Rutgers Undergraduate Law Review : Volume 2 Issue 1

THERUTGERS UNIVERSITY

UNDERGRADUATELAW REVIEW

Introduction

RutgersPre-LawSocietyBoard 4

RutgersUndergraduateLawReviewExecutiveBoard 5

EditorialTeam 6 MissionStatementandSubmissions 8

LetterfromtheEditor 9

Articles

THETWOFACEDJUSTICESYSTEM: 11 The United States and Elites in Corporate America

NuranSercan MarvinKimwon

DISCRIMINATIONINTHENFLHIRINGPROCESS: 17 The Case of Brian Flores v. National Football League

WassanAquil MichaelShalanov

THEEQUALRIGHTSAMENDMENT: 24 How the Equal Rights Amendment could save Women’s Rights

JuliannaMargolin KeerthanaRao

THEEVOLUTIONOFIMMIGRATIONLAWANDREFORM 36 Analysis of the evolution of immigration law and the impact on society

HaileyChoi SeanTonra

TheRutgersUniversityPre-Law Society

BoardofExecutives

AditiNandan ShikhaPatel President Vice President

NicholasFastuca GurmeharKaur Secretary Marketing Director

RevaTharwani

SamahalWaseem Events Coordinator Treasurer

EmilyTrijullo

AshaChauhan Secretary Intern Treasurer Intern

RutgersUndergraduateLawReview

BoardofExecutives

KeerthanaRao Editor-in-Chief

CurrentlyasenioratRutgersUniversity--NewBrunswick,Ms RaoisaBA Candidatewithamajor in Marketing with a minor in Spanish. Outside of the Undergraduate Law Review, she serves as the liaison for UndocuRutgers - a student organization committed to helping members of the undocumentedcommunityoncampus,isatutorforrefugeesthroughtheRefugeeAssistanceProgram (RAP) in New Jersey, and is a research assistant in the Aresty Research Program. She intends to pursueaJD inthefuturetoeitherstudyImmigrationorHumanRightsLaw

MelissaTan Managing Editor

AsenioratRutgersUniversity-NewBrunswick,Ms TaniscurrentlystudyingBusinessAnalytics& InformationTechnologywithminorsinEconomicsandPsychology.Outsideofacademics,shehasa highinterestinsportsandiscurrentlyactingasTeamMentortotheRutgersClubFieldHockey Team Post-graduation,sheintendstopursueacareerineithercorporate,civilrights,orsportslaw

JuliannaMargolin Marketing Director

Ms.MargolinisajuniorintheSchoolsofArtsandSciencesHonorsProgramofRutgersUniversityNewBrunswick,pursuingmajorsinJournalismandMediaStudiesandCriminalJustice Inaddition towritingfortheUndergraduateLawReview,sheisamemberoftheAlphaPhiSigmaCriminal JusticeHonorsSocietyandthePre-LawandWomeninPre-LawSocieties.JuliannaisalsoaScarlet Ambassador,conductingtoursfortheuniversity,andsheistheProfessionalDevelopmentChairof hersocialsorority,SigmaDeltaTau.Sheisplanningacareerinthelegalfieldandisexcitedto exploreherinterestsinmedialaw

KennaSrivastava External Editor

EditorialTeam

ExecutiveEditorMarvinKimwon

CurrentlyajuniorattheHonorsCollegeofRutgersNewBrunswick,Mr Kimwonhasamajorin PhilosophywithtripleminorsinEconomics,PoliticalScience,andBusinessAdministration.Outside ofRutgersLawReview,heworksasacaseworkerfortheRedCross,specificallyunderMilitaryand VeteransProgramEmergencyCommunications Withexperienceinacademicresearchandwriting, localgovernance,andaninterestincriminaljustice,heintendstostudycriminallaworcorporatelaw.

ExecutiveEditorMichaelShalanov

Currentlyathird-yearstudentattheRutgersBusinessSchool(RBS)majoringinfinanceand concentratinginbusinessanalytics.CurrentlyservesasanExecutiveEditor,whilealsohaving previouslybeenaStaffWriter,fortheRutgersUndergraduateLawReview “FromwhenIpublished shortpiecespertainingtolegaleventstonowworkingwithateamofpassionatestudentsin overseeingtheirwork,Ienjoyhavingtheopportunitytoimprovemywritingandeditingskills.” Outsideoftheorganization,heisalsotheChairoftheAllocationsBoardatRBSandTreasurerfor FutureBusinessLeadersofAmerica.

ExecutiveEditorSeanTonra

SeanTonraisa4thyearstudentstudyingPoliticalScienceandInternationalandGlobalStudies Heis involvedinnumerousstudentorganizationsoncampussuchastheRutgersUniversityStudent Assembly,whereheservesasLegislativeAffairsChairandistaskedwithleadingadvocacyeffortson local,state,andfederalissues.Furthermore,hehashadnumerousinternshipsandprofessional experience.HewasaResearchAssistantfortheArestyResearchCenterandtheRutgersPolitical ScienceDepartment,bothunderDr EricDavis,andanICCAEResearchFellowattheNational IntelligenceUniversityfocusingonstudyingawiderangeoftopicsincludingglobalpopulism,the intelligencecommunity,anddemocraticmovements.HealsohasworkedforNewYorkUniversity's GlobalSecurityOperationsCenter,theStudentDebtCrisisCenter,andNJAssemblymanRobert Karabinchak.

EditorialTeam

AssociateEditorNuranSercan

AssociateEditorWassanAqil

CurrentlyasophomoreatRutgersUniversitymajoringinPoliticalScience.Mr.Aquilhopestoattend lawschoolaftergraduationwithhiseyessetonSportsLawasthroughouthiswholelifehehasbeen infatuatedwithessentiallyeverysport Mr Aquilbelievesthatthecombinationofhisknowledgeon sportsandhisloveforlawareaverygoodmatchforhispotentialcareerpath

AssociateEditorHaileyChoi

CurrentlyasophomoreattheRutgersBusinessSchool NewBrunswick,Ms Choiispursuinga BachelorofScienceDegreeinFinancewithaconcentrationinRealEstate.Outsideofacademics,she isadebatecoachatKugnusActsinCloster,NJandalegalinternatRamundoLawinPalisadesPark, NJ SheisamemberofSigmaPsiZetaSorority,Inc andRutgersUndergraduateWomeninBusiness Sheintendstopursueacareerinthelegalfieldandinherfreetime,sheenjoysreadingandplaying videogames

MissionStatement

TheRutgersUniversityUndergraduateLawReview(RULR)wasfoundedin 2017inordertoenhancethepre-lawcommunityoftheUniversity.Itis focusedoncreatingacommunitywhichpromotesanalyzingandwriting aboutissuesrelatedtolawandpolitics.Weaimtomakesurethatstudentsat Rutgersandatuniversitiesacrossthestatehaveawaytoexpresstheir thoughtsonthedevelopments,events,andhistoryofthelegalworldthrough researchandargument-basedwriting.

Submissions

TheRutgersUniversityUndergraduateLawReviewisregisteredasan organizationwiththeRutgersUniversityStudentAssemblyAllocations Boardandtheuniversity’sofficeofStudentCentersandActivities.Allfunds usedtoproduceanddistributethisissueweregrantedbytheAllocations Board. Theperspectivesexpressedbythecontributorsmaynotbethesameasthose expressedbytheRutgersUndergraduateLawReviewExecutiveBoardorthe RutgersPre-LawSocietyExecutiveBoard.Alleffortshavebeenmadeto guaranteetheaccuracyofinformationinthisLawReview.

Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyform withouttheexpressconsentoftheExecutiveBoardoftheRutgers UndergraduateLawReview.

LetterfromtheEditor

DearReader,

OnbehalfoftheexecutiveboardandeditorialstaffoftheUndergraduateLawReview,I amelatedtopresenttoyouthefirstissueofthesecondvolumeforthe2022-2023academicyear ofourjournal.PromotedtoEditor-in-chieffromManagingEditor,Ihavehadthewonderful opportunityandimmensepleasureofworkingwithanamazingexecutiveboardforthelaw reviewandeditorialteamthispastsemester. Thoughwehadafewdifficultiesoverthepast semester,IamexcitedforyoutoreadourfirstissueforthisyearandIlookforwardtothework wewillcontinuetoproducefornextsemester.Thankyoutoeveryonewhohelpedmakethis publicationhappenandtoallmembersoftheeditorialstaffwhoputinefforttoaccomplishour mission-youreffortsaregreatlyappreciatedandhasallowedustoputforthagreatpublication forthissemester.AspecialthankyoutotheRutgersPre-LawSocietyexecutiveboardmembers whichourUndergraduateLawReviewisapartof-yourencouragementandinvolvementwas thoughtfulandconsiderate.

Itisthepleasureofmyselfandmyteamtopresent toyoufourthought-provokingarticles thatcoverabroadrangeoftopicsfromelitisminCorporateAmerica,discriminationintheNFL hiringprocesses,theEqualRightsAmendmentanditseffectonwomen’srights,andthe evolutionofimmigrationreformintheUnitedStates.Thevarioussubjectsthatarecoveredin thispublicationholdthevariousbeliefsofindividuals,butarealltopicsthatweascuriousand intellectualstudentsdiscuss.Thesocial,political,andlegalissuesoftheUnitedStatesandthe worldoverallarecomplexmattersthatmustbediscussedwithconsiderationandmindfulness andoureditorialteamhasworkedtoaccomplishthat.

Inordertoviewouronlinepublication,wehighlyencourageyoutopleasevisitour websitehttps://ruprelaws.wixsite.com/rupls.Ourteamhopestocontinueexhibitingourcritical thinking,intellectualcuriosityandacademicrigorthroughourpublications.Ihopethatyou enjoythispublicationandthatitinterestsandcompelsyoutodiscussyourlegalinterestsaswell ascriticalsocialissuesathandinamindfulandsensitivemanner.

BestRegards, KeerthanaRao

RutgersUndergraduateLawReviewEditor-in-Chief

ARTICLES

5

1

Introduction

CORPORATEAMERICA

NURANSERCAN | RUTGERS-NEWBRUNSWICK

MultiplefinancialcrisesandthepandemichaveshiftedmanyAmericans'viewsonthe importanceofethicaldecision-makingandthefunctionofjusticeinthecorporateworld.The legalsystemsurroundinganddictatinglargecorporationsintheUnitedStatesisheavilyreliant ontherolesoftheSecuritiesExchangeCommission(SEC)andtheDepartmentofJustice (DOJ).1 TheSECwasfoundedin1934toprovideaccuratefinancialinformationtoprotect investorsandregulatethesecuritiesmarketstocreateamoreequitableeconomy.2 Incongruence, theDepartmentofJustice(DOJ)wasestablishedastheregulatorandenforceroffederallaws institutedbytheSECtopreventwhite-collarcrime.3 Whilethesecrimesarenotviolent,theycan causeharmthatnegativelyaffectsmillionsofpeoplethroughthelossofmillionsofdollarsin savings.Theycandestroyacompany,costinvestors,anderodethepublic'strustingovernment andcorporateinstitutions.4 Inrecentyears,moreattentionhasbeendirectedtowardtherulings madebytheDOJregardingwhite-collarcrimesandthefutureofcorporateAmerica.Asaresult, thepublichasfounddisparitiesbetweenthesentencesofcorporationsandindividualswithless economicpowerandstanding.5

ABackgroundontheCorporateSysteminAmerica

Asacapitalistsociety,theUnitedStatesreliesonthesuccessofitscorporatesystemto continueitsdominationasthenumberoneeconomyintheworld.6 Manysuccessfulcorporations intheAmericaneconomyhaveledtheUnitedStatestoitsglobalsuccess–theyhavebeencoined as“TooBigtoFail”businesses.BrandonGarret,aprofessoroflawandleadingscholarinlegal justice,hasintroducedthe“TooBigtoJail”theoryforthefamouslyknown“TooBigtoFail”

“TheDepartmentofJusticeandtheSecuritiesandExchangeCommissionReleaseFCPAResourceGuide”TheUnitedStatesDepartmentof Justice,October9,2014

https://wwwjusticegov/opa/pr/department-justice-and-securities-and-exchange-commission-release-fcpa-resource-guide

2

“WhatWeDo”SEC,February19,2020 https://wwwsecgov/about/what-we-do

3 White,MaryJo “Speech:ThreeKeyPressurePointsintheCurrentEnforcementEnvironment”SEC,May19,2014 https://wwwsecgov/news/speech/2014-spch051914mjw

4

“White-CollarCrime”FBI,May3,2016 https://wwwfbigov/investigate/white-collar-crime

Inman,Shasta “RacialDisparitiesinCriminalJustice”Americanbarorg AccessedDecember14,2022

https://wwwamericanbarorg/groups/young lawyers/publications/after-the-bar/public-service/racial-disparities-criminal-justice-how-lawyers-canhelp/

6 Boushey,Heather,andHelenKnudsen “TheImportanceofCompetitionfortheAmericanEconomy”TheWhiteHouse TheUnitedStates Government,July11,2022 https://www.whitehouse.gov/cea/written-materials/2021/07/09/the-importance-of-competition-for-the-american-economy/.

corporationsintheUnitedStates.In Too Big to Jail: How Prosecutors Compromise with Corporations,Garrettexploreshowharshsentencesgiventominoritiesandlow-income individualsarenotprovidedtolargecorporationsoreventheChiefExecutiveOfficers(CEOs) andindividualsresponsibleforcrimesintheseorganizationsbecausetheyarechallengingto identify 7 Asaresult,theDOJoftenresortstoaDeferredProsecutionAgreement,anegotiated criminalprocedurethatallowscorporationsandindividualstoavoidcriminalconvictionsby reachinganagreementwiththeprosecutortoacknowledgeresponsibilityfortheiractsandmake theappropriatepaymentintheformoffines,inreturn,forwhichcriminalchargesareeither droppedorarenotbroughtatall.8 ThefailureoftheU.S.justicesystemtoidentifyandconvict individualsguiltyofwhite-collarcrimesonbehalfoftheselargecorporationshasfurtherenabled white-collarcrimesandfailedtodeterlargecompaniesfromcommittingillegalacts.The governmentmustenforcelawsthatconvictallindividualsguiltyofthesecrimestosuccessfully preventthe“TooBigtoFail”corporations9

ProsecutionsonWallStreetThroughout

History

Duetoprosecutorialdiscretion,convictionsonWallStreetworkdifferentlythan convictionsofmostAmericancitizens,whichsomeargueisunethical.Prosecutorssometimes worktobenefitbigbusinesses,protectingthestakeholdersinlargecorporations.The2008 FinancialCrisisisanexcellentexampleofunderstandingtheconsequencesofwhite-collarcrime andhowconvictionsworkinthefinancialworld.Thereweremanyplayersresponsibleforthe 2008FinancialCrisis:WallStreetbankssuchasGoldmanSachs,MorganStanley,andthe LehmanBrothersandtheirCEOshadcriticalrolesininstigatingthedevastatingcrisis.10 Even thoughthesebankswereknowntobehugelyinvolvedandatleastpartiallyresponsible,inthe crisis,itwascomplicatedtopinpointwhichbankandChief-levelexecutivesshouldbeheld accountablebecausethecriticaldecisionsmadebytheseexecutiveswereoftenenforcedand supportedbytheirequalsandinferiors.Asaresultofthesejointdecisions,theconsequences thesebanksfacedwereintheformoffines,andonlyonepersonwasgivenjailtime.Kareem Serageldin,abankeratCreditSuisse,wassentencedto30monthsinjailandreturned$24.6

7 Garrett,BrandonL "TooBigtoJail:HowProsecutorsCompromisewithCorporations"In Too Big to Jail HarvardUniversityPress,2014

8

9 Ibid

10 Marquit,Miranda “MajorPlayersinthe2008FinancialCrisis:WhereAreTheyNow?”Investopedia Investopedia,December5,2022 https://www.investopedia.com/insights/major-players-2008-financial-crisis-and-where-they-are-now/.

millionincompensationformanipulatingbondpricestohide$1billionoflosses.11 Following Serageldin’sindictment,manytriedtounderstandthereasoningbehindhisimprisonmentashe wasnottheCEOofabank,norwashethemortgageexecutivethatcontributedtothehousing bubble.12 Tothisday,thereasoningbehindhisconvictionremainsambiguous—somesaythe DOJwantedtosetaprecedentanddeterbankersfromcommittingsuchfraudagain,whileothers arguetheDOJfoundthatDeferredProsecutionAgreements (DPAs)weremoreeffectiveand chosetoresorttothoseinstead.13 ADPAisa“contractual arrangementbetweenaUS governmentagency(suchastheDOJortheSEC)andacompanyoranindividualfacinga criminalorcivilinvestigation.”14 Nonetheless,the2008FinancialCrisisnotonlycaused significantlossestotheeconomyoftheUnitedStates,butitalsoservedasaprecedentforthe rulingsthatwouldbemaderegardingunethicaldecisionsinthecorporateworld.Followingthe 2008Crisis,manyapproacheswerebroughttothepublic'sattentiontorecoverfromthecrisis andgetthecurrenteconomicstatebacktoitsnorm. Inthefaceofanationalemergency,theexecutivebranchhasaroletoplay,inadditionto theDOJandSEC.Thepresidentservingthecountryisexpectedtointroducenewapproachesto facetheproblemforthenationtorecoverfinancially.Followingthe2008recession,theObama Administrationimploredastrictagendatoimprovethecurrentstateoftheeconomyanddeter corporationsfromcommittingthesamecrimes.Morespecifically,Obamasignedintolawmany changes,suchastheAmericanRecoveryandReinvestmentActof2009.15 Healsoestablished theConsumerFinancialProtectionBureau(CFPB)to “holdfinancialinstitutionsaccountable andprotectconsumersfromthetypesofabusesthatprecededthecrisis.”16 AsPresidentObama’s termended,PresidentTrumpbecamethenextpresidentresponsibleforalleviatingthe repercussionsofthecrisis.However,theTrumpAdministrationtookacompletelydifferentand lessstrictapproachthat,inturn,helpedcorporationsandboostedtheeconomy.Forexample, manyrulesandregulations,suchastheVolckerRuleandFiduciaryRuleduringtheObama Administration,werereversedtobenefitmanyWallStreetbankers.Morespecifically,the

Volckerrule“generallyprohibitsbankingentitiesfromengaginginproprietarytradingor investinginorsponsoringhedgefundsorprivateequityfunds.”17 Thefiduciaryrulewasenacted sobankers“mustactprudentlyandmustdiversifytheplan'sinvestmentstominimizetheriskof largelosses.”18 Althoughthisapproachaidedtheworkofbankersintheshortrun,itintroduced thepotentialandincreasedchancesforanotherfinancialcrisisbecausebusinesseshavefewer restrictionsandmoreopportunitiestomakedecisionsthatcouldcostthemmillionswithouta legalpenalty.CongressmanDonBeyerstated,“PresidentDonaldTrumpclaimscreditforthe strongeconomy,sayingthatheinheriteda‘disaster’fromPresidentBarackObamaandthathe ‘accomplishedaneconomicturnaroundofhistoricproportions.’However,thetruthisthatbythe timehebecamepresident,theeconomyhadlargelyrecoveredfromtheGreatRecessionandwas nearingfullstrength.”19 Bothpoliticiansandeconomistsarewidelydebatingtheagendasand theireffectsontheeconomyofpresidents;inaddition,thepasttwoadministrationshaveshown thattheDepartmentofJusticecontinuestoserveavitalroleinmaintainingjusticeasthepolicies institutedbythepresidencieshavenotagreed.

ComparisonofProsecutions:Elitesvs.Minorities

17 “VolckerRule”BoardofgovernorsoftheFederalReserveSystem AccessedDecember14,2022 https://wwwfederalreservegov/supervisionreg/volcker-rulehtm

18 “FiduciaryResponsibilities”UnitedStatesDepartmentofLabor AccessedDecember14,2022 https://wwwdolgov/general/topic/retirement/fiduciaryresp

19 UnitedStatesJointEconomicCommittee “MeasuringtheEconomy'sPulsesince1946”UnitedStatesJointEconomicCommittee Accessed December14,2022 https://wwwjecsenategov/public/

20 “GlossaryofTerms-WashingtonStateCourtsWashingtonCourts”AccessedDecember15,2022 https://wwwcourtswagov/subsite/mjc/docs/GlossaryofTermspdf

21 Schwinn,Steven “TheBailBondSystemandRuleofLaw”Americanbarorg AccessedDecember14,2022 https://wwwamericanbarorg/groups/public education/publications/insights-on-law-and-society/volume-21/issue-3/the-bail-bond-system-and-rule -of-law/

DeferredProsecutionAgreements(DPAs)openadoorformanyCEOsandelitesinthe UnitedStatesthatlower-incomeindividualsandminoritiesdonothaveaccessto–solvingtheir problemswithmoney.Themostsimilaroptionminoritiesandlower-incomeindividualshavefor thecourtprocessisabondinfederalcases.Essentially,thebondservesasacontractthat guaranteesthepersonontrialwillshowuptotheirnextcourtappearance,ortheywillhaveto paythetotalamountofthebond20.Eventhoughabondisatemporaryoption,many marginalizedindividualsspendyearsinprisonbecausetheydonothaveaccesstothefundsthe elitesdotosignabondorco-signersthatwillsignabond21.Inaddition,elitesalsohavegreater accesstobetterqualitylawyersthatcanhelpdefendthemintheircourtcasesandreducethetime theyhavetoserveinprisonortheamounttheyhavetopaytobailout.22 Thereisasignificant 22 Ibid

disparitybetweentheeligibilityofacitizenoflowersocioeconomicstandingandanindividual ofhighsocioeconomicstatustosignabond.Suchdifferencespavethewayforfurtherinequality injurisdictionsintheUnitedStates. DeterrenceanditsRoleintheCorporateWorld

ToidentifywhetherornotDPAshavebeenaneffectivesolutionimplementedbythe DepartmentofJustice,manyexplorethechangesinwhite-collarcrimerates.Thegeneralnotion isthatadecreaseinrateswouldshowthesuccessfuldeterrenceofcrime,whileasimilaror increasedratewoulddepictthefailureofdeterrence.Morespecifically,thedeterrencetheory exploresindividuals'choiceswhenbalancingthebenefitsandcostsofcrime.Ifthecostsofa crimeoutweighthebenefits,thethreatofpunishmentdetersanindividualfromcommittingthe crime.However,acriticalplayerismissinginobservanceofthistheory–therateofprosecution ofwhite-collarcrimes.Basedonthepresidentialadministrationincontrol,thewhite-collarcrime prosecutionratefluctuateswildly.Forexample,duringtheTrumpAdministration,prosecutions fell,whileWallStreetanticipatesprosecutionstoincreasewiththeBidenAdministration.23 The partisanattitudestowardbankingandbusinessrightshavegreatlyinfluencedthepolitical agendasofeachadministration.Asaresult,crimeslistedinrecordsareonlyfoundwhen prosecutionsoccur,meaningthatcrimeratescannotbereliedontotheextenttheycurrentlyare todetermineifDPAsareeffectivelyadeterrent.IftheDOJplansonestablishingDPAsasthe norm,theprosecutionrateswouldneedtoremainstabletodecidewhethertheyareasuccessful deterrent.

Conclusion

AlthoughitisdifficulttomeasureaDeferredProsecutionAgreement'seffectivenessin deterringwhite-collarcrimes,specifictrendshavebeenidentifiedthroughoutthispaper.First, thereisacleardifferencebetweenhowelitessuchaspresidentsandCEOsofbigcompanies havebeenprosecutedandhowminoritiesandindividualsfrommarginalizedcommunitieshave beenprosecuted.Lower-classindividualsdonothavethefundsorresourcestoescapethe consequencesoftheircrimes.Incontrast,morepowerfulindividualshaveavastarrayof resources,suchasadditionalfunds,betteraccesstolegalguidance,andindividualswhowilldo theirbidding.Secondly,theadministrationinpowerhasanessentialroleintheconvictionsof

23 Williams-Alvarez,Jennifer “US LikelytoStepupWhite-CollarCrimeEnforcement”TheWallStreetJournal DowJones&Company,May 10,2022 https://wwwwsjcom/articles/u-s-likely-to-step-up-white-collar-crime-enforcement-11652220113

white-collarcrimes,justasmuchastheSecuritiesExchangeCommissionandtheDepartmentof Justice.Lastly,thepresidingadministrationcanbringinnewrestrictions/lawsorevenremove thepreviousadministration'spractices.Takingthesetrendsintoaccount,tobringjusticetothe currentsystem,thegovernmentmustprovidedisadvantagedindividualswithadditionalsupport toensurethatthelawdoesnotworkinfavoroftherich.Thisextrasupportcanbeintheformof fewerrequirementsforabond,accesstobetterqualitylawyers,orevenlessuseofDeferred ProsecutionAgreements.

DISCRIMINATION

Introduction

THENFLHIRINGPROCESS:THECASEOFBRIANFLORES V.NATIONALFOOTBALLLEAGUE WASSANAQUIL | RUTGERS-NEWBRUNSWICK

IN

A. History of the NFL

24 ThoughtheexactoriginofAmericanFootballis hardtodetermine,ithasbeenapartof historyfordecades,withthefirstintercollegiatefootballgamebeingheldin1869ofPrincetonv. Rutgers.ModernAmericanfootballbegantodevelopinthe1900’s-leadingtotheeventual creationofwhatisnowknownastheTheNationalFootballLeague(NFL).Footballandthe NFLorganizationitselfarenowconsideredtobestaplesofAmericantraditionandculture,but theorganizationhasbeensubjecttomanycriticismssince.Thegameoffootballwaswellknown andplayedthroughoutsmallcitiesintheUnitedStates.Asitgainedpopularity,acommon problembegantoemerge–thelackoforderamongstplayersandrules. 25Tofindasolutionto thisproblem,agroupofmenmetupat anautomobileshowroominCanton,Ohiotodiscuss creatinganorganizedleagueforAmericanfootball.Bythetimetheypartedways,theyhad createdtheAmericanProfessionalFootballAssociation(AFPA)withJimThorpe-anAmerican athleteastheirfirstpresident.Theassociationhad14teamsthatwerethefoundingmembers, thiswouldsoonexpandandberenamedastheNFL.Asmoredecadespassed,morerulesand professionalchangesdevelopedtheorganizationintothefamedoneitistoday.

B. Creation of the Rooney Rule

ThroughthevariouschangesthatdevelopedtheNFLwhichwouldgoontogrowintoa nationalformofentertainmentforpeopleintheUnitedStates,oneparticulargroupcanbe creditedtoheavilyelevatingtheleague–AfricanAmericans.LouisMoore,aprofessoratGrand ValleyStateUniversity,wentasfartosaythat“TheNFLreliedonBlackathletestopushthe leaguetofinancialstabilityinitsearlyyears”. 26ThoughAfricanAmericanswereonlylightly integratedthencompletelybannedfromtheleaguein1933,whentheNFLreintegrated,black playersallowedtheirrespectiveteamstoleadinmultiplestatisticalcategories. Theyalsomade

24

“How DidAmerican Football Develop ” How Did American Football Develop - DailyHistory org, dailyhistoryorg/How did American football develop

25

“National Football League ” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc , wwwbritannica com/topic/National-Football-League

26

Fuhrman, Zeke “AHistory ofAfrican-AmericanAthletes ” Bleacher Report, Bleacher Report, 3 Oct 2017, bleacherreport com/articles/73113-a-history-of-african-american-athletes

gainsinpositionsthattheywerepreviouslydiscouragedfromthatadvancedthepositionof teams.However,eventhoughtheNFLheavilyreliedontheblack athletesforitsgrowth,itdid notnecessarilyfeelasthoughAfricanAmericanswerequalifiedenoughordeservingtooccupy 27oneofthemostimportantrolesonateam–headcoach.Throughouthistory,manypeoplehave notedthelackofminorityheadcoachesintheNFL;asenseofdiscriminationwasmade abundantlycleartoothers,whichledtothecreationoftheRooneyRulewhichwasadoptedby theNFLin2003. 28ScottNeuman,areporterandeditoratNPR,providedsomecontextanda briefintroductiontotheRooneyRulewhenhewrote,“SpurredonbythePittsburghSteelers' DanRooney…TheRooneyRule,whichtookeffectin2003,soughttocorrectinequitiesatthe topofprofootball'shierarchybyrequiringteamstointerviewminoritycandidatesforhead coachingvacancies”(Neuman).Theruleoriginallystatedthateveryteamwithavacancyinthe headcoachpositionmustinterviewatleastoneormorediversecandidatesbeforemakingahire. Thisrulewasmadetocombatdiscriminationtowardsminoritygroupsinregardstothehiringof headcoaches,butithasnotseenextremesuccess.Anevaluationofvariousstatisticsexhibits thatitcanbearguedthattheRooneyRuledoesnoteffectivelyeliminateracialbias.

C. The Rooney Rule in Present America

ThoughtheRooneyRuleseemslikeanobviouspractice,theexplicitimplementationof thisrulewasnecessary,consideringminorityhiringsintheNFLforhead-coachingjobswasonly 2%,astatisticprovidedbytheFritzPollardAlliance,whichisaninternalgroupthatadvocates fordiversityandinclusionintheNFL.TheInstituteforDiversityandEthicsinSport,agroup madebytheNFLtostudyinclusionintheleague,reportedthatsince2011,18%ofthehead coachinghireswerepeopleofcolor.Atfirstglance,thismayseemverysignificantconsidering thatbeforetherulewascreated,peopleofcolorwereonlyhired2%ofthetime.However,ifthe statisticsarefurtherscrutinized,peoplewillrealizethatthisdataisnotextremelyaccurate-the discrepancyhavingmuchtodowiththelackofasignificantsamplesize.

29JenniferBargerJohnson,alongwithotherauthors,exploredtheissuestatingthat,“the currentlyavailablesamplesizeofjustafewBlackheadcoachesandonlysixteentoseventeen

27 “The Rooney Rule ” NFL Football Operations, operations nfl com/inside-football-ops/inclusion/the-rooney-rule/

28 Neuman, Scott “Why a 20-Year Effort by the NFLHasn't Led to More Minorities inTop Coaching Jobs ” NPR, NPR, 3 Feb 2022, wwwnprorg/2022/02/03/1075520411/rooney-rule-nfl

29 Michael Conklin, Jennifer Barger-Johnson & Marty Ludlum, Brian Flores's Employment DiscriminationLawsuitAgainst the NFL:AGame Changer or BusinessAs Usual?, 29 Jeffrey S Moorad Sports L J 299 (2022)

regularseasongamesperseasondoesnotprovideenoughdatapointsforrobustanalysis”.The issuewithsuchalimitedsamplesizeistheextremelevelsofunpredictability involved.The statisticsareessentiallyinflatedduetotheholisticlackofBlackheadcoaches,whichrevealsthe truelackofeffectivenessoftheRooneyRule.Evenifitweretobearguedthattheeighthead coachesin2011whoidentifiedasminoritieswasasignificantnumbercomparedtoprevious years,in2012,thatnumberdroppedtofive,andthefollowingyear,itdroppedtothree. Currently,thereareonlytwoheadcoachesoutoftheNFL’sthirty-twopositionswhoidentifyas aminority.ThroughtheanalysisofthestatisticssurroundingtheimplementationoftheRooney Rule,itcanbeseenthatthereisaclearlackofeffectivenessinacquiringmoreminorityhead coaches.Overtime,therulehasprogressedtoincludemorepositionsintheNFLtorequire interviewsforagreaternumberofpositions; 30In2022followingtheSpringLeaguemeeting, NFLteamswererequiredtointerviewforvacantQuarterback(QB)coachpositionsinhopesto facilitatethehiringforminorityheadcoaches.However,multipleminoritycoachessaythatthe Rooneyruleoverallisusedinacorruptmanner

BrianFloresv.TheNationalFootballLeague

D. Brian Flores Case

30“The Rooney Rule ” NFL Football Operations, operations nfl com/inside-football-ops/inclusion/the-rooney-rule/

belt,hehadalsoaccumulatedfourSuperBowlRings.Unfortunately,despitethesesuccesses, Flores’scoachingpositionwasterminatedaftertwoyearswiththeMiamiDolphins.Thisalleged injusticewhichwouldultimatelyleadtoasignificantlawsuitfromFloresandotherminority coachesagainsttheNFLashebelievedtheterminationwasdueto“systematicracial discrimination”32

E. The Lawsuit

OnFebruary1,2022,BrianFlores,alongwithtwootherminorityheadcoaches,Steve WilksandRayHorton(theplaintiffs),filedaclassactionlawsuitagainsttheNFL(the defendants)intheU.S.SouthernDistrictCourtofNewYork.Inhisclaims,Floresstatesthatthe NFLdiscriminatesagainstminoritycoachesinmultiplewaysincludinghavinganinsincere hiringprocesssolelytoabidebytheRooneyrulewithnogenuineintentiontohireminority coaches.33 RachelReed,awriterforHarvardLawschool,furtherexploresthisaccusation,stating thatFlores“allegesthatheandotherqualifiedBlackandminoritycandidatesareroutinelyheld tohigherstandards,rejected,ornotconsideredatallforcoachingandotherleadershiprolesin theNationalFootballLeague''(Reed).Theplaintiffsideessentiallyarguedagainstthe foundationsoftheRooneyRule,allegingthatNFLteamspurposelygavefakeinterviewsto minoritycandidatestosatisfytheruleforappearance,butwassilentlyprohibitingminorities fromprogressingbynothiringthemoractuallyconsideringthem.

Flores,specificallybelievesthisingenuinehiringprocessoccurredtohimwiththe DenverBroncosandtheNewYorkGiants.Floresallegesthatwhenhearrivedataninterview withtheDenverBroncos,theownerandgeneralmanageroftheorganizationarrivedhungover fromthepreviousnightandonlygavehimquestionsofextraneousmatter. 34Inthecaseofthe NewYorkGiants,hewastextedbyNewEnglandsPatriotscoachBillBelichickcongratulating himonwinningtheheadcoachingpositionfortheGiants.TheonlyproblemwasthatFloreshad notyetinterviewedfortheGiants–itturnedoutBelichickhadmistakenlytextedhimandthat anothercandidate,BrianDaboll,hadactuallywontheposition.Dabollwasgiventheposition

32 “Flores V The National Football League EtAl, No 1:2022CV00871 - Document 58 (S D N Y 2022) ” Justia Law, lawjustia com/cases/federal/district-courts/new-york/nysdce/1:2022cv00871/574213/58/

33 “Brian Flores vs the NFL ” Harvard Law School, 11 Aug 2022, hls harvard edu/today/brian-flores-vs-the-nfl/

34

“What Happened to Brian Flores? Revisiting the Dolphins Scandal, FiringThat Led to Lawsuit against NFL ” Sporting News, 23 Oct 2022, wwwsportingnews com/us/nfl/news/brian-flores-dolphins-scandal-firing-nfl-lawsuit/vxcywrbhznx066mowbj kunbp

beforeFloreshadtheopportunitytointerviewforit,whichexplicitlyviolatestheRooneyruleas itrequiresateamtowaittomakeahireuntilithasinterviewedaminoritycandidate.Putsimply, theGiantsintendedtointerviewFloresdespitehavingalreadydecidedtogivethejobtoDaboll, thusexposingFlores’interviewofferasa“sham”andforshow

35OnApril7,2022thelawsuitclaimswereamended toincludetheassertionsofSteve WilksandRayHortonwhobothallegedthattheywerenotgivenequalopportunitiesorany meaningfulchancestosucceed.Mr.Wilksfurtherallegesthathewas“discriminatorilyfired”.

ChanceofArbitrationorOpenCourt

F. Likelihood of Open Court Trial

ThoughMr.Floreshasanappealingcasewithadditionalsupport,inhisemployment contractwiththeNFLandtheNFLconstitution,arbitrationagreementswerecited.Thisfueled theDefendantstocompelarbitrationtostayconsistentwiththeagreementsoutlinedintheir contracts.ArbitrationofNFLcaseswouldinvolveahearingadjudicatorprovidedbytheleague; inthisspecificcase,itwouldbethepresidentoftheNFL,RogerGoodell.SportslawyerPeter Carfagnaexpressedhislegalopinionandstated,“TheNFLwillnodoubtrelyheavilyuponthe longlineoffavorableFederalArbitrationActprecedentstosupportitsmotiontocompel arbitration.Ithasevenbeenappliedincasesinvolvingallegedviolationofplaintiffs’civil rights.”Althoughhesaysthis,hestressesthat, “WhatFloresissayingisthatthisisintentional wrongdoing,systemicracism.Itmaybethatacourtwouldallowthattobeheard,overridingthe otherwisebindingwaiverofrecourse.Thatisdefinitelysomethingtowatch.”Essentially,ifthe casegoestocourt,thenMr.FloresmaybeabletoprovesystematicracismintheNFL,which wouldbehighlysignificantforhiscase.DavidLopez,anothersportslawyer,statesthat“thereis bothanindividualclaimandaclassactionclaim.Fortheindividualcase,Mr.Floreswillhaveto provethathewastreatedlessfavorablythansimilarly-situatedwhitecoaches,buttobuildaclass suit,heneedstoshowthatdiscriminationbasicallyisthestandardoperatingprocedureofthe NFL.”LopezalsobelievesthatakeypartofMr.Flores’strategyshouldbetogetitoutof arbitrationandintopubliccourtbecausethatiswhereheandhisteamwillhaveaviablechance ofwinningthecase.Lopezstatesthatwhenthecasegetsoutofarbitration,“Therearemany differentpositivesthatcomeoutofitincludingactualsentencingdonebythejudiciaryrather

35 “Flores V The National Football League EtAl, No 1:2022CV00871 - Document 58 (S D N Y 2022) ” Justia Law, lawjustia com/cases/federal/district-courts/new-york/nysdce/1:2022cv00871/574213/58/

thansentencesprovidedbytheNFLthatarenottooserious.”However,duetotheexplicit agreementforarbitrationintheemploymentcontractsprovidedbytheNFL,itwillbedifficultto notcompelarbitration.

G. Current Standing of the lawsuit

Inordertoattainfairoutcomesfromanorganizationtheyseeminglydidnottrust,the plaintiffsfiledforamotionfordiscoveryonthemotionbroughtforwardbythedefendantsto compelarbitration.Theplaintiffsidedesiredtoacquiredocumentsconcerningthearbitration agreementsandpoliciesaswellastherelationshipofthearbitratorwiththeNFLandhis/her previousrulings.InJuneof2022,theNFLopposedtheplaintiff’smotionfordiscovery.Inorder tostayconsistentwithprecedentssetbycourtrulings,thecourtheldupthebeliefthatan 36“agreementtoarbitrateisbindingunlesstheagreement becomesinvalidunderstatecontract law”.Forthecourttograntthemotionfordiscovery,theplaintiffsmustpresentsufficientand reliableevidencethatismorethananallegation.Unfortunately,inthiscase,theplaintiff’sfailed toproducereliableandsufficientevidencetohavetheirmotiongranted.Duetotheirfailureto offerfactsorevidencetoquestionthevalidityoftheagreementtoarbitrate,theirmotionfor discoverywasdenied,provingthatthisbattleagainsttheNFLwillbealonganddifficultone.

Conclusion

J. Conclusion

ThoughtheNFLhascomealongwayfromwhenitwascreatedinthe1920’s.There needstobeabiggerchangeinordertosecurethegenuinerecruitmentofminoritycoacheswho arewellqualifiedfortheposition.DespitetheRooneyrulebeingcreatedtocombat discriminationagainstAfricanAmericansandminoritiesinregardstoheadcoachingpositionsin theNFL,ithasnotbeenmetwithrealsuccess.Thisrulewassupposedtopromotediversity,but manyincidentsindicateotherwise,mostnotablyBrianFlores’slawsuit.Thestatisticsassociated withtheRooneyRuleandthehandlingofFloresfrompositiontopositionbothsupportthe argumentthattheruleisultimatelyineffective.Onlytimewilltellifthelegalcasebroughtforth byBrianFloreswillbetakentocourt,andwhetherhewillbeabletoprovesystemicracismin theNFL.Regardless,thereneedstobearealchangeinthesystemtofacilitatethegenuine

36 “Flores V The National Football League EtAl, No 1:2022CV00871 - Document 58 (S D N Y 2022) ” Justia Law, lawjustia com/cases/federal/district-courts/new-york/nysdce/1:2022cv00871/574213/58/

inclusionofminoritiesinvariouspositionsintheNFLincludingheadcoachingpositionswhere theycanprogressandgainequalopportunitytosucceed.

THEEQUALRIGHTSAMENDMENT:HOWTHEEQUALRIGHTS

COULDSAVEWOMEN’SRIGHTS

Introduction

AMENDMENT

JULIANNAMARGOLIN | RUTGERS-NEWBRUNSWICK

A. The Equal Rights Amendment

OnJune24,2022,theSupremeCourtdecided Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization.Thismonumentalrulingstatedtheright toanabortionisnotafundamental, guaranteedrightexplicitlyoutlinedintheConstitution,thusoverturningaseriesofdecisionsthat longprotectedabortionrights,like Roe v. Wade and Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania v. Casey 37 Inthewakeofthe Dobbs decision,women’srightsadvocatesacrossthe countrytooktothestreetstoprotesttoprotecttherighttosafeandlegalabortionaccess.38 However,thismovementisnotabouttherighttoabortionsalone,thoughthisrulingsparkedthe countrywidecalltoaction;thesedemonstrationsaresignsofconcernoverindicationswomen–andAmericansofallgenders–couldbeonthevergeofseeingthemselvesstrippedofevenmore rights.

Theswiftoverrulingofprecedentthathaslongprotectedwomen’sreproductiverightsis alarmingasmanyotherhot-buttonissuesaresettobearguedinfrontoftheSupremeCourtthis year The2022-2023termfortheUnitedStatesSupremeCourtpromisestobeanother transformativeone,withtheconservative-leaningbenchsettohearcasescenteringon affirmativeaction,sexualdiscriminationandreligion,andvotingstandardsconcerningstate constitutionsandlaws.39 CourtwatchersandmanyAmericans atlargeareanxioustoseewhether theSupremeCourtcouldsignificantlyalterthelegallandscapemanygenerationshavegrown accustomedto.

Still,theremightbeasolutiontotheseeminglyspeedydissolutionofrightsandfreedoms forwomen.Itwouldbenaïvetodeclarethat,followingtheCivilWar,allAmericansweretreated asequalsbythelaw.Blackmenwerereelingfromgenerationsofinstitutionalizedracismand slavery,andwomenofallraceswerefightingfortherighttovoteandotherimportantfreedoms

37 “Dobbs v Jackson Women's Health Organization ” Oyez, https://wwwoyez org/cases/2021/19-1392

38 Powell, Jim “AmericansTake to Streets across Us to Protest forAbortion Rights – in Pictures ” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 25 June 2022, https://wwwtheguardian com/world/gallery/2022/jun/25/abortion-rights-protest-roe-v-wade-us-in-pictures

39 Blaustein, Richard, et al “Experts PredictAnotherTransformative Supreme CourtTerm ” DC Bar, 26 Sept 2022, https://wwwdcbarorg/news-events/news/experts-predict-another-transformative-supreme-cou

thathadalreadybeengrantedtomen.AsBlackmenbegantohavemoresayindemocracy throughvotingrights,womennationallyrecognizedtheneedforanamendmentthatwould guaranteetheymustbetreatedjustlyandfairlybyorderoftheUnitedStatesConstitution. FollowingtheratificationoftheNineteenthAmendmentthatgrantedwomentherighttovote, theEqualRightsAmendment(ERA)appearedtobethenextstepinalogicalprogression.40

LeadingsuffragistsfirstdraftedtheEqualRightsAmendmentin1923,andafterhalfa centuryofrevisions,itwasfinallyapprovedbyCongressin1972.Followingnearlyfiftyyearsof aheavilymale-dominatedCongress,womenlawmakersinWashingtonmadetheERAoneof theirnon-negotiablelegislativegoals,helpingtopasstheamendmentwithfarmorethanthe necessarytwo-thirdsmajorityandreceivingbipartisansupport.However,Congresswasnotthe onlyvitaldecision-makerinthepassageofthisamendment.41

CongresssenttheproposaloftheEqualRightsAmendmenttothestateswitha seven-yeartimeframetopassit.Withinoneyear,thirtyofthethirty-eightstatesrequiredto officiallyrecognizeanamendmentratifiedtheproposal.Nevertheless,theconservative movementandkeyplayersintheRepublicanPartygeneratedsufficientpushback,andasthe seven-yeardeadlinestruck,onlythirty-fivestateshadmanagedtoacttopasstheamendment. Congressrespondedbyextendingthetimeframetoratifybyfivemoreyears,buttheadditional timefailedtoyieldthedesiredresult.42

ThoughthedreamoftheERAnevercametofruition,lawmakershavenotgivenuphope thatthisamendmentoronesimilarcouldpossiblypass–somethingthatwouldmarkan undeniablemilestoneforwomenindemocracy.FormerJusticeRuthBaderGinsburgandother womenofficialsmaintainedthenecessityfortheEqualRightsAmendment,andtheircallsare finallyresoundingwithsomemembersoftheAmericanpublicinawaythatisimpossibleto ignore.43

B. America Now

40

“Woman Suffrage Centennial.” U.S. Senate: Woman Suffrage Centennial, 16 July 2020, https://wwwsenate gov/artandhistory/history/People/Women/Nineteenth Amendment Vertical Timeline h tm#:~:text=Approved%20by%20the%20Senate%20on,long%20fight%20for%20political%20equality

41 “History” Equal Rights Amendment, https://wwwequalrightsamendment org/history

42 “The Equal RightsAmendment: Its History, Its Meaning, and Where It Stands Now” Alliance Defending Freedom, https://adflegal org/article/great-news-equal-rights-amendment-will-remain-dead

43

Cohen,Alex, and Wilfred U Codrington “The Equal RightsAmendment Explained ” Brennan Center for Justice, 9 Oct 2019, https://wwwbrennancenterorg/our-work/research-reports/equal-rights-amendment-explained

TheEqualRightsAmendmentisnecessary,nowmorethanever.Thelastdecadehasseen arevolutioninthewomen’srightsmovement.Thesocialjusticeawakeninghasshownwomen, especiallywomenofcolor,aschampionsforequality.The#MeTooMovement,fourth-wave feminism,andleadersfortheBlackLivesMatterMovement,LGBTQ+visibilitymovement,and climatechangeawarenessprovesthatwomenareunafraidtofightforthecausestheybelieve in.44 However,itwillrequireallgenders,races,andpoliticalpartiestomaketheERAareality Thisdauntingtaskwillbeadifficultfeatinacountrythatisstilldrasticallydividedacrossparty lines.ThePewResearchCenterreportsthatAmericaisrapidlybecomingmorepolarizedthan anyotherdemocracyglobally,withAmericansincreasinglymovingfartherfromthemiddleand trendingtowardstheextremesoftheDemocraticandRepublicanParties.45 Nevertheless,history hasshowcasedtheEqualRightsAmendmentbeingabletogarnerbipartisansupportinthepast, displayingthepotentialthisamendmentmightstillpossess.

C. Is the Equal Rights Amendment Still on the Table? Therearequestionssurroundingthelegaltheorybehindratifyingaforty-year-old amendment.Inthelastfiveyears,threeadditionalstateshaveratifiedtheEqualRights Amendment,sotheargumentsaysthat,accordingtostatute,thelastmissingpieceofthepuzzle oftheERAisinplace;allthatisnownecessaryiscertificationbytheNationalArchivist. However,theNationalArchivist,withthebackingoftheJusticeDepartment,hassaidthatan amendmentthathasfailedtopassbeforeitsexpirationdateisnolongereligibleforratification. Therefore,thoughsomestateshaveattemptedtohelppasstheERAinrecentyears,theseefforts werefutilebecausetheamendmentisconsidered“dead,”46 accordingtothatview.Still,despite thisobstacle,somelawmakersareattemptingtobringtheEqualRightsAmendmentbackinto thediscussioninCongress,callingtorestarttheratificationprocessentirelyandrevivethis amendmenttoenshrinegenderequalityintheConstitution.

D. The Bigger Picture

44 Elting, Liz “The 2010s:The Decade Women Fought Back ” Forbes, Forbes Magazine, 20 Dec 2019, https://wwwforbes com/sites/lizelting/2019/12/20/the-2010s-the-decade-women-fought-back/?sh=476ba6 ee21ad

45 Geiger,Abigail “Political Polarization in theAmerican Public ” Pew Research Center - U S Politics & Policy, Pew Research Center, 9Apr 2021, https://wwwpewresearch org/politics/2014/06/12/political-polarization-in-the-american-public/

46 “The Equal RightsAmendment: Its History, Its Meaning, and Where It Stands Now” Alliance Defending Freedom, https://adflegal org/article/great-news-equal-rights-amendment-will-remain-dead

Althoughthisamendmentseemspromising,manyarewonderinghowtheEqualRights Amendment,oramodernizedversionofit,couldaffectabortionrights.TheERAwould guaranteepreciselythat,regardlessofsex,allAmericanshavethesamerightsandliberties.47 Thisseeminglysimpleamendmentwouldhaveaprofoundimpactonthelegalityofabortion becauseitwouldcodifytherighttothismedicalprocedureintheConstitution.Priortothe Dobbs decision, Roe v. Wade protectedwomen’sreproductiverightsundertheFourth Amendment’sinterpretedrighttoprivacy.However,sincetherighttoasafeandlegalabortion wasneverclearlyexpressedbytheFramers,andtherighttoprivacyisnotspecificallydelineated intheConstitution,theSupremeCourtwasabletoeliminateabortionfromthelistofguaranteed rightsthatincludesfreeexpression,trialbyjury,andeventherighttobeararms.SinceCongress isthemostpowerfullawmakingbodyintheUnitedStates,passingtheEqualRightsAmendment wouldbeanunequivocalwaytorestorewomen’sreproductiverights–andthe conservative-leaningSupremeCourtwouldhavenosayorrecoursetoeliminateit.Thoughthe ERAdidnotreceiveenoughsupporttoberatifiedinthe1970s,thisamendmentcouldberatified todaytoprotectwomen’srightsnowandforgenerationstocome.

TheEqualRightsAmendment:TheAmendmentThatNeverPassed

E. Origins of the Equal Rights Amendment

Buildingoffthesuccessofthewomen’ssuffragemovementofthe1920s,keyleaders AlicePaulandCrystalEastmanwereempoweredtofurthercodifyallwomen’srightsinthe Constitution.Thesewomen,aswellasthewomenwhosupportedthesuffragemovement, “believedthatenshriningtheprincipleofgenderequalityin[the]foundingcharterwouldhelp overcomemanyoftheobstaclesthatkeptwomenassecond-classcitizens.”48 Progressivepeople andgroupslikeAmeliaEarhartandtheNationalWomen’sPartyvocalizedtheirsupportforthe amendmentandcontinuallybroughtitbeforeCongress,thoughitwasnotuntiltheearly-1940s thatitbegantogainbipartisanmomentumandsupport.Despitethepoliticalbackingfromsome, labormovementsandconservativeswereafraidofhowextendedwomen’srightswouldthreaten societalstructuresandpowerdynamicsthatexistedatthetime.

47 “The Equal RightsAmendment ” The Equal Rights Amendment | Richard Nixon Museum and Library, 10 Mar 2022, https://wwwnixonlibrarygov/news/equal-rights-amendment

48 Cohen,Alex, and Wilfred U Codrington “The Equal RightsAmendment Explained ” Brennan Center for Justice, 9 Oct 2019, https://wwwbrennancenterorg/our-work/research-reports/equal-rights-amendment-explained

The1960sCivilRightsMovementandthereemergenceofthefightforsocialjustice emboldenedthewomen’smovementyetagain,promptingawaveofintersectionalfeminismthat furtheredthepushtopasstheEqualRightsAmendment.Betweenthetimeofitsinitialproposal anditsratificationinCongress,theERAunderwentslightrevisions,culminatingintheversion thatstated,“EqualityofrightsunderthelawshallnotbedeniedorabridgedbytheUnitedStates orbyanystateonaccountofsex.TheCongressshallhavethepowertoenforce,byappropriate legislation,theprovisionsofthisarticle.Thisamendmentshalltakeeffecttwoyearsafterthe dateofratification.”49

TheframersoftheEqualRightsAmendmentintendedforittoremovegenderfromthe law,makinggendersomethingthatAmericancourtswouldhavetoaggressivelyseektoferret outineveryway.Furthermore,itwouldmakeanyformofgenderdiscriminationillegaland effectivelymakemenandwomenthesameintermsoftheConstitution.OnMarch22,1972,the UnitedStatesHouseofRepresentativesandSenatepassedtheproposedERA,with354ofthe 378membersoftheHouseandeighty-fouroftheninety-twosenatorsrulinginitsfavor FollowingtheCongressionalapproval,theamendmentwassenttothestatestoratifyand becometheTwenty-SeventhAmendment.50 Intheproposingclause,thestatesweregivenseven yearstoratifytheamendmentbeforeitwouldbevoided.

49 “FAQ ” Equal Rights Amendment, https://www.equalrightsamendment.org/faq#:~:text=It%20stated%3A,of%20the%20Equal%20Rights%20A mendment

50 “The Equal RightsAmendment:Achieving Constitutional Equality forAll ” House Committee on Oversight and Reform, 18Aug 2022, https://oversight house gov/legislation/hearings/the-equal-rights-amendment-achieving-constitutional-equ ality-for-all#:~:text=On%20October%2012%2C%201971%2C%20the,1970s%20fell%20three%20states% 20short 28

togainbackingintraditionalandfundamentalistreligioussectors,aswellasamongstates’-rights supporterswhofelttheERAwouldmakethefederalgovernmenttoopowerful. Thesomewhatsmallandisolatedgroupswhovocalizedoppositiontotheproposed amendmentsuccessfullyblockeditsratification,andbythe1977deadline,onlythirty-fivestates hadapprovedtheamendment.TheNationalWomen’sOrganizationimploredCongresstoextend thisdeadline,protestinginthestreetsofWashington,D.C.Congressallowedthestatesthree moreyearstoevaluateandratifytheamendment,butthisthree-yearperiodprovedmore problematicthanbeneficial.WhenRonaldReaganwonthePresidency,usheringinanew conservativeRepublicanwave,theRepublicanPartydistanceditselffromtheamendment. CouplingthegrowingsentimentagainsttheEqualRightsAmendmentwiththethinkerswho alreadyopposedtheproposal,theERAonceagainfailedtobefullyratified,stillfallingthree statesshortofthemandatoryminimum.

ThoughtheEqualRightsAmendment“died”in1982,lawmakersandactivistshavekept itsnameandmessagealive,continuallypushingformore,all-encompassingwomen’srightsin Congress.However,theUnitedStatesisundergoingamajortransformationinthejudiciaryand legislativebodies.Failuretopassanysignificantlegislation,liketheERA,hasresultedinthe currentpoliticalandsocialclimateinAmerica.

Women’sRights(orLackThereof)

F Congress and the Court

Americaishighlydividedalongpartylines.WiththeusheringinoftheTrumpEraof extremeconservativepoliticsandintheaftermathofthe2020PresidentialElection,societyis facingtheconsequencesofpolarizationlikeneverbefore.Furthermore,theSupremeCourtofthe UnitedStateshasgraspedtheattentionofthepublicasAmericansgrowevermoredistrustfulof thejudiciary.

Since2019,“theshareofadultswithafavorableviewoftheCourthasdeclinedfifteen percentagepoints,”accordingtothePewResearchCenter.Furthermore,publicopinionofthe Courtistheleastpositiveithasbeensincethe1980s.52 Thoughtherearemanycontributing factors,mostcanbeattributedtoanoverwhelmingnumberofcitizensfeelingtheSupremeCourt

52 Nadeem, Reem “Public's Views of Supreme CourtTurned More Negative before News of Breyer's Retirement ” Pew Research Center - U S Politics & Policy, Pew Research Center, 7 Feb 2022, https://wwwpewresearch org/politics/2022/02/02/publics-views-of-supreme-court-turned-more-negative-b efore-news-of-breyers-retirement/

isnotdoingitsjob.AGalluppollreportedthatmorethanhalfofadultAmericansfeelthe SupremeCourtisnotoperatinginafairandjustway.53 Thesesentimentscanbetracedbackto therushednominationandconfirmationprocessofJusticeAmyConeyBarrett.

UponthedeathofJusticeRuthBaderGinsburgjustthreemonthsbeforethe2020 PresidentialElection,PresidentDonaldTrumpquicklynominatedJusticeBarrett,andSenate MajorityLeaderMitchMcConnellagreedtoholdtheconfirmationhearingsforthejudge, despitebeinginthemiddleofelectionseason.ManyacrosstheaislefeltMcConnell’sactions werehypocriticalsinceherefusedtoholdavoteforPresidentBarackObama’sSupremeCourt nomineesixmonthsbeforethe2016Election.54 Americansquestionedtheethicsandlegalityof thisdecision,andthoughtheSenate,bylaw,isabletosetuptheprocessforSupremeCourt nominationshowevertheychoose,citizensweredisappointedthatthenewpresidentwouldnot fillthevacancy

Concurrently,thepublicwassurprisedbyTrump’schoicefortheappointment,asoneof themostconservative-leaningjudgeswouldassumetheseatofoneofthemostliberallegal thinkerstohaveeverbeenonthebench.WiththeconfirmationofJusticeBarrett,coupledwith PresidentTrump’spriorappointmentsofJusticeKavanaughandJusticeGorsuch,theSupreme Courthasaconservativesupermajoritythatisnotreflectiveofademocratic-leaningcountry.55 TheRepublicancourt-packingandthenewconservativebenthaveturnedtheSupremeCourt intoa“spectacle,”andtheCourthasonlygainedmoreattentioninlightofrecent,high-profile decisionsthathaveledthepublictolackconfidenceinthejudiciary 56

IntheCourt’slastterm,theydecidedcasesrelatingtoguncontrol,environmental legislation,andabortion.TheUnitedStatesSupremeCourtruledinwaysthathighlightedthe conservativeagenda,benefittingkeyRepublicansupportgroupsliketheNationalRifle Association,thefossilfuelindustry,andthepro-lifemovement.Throughconstitutional

53 Haglin, Kathryn, et al. “Analysis |Americans Don'tTrust the Supreme Court.That's Dangerous.” The Washington Post, WPCompany, 9 Oct 2022, https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2022/10/10/supreme-court-public-opinion-legitimacy-crisis/.

54 Newburger,Emma “TrumpWantstoMove'withoutDelay' toReplaceGinsburg,SettingupEpicSupremeCourt FightbeforeElection.” CNBC,CNBC,19Sept.2020, https://wwwcnbccom/2020/09/19/trump-wants-to-move-without-delay-to-replace-ginsburg-setting-up-epic-fight-ov er-supreme-court-before-electionhtml

55 Jones,JeffreyM “ApprovalofUS SupremeCourtdownto40%,aNewLow”Gallupcom,Gallup,24Sept 2021,https://newsgallupcom/poll/354908/approval-supreme-court-down-new-lowaspx

56 Levi, Dan F, et al “Losing Faith: Why PublicTrust in the Judiciary Matters ” Judicature, 4 Oct 2022, https://judicature duke edu/articles/losing-faith-why-public-trust-in-the-judiciary-matters/

57

interpretationandtheoverrideofpastprecedent,thelegallandscapeoftheUnitedStateslooks drasticallydifferentthanitdidbeforethisterm.Inthenearfuture,casespertainingtoeducational diversityandvotingrightsareonthedocket,provingthelegalfutureofAmericahangsinthe balance.

Thejudicialbranchwasneversupposedtoobtainthismuchpower,andthelegislative branchhastheopportunitytocheckthejudiciary ThepeoplearecallinguponCongresstopass lawsthatcouldprotecttheirindividualfreedomsinareaswheretheSupremeCourtsaystheyare notconstitutionallyguaranteed.Following Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization,the HouseofRepresentativespassedtheWomen’sHealthProtectionActthatwoulddeemabortion accessasafederalright;58 yet,theSenatefailedtoovercomethefilibusterandcouldnotpassthis act.59 ThebattleoverreproductiverightsprovesthatCongressisatastandstill,exemplifyingthe needforagreeablelegislation.

RevivingtheEqualRightsAmendment

G. The Legal Theory

AccordingtoArticleVoftheConstitution,“afterCongressproposesanamendment,the ArchivistoftheUnitedStates…ischargedwithresponsibilityforadministeringthe ratification.”60 Therefore,CongressionalandstatesupportisonlysufficientwhentheNational Archivistprovidestheirsealofapproval.InthecaseoftheEqualRightsAmendment,the Archivistwasthefinalobstaclethatcouldnotbeovercome.

ThoughtheERAlaidinlimbofornearlyfortyyears,advocatesforthislegislation continuedtoexpresstheirdesireforanamendmentthatwouldcodifygenderequality TheEqual RightsAmendmentsupporterscreatedthe“three-statestrategy”topushforthefinalthreestates toratifyit.HouseofRepresentativesDemocratRobertAndrewsevenproposedthefirst three-statestrategybillthatsaid,shouldtheERAberatifiedbythreemorestates,theHouseof Representativeswould“verify”andlegitimizetheprocess.

57 Waldman, Michael “LastTerm: Reproductive Rights ThisTerm: Voting Rights ” Brennan Center for Justice, 3 Nov. 2022, https://wwwbrennancenterorg/our-work/analysis-opinion/last-term-reproductive-rights-term-voting-rights

58 Sobol, Virginia “U S HouseAgain Passes Bill to ProtectAbortion Rights ” Center for Reproductive Rights, 15 July 2022, https://reproductiverights org/u-s-house-again-passes-bill-to-protect-abortion-rights/

59 Harmon, Stephanie “U S Senate Fails to Pass HistoricAbortion Rights Legislation ” Center for Reproductive Rights, 11 May 2022, https://reproductiverights org/us-senate-fails-to-pass-abortion-rights-bill/

60 “ConstitutionalAmendment Process ” National Archives and Records Administration, NationalArchives and RecordsAdministration, https://wwwarchives gov/federal-register/constitution

Inconjunctionwithlegislativeactionandpublicsupport,NevadaandIllinoisratifiedthe amendmentin2017and2018,respectively,andVirginiabecamethethirty-eighthstatein2020, markingthefinalstatenecessarytoamendtheconstitutiontoincludetheEqualRights Amendment.However,thoughVirginiaconcludedthestateratificationprocess,theArchivist stillneededtosignoffontheamendment.

ThenArchivistDavidFerrierofailedtotakeactiontopublishtheamendmentandwas metwithlawsuitsfromthefinalthreestatesin Virginia v. Ferriero (2020).Despitethesevaliant effortstopursuethepassageoftheamendment,thejudgerulingonthecasesaidthetimelimit imposedbyCongresswasstrict;thus,sinceitwasnotmet,thefinalthreestatesdidnotmatterin thecertificationoftheEqualRightsAmendment.TheUnitedStatesDepartmentofJustice backedthisdecisionandsaidtheERAwouldnotpass.61

H. Why Now?

Despitebeingblockedbyfederallaw,EqualRightsAmendmentandwomen’srights advocatesareimploringstatestoincludeanamendmentofthisnatureintheirownconstitutions. Beyondthis,advocacyorganizationsarealsosuingstatestorecognizetheERAaslaw,despiteit notbeinganofficialconstitutionalamendment.62 However,othersarepushingtogettheEqual RightsAmendmentbackinfrontofCongresstoeffectivelyrevivethisamendmentandrenew andrestarttheratificationprocess.

OnJanuary27,2022,PresidentJoeBidenreleasedastatementexpressinghislongtime approvalfortheEqualRightsAmendmentandhiscalltoactionfor“Congresstoact immediatelytopassaresolutionrecognizingtheratificationoftheERA[because]thereis nothingstandinginCongress’swayfromdoingso.”63 WithPresidentialbacking,thereis evidencetheERAwouldbewidelysupportedinCongresstoday,shoulditbeupfordebateinthe legislativebranch.Concurrently,thereisfarmoresupportamongtheAmericanpublictopassan amendmentpromotinggenderequalitythaneverbefore.In2020,seventy-fivepercentof

61 “FAQ ” Equal Rights Amendment, https://www.equalrightsamendment.org/faq#:~:text=It%20stated%3A,of%20the%20Equal%20Rights%20A mendment

62 “FAQ ” Equal Rights Amendment, https://wwwequalrightsamendment org/faq#:~:text=It%20stated%3A,of%20the%20Equal%20Rights%20A mendment

63 Biden, Joseph “Statement from President Biden on the Equal RightsAmendment ” The White House, The United States Government, 27 Jan 2022, https://wwwwhitehouse gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/01/27/statement-from-president-bide n-on-the-equal-rights-amendment/

AmericanswereinfavoroftheEqualRightsAmendment.64 Followingthe2022 Dobbs decision affectingreproductiverights,thereisanevengreatersenseofurgencytoadoptanamendmentof thiskind.65

I. How the Equal Rights Amendment Could Change Everything

Thoughsomehavearguedthatanamendmentprotectinggenderequalityissuperfluous becauseoftheFourteenthAmendment’sguaranteeofequalityfor“allcitizensoftheUnited States,”someactivistsarecallingforanamendmentguaranteeinggenderequalitytonotonly helpthewomenoftoday,butfuturegenerationsofAmericans.66 Theyarguetheonlywayto effectivelyalterjudicialdecisionsandoverrideprecedentestablishedbytheSupremeCourtisto amendtheConstitution,apowerthatonlyCongresspossesses.ShouldtheEqualRights Amendmentbecomeapermanentfixtureinfederallaw,abortionrightswouldbeinarguable. Reproductiverightswereontheballotinthe2022midtermelections,andmanystatesaretrying topasslegislationtoeitherblockorprotectabortionaccessintheirownconstitutions.However, thiswouldbeunnecessaryiftheEqualRightsAmendmentweretopass,asreproductiverights wouldbeincludedintheprotectedclassofgender.67

Furthermore,theERAwouldcontinuetoprotectAmericanwomenfromthe discriminationtheycontinuetofaceintheworkplace,highereducation,courtsystem,healthcare, andotheraspectsoflife.GenderistheleastprotectedclassintheConstitution;whereasrace, religion,andnationaloriginarethoroughlyprotectedcategories,theinterpretationofgender equalityintheConstitutionhastraditionallybeenflimsyandmisguided.TheEqualRights Amendmentwouldencompassallofthelegislationwomenandwomen’srightsadvocatesare tryingtopasstobenefitwomenineveryaspectoflife,leaving“noroomfordoubtthat discriminationonthebasisofsexhasnoplaceintheUnitedStates.”68 Thisamendmentwould

64 “Three in FourAmericans Support Equal RightsAmendment, Poll Shows ” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 24 Feb. 2020, https://wwwtheguardian com/law/2020/feb/24/equal-rights-amendment-era-poll-congress

65 Schultz, DavidA. “Could an Era SaveAbortion Rights? Don't Count on It.” The Hill,The Hill, 13 May 2022, https://thehill com/opinion/civil-rights/3487622-could-an-era-save-abortion-rights-dont-count-on-it/

66 “Do We Need the Equal RightsAmendmentToday? by Divided We Fall ” Do We Still Need the Equal Rights Amendment in 2022?, https://wwwbilltrack50 com/blog/dividedwefall era/

67 Marr, Chris “Last-Minute Bid to Save Right toAbortion Comes via Era Lawsuits ” Bloomberg Law, 20 May 2022, https://news bloomberglawcom/daily-labor-report/last-minute-bid-to-save-right-to-abortion-comes-via-eralawsuits

68

“ERAExplainer” Equality Now, 31 Oct 2021, https://wwwequalitynoworg/era explainer/

actasasafeguardagainstallformsofgenderbiaswomenarecombattingnow,aswellas upcomingbattleswomenhaveyettofight.69

Inthisintersectionalfightagainstgenderdiscrimination,theEqualRightsAmendment wouldalsoextendbeyondwomentoprotectnon-binary,transgender,andgender-nonconforming Americans.In Bostock v Clayton County (2020),theSupremeCourtruledthatemployment discriminationbasedonsex,sexualorientation,orgenderidentityisprohibited.Thisinclusionof sexualorientationandgenderidentityisanimportantaddition,astherightssurroundingthe LGBTQ+communityarenowvulnerabletoaconservativeSupremeCourt.Thus,thereisfurther necessityfortheEqualRightsAmendment,asitwouldpromotewomen’srightsinadditionto “[advancingthe]equalityofrightsonthebasisofsex,nowincludingsexuality.”70 Feminists havehistoricallybeenattheforefrontofmovementsforsocialchange,andastheyarefighting forlegislationthatenshrinesreproductiverightsintheConstitution,theyarealsoadvocatingfor theLGBTQ+community 71 Conclusion J. Conclusion

TheEqualRightsMovementisthenextlogicalstepininstitutionalizinggenderrightsin theConstitution,restoringreproductiverightsinAmerica,andprotectingtherightsof transgenderandgender-nonconformingcitizens.In2019,NewYorkSenatorKirstenGillibrand tweeted,“It’safactthattheU.S.ConstitutiondoesnotenshrineequalrightsforAmericans, regardlessofgender.It’salsounacceptable.It’stimewepasstheEqualRightsAmendment.”72 In thethreeyearssincethistweet,thesituationsurroundingwomen’srightsinAmericansociety hasonlybecomemoreharrowingandalarming.FromtheconservativebentoftheSupreme Courttogrowingpoliticalextremism,thefutureofwomen’srightshangsinthebalance.As

69 “Women Still Face Discrimination Worldwide, Says UN Rights Chief | UN News.” United Nations, United Nations, https://news un org/en/story/2008/03/251702

70 “FAQ.” Equal Rights Amendment, https://wwwequalrightsamendment org/faq#:~:text=It%20stated%3A,of%20the%20Equal%20Rights%20A mendment.

71 Starr,Audrey “Room Shifters:The Legacy of the Women of the Civil Rights Movement ” YWCA Dayton, 17 Jan 2021, https://wwwywcadayton org/room-shifters-the-legacy-of-the-women-of-the-civil-rights-movement/#:~:text= Many%20women%20played%20important%20roles,vocalized%20a%20demand%20for%20equality

72 Gillibrand, Kirsten “It's a FactThat the U S Constitution Does Not Enshrine Equal Rights for Americans, Regardless of Gender It'sAlso Unacceptable it'sTime We Pass the Equal Rights Amendment Https://Tco/9hfzoxxwgn ” Twitter,Twitter, 27Aug 2019, https://twittercom/sengillibrand/status/1166330802948509698?lang=en

SenatorGillibrandstated,itistimetotakeactiontosupportAmericanwomen.Itistimetotake actiontosupporttheLGBTQ+community.ItistimetopasstheERAintolaw. TheEqualRightsAmendmenthasmetallofthenecessaryrequirementsand qualificationstobecometheTwenty-EighthAmendment.Americansacrossthecountryand acrosspartylinesareinfavorofthisamendment,andthePresidentwelcomesthisaddition.Ifthe SupremeCourtcontinuestoattemptasystematicbreakdownofwomen’srightsintheUnited States,itistimeforCongresstoreaffirmitspositionasthetruepowercenterforthisdemocratic nation.Societymustcontinuetomoveforwardandprogress.Nextinthisprogressionisthe passageandacknowledgmentoftheEqualRightsAmendment.

Introduction

THEEVOLUTIONOFIMMIGRATIONLAWANDREFORM

HAILEYCHOI | RUTGERS-NEWBRUNSWICK

A. The Roots of Immigration Law

America,anationwitharichcultureofimmigration,hasacontentioushistoryregarding immigrationpolicy.Thislong-standingdebatehaspersistedforcenturies,beginningshortlyafter theUnitedStateswonindependencefromGreatBritain.Overtime,theselawsandpolicieshave shiftedtoreflecttheideologiesandpoliticsofthegiventime.Legislationfromthe18thcentury favoredEuropeansandwasheavilygroundedinxenophobia–imposinglimitsonthosethat enteredthecountry 73 Today,however,majorimmigrationconcernsincludetopicsofrefugees, undocumentedimmigration,andterrorism.

AnearlyexampleofimmigrationlawwastheNaturalizationActof1790,which establishedashortanduniformpathtocitizenship.Thepolicyrequiredtwoyearsofresidency withintheUnitedStates,“goodcharacter,”andbeinga“freewhiteperson”.74 Findingthispolicy tooliberal,CongresspassedtheNaturalizationActof1795,whichrequiredfiveyearsof residencyandanintentionofnaturalizationbeforebeingeligible.Italsoamendedthecharacter requirementtoread“goodmoralcharacter,”introducingreligiousimplicatures.75 Gradually, Congressextendedtheresidencyrequirementtofourteenyears,eventuallyreturningtofiveyears in1802.Ultimately,theNaturalizationActmarkedthefirstlawtolistcriteriaforcitizenshipbut wasextremelylimitedinextendingitsprivilegeuntil1870,whencitizenshipwasextendedto African-Americans.76

DuringtheCivilWarin1861,demandforworkersincreasedsubstantiallyinindustries thatsuppliedwartimeefforts.Toimproveeconomicefficiency,pro-immigrationRepublicans passedtheContractLaborActof1864,whichallowedemployerstocontractforeignworkers andpayfortheirrelocationtotheUnitedStates.77 TheLincolnAdministrationalsoworkedto 77 CatoInstitute, https://wwwcatoorg/policy-analysis/brief-history-us-immigration-policy-colonial-period-present-day

73 CatoInstitute, https://wwwcatoorg/policy-analysis/brief-history-us-immigration-policy-colonial-period-present-day

75 Ibid 74 Ibid 36

passtheHomesteadActof1862,whichallowedU.S.citizensandnaturalizedimmigrantsto obtainlandgrants,providedtheywerewillingtosettlethelandoutwestforfiveyears. Dissuadingnativistarguments,PresidentAbrahamLincolnfurtheradded:“Ourimmigrants[are] oneoftheprincipalreplenishingstreamswhichareappointedbyProvidencetorepairthe ravagesofaninternalwaranditswasteofnationalstrengthandwealth.”78

TheNaturalizationActof1870solelygrantednaturalizationrightsto“aliens”beingfree whitepersons,andto“aliens”ofAfricannativityandpersonsofAfricandescent,”asCongress, atthetime,didnotagreeastowhethernaturalizationshouldbearightextendedtopeoplewho wereAsianandAmericanIndians.79 ThenewlyratifiedFourteenthAmendmentstatedthat“all personsbornornaturalizedintheUnitedStates,andsubjecttothejurisdictionthereof,are citizensoftheUnitedStatesandoftheStatewhereintheyreside;”however,itsapplicationswere selective.DescendantsofChineseimmigrants,forexample,werenotgrantedbirthright citizenship(Jus soli)until1898,whentheSupremeCourtreaffirmedthecitizenshipof American-borndescendantsofChineseandJapaneseimmigrantsinthe United States v. Wong Kim Ark decision. 80

79 Ibid 78 Ibid

80 “United States v Wong Kim Ark ” LegalInformationInstitute,LegalInformationInstitute, https://wwwlawcornelledu/supremecourt/text/169/649 37

81 CatoInstitute, https://wwwcatoorg/policy-analysis/brief-history-us-immigration-policy-colonial-period-present-day

extendedituntil1943.AlimitwasplacedonthenumberofvisasforotherAsianpeople,but racewasnotdeemedavalidgroundforexclusionstartingin1952.

TheBraceroProgram,alsoknownastheMexicanLaborProgram,wasinstitutedbetween 1942and1964toaidAmericanfarmerswithlaborscarcityduringandfollowingWorldWarII. TheprogramcreatedaccesstoMexicanworkerscalled braceros,whowouldreceiveaminimum wageandhousingprotectionsinreturnfortheirlabor.However,theprogramhadapparentflaws: farmersbegantohireillegalimmigrantworkerswhowouldworkforlowerwages,braceros wouldoftenbepaidbelowtheminimumwage,andmanyofthe4.5millionbraceroworkers wereabusedwithlittleenforcementprotection.83

WhentheBraceroProgramtemporarilycametoahaltin1947,therewasaninfluxof illegalimmigrants,resultinginthearrestof142,000illegalworkers.Eventually,therevamped BraceroProgramwasreinstatedin1949,grantingtemporaryworkvisastotheworkers. Unfortunately,thenewBraceroProgramcouldnotlegalizeallillegalworkers,andtherewere stillovertwomillionillegalMexicanimmigrantsintheearly1950s.Congresseventually canceledtheprogramin1964asaresultofpoliticalpressurefromlaborunions.84 Shortlyafter, therewasasurgeinillegalimmigrationastherewasnootherworkervisaprogramenforced.The endoftheprogramsimplyterminatedthelegalityoftemporaryworkermigration,butitdidnot stoptheactionfrombeingdoneunderground.

Before1965,legislationfocusedmainlyonallowingimmigrationthroughaquotasystem tomaintainawhitemajority TheImmigrationandNationalityActendedthispolicy,instead prioritizingtheimmigrationofprofessionals,laborerswithskillsinindustrieswithlabor shortages,refugees,andfamilymembersofexistingcitizensandgreencardholders.Theact madehistoryinmakingcitizenshipaccessibletoalargenumberofpeopleofcolor,especially AsianpeopleandLatinAmericans.85 Immigrationlawspassedintheyearssincefocusedon refugees;examplesincludeprotectionforIndochineseindividualsinthe1970sandothersfleeing fromChina,Nicaragua,orHaiti.86 Thecreationofa“temporaryprotectivestatus”in1990

84 Ibid 83 Ibid

85 Cohn,D’Vera.“HowU.S.ImmigrationLawsandRulesHaveChangedthroughHistory.” Pew Research Center, PewResearchCenter,30May2020, https://wwwpewresearchorg/fact-tank/2015/09/30/how-u-s-immigration-laws-and-rules-have-changed-through-hist ory/. 38

guaranteedprotectionsagainstdeportationtoimmigrantsfleeingnaturaldisastersorarmed conflicts.

TheImmigrationReformandControlActof1986grantedamnestytomillionsof undocumentedimmigrantswhohadresidedstatesidesinceorbeforeJanuary1,1982,and penalizedemployerswhosoughtillegallabor.Between1996and2006,concernsaboutterrorism andillegalimmigrationskyrocketed,leadingtoincreasedbordercontrolandstricteradmissions eligibility.87

In2006,theSenatepassedtheComprehensiveImmigrationReformAct,whichwould havelegalizedillegalimmigrantsandincreasedlegalimmigrationasawhole;however,itwas notratifiedbytheHouseofRepresentatives.88 SimilarbillshavefailedtopassthroughCongress, suchastheDREAMActin2009,whichsoughttolegalizeillegalimmigrantswhogrewupin America.Eventually,in2012,PresidentBarackObamasignedExecutiveOrders12866and 13563,whichallowedundocumentedyoungadultstoapplyfordeportationreliefandwork permits.ThisprogramwouldbepopularlyknownastheDeferredActionforChildhoodArrivals (DACA).89 Whileimprovementsregardingimmigration lawremainpending,therearestill countlessissuesthathighlightthesignificanceofadheringtothelawasameansofpreserving economicandsocialdevelopment.

Immigrants’ImpactontheEconomy

B. Correlations and Detriments to Society

88 Ibid 87 Ibid

89 Cohn,D’Vera “HowUS ImmigrationLawsandRulesHaveChangedthroughHistory”PewResearchCenter, PewResearchCenter,30May2020, https://wwwpewresearchorg/fact-tank/2015/09/30/how-u-s-immigration-laws-and-rules-have-changed-through-hist ory/ 39

potentialtogrowwithintheworkfield.91 Furthermore,thereisanevidentlaborshortage.Many factorsinfluencethelaborshortage,butarapiddecreaseinemploymentwasduetothenet internationalmigration(NIM)totheUnitedStatesbetween2020and2021.Theseyears demonstratedthelowestlevelofimmigrationinrecenthistory,withonly247,000migrants addedtothepopulation.92 Therefore,manyundocumentedworkerswillbeforcedtoworkinimproperworking conditionsduetolimitedjoboptions.93 Hiringundocumentedworkerscreatesuncertaintyfor bothworkersaswellastheirfamilies.Thecycleofuncertaintythatworkersfaceleadstoa Kafkaesquesystemthatreapsthebenefitsofworkers’laborwithoutguaranteeingsafetyand stability.

Byenactingimmigrationreform,theproductivityoflaborincreases,whichisespecially criticaltothedevelopmentofspecificindustries.Forexample,immigrantsaccountfora disproportionateshareofworkersininnovationsectors.Ina2011survey,thetopfiftyventure capital-fundedcompanieshadimmigrantworkerstakingthemajorityoftopmanagementor researchpositions.Immigrantsproducepatents“...atdoubletherateasnatives.”94 Skilledlabor forcescreateincreasesinGDPgrowth,andstateswithahighconcentrationofimmigrantswere proventoexperiencerapidratesofgrowthinproductivity.

Onecannotdivorcelegalandillegalimmigration asentirelydifferentissues; undocumentedworkersarefundamentaltoeconomicprosperitywithinthecountry Accordingto theCenterforAmericanProgress,theremovalofallundocumentedworkersfromthelaborforce would“...reducethenation’sGDPby1.4percentandultimatelyby2.6percent,andreduce

91 Jawetz,Tom “RestoringtheRuleofLawthroughaFair,Humane,andWorkableImmigrationSystem” Center for American Progress,29Oct 2021, https://wwwamericanprogressorg/article/restoring-rule-law-fair-humane-workable-immigration-system/

92 “America'sLaborShortage:HowLowImmigrationLevelsAccentuatedtheProblemandHowImmigrationCan FixIt” National Immigration Forum,22Mar 2022, https://immigrationforumorg/article/americas-labor-shortage-how-low-immigration-levels-accentuated-the-problem -and-how-immigration-can-fix-it/.

93 MuzaffarChishti,JessicaBolterMuzaffarChishtiandJessicaBolter “BidenattheOne-YearMark:AGreater

ChangeinDirectiononImmigrationthanIsRecognized” Migrationpolicy org,25May2022, https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/biden-one-year-mark.

94 PPI,Wharton “TheEffectsofImmigrationontheUnitedStates'Economy” Penn Wharton Budget Model,19 Dec 2018, https://budgetmodel.wharton.upenn.edu/issues/2016/1/27/the-effects-of-immigration-on-the-united-states-economy.

cumulativeGDPovertenyearsby$4.7trillion;”95 billionsofdollarswouldbelost,andthe workforcecouldshrinknearlytwentypercentinthelongrun.96 Bothdocumentedand undocumentedimmigrantsareespeciallyvitaltoruralcommunitieswithintheUnitedStates. Immigrantsmaintainthepopulationandoverallproductivitygrowthwithintheareas—opening smallbusinesses,creatingandtakingonjobsinlocalcommunities,andprovidinghealthcare services.Culturaldiversityandinclusivityaddtothemanycontributionsimmigrantsbringto localgovernments.

Moreimportantly,thecountry'sfutureisnotablytiedtoitsimmigrants.Asmost immigrantsmigratetotheUnitedStatesduringtheirworkingorreproductiveyears,theirfuture generationsfillthesignificantgapsintheworkforce.ArecentstudybytheNationalAcademies ofSciences,Engineering,andMedicinesuggeststhat“...immigrantsandtheirchildrenwillhave accountedforvirtuallyallofthegrowthintheU.S.working-agepopulationduringthecurrent decade;withoutimmigrantsandtheirchildren,thisagegroupwoulddecreasebymorethan sevenmillionpeopleinthecomingdecade.”97 Whenitcomestoillegalimmigration,itis essentialtonotethatthestatusquoisnotsustainable.Withoutasignificantefforttochangethe currentpoliciesinplace,therearetwopathsforwards:eithercontinuingthecurrentextralegal immigrationsystemandrelyingondiscretionormaximallyenforcingthelawanddeportingall illegalresidents.

Approximatelythree-fifthstotwo-thirdsofadultAmericanssupportthepathto citizenshipforundocumentedimmigrantsthatresideinthecountry Theaverageundocumented immigranthaslivedintheUnitedStatesforaboutfifteenyears,whichmeanstheylikelyhave tiestotheirlocalcommunities,haveAmerican-bornchildren,orhavebuiltbusinessesinthe UnitedStates.98

PresidentialApproaches:ShiftsinPolicyAcrossAdministrations

C. Turmoil in the Presidency

95 Jawetz,Tom.“RestoringtheRuleofLawthrougha Fair,Humane,andWorkableImmigrationSystem.” Center for American Progress,29Oct 2021, https://wwwamericanprogressorg/article/restoring-rule-law-fair-humane-workable-immigration-system/

remainedabroad.Duringthistime,skilledforeign-bornimmigrantswereturnedawayathigh rates,withH-1Bpetitionsincreasingsubstantiallyfromsixpercentin2015tothirtypercentin 2020.InJune2020,therewasapresidentialproclamationsuspendingforeignnationalson specializedvisas(H-1BandL-1)fromenteringthecountry 99

Refugeesandasylumseekersfacedthemostdifficulty,seeingastheTrump Administrationestablishedanannualquotaof18,000refugees,markinganeight-fourpercent decreasefromthelastyearoftheObamaAdministration,whichwas110,000refugees.Asof July2020,only7,848refugeesenteredtheUnitedStates.100

Whenscrutinizedthroughthelensofconstitutionality,precedentseeslegalandillegal immigrantsasAmericans.Theseparationofmigrantchildrenfromtheirfamiliesattheborder wasruledunconstitutionalbyafederalcourtinJune2018.JudgeDanaM.SabrawoftheFederal DistrictCourtinSanDiegoorderedthenationwideinjunction,whichstoppedtheTrump Administrationfromseparatingfamilies.Thecourtorderwasexpandedshortlyafterbeing notifiedofthousandsofadditionalchildrenthathavebeenseparatedfromtheirparentsbefore thecourt’spreviousorders.101

Then-U.S.AttorneyGeneralJeffSessionsorderedtheBoardofImmigrationAppealsto denyasylumprotectionsinvirtuallyallcasesthatinvolvepersecutionbasedondomestic violenceorgangactivity.102 However,thisdirectivewasenjoinedbyafederaljudgeasitviolates immigrationlaw TheTrumpAdministrationissuedaninterimfinalruleandpresidential proclamationinanattempttodenyaccesstoasylumtothosethatentereddesignatedports, violatingstatutorylaw TheU.S.SupremeCourtdidnotreinstatethefinalruleasitgoesagainst substantiveimmigrationlawandtheAdministrativeProcedureAct,whichregulatesprocedures andrule-making.

AftertheTrumpAdministrationterminatedDACA,federalappellateanddistrictcourts issuedpreliminaryinjunctionstopreventendingtheinitiative.Theinjunctionswerebasedonthe

99 Anderson,Stuart “AReviewofTrumpImmigrationPolicy” Forbes,ForbesMagazine,12Oct 2022, https://wwwforbescom/sites/stuartanderson/2020/08/26/fact-check-and-review-of-trump-immigration-policy/?sh=2 d2d66f756c0

100 Ibid

101Shear,Michael “FederalJudgeinCaliforniaHaltsSplittingofMigrantFamiliesatBorder” The New York Times, TheNewYorkTimes,27June2018, https://wwwnytimescom/2018/06/26/us/politics/family-separations-congress-stateshtml

102 “TheFederalRegister” Federal Register :: Request Access, https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2021/09/28/2021-20898/deferred-action-for-childhood-arrivals.

factthattheAdministrationhaddisregardedtheAdministrativeProcedureActastheinitiative endedinan“arbitraryandcapricious”manner.103 DACArecipientsrelyontheinitiative's protections,andshouldtheprogramendabruptly,itwouldputthematsignificantriskof deportation.

Inaddition,theAdministrationplacedeffortsintoterminatingTemporaryProtected Status(TPS),whichcurrentlyprotectsapproximately300,000nationalsoffourdifferent countries.DistrictcourtsfoundtheDepartmentofHomelandSecurity(DHS)violatedboththe AdministrativeProcedureActaswellastheImmigrationandNationalityAct.104 Thedeportation oftheprotectedimmigrantswasinjeopardy,andcourtstherebyquestionedtheAdministration's motives.

Alongwiththepreviousviolations,theTrumpAdministrationsuccessfullyeliminated policy-levelprosecutorialdiscretionguidanceandremovedprotectionsformillionsofpeople coveredbyDACAandTPS.U.S.ImmigrationandCustomsEnforcement(ICE)hasbeen responsibleformorethanathirdofthearrestsofundocumentedimmigrantswithnocriminal history.105 Thedetentionofthosewithalackofcriminal historyhasexponentiallyincreasedby aroundfortypercent,106 andthecredibilityoftheAdministrationhasdiminishedsincethese randomactsofarrestanddeportation.

D. America Now

PresidentJoeBidenissuedchangestopoliciesinvolvinghumanitarianprotectionand immigrationenforcement.TheBidenAdministrationnarrowedthenumberofunauthorized immigrantssusceptibletoarrest,detention,andremovalandhasallowedeasieraccessintothe UnitedStates.TemporaryProtection,orTPS,hasbeenreinstatedto430,000immigrantsandthe refugeequotaisnowat125,000.107

104 Ibid 103 Ibid

106 Ibid

107 MuzaffarChishti,JessicaBolterMuzaffarChishtiandJessicaBolter “BidenattheOne-YearMark:AGreater

ChangeinDirectiononImmigrationthanIsRecognized.” Migrationpolicy.org,25May2022, https://wwwmigrationpolicyorg/article/biden-one-year-mark

However,Trump-erapoliciesstillremain,withBiden’sAdministrationonlyundoing righty-nineoftheTrumpAdministration’s296immigrationexecutiveactions.108 TheBiden 108 Ibid

Administrationenforcedinterimimmigrationenforcementguidelines,whichforcedICEofficials tobemorelenientintheirenforcement.Thenewapproachprioritizesremovalonacase-by-case basis,withICEofficialsmakingindividualizedenforcementdecisionsbasedontheir considerationsratherthanpreviousconvictionrecords.TheAdministrationendedlong-term familydetentioninplacesince2001,andadultdetentioncentersaccusedofviolatingICE detentionstandardshavebeenclosed.Interiorenforcementactionshavesignificantlyreduced ICEarrestsbyfiftypercentpermonth.Thepercentageofindividualsgrantedasylumincreased bynineteenpercentjustfivemonthsaftertheTrumpAdministration.109

Protectionfromdeportationandtheauthorizationtoworkforindividualsresidinginthe UnitedStateshasreachedoveramillionnoncitizens.Bidenaimedtosetthehighestadmissions capsince1993,butrefugeeresettlementhasbeenslowasthenetworkduringtheTrump Administrationisintheprocessofbeingdismantled.110

Conclusion

E. Conclusion

WhiletheBidenAdministrationdevelopsmethodstoreformimmigration,Americamust dealwiththeconsequencesofthestancestakenbypreviousadministrations.Immigrationlaw hasgraduallychangedoverthedecades,buttherecontinuetobemanyissuesthatmustbe addressed.Withexecutiveordersprovidingthebasisforimmigrationpolicy,ithasbeendifficult toshifttowardsustainablereformscontinually.Immigrantsacrosstheglobeseekimprovements withinthesystem.Furthermore,theirrelianceonprogramsdependsheavilyonconsistent support.Fornationstopromoteeconomicandsocialdevelopment,immigrationandimmigration lawmustbereformed.