A Public Transport System For Accra - An African Approach: A Key Role For The Trotro

STRATEGY DESIGN

A PUBLIC TRANSPORT SYSTEM FOR ACCRA

AN AFRICAN APPROACH: A KEY ROLE FOR THE TROTRO

RUBEN VAN WIJNGAARDEN (1484338) URBAN TRENDS AND STRATEGIES 25.01.2021

SUMMARY The city of Accra and the entire GAMA region has a major issue planning and organizing their city. Lack of planning capacity and implementation is the root of many further issues and challenges. One aspect is the lack of integrated land-use and infrastructure planning. As the government is lately trying to construct new visions and ways to plan the city for a durable future (GIBB, 2017), the integration of different plans is still needed. This strategy will elaborate on one aspect of the overarching aim to make GAMA ready for the future by clear spatial appearance and connectivity considering problems as the lack of spatial hierarchy, inadequate infrastructure, road congestion, and accessibility. By this work, the implementation of a functioning transport system in the existing urban environment is strategized. GAMA has highly congested roads without any other forms of transport available for commuting.

The municipality has already tried to implement a new formal Bus Rapid Transport (BRT) System but failed due to several reasons. As GAMA is still intending a bus system, this strategy is constructing a bottomup roadmap approach towards achieving a fully functioning regional Public Transport network. The trotro, the typical informal mode of public transportation, will be the focal element in this strategy. This mode is responsible for transporting about 70% of Accra’s residents (Blaustein, 2010), but at the same time no different than any other road traffic. Following the roadmap including design, policy, and upgrading interventions, the trotro will gradually grow along with a complimentary bus system into a formalized mode of transport through treating it as such by stimulating and prioritizing usage. The first result of this strategy will make the trotro attractive by shorter travel times but enhancing their flexibility. At the same time, the prioritized infrastructure will create the spatial groundwork for upgrading vehicles, express route operation, and integration of other public transportation networks e.g. the national railways. As this strategy succeeds the city could return its investment by the societal benefits of reduction of travel time and increase of average speed (Kashi & Carello, 2020). Also, quicker PT could discourage car-use tremendously and might even result in a halt of the increasing car-ownership, with all kinds of secondary results as reduction of congestion and air-pollution by road traffic.

Front page: Trotro network by Philippe Caron

2 A Public Transport System for Accra

TABLE OF CONTENT Introduction 5 Problem statement 7 Vision 8 Considerations and take aways from the past 9 Strategy roadmap 11 Conclusion and discussion 19 References 20 Appendix 21

ABBREVIATIONS AMA BRT GAMA PT

Accra Metropolitan Assembly Bus Rapid Transit Greater Accra Metropolitan Assembly Public Transport

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Figure 1, Location Map for Accra Metropolis, GAMA, and Greater Accra Region. (Korah et al., 2019)

Figure 2, Trotro minibus (Blaustein, 2010)

INTRODUCTION In this report, a strategy is designed for the city of Accra and its metropolitan area. This urban region is a collection of municipalities under the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA). Their area covers about half of the province Greater Accra Region (figure 1). The Greater Accra Region (GAR) covers an area of 4.354 km2 and is thereby one of the smallest regions of Ghana (1.4% of the total land surface). Yet, it is the second most populated area of the country, and thereby the most densely populated area as well. Accra is the administrative and commercial capital of the Republic of Ghana; as it is accountable for 25% of the national Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (GIBB Engineering and Sciences, 2017).

From the conducted city diagnosis on Accra, it is found that this fast developing city in Africa has major issues with long-term urban planning (Aernouts et al., 2020). The lack of planning capacity and implementation of land-use plans and suiting infrastructure has resulted in a large chain of problems and challenges like major congestion, uncontrolled city growth, lack of accessibility, etc.

This report will elaborate and propose a strategy to successfully implement a bus transit network for the GAMA region. The implementation of a Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system has been tried before but has failed. In order to propose a new approach for this Public Transport (PT) system, the findings in the extensive evaluation of Agyemang (2015) will be carefully taken into account. The work of Kashi & Carello (2020) elaborates on the economic benefits of such a project in Accra. The strategy design draws on supportive the Accra Resilience Strategy (2019) report and implemented BRT system in the African city Dar el Salaam. For mapping and implementing the strategy, results are built on available literature and GIS data by the OSM community (OpenStreetMap, n.d.) for the city of Accra.

Considering urban transport in Accra, we introduce what is already there: the typical informal, but essential modes of transport in underdeveloped countries as Ghana; the Tro-tro (figure x). The minibusses that seat 10 to 19 persons and operate along set routes inside the city. They transport 70% of Accra residents traveling to work and shopping, making it the most widely used form of transportation in the city (Blaustein, 2010; Kashi & Carello, 2020).

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Figure 3, Problem chain GAMA

Figure 4. Modal split passengers carried & road space usage GAMA (National Development Planning Commission, 2017).

6 A Public Transport System for Accra

PROBLEM STATEMENT From the conducted city diagnosis on Accra, it is found that this fast developing city in Africa has major issues with long-term urban planning (Aernouts et al., 2020). The lack of planning capacity and implementation of land-use plans and suiting infrastructure has resulted in significant urban sprawl in the last decades and people have continued to move further from the central business district (CBD). As a result, a large chain of problems and challenges appeared: people must commute longer, creating heavy traffic congestions, resulting in a lack of accessibility, etc. (Kashi & Carello, 2020).

The simultaneous effect of the continuous growth of Accra’s population, urban migration, and the relatively large middle-class, the number of motorized vehicles has continuously increased. The inadequate road infrastructure, the high motorization rate (96%), and a lack of (separated) public transport modes have caused a congested movement system throughout the city. About 70% of the city’s roads are structurally congested and numerous accidents happen every day (AMA, 2018). A secondary result of the increasing congestion, partly due to the poorly maintained old second-hand cars, is the increasing amount of air pollution (Environmental Protection Agency Ghana, 2017; Imoro Musah et al., 2020). The overloaded infrastructure and daily accidents are high on the political agenda (AMA, 2018).

A decent public transit system is strongly desired by Accra’s residents, as congestion makes commuting a time-consuming daily activity. ‘It is so bad to the extent that a trip that should last five minutes, end up taking close to two hours’ (Lartey, 2019). Also GAMA has put a decent transportation system as the second-highest priority on the list of Accra’s Priority Stresses in the Accra Resilience Strategy (AMA, 2019).

The World Bank Implementation and Completion Results Report (The World Bank, 2017) found that average traffic speed on the main arterial roads of Accra is 28 km per hour. Which in terms of economics is a major financial loss. Current transportation infrastructure is not able to cope with the growing population and its movement. The density of paved roads is extremely low and only constructing asphalt will not solve the problem (Kashi & Carello, 2020). The statistics on the share of road usage and passengers carried in GAMA make clear that the use of cars is highly inefficient, whereas the trotro and car have opposite splits in the two diagrams. Theoretically, the road space usage would be cut in half if all car users would take public transport. Although this thought is not realistic, the importance of a mature transportation system is undeniable for the future of GAMA (National Development Planning Commission, 2017).

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VISION

INCREASE OF ACCESSIBILITY

DECREASE OF TRAVEL TIMES

In the past years, GAMA is on its way to construct visions and plans trying to solve the major issues of the city. The political awareness of problematic issues described in the City Diagnoses of Accra (Aernouts et al., 2020) is high. The report of GIBB Engineering and Sciences (2017) states ‘The vision for Greater Accra Region is to be a sustainable, livable and safe region with improved connectivity and engineering services to enable better efficiency and management of the social, natural, built, economic and institutional spheres to lead the region into a prosperous future for all’. To align with the municipal vision, the strategy design aims to make GAMA ready for the future by clear spatial appearance and connectivity. This vision considers the lack of hierarchy (urban sprawl), inadequate infrastructure, road congestion, air pollution, and lack of accessibility.

As GAMA is struggling to integrally solve issues and lacks implementing force for plans, the report further investigates how GAMA can implement a functioning transport system in the existing urban environment. This will result in a roadmap for interventions with achievable steps towards change. The strategy considers practical tools for separating public road transport from other road traffic in an inclusive way to current transport operators. The ultimate goal of this strategy is a developed functioning Public Transportation (PT) system that suits the passenger traffic demand in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area and will be conceived as a cleaner, safer, quicker, and more affordable mode of transport, beating the use of private cars in the urban environment.

‘How can GAMA implement a functioning transport system in the existing urban environment?’

DECREASE OF CARBON EMISSIONS

COOLING PRIVATE CAR OWNERSHIP

CLEAR SPATIAL APPEARANCE

8 A Public Transport System for Accra

In order to construct and implement this strategy, the following stages are necessary: At first, data need to be collected to anticipate on existing structures in environmental, economic, social, and political layers. It is found that the majority of data is already available, which helps to construct a more detailed strategy. Through data collection, this strategy is able to map the critical elements for constructing a masterplan.

Master planning together with policies is the backbone of the strategy and determines the theoretical success of the strategy by careful decision-making. Finally, the implementation will prove the success of the former steps. As this is the major struggle for the metropolitan region of Accra, the strategy is focusing on practical ways of prioritizing public transportation.

CONSIDERATIONS AND TAKE AWAYS FROM THE PAST The BRT pilot project Through the extensive examination by Agyemang (2015) on the past BRT pilot project, this strategy is able to learn from past failures and successes and are closely cooperated.

Missing elements The first major conclusion of this report is that several of the crucial components of a proper BRT system (ITDP, 2016) were missing, such as dedicated bus lanes, shelters, and real-time data technology. Due to the missing bus lanes, BRT busses were participating in normal traffic and hence the terrible traffic congestions. Additionally, the unpredictability of traffic conditions in the bus corridor made it almost impossible for the managers to effectively plan and adhere to trip schedules. Without any tracking devices such as GPS and traffic cameras to provide real-time data, maintaining regular schedules was undoable. Numerous users stated in the research that they took the BRT bus in the morning, but in the afternoon took the trotro’s instead as they will bypass congested roads by unapproved routes and therefore arrive earlier. The massive delays of BRT buses at peak times were likely to be the main reason for failure (Agyemang, 2015).

Resistance from existing public transport operators As the trotro operations have thrived on decades of virtual monopoly, the occupation of a BRT system operated by the MMTL was seen as a major threat. As the BRT was a public project, the private operators saw the BRT as belonging to the government*. Together with the initial success of the BRT operation, the sum of the described resulted in misbehavior and sabotage by trotro drivers (Agyemang, 2015).

Lack of enabling environment The former issues are reinforced by the lack of legal status for the service and instruments to protect the exclusive use of the busway.

Protecting the right of way has failed due to the inadequate capacity of police enforcement. At the same time, if it was not for the poor investment in dedicated infrastructure, enforcement would be much easier (Agyemang, 2015). However, it is also learned that the lack of road investment leads back to the lack of implementation power and the failure of planning (Aernouts et al., 2020).

* Agyeman-Duah (1987, 614– 615) states that government property ‘can be stolen, abused or destroyed with no direct consequences. The government is still considered to be a foreign entity, and too many people feel no compunction or obligation to protect its property or services’.

Recommendation Agyemang (2015) mentions that express buses were gratefully used by the people, but as the buses went in regular service, the trotro became the winning competitor. In other words: express buses were desired and successful in Accra. The municipality also sketches in their Resilience Strategy the intention for a complimentary bus system of terminal-based and route-based public transport operations, linking the trotro to the route-based operation and a BRT to the terminalbased operations (AMA, 2019, pp. 48–49). This multimode system will help to avoid competition between the two systems and operators as main lines will be served by a former system and feeder lines collect passengers. This would provide a versatile form of public transportation with the added flexibility of catering for various access needs and an Ruben van Wijngaarden 9

unlimited range of locations throughout GAMA. (Agyemang, 2015; AMA, 2019). This concept completely incorporates Agyemang’s (2015) advice to incorporate private parties like the GPRTU and create a publicprivate partnership, ensuring a sense of ownership and acceptance.

This should eliminate competition on the road and contribute to safer and more sustainable traveling in Accra.

Current trotro culture The trotro in Accra is the main mode of passenger transportation within the city is seen widely seen as a convenient, available, accessible, and affordable way to travel the city (Agyemang, 2015; AMA, 2019; Nuworsoo, 2006). Most trotro’s collect passengers en-route and not necessarily at specified bus terminals. Passengers are allowed to board a trotro and pay fares to the driver’s ‘mate’. The convincing is also based on allowing passengers to embark or disembark at any location of their choice on heavily trafficked roads despite the practice being illegal, are seen as advantages that have further popularized the ‘trotro culture’ in GAMA (AMA, 2019, pp. 48–49; Blaustein, 2010).

On the other hand, trotro’s have poor operational and safety standards and records. Trotro’s are also usually heavy polluters because the vehicle fleet is old and inefficient. Throughout the city, broken trotro’s are seen along the road. Trotro drivers can also be quite aggressive as they maneuver the streets and traffic, resulting in road accidents.

Trotro operators have unionized in powerful groups like the Ghana Private Road Transport Union (GPRTU) forming a strong monopoly in the current urban environment (Agyemang, 2015; Blaustein, 2010; Kashi & Carello, 2020).

The Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA) is, after failed BRT programs, shifting her approach for improving the quality of the public transport system in Accra by a trotro upgrading program. This acknowledges the significance of the trotro’s in meeting the transportation needs of Accra’s residents and the interdependencies between the trotro system and other actors in the city (AMA, 2019, pp. 48–49)

10 A Public Transport System for Accra

STRATEGY ROADMAP Timeline The urgent need for a proper PT system (AMA, 2019) together with the ‘quick to apply’ proposed interventions, creates a timeline considering the need for 3 political lifecycles to complete a mature PT network.

However, in the first 4 years, it is believed that the first two steps of the roadmap could be ready. This holds the construction of bus lanes at 4 main bus corridors and the operation by express buses at the end of the cycle. Although a timeline is created to indicate the timespan of constructing the extensive network, the city will never be finished and should continuously examine the operations and connect new urban growth.

Figure 5, Timeline

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Funding Towards making a bus transport system succeed, basic elements for operating a bus system need to be constructed. The municipal governments will have to make work of large investments in infrastructure; constructing bus lanes and upgrading intersections.

Investments will also be a necessity for strengthening enforcement, regulations, and management (Agyemang, 2015; Kashi & Carello, 2020).

The operation of express buses will only demand maintenance and operation costs, as the buses are still present from the earlier attempts to implement a BRT system in 2016 (Kashi & Carello, 2020; Lartey, 2019).

A new attempt to implement a BRT system in Accra is recently been calculated by Kashi & Carello (2020) considering an investment period of 4 years and an operational period of 30 years. Their findings are clear about the highly beneficial effects of such a project and the returns in other places in society. ‘The implementation of a Bus Rapid Transit system could result in a Benefit-Cost Ratio of 1.49 if the project achieves an increase in speeds of 30% and the analysis uses a discount rate of 8%.’

However, in these calculations, only the implementation of a separate BRT system was calculated. In this case, an integral project with the trotro community could create even more benefits in the accessibility of the public transport network and attraction of users.

Figure 6, Swiss road vignette (https://www.concours.ch/pratique-ch/ gagnez-une-vignette-autoroutiere-2020-177917)

As trotro drivers pay license fees for operating in Accra (Agyemang, 2015), the municipal authorities can introduce an additional license for operating on bus lanes. This would generate returns of investment cost in short term and eventually infrastructural maintenance costs in the long run. As this is optional, trotro’s who do not want to use the dedicated lane, or no lane is provided on their routes, are not forced to pay. Authorized trotro’s must show a clear sign of authorized use of the bus lanes for example in the form of a vignette (fig x), and be registered at the responsible authorities. As the additional license provides for shorter travel times through the use of bus lanes, the profit of more daily operations theoretically balances out the cost of a license. However, the price of such a license needs to be calculated and discussed.

Affordability Through the operation of investments and implementing an extensive public transport network, the affordability of public transport needs a close eye as much of the success is dependent on its use. In the example of Dar-el-Salaam, the BRT system was successfully implemented but lacked affordability. Large communities of urban poor are still dependent on minibusses and inequality is visible even more (Rizzo, 2019). However, from several studies on the (former) transportation in Accra, the affordability of both the trotro and former BRT buses has been well enhanced. Gross of the public sees the trotro as an affordable mode of transport and reports indicate that BRT buses had even cheaper fares (Agyemang, 2015; Birago et al., 2017; Kashi & Carello, 2020). Nonetheless, recommendations are made for the fare system of public transportation in Accra. Fares derived from distances rather than passenger volume would ensure motivation for drivers, balanced distribution of routes, and planned trip schedules (Agyemang, 2015).

12 A Public Transport System for Accra

Figure 7, Summary of Benefits and Costs by Type, USD (Kashi & Carello, 2020)

Stakeholders (AMA, 2019) According to the Accra Resilient Strategy (AMA, 2019) the new attempt to construct an integrated transportation network will include the following parties at the table: Project lead: Department of Transport Governmental organizations - Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA) - Ministry of Transport (MOT) - Ministry of Roads & Highways (MRH) - National Road Safety commission - Police authorities - National Motor Traffic and Transport Department (MMTTD) - Greater Accra Passenger Transport Executive (GAPTE) http:// (International) Development agencies - French Development Agency (AFD) - Bloomberg Initiative for Global Road Safety (BIGRS) - Swiss State Secretariat for Economic Affairs - Ghana Urban Mobility and Accessibility Project (SECO-GUMAP) Transport operators: - Progressive Transport Owners’ Association (PROTOA) - Ghana Private Road Transport Union (GPRTU) - Individual trotro drivers - Metro Mass Transit (MMT) - Jingle Bus (information and digitalization)

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Map 1, Trotro corridors

Map 2, Interventions possible

14 A Public Transport System for Accra

Interventions Getting started A few years ago, the OpenStreetMap (OSM) community in Ghana have launched the AccraMobile project to map all trotro routes in the Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA). This is initiated by the Department of Transport in Accra who aimed that the trotro becomes more accessible and makes it visual that Accra actually has a very dense network of this service (Accra Mobile 3, 2019; OpenStreetMap, n.d.). It is a delight that this work has been finished and data is accessible by OSM (Ayitey, 2017). The data gives the ability to properly map corridors and plan bus lanes. The app developer Jingle Bus is planning on digitalizing the transport mode for mobile use, which creates possibilities for real-time information provision. In map 1, trotro corridors are mapped to indicate main routes. These corridors serve four or more trotro lines. Also, main exchange hubs, markets and destinations on these main routes are mapped (OpenStreetMap, n.d.).

First interventions: dedicated infrastructure In the first intervention, the quick appliance of bus lanes is a priority for short-term drastic improvement. Therefore a ‘lane taking’ intervention, shown in figure 8, is applied at roads of 3 lanes or more. As the congestion is so bad (see appendix for congestion map), the trotro will directly have an advantage over normal road traffic, which will promote the use of bus transportation. In map 2, the possibility for interventions is shown whereas data is derived from google satellite imagery (Google Maps, 2021) to decide the measure of the intervention. The green lines indicate the applicability of the ‘lane taking’ intervention. Here single roads are at least 3 lanes, whereas with ‘lane taking’ at least two lanes will remain for other road traffic. The orange lines indicate trajectories where additional lane construction is needed, often because of twolane roads. In these sections, it would be spatially possible to interfere.

It is important to focus on routes that are likely to be finished quickly first, for the sake of reliant and successful operation. The red lines are unlikely to be able to construct bus lanes, often because of dense structures along roads that would have to be demolished first. In all interventions, special attention is needed for accommodating right of way at intersections.

Figure 8, quick intervening through ‘lane taking’.

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Map 3, Oparating main bus routes by express bus

Map 4, Connect modes of transport

16 A Public Transport System for Accra

Drivers training/licensing To increase the probabilities for successful operation of a public transport network, additional training for trotro drivers should be at hand, for the sake of road safety and proper use of dedicated lanes (AMA, 2019). The sense of ownership of the complete system can be strengthened by granting possibilities for trotro drivers to switch vehicles and have driver’s licenses for driving express buses later on.

Trotro vehicles As Ghana made commitments to reduce air pollution, the upgrading of trotro vehicles can contribute greatly to the aim for cleaner air.

Roadmap for the Promotion of Cleaner Buses in Accra, Ghana (2017) is a constructed roadmap by the Environmental Protection Agency of Ghana to upgrade bus vehicles and elaborates on the effects of upgrading the fleet. A set of policies and subsidies can create the incentives to invest in ‘clean’ vehicles but require the facilitation of partnerships between trotro owners and financial institutions (AMA, 2019). As seen in the Accra Resilience Strategy (2019), GAMA is prioritizing this approach to upgrade the urban environment, and integration of policies is at hand.

Second intervention: implement express buses recommendations Considering express bus routes, the complimentary bus system for Accra’s residents need to suit their needs and culture. As stated before, express buses were in favor of many citizens until they moved into regular service (Agyemang, 2015). To implement such a bus system again, it is necessary that express buses only operate on main routes between major exchange hubs, like intermodal stations and important regional markets. Also, according to The BRT Standard (ITDP, 2016), BRT systems demand ticket machines on platforms. However, this does not seem to meet a need of Accra’s citizens. The ticket system is conceived as hard to understand and is a valid reason to not travel by BRT buses (Arthur, 2017). When operating new express routes, a ticketing system with a conductor on board the express bus seems a better suitable solution for current day transportation culture, and an intermodal model with trotro operations.

As main bus routes are served by dedicated lanes, express buses have the best chance to operate successfully. Therefore through the basic interventions and additional road construction on short segments, four main lines have high chances of operating relatively quickly (map 3). As GAMA still possesses city buses of former BRT projects (Lartey, 2019), new investment in vehicles is not likely to be necessary for the first stages of operation. But operational cost and maintenance need to be considered.

Connect transportation modes As express buses are operating, connecting with other modes of transport at important nodes is an important step towards an integrated transportation system for GAMA. In this next phase of formalization, the airport and relevant railway stations can be connected through exchange hubs (map 4).

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Map 5, Extend public transport networks

Expand infrastructure As the complete groundwork for a regional public transport system is paved, the city needs to keep up with new routes and operations.

Continuously seeking possible corridors and keeping the city accessible for its residents. The map above (map 5) is designed until the point of current visions of the National Development Planning Commission (2017), however, it will surely not stop here as the city keeps growing.

18 A Public Transport System for Accra

CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION Direct effects: Accessible city by improved travel time The report of Kashi & Carello (2020) expects an increase of average speed in Accra by 30% (estimated by the World Bank) by a well-implemented BRT system. This contributes massively to the societal returns of investment by time-saving and carbon emissions. Even an increase of 10% is expected to have a beneficial outweigh to the investment cost.

Affordable transport With the use of trotro operations complemented by express bus routes, the affordability of a new transportation network is expected to be the same as current operations. This is derived from data of studies examining the former BRT projects, whereas is stated that BRT buses had even cheaper fares than trotro’s operators. As trotro fares are already conceived affordable by the gross public, there is no evidence to doubt the affordability of the envisioned system (Agyemang, 2015; Birago et al., 2017; Kashi & Carello, 2020).

Improved Safety Although safety is an intangible measure upfront and a direct relationship is hard to defend, an assumption for the improvement of safety by a dedicated bus system is definitely to be considered. However, this impact is very dependent on the infrastructural investment and the education of drivers (Kashi & Carello, 2020).

Secondary effects Cooling of increasing Car ownership When the accessibility in the city by means of public transport is considered convenient and easily accessible by the residents, it is likely to assume that the increase of private car ownership will cool down. The normal road infrastructure will not quickly be able to accommodate the current amount of private vehicles, making the bus a quicker mode to access the urban cores.

Denser land-use at corridors A long-term effect could be natural densification along the PT corridors, through the rise of land prices and an increase in investment. According to the TOD Standard (ITDP, 2017), densification at PT nodes is a great feature of sustainable city development and is in line with the aims for integral planning.

Discussion During the design of the strategy, gradually more and more existing literature and reports were found that proposes multimodal public transport. That makes this strategy not necessarily new or innovative.

However, the active incorporation of the trotro and giving the same rights as larger buses, together with low-cost ‘quick and dirty’ ‘lane taking’ interventions could contribute to a very complete and integral strategy for fast implementation of a bus transit system. The risk of this strategy however is the high amount of vehicles on bus lanes, this could lead to congestion of dedicated lanes. Also, the proper construction of intersections and transportation hubs are of major importance to successful PT operations but are weak spots in the implementation power of governments.

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REFERENCES Accra Mobile 3. (2019, May 29). OpenStreetMap Wiki. https://wiki.openstreetmap.org/wiki/ AccraMobile3 Aernouts, S. M. J., Fatemidokhtcharook, M., Nijstad, K., & van Wijngaarden, R. (2020). City Diagnosis Accra.

Agyemang, E. (2015). The bus rapid transit system in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area, Ghana: Looking back to look forward. Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift, 69(1), 28–37. https://doi. org/10.1080/00291951.2014.992808 AMA. (2018). Road Safety Report 2016-2018.

AMA. (2019). Accra Resilience Strategy. https://ama.gov.gh/documents/Accra-ResilienceStrategy.pdf Arthur, A. (2017, February 15). Accra commuters dump Ayalolo buses for trotro. Modern Ghana. https://www.modernghana.com/news/755765/accra-commuters-dump-ayalolobuses-for-trotro.html Ayitey, C. (2017, November 2). AccraMobile Has All Trotro Routes on OpenStreetMap Now. Gharage. https://gharage.com/2017/11/02/accramobile-trotro-routes-openstreetmap/ Birago, D., Opoku Mensah, S., & Sharma, S. (2017). Level of service delivery of public transport and mode choice in Accra, Ghana. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 46, 284–300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2016.09.033 Blaustein, S. (2010, September 29). Report from the Field: The Tro-Tro - An Essential Mode of Transport in Accra, Ghana. State of the Planet. https://blogs.ei.columbia.edu/2010/09/29/ report-from-the-field-the-tro-tro-an-essential-mode-of-transport-in-accra-ghana/ Environmental Protection Agency Ghana. (2017). Roadmap for the Promotion of Cleaner Buses in Accra, Ghana.

GIBB Engineering and Sciences. (2017). Greater Accra Regional Spatial Development Framework-Volume 3.

Google Maps. (2021). Accra - typical traffic. Google Maps. https://www.google.nl/ maps/@5.6289533,-0.1654484,12.5z/data=!5m1!1e1?hl=nl Imoro Musah, B., Peng, L., & Xu, Y. (2020). Urban Congestion and Pollution: A Quest for Cogent Solutions for Accra City. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 435. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/435/1/012026 ITDP. (2016). THE BRT STANDARD. www.unep.org ITDP. (2017). TOD Standard.

Kashi, B., & Carello, S. (2020). Urban Transport Solutions For Accra. www. copenhagenconsensus.com Korah, P. I., Matthews, T., & Tomerini, D. (2019). Characterising spatial and temporal patterns of urban evolution in Sub-Saharan Africa: The case of Accra, Ghana. Land Use Policy, 87, 104049. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2019.104049 Lartey, P. N. (2019, August 14). Ghana’s Failed BRT System And Its Consequences On Public Life. Modern Ghana. https://www.modernghana.com/news/950133/ghanas-failed-brtsystem-and-its-consequences.html National Development Planning Commission. (2017). TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE FRAMEWORK of the GHANA INFRASTRUCTURE PLAN. Nuworsoo, C. (2006). New Public Transit System for Accra, Ghana. Focus, 3(1), 38–41. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.15368/focus.2006v3n1.6 OpenStreetMap. (n.d.). Public transport map in Accra. Jungle Bus. Retrieved January 6, 2021, from http://junglebus.io/accra/#12/5.6315/-0.1950 Rizzo, M. (2019, January 22). Dar es Salaam’s new rapid bus system won international acclaim – but it excludes the poor. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/ dar-es-salaams-new-rapid-bus-system-won-international-acclaim-but-it-excludes-thepoor-109987 The World Bank. (2017). Ghana Urban Transport Project - IMPLEMENTATION COMPLETION AND RESULTS REPORT. http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/933711488510098083/ pdf/ICR-Ghana-Urban-Transport-Project-P100619-FINAL-01262017-01312017.pdf

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APPENDIX

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TROTRO CORRIDORS

ROAD CONGESTION

INTERVENTION POSSIBILITIES

FIRST MAIN ROUTES

CONNECT TRANSPORTATION MODES

EXTEND TRANSPORTATION NETWORK