod.Thisengagementteaches clarificationsaboutsexualassault,consequentlycreatinganunderstandingtorefutevictim blamingandurgingvictimstocomeforward.

305 OneofthesemethodsistheGreenDotProgram, whichtrainsstudentstobeactivebystandersandformulatesolutionswhenfacedwithan incident.Theprogramhasestablishedbenefitsthatcouldbeimplementednationwide,including thatstudentswiththetrainingsawhigherreportingbehaviorskills.306

Formsofcounselingarealsoaproductivemethodtocreatestudentpersonalconnections thatcouldincreasethenumberofreportedcases.MidwesternUniversityhastrainedResidential assistants(RA’s)tobemandatedreportersandhavearesponseeffortiftheyareevertobe confrontedwithasexualassaultcase,concludingthathavingtrainedandtrustedpersonscanaid survivorsinreportinganddealingwiththeirexperiences.

307 TheseconnectionsthatResident Assistantscreatewithresidentsallowthemtobemorewillingtotellthemtoreport.Hollandand Cortina(2017)haveprovenincreasedstudentdisclosureandbroughtreportsthatmayotherwise gounnoticedtolight.Followingtheresearch,thispointconflictswiththeearlierideasproposed intheTitle Ⅸ section,whichpromotesvolunteersandnon-paidmemberstopromoteoutreach becauseoftheirlackofmoneyneedstobeinvolved.Thisshowsthevaryingsolutionsand

304 Weiss,&Lasky,N V (2017) MandatoryReportingofSexualMisconductatCollege:ACriticalPerspective JournalofSchoolViolence,16(3),259–270

305 Weiss,&Lasky,N V (2017) MandatoryReportingofSexualMisconductatCollege:ACriticalPerspective JournalofSchoolViolence,16(3),259–270

306 Coker,Cook-Craig,P G,Williams,C M,Fisher,B S,Clear,E R,Garcia,L S,&Hegge,L M (2011) EvaluationofGreenDot:AnActiveBystanderInterventiontoReduceSexualViolenceonCollegeCampuses ViolenceAgainstWomen,17(6),777–796

307 Holland,&Cortina,L.M.(2017).TheEvolvingLandscapeofTitleIX:PredictingMandatoryReporters’ ResponsestoSexualAssaultDisclosures LawandHumanBehavior,41(5),429–439

potentialoptionsforuniversityprogramming.Usinganother24-hourstafforpersonnel,suchas counselorsandsecurity,withanalertsystemcanalsoaidtheeffortstoaidstudents.308 Including ahearingboardtoworkwithsurvivorswithtrainedprofessionalswillbefurtherbeneficial.309 It canbeunderstoodthatthecollegeisaplacetodiscusspotentialsolutionstosolvingsexual crimes;however,howtodosoisconstantlycircumventedindebate.Ithasbeendifficulttolabel thecorrectcampusprogramstotacklethesexualassaultepidemicwiththemultitudeofoffered programming.

TheCleryActhasconfusedschools'abilitytoreportandhasrevealedthatcurrent universityprogrammingisnotefficientinresources.TheCampusSaVEActhasgonefurtherto revealthatsomeinstitutionschoosenottoreportonthepremiseofpublicreputationbychoosing toacceptfines.However,thesefinescannotdiminishstudentactivism.Schoolsunwillingto reportseemtohaveagreatertendencytofacemorescandals,thusinneedofprogramming.Day (1995)furtherdiscusseshowtoreformtheselackingtoolsforstudents,includingpatrolling, tacklingsocialpressures,counseling,andmandatoryeducationalprograms.

310 Day(1995) defines social pressures asinfluencesfromanenvironmentthatcreatebehavioralchanges.Social pressuresincludeexternalinfluencesfrompeers,family,media,andmorethatmayencourage specificchanges.Aprogramthathastackledsocialpressuresisstudentgroupscommonly associatedwithacultureofsexualviolenceoncollegecampuses.Twowaysthesestudentgroups havebeenanalyzedincludeGreeklifeandstudent-athletes.Greekorganizations,including fraternityandsororitylife,havehistoricallyrelatedtiesinthenewstosexualcrimes.Theideaof supportgroupsfortheseorganizationshascreatedasafespaceforopenforumstodiscussthe

308 Halstead,Williams,J R,&Gonzalez‐Guarda,R (2017) Sexualviolenceinthecollegepopulation:asystematic reviewofdisclosureandcampusresourcesandservices JournalofClinicalNursing,26(15-16),2137–2153

309 Sabina,&Ho,L Y (2014) CampusandCollegeVictimResponsestoSexualAssaultandDatingViolence: Disclosure,ServiceUtilization,andServiceProvision Trauma,Violence&Abuse,15(3),201–226

310 DAY.(1995).ASSAULTPREVENTIONASSOCIALCONTROL:WOMENANDSEXUALASSAULT PREVENTIONONURBANCOLLEGECAMPUSES JournalofEnvironmentalPsychology,15(4),261–281

presenceofpossiblecoercion.Supportgroups,ingeneral,haveallowedthosefeelingactsof coerciontospeakouttotacklelowself-esteem.

311 Franklin,Bouffard,andPratt(2012)expand thatthesesupportgroupsallowfraternitybrothersandsororitysisterstoreviewtheirsimilar experiencesanddeterminehowtomitigatesocialpressuresinthefuture.Alternatively, student-athleteshavebeenusedtomodelconsensualbehavior.

Athletesareanothergroupthathashadacorrelationtosexualcrimesinthenews. ScandalshaveoccurredfromfacultylikeLarryNassar,aUnitedStatesWomen'sNational Gymnasticsteamdoctorthatsexuallyexploitedhispatients,andfromteambehavior.

312 For instance,teammembershavecomeoutwithtestimoniesoftheiraccountsofsexualassaultfrom withintheircollegeteams,furtherspecifyinghoworganizationsliketheNationalCollegiate AthleticAssociation(NCAA)havefailedtoprotectstudentpopulations(Lavigne2020).Lavigne (2020)mentionsacaselikethatofMichiganStatetrackathlete,Rodedel,whowasallegedly rapedinMarch2017.Shereportedthiscasetoherassistantcoachandwastold,“‘ifshepursued anyclaimsagainst[themaleteammate],noonewouldlikeher,andthatbecauseRoedelis 'pretty,'shewouldbecomea'distraction.'"

313 Asseen,student-athletescanbecategorizedasa grouptocondemnthatactofsexualcrimesandmodelgoodbehavioraroundconsent.Caron (1993)researchedtheUniversityofMaine’swaysofaddressingthenationalissuesofdateand gangrape;thus,thisprogramhasencouragedpositivebehaviorfromathletesasafigureforother

311 Franklin,Bouffard,L A,&Pratt,T C (2012) SexualAssaultontheCollegeCampus:FraternityAffiliation, MalePeerSupport,andLowSelf-Control CriminalJusticeandBehavior,39(11),1457–1480

312 Mountjoy (2019) “Onlybyspeakingoutcanwecreatelastingchange”:whatcanwelearnfromtheDrLarry Nassartragedy?BritishJournalofSportsMedicine,53(1),57–60

313 Lavigne,Paula “NCAASuedby7WomenforFailuretoProtectinAllegedSexualAssaults”ESPN,ESPN InternetVentures,30Apr 2020, https://www.espn.com/college-sports/story/ /id/29114869/ncaa-sued-7-women-failure-protect-alleged-sexual-assault s

studentsutilizinggroupsandworkshops.314 Educatingconsenttoathletesallowsthemtobecome rolemodelsinthecommunityandtheirpeers.

Schoolsneedcateredresourcesfromvaryingtechniquesthataidspecificpersisting issues,demographics,andregionallandscapes.315 Therefore,someuniversityprogramsmayfail becausetheydonotworktoaidtheirstudentpopulationdemographics.Forexample,“thereare atleastsixoverarchingreasonsthatsurvivorsdonotusesupports:availability,affordability, accessibility,acceptability(withfivesub-types),appropriateness,andalternativecoping”with availableprograms.Itbecomesevidentthatsourceshavebeencreatedtodiminishsexual assault-relatedcrimes;however,schoolsdonotworktogobeyondtheirestablishedbaseline officesregardingsources.316 Overall,itappearstobeevidentfromthesescandalsthatschoolsare reactive.Institutionsestablishbetter-accreditedresourcesafterasurgeofsexualassaultsontheir campus.

Conclusion

Stateinstitutionsarereactivetopolicyandsocialmovementsandadaptafterthembut lacktheinitiativetoinstalltheirprogramming.Thereisacallforreformationforschoolsto createprogramsthatcatertotheirdemographicsandstudentneeds.Thecurrentfederal legislation,suchasTitle Ⅸ,CleryAct,andCampusSaVEAct,haveestablishedreporting policiesandgovernmentinvolvement;however,thesexualassaultepidemicpersists.

Improvementisneededassexualcrimesputstudentsateconomicandacademicdisadvantages. Thereare,moreover,creatingmoresignificanteffectsonminoritypopulationsastheyarea

314 SandraL CaronPhD (1993)AthletesasRape-AwarenessEducators:AthletesforSexualResponsibility,Journal ofAmericanCollegeHealth,41:6,275-276

315 Vladutiu,Martin,S L,&Macy,R J (2011) College-orUniversity-BasedSexualAssaultPreventionPrograms: AReviewofProgramOutcomes,Characteristics,andRecommendations Trauma,Violence,&Abuse,12(2),67–86

316 Holland,&Cortina,L.M.(2017).“ItHappenstoGirlsAlltheTime”:ExaminingSexualAssaultSurvivors’ ReasonsforNotUsingCampusSupports AmericanJournalofCommunityPsychology,59(1-2),50–64

greatertargetofsexualcrimes.Whilethegovernmentworkstoaddressongoinginvestigations, implementingeffectiveuniversityprogrammingcanworktostoptheepidemicfromitsroot.