Proceeding completed

Foreword by Secretary I am delighted to welcome you to the first national conference on “Recent Trends in Instrumentation and Electronics-RTIE-2016”. The conference has been jointly organized by the Department of Electronics and Department of Instrumentation of Shaheed Rajguru College of Applied Sciences for Women. The conference organizers have put together excellent scientific and cultural programs that encompass the latest research in the fields of Electronics and Instrumentation, and provide an opportunity to renew old friendships and make new acquaintances. The national character of this conference is illustrated by the participation of various Indian states like Haryana, Chandigarh, Kurukshetra, Rajasthan, Tamil Naidu to name a few.

Many individuals have worked hard to make this conference a reality. The papers presented at this conference and included in these proceedings highlight the major advancements in the fields of Electronics, Instrumentation and allied fields. The information presented herein should help to open up new avenues for research and provide researchers with new ideas to help them improve their production efficiency. The editors, Dr Amita Kapoor and Dr Sneha Kabra, along with the technical chair Prof Mridula Gupta deserve special thanks for their outstanding efforts in reviewing and preparing the manuscripts for publication.

Sponsorship of this conference is an important feature of its success. On behalf of the organizers, I thank the all the sponsors who have helped to promote this event, with a special thanks to UGC, Department of Higher Education, Delhi and Dr Sanjeev Kaushal of Tokyo Elecktron.

Finally, I would like to thank the presenters for their willingness to share their latest research and ideas, without their efforts, this conference would not be possible. Keep up the good work. Wishing you all the best Dr Alka Vohra Kuanr, Secretary, RTIE 2016

Foreword by editors It is our great pleasure to welcome you to the first national conference on “Recent Trends in Instrumentation and Electronics-RTIE-2015”. The aim of this conference is to provide participants an opportunity to discuss the recent developments in the fields of Instrumentation and Electronics and review challenges faced by the community in the present scenario.

Last year, our college completed its 25 years. To mark the occasion we celebrated the whole year as Silver jubilee year with varied events organized throughout the year. One summer afternoon, we, Dr Amita Kapoor and Dr Sneha Kabra, having discussion over coffee, came up with the idea, why not organize a national conference. We discussed the idea with our Principal, Dr S. Lakshmi Devi, as always she not only encouraged us but by her positivity tried to remove all our apprehensions. We talked with others in our respective departments and everyone supported the concept.

Still we were apprehensive and so we sought guidance from Prof. Enakshi Khullar Sharma, Head, Department of Electronic Sciences, University of Delhi South Campus and Prof. Mridula Gupta, Department of Electronic Sciences, University of Delhi South Campus. Prof. Enakshi K.Sharma had been associated with our college since its inception, and had been our teacher and mentor. She not only encouraged us, but gave us some important pointers as to how to go about organizing the conference. Prof Mridula Gupta very graciously not only offered us the collaboration with IEEE EDS society, she also offered to help us in the reviewing process by becoming Technical Chair for the conference. The support from Prof. Mridula Gupta, gave us the boost to finally set the ball rolling.

Putting together RTIE-2015 was a team effort. We first thank the authors for providing the content of the program. We are grateful to the Technical chair Prof. Mridula Gupta for the hard work in reviewing the paper. We are grateful to the Advisory Committee and the organizing committee members for their guidance in the planning and execution all the work related to the conference. We are grateful to the conference secretary Dr Alka Vohra Kuanr, she honored us by agreeing to be our conference secretary. Ms Daya Bhardwaj, deserves a special thanks for her efforts in mobilizing the support and sponsorship from various sponsors. We would like to thank our treasurer Ms. Preeti Singhal in taking this big responsibility of finances and freeing us of the burden in of managing accounts.

The Local organizing committee members and their helpers were the real backbone of this conference. They put much effort into ensuring the success of day to day operation of this conference.

Ms Monika Tyagi, our person on website and on phone was unstinting in her efforts. Dr Neha Katyal and Ms Tanu Bhardwaj did a wonderful job in designing the posters, registration kit and for choosing beautiful mementos for the guests. All the members of the local organizing team and student volunteers deserve special thanks for all their efforts.

Finally we thank our Chief Guest Prof S. S. Mantha, Chairman AICTE for sparing his valuable time; we thank the guest of honor Prof S. S. Agrawal, Director General KIIT group of colleges for being with us today. We express our gratitude to Prof Dinesh Singh, Vice Chancellor University of Delhi for presiding over the function. It is their auspicious presence which has made this day to be cherished for.7500 We hope that you will find this conference interesting and thought-provoking and that the it will provide you with a valuable opportunity to share ideas with other researchers and practitioners from institutions across India.

Dr Amita Kapoor Editor, Proceeding of RTIE 2015 Joint Secretary RTIE 2015

Dr Sneha Kabra Editor, Proceeding of RTIE 2015 Joint Secretary RTIE 2015

INDEX 1. Revolution of Multi-Rotors : Science behind their action 2. Silicon Micromachining : Prospects and Challenges for future applications in MEMS Fabrication.

3. Low cost and user friendly environmental Monitoring system

Ashutosh Srivastava Monika Tyagi, Dhruv Tyagi

1-5 6-9

Amit Garg, Avinash Kumar, Shudhanshu, Sadashiv Raj Bhardwaj Raj Kumar, Shaksham Tyagi

10-14

. .

4. Optically Controlled MIS Microstrip Slow Structure For ultrafast RF Signal Processing

Raghbehdra Singh Tomar, Enakshi K. Sharma

15-16

. . . . . . .

5. Current-Voltage (I-V) Characteristics Of MWCNT/polyaniline nanocomposites 6. Preparation and Properties of Polyvinyl Alcohol/ Titanium-Di-Oxide/Iodine Composite Flexible Membranes 7. Instrumentation in ion-atom collision experiments: Signal Processing in X-ray detectors

Samina Husain, Monika Tyagi

17-19

Rakhi Grover

20-22

Kusum Sharma, Sweta Singh Ruchika Gupta, Tanvi, Punita Verma

23-26

8. Nanobiosensors-A Scientometric study in last 25 years 9. Impact of Green electronics on Global Environment

Sukriti Sharma, Smriti Sharma Bhatia Lovleen Kaur Arora

27-29 30-33

10. Integration of Water quality indices with GIS to evaluate Water quality

Nida Rizvi, Deeksha Katyal Varun Joshi

34-37

11. Algae: Power plants for future

38-40

12. A Study of e-waste management on the subject of awareness of college students

Geeta Mongia, Inderbir Kaur, Ruchi Gulati Marwah Amit Kumar Tyagi, Sanjay Tyagi, Lalit Sharma, Meenakshi

13. Generation of electricity from Aloe Vera Plant: A step towards Creating an Era

Tanu Bhardwaj, Anushka Singh Deeksha Agarwal, Prerna Singh

47-48

14. Invited Paper: Chromatographic fingerprinting: An emerging tool for quality control and chemo-taxonomy of medicinal plants and their drugs

Daya Bhardwaj, Dr. Nutan Kaushik

49-58

15. Characterization and Analysis Techniques of Nanoparticles: A Module

Smriti Sharma Bhatia Saloni Bahri, and Sushma Moitra

59-61

16.

Synthesis, Characterization and Application of Polysaccharide based Resin for Yamuna Water Treatment

Sunita Hooda, M.B. Raigar Atul Kumar, Sonu Kumar

62-68

17.

18.

In-silico study of inhibition of Cysteine protease (papain) An innovative Approach to make E-resources on Frequently encountered Electronics Devices used

By Undergraduate Science Students Enhancing the Learning Experience of Undergraduate Students through Designing Mobile-APPS Technology embellished teaching and learning Compare the Level of Security Risk between IT User/Employee and Non-IT User/Employee Friendship among adolescent Girls: Analysis using Gephi

Smriti Sharma Bhatia, Gunsheen Kaur Deeksha Agarwal, Pratibha Sangam, Shivani Ranjan

69-70 71-74

Geetika Jain Saxena, Amit Pundir

75-79

P.Verma Amit Kumar Tyagi, Sanjay Tyagi, Lalit Sharma, Meenakshi Sheetal Varshney and Amita Kapoor

80-81 82-87

19.

20.

21.

22.

41-46

88-89

Revolution of Multi-Rotors: Science behind their action Ashutosh Srivastava Department of Instrumentation.

Bhaskaracharya College Of Applied Sciences. New Delhi, India.

Srivastava.ashu900@gmail.com Abstract – A Quad-copter helicopter is a specialized Electronic machine having four “equally” spaced rotors, usually arranged at the corners of a square shaped frame/body. The need of study of such kind of multi-rotor machine lies in the fact that it certainly differentiates its mechanism from a helicopter. While there’s a need of a “Swashplate” in a helicopter, a quad-copter thus eliminates the use of a swash-plate in its design. The controlling of a Multi Rotor is specifically done by combined use of Micro-controllers and components known as ESCs (will be discussed in this paper later). Then finally the physics behind the flying of this machine will be continued with some proofs and imp. terminology.

Keywords – Physics; motors; ESCs; DOF; micro-controllers; radio- frequency; swash-plate; PID control.

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INTRODUCTION

A quad-copter/quad-rotor, is a specially aided design of a helicopter and is also known as UAV(Unmanned aerial vehicle) due to its quiet uncertain design and terminology. Unlike most helicopters, quad copter uses 2sets of identical fixed “pitched propellers” having clockwise and anti- clockwise rotations. These vehicles comes under the VTOL category, i.e. these are one of the first successful heavier than air vertical take off and landing machines. Earlier many manufacturers faced severe difficulty in attaining success on its control system, (mainly flying mechanics and controlling). but today we can easily access full control of the system using electrical assistance. By using the combination of logical circuits and sensors,[1-3]it becomes possible to stabilize the aircraft at maximum efficiency. As compared to the helicopters, these machines lead in terms of flight characteristics. These machines do not require mechanical linkages as in case of a helicopter. Next the smaller diameter of each rotor in a quad copter results in less kinetic energy possession as compared to a single large blade of a helicopter. The history itself reveals the story of the quad rotors starting from 1907 when “Louis Breguit” designed a first ever four rotor air-craft that was capable of lifting up off the ground. Further more, in late 1920s the concept of stirling engine was utilized by Etienne Oehmichen to lift up his four rotor based air craft. A unique concept was intended to be the prototype for military purpose. This design featured two engines driving four motors through a system of V belt. Recent developments have proved many possibilities in the technology of quads. By the use of some electrical means, it is now possible to achieve full stabilization and control. Since in this context we are more focused to science behind their working. There’s a huge amount of physics involved in multi rotor flight, therefore we are only going to consider the physics involved in “maneuvering” the multi rotor which is considered in the later contexts. This study further involves balancing the forces acting on the air-craft.[3-6]. The control analysis involves 6 degrees of freedom i.e. three translational and 3 rotational. Later contexts will explain the full flight mechanics and verifications of the kinematics using Equations.

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BACKGROUND

Before going deep into the physics of the quad-copters, let’s first cover up some background information regarding basic concepts and terminology. While discussing multi- rotor construction and piloting, it will certainly be useful to have a way of communicating different movements of the multi- rotor. Since a quad- rotor flies in a three dimensional space, therefore three set of angles needs to be specified in order to grab the flight analytics. These co-ordinates are as follows and shown in Fig.1: (1)

Roll

(2)

Yaw

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Pitch

Fig. 1 -To describe the orientation of the quad-copter, we use three angles: roll, pitch, and yaw.

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The roll angle of the multirotor describes how the craft is tilted side to side. Rotation about the roll axis is like tilting your head towards one of your shoulders. Rolling the multi-rotor causes it to move sideways [2-3]. The pitch angle of the multi-rotor describes how the aircraft is tilted forwards or backwards . Rotation about the pitch axis is like tilting your head in order to look [2] up or down. Pitching the multi rotor causes it to move forward or backward. The yaw angle of the multi-rotor describes its bearing., or in other words rotation of the craft as it stays level to the ground.

Rotation of the yaw axis is like when you shake your head to say "no". Another factor that is directly involved with the terminology of the quad-rotors is "Throttle". Throttle adjusts the altitude of the quad copter or in other words, it controls the height level of a quad copter while in the air.[3]

Axis of rotation: As described earlier, a multi rotor is set of 4 motors that produces desirable thrust level.

Each motor produces desired level of torque about its center of rotation and these forces are used to determine and locate the three coordinates, i.e. Roll, Yaw and Pitch respectively. Thus torque generated by each of the motors cancel out all the torques generated thus regulating a stable flight and generating a stable throttle level up in the sky.

Since it is difficult to control these rotations manually, most of the techniques for controlling the quad involves direct autonomous techniques. These techniques include use of accelerometers, barometers, GPS sensors, use of highly advanced micro- controllers.

Although a good efficiency is obtained while using these techniques, other technique that incur these methods is PID tuning. This is no other but a method for finer tune or calibration of the sensors.[2,3] (3)PHYSICS In order to understand the dynamics involved in the system, we need to have a good understanding of the physical properties that government. For this purpose, there is an essential need to begin with motor description and calculate the forces and thrusts these motors produces on the entire quad copter that causes it to fly. All the motors on a quad-copter are similar and can be considered same with no loss if generality. “important point to be noted that if two of the propellers are spinning ‘clockwise’, then the adjacent two will rotate ‘counter-clockwise’’, so that torques are balanced.

Motors: all the motors used are brushless and therefore of same value (say 30 Amps). Thus torque produced by a single motor will be identical to the torques produced by the other three. Hence torque produced is given by :-

τ = Kt(I – Io) where τ = motor torque, I = input current by the batteries Io= the current when there’s no load Kt = torque proportionality constant Now the voltage across the motor is the motor is the sum of the back EMFs and some resistive loss.

V = IRm + Kvω Where V = voltage drop across the motor Rm = resistance of motor ω = angular velocity of motor Kv = proportionality constant.

Now using this V and τ values, we can calculate the power, each motor consumes during it spin.

P = IV =(τ + Kt.Io) (Kt.Io.Rm + τ.Rm + Kt.Kvω) Kt^2 For purpose of a simple model, motor resistance can be neglected, then the power will become proportional to the angular velocity.

P ≈(τ + Kt.Io)Kv.ω Kt Forces: The power equation derived is used to keep the quad copter aloft. By energy of conservation, the energy the motor expends in a given time is equal to the force generated on the propeller times the distance that the air it displaces, (P · d t = F · d x). Equivalently, the power is equal to : P = T.Vh assuming vehicle speeds to be low, so Vh is the air velocity when hovering. By momentum theory, hover velocity is calculated:

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Vh = (T/2ρA)^1/2 Where ρ is the density of the surrounding air and A is the area swept by the rotor. Now we can rewrite the power equation to obtain a intermediate relation between thrust and angular velocity: P = (Kv/Kt) τω = T^3/2 = KvKτTω.

(2ρA)1/2 Kt In general case, τ = r × F, but in this case the torque is proportional to the thrust by Some constant ratio Kτ. solving for thrust Magnitude T , it is noticed that T is proportional to square of angular velocity of the Motor. : T =(KvKτ (2ρA)^1/2 ω)^2 = Kω^2 Kt Here K is some dimensionless constant [3,4] Now when forces and power are calculated, it becomes easy to calibrate the components more effectively using the results obtained by these equations and putting up the correct values for the quad to obtain efficient flight analysis.

(4) SENSORS AND COMPONENTS In this section, the main sensors and electronics used for a quad-rotor are discussed. The sensors are explained on the basis of true results and how different sensors provide their respective results and perform their intended tasks. IMU: known as inertial measurement unit, is a complete set of inertial systems that include onboard gyroscope triaxials accelerometers, and triaxial magnetometer. here a gyroscope measures the angular velocity of the IMU, An accelerometer measure both static as well as dynamic acceleration and generally is responsible for its task against gravitational force. A 3 axis accelerometer is used in a quad-rotor. A magnetometer measures the earth’s magnetic field. It is a known fact that an accelerometer and a magnetometer works together to provide stability.[2,5] The sensors in an IMU are complimentary since they all can measure the same angle, but with different methods.

RANGEFINDER: It is equally necessary to ensure that a multi-rotor machine flying in the sky at a particular altitude may not diverge from its projection and co-ordinates. Thus it becomes necessary to calculate the average distance between the system and the ground. This calculation may also be used to locate the quad at different coordinates. Optical as well as supersonic sensors can be used for this purpose. A proximity sensor sends out infrared light which when reflected from a surface provides the coordinates of the quad system.

CONTROL BOARD: The correct choice regarding the micro-controller board is an essential requirement and should be done accurately in order to avoid further errors in measurements. There are various microcontroller board found in the market depending on the use. Some of the most efficient and widely used boards are: Ardu pilot mega 2.5, KK2.0, KK5.0 , DJI NAZA, ETC. These are amongst the finest control boards that can be used both by beginners as well as professionals. this is because of the fact that these can easily be programmed accordingly and are user friendly and sometimes they have on-mounted sensors.[4-8] TX/RX: This is also known as transmitters and receiver or simply transceivers. Amongst the wide frequency values of TX/RX, it is necessary to Select suitable frequency range. also One must calculate the range and the wavelength so that an unwanted phenomenon “interruption” may be avoided For this purpose, FHSS technology is therefore considered in most of the RX/TX. FHSS stands for frequency hopping spread spectrum. This phenomenon avoid clashing of the transmitting frequency with any other wireless device transmitting at same frequency.[2-4] MOTORS/ESCs: To provide maximum efficient thrust, wise selection of motors with their equivalent RPM value should Be done. For a small/light weighted quad system, a motor having a 400 KVA to700 KVA is enough. KVA is the unit of brushless DC motor and its equivalent RPM can be calculated using the true kva values. To convert this reading directly to RPM, following formula can be used: RPM = E x kva(reading). for example, if a 12V battery is used and a motor has a KVA rating of 1000, then It’s RPM equivalence is 1000 x 12 i.e. 12000 RPM.[3,4].

ESCs or electronic speed controllers are the electronic devices having MOSFETS embedded and are used to drive these Brushless Motors. These act as a switch for the motors that regulates the current and speed of the motors. These ESCs can be programmed by the user or can these comes under various ratings, but the suitable rating recommended is 30A.

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PID TUNING

As discussed in the introduction context, tuning has been discussed that involves manual as well as automatic tuning. In this phrase, PID tuning is a well established terminology and is widely used by the developers and hobbyist. PID or proportional – integral – derivative configuration allow the users to configure the PI levels of the controller and thus varies the quad copter flying statistics. PID is the closed-loop control system that try to get the actual result closer to the desired result by adjusting input. All the multi rotors uses PID to achieve stability.[6]

Fig. 2 showing a PID mechanism There are three algorithms in a PID controller, there are P, I and D respectively. P depends on present error results, while I on the past accumulation results. D depends on future errors on the basis of current changes.

These PID tunings are both pre-tuned as well as can be manually tuned according to the user requirements.

Controllers like APM, DJI NAZA, Multi Wii comes pre-tuned and therefore they don’t require much tuning.

While boards like KK2.0 requires heavy tuning and thus Its PI levels should be tuned well to achieve appropriate flight characteristics.

While controlling/tuning mechanism is done, the sensors output are noted down while keeping the quad rotor system on a flat base. Once particular value of PI, P and I are noted down, the PID tuning is started and thus the tune process is applied to the present value of errors, thus increasing the accuracy. Motors then aim to the closest value and try to match up the desired level.[6,7]

Fig. 3 How PID tuning works and corrects the errors EFFECT OF EACH PARAMETER: the variations of these three parameters, i.e. P, I and D causes a variation in the flight stats. Three of the parameters have their own characteristic behavior on the quad system and thus they can be both individually as well as configured together. [Refer to Fig. 2 and Fig. 3] Effect of P gain :This coefficient responds to the information gathered by the gyroscopes and thus this results in sensitiveness of the quad rotor. The higher this P gain, more sensitive is the quad copter towards the angular velocity and therefore will result in steady flight. [6-8] Effect of I gain : this coefficient can increase the precision of the angular velocity. For example if there’s a change of 20 degrees in the position of the system, then the I gain may help the quad returning back and counteract the error of 20 degrees. This term is generally helpful in windy surroundings so that quad rotor may not loose its position. [8]

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Effect of D gain : This coefficient leads a quad rotor system reach its desired attitude at a desired rate.

Sometimes this is also known as accelerator parameter because it amplifies the user input.

It should be kept in mind that P and I gains should be calibrated in accordance with each other else there invariance may lead to further oscillations. [7,8]

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SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK

Through this paper, we concluded that multi rotors are special creations of VLSI and embedded systems and uses wide varieties of electronics and principles. Various tuning methods are discussed and it is found that PID tuning is one of the best tuning methods that is used to achieve appropriate stability and results. The physics and dynamics behind the flight of these machines has been discussed and concluded. Although multi rotors are an interesting creations of electronics, still these concepts are not widely popular among the masses except hobbyist and engineers because of their complex mechanism and unmanned design in this context, we’ve only discussed the manual methods to control the multi- rotors, but future expectations shows that autonomous methods may also be involved and used to eliminate the manual methods by utilizing the combination of sensors.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank all the reviewers of this paper and a special thank to my advisor, Associate Professor Dr. Geeta Bhatt, who has been a tremendous mentor for me. Apart from my mentor, I would also like to appreciate my department faculty who scheduled themselves to help me out for conducting out this paper.

Without their help and right guidance, it would have been very difficult to carry out this research. last but not the least, I would like to thank my respected principal who allowed me to carry out this research under his guidance and permissions.

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REFERENCES

[1] 10/11/2014. Andrew.gibiansky.com/downloads/pdf.

[2] 10/11/2014. Blacktiearieal.com/2014/04/29/the-physics-of-quad copter-flight/ [3] 10/11/2014. “Sensors and components” , build your own quad copter. Donald Norris. 1.05.

[4] “Flight analytics of DJI”,“starting Out with quad copters”. 36. Matt Jarvis. 14 July, 2014. Illinois.

[5] “Development of quad copter”, 2011. Carbajo, L.E. California State University. Northbridge.

[6] Online: “myfirstdrone.com/ tutorials/how-to-tune-a-quad copter/” [7] Online: “blog.oscarliang.net/appreciatequadcopter-pid-explanning-tunning/ [8] “GUI design of Phantom”, “simple Wireless GUI for quad-copter control”76-82. Hanafi D. Vechian MQ. March 2014. Germany.

[9] “Advances in autonomous robotics system”127-138. Michael Mistry. September 13 Birmingham. UK.

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Silicon Micromachining: Prospects and Challenges for future applications in MEMS Fabrication Monika Tyagi

Dhruv Tyagi

Department of Instrumentation Shaheed Rajguru College of Applied Sciences for Women, University of Delhi Delhi, India monikatyagi1@gmail.com

Amity Institute of Nanotechnology Amity University Noida, India dhruv_tyagi2003@yahoo.com

Abstract-This paper reviews the future aspects of MEMS fabrication using Silicon micromachining. Silicon micromachining involves a parallel batch process which consists of fabrication of multiple identical elements or structures of order of a few micrometers on a single Silicon Wafer. Also, a series of wafers are processed.

This paper primarily focuses on present technologies being employed and the challenges that need to be overcome for successive applications of Silicon micromachining in MEMS fabrication and thus for commercialization of that particular MEMS based device.

A brief of design considerations are also taken into account involving specifications of the end applications, feasibility of the structure, functionality as well as cost justifications. Silicon is basically used and preferred because it offers a single crystalline form along with well understood processing technology.

KeyWords-

Silicon micromachining, bulk micromachining, surface Micromachining, challenges and MEMS sensors.

important goal that is to be kept as primary concern is the performance of the MEMS fabricated along with the size.

The size of the device should be small and performance should be high in terms operation. The device should me more functional and sophisticated. Various new discoveries and techniques are being developed in the field of Silicon micromachining for fabrication of MEMS based devices.

MEMS involve mixed set of signals thus it acts as a generalized interface between the physical world and the electronic world[5]. Therefore it carries a lot of future potential in terms of fabricating high efficiency sensors or actuators or a combination of both for various future applications in integrated circuits.

This paper discusses the requirements of Silicon micromachining technologies and challenges that need to be overcome for exploring new possibilities for future applications. It will also review the recent progress being taking place in improving present Silicon micromachining technologies.

II. BACKGROUND

I. INTRODUCTION Silicon Micromachining is a batch process in which we fabricate multiple identical elements simultaneously on a single Silicon wafer. Also in the same process, numerous numbers of similar wafers are processed simultaneously.[1] The body of work begins with the crystal structure of silicon and ends with etched shapes. Silicon micromachining involves bulk and surface micromachining as its major processes. There are basically two types of micromachining technologies i.e.

Bulk micromachining and surface micromachining. Bulk micromachining is an older process for fabricating Silicon based Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS). This consists of etching the surface and generating various structures. In contrast to this technique Surface micromachining involves deposition of layers of structural materials and thus forming structures of desired shapes and sizes. [2, 3] Through these micromachining technologies we can form various type of microstructures that can be used for fabrication for highly efficient sensors (or micro sensors) and actuators. Silicon is preferred for this because of various advantages it offers. Some of which are well understood processing technologies, abundance and cost [4]. The most

In recent times there have been great advancements in development of various integrated circuits and fabrication of low power signal processing electronics, actuators and sensors. They carry enormous applications in the field of healthcare, targeted drug delivery, automotive systems, environment monitoring, device quality and military applications [6]. To satisfy these requirements we have to develop certain technologies to improve micromachining processes for fabrication of MEMS. Research is going on to find new solution and better micromachining technologies.

The development of MEMS has taken place in recent few decades. Silicon micromachining has been into existence since early 1960s. MEMS were developed in the beginning of 1990s along with Integrated Circuits. Industries invested strong capital in development of these Micro Electro Mechanical Systems. There has also been development of less integrated MEMS devices such as microaccelerometers, micro-mirrors for projection miniaturization, inkjet printer head etc[7]. More complex MEMS devices are also being proposed for various future applications such as micro-opto-electro-mechanical systems (MOEMS), and micro-total analysis systems (μTAS).

Various actuating and sensing structures were fabricated using bulk micromachining, surface micromachining,

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lithography and LIGA[8]. Micromachining has become fundamental technique for fabrication of microstructures of MEMS. Silicon micromachining is mostly used micromachining procedure. Various simple as well as complex microstructures are being fabricated such as cantilevers, grooves, diaphragms, gears, springs, etc[9].

IV. RECENT DEVELOPMENT

MEMS systems are mixed mode systems that can operate of various signals (mixed signal) modes. This enables the device for functions such as sensing and actuation.

Therefore, there is a great need to develop fabrication techniques to satisfy these requirements. The size of the micro-components is required to be reduced to increase the efficiency. The device needs to be performing multiple functions to measure a variety of parameters so that the performance is increased and size is reduced.

There is a great requirement to fabricate high aspect ratio microstructures [10].

A. Bulk Micromachining

III. MATERIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR MICROMACHINING A. Silicon: Silicon is the most preferred and widely used material for micromachining. This is because of various advantages it holds over other materials in terms of abundance, cost and processing techniques. The processing technologies are well understood and widely used for commercial applications. It is cheaper and more abundant than other materials. One of the major reasons to use Silicon is its single crystalline form. The processing technologies are well established which offers low cost and high purity. It is a very good material in terms of mechanical properties. A Pure single crystalline Silicon material acts as an almost perfect Hookean material. It shows no hysteresis and energy dissipation when the structure is bent. This offers very little fatigue and thus a long lifetime. [11] B.Other Materials:

Two generic technologies are there to fabricate Micro electro mechanical Systems. These technologies are Bulk micromachining and Surface micromachining. Metal micromachining is also employed in some cases.

In this technology from the bulk Silicon, different microstructures are formed. Etching is done to make desired patterns and shapes. We can use both wet etching and dry etching. Orientation or concentration of the etching material influences the whole etching process. Previously employed traditional methods were having certain limitations like large die areas, limited degree of freedom when attempt is made to move the microstructures and restriction is shape and size selection. But some of these limitations have been discarded by employing new technologies. [15] Three dimensional microstructures can be formed using dry micromachining techniques. These three dimensional structures can move in both lateral as well as vertical plane of device. The Silicon substrate is doped to a required depth. The doping is usually done with Boron. The wafer is then etched using Reactive ion etching (RIE) and we can thus give desired shape to the structure. After patterning the desired shapes Silicon wafer is then bonded electro statically to a glass wafer that is pre patterned with interconnections. After that, etching is done using KOH to dissolve undoped Silicon regions[9].

Example1: Bulk Silicon micromachining for asymmetric– comb drive actuator Image 1 shows a torsional actuator driven by a combdrive moving in the out of plane direction consisting of polysilicon fingers and bulk silicon fingers. This actuator is fabricated using Silicon Bulk micromachining followed by DRIE (Deep reactive ion etching). [19]

Other materials can also be used in place of Silicon for micromachining and fabrication of MEMS based devices.

These materials could either be some specific metals, polymers and ceramics. Commonly used metals are Gold (Au), Silver (Ag), Nickel (Ni), Copper (Cu), Titanium (Ti), Tungsten (W) etc. These metals show poor structural properties as compared to Silicon but are extremely reliable when used under limited conditions [12].

Certain specific polymers can be used. These polymers offer high volume and versatile material characteristics.

MEMS structures can be fabricated using these polymers by using techniques like injection molding, stereo lithography and embossing.

Various ceramics are also used for fabrication of MEMS devices, such as Silicon Nitride, Silicon Carbide, nitrides of Titanium and Aluminum etc. These ceramics enables piezoelectric properties and thus acts as a very good material for fabrication of highly sensitive sensors. [13,14].

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Image 1: SEM of a fabricated asymmetric-combdrive actuated membrane

Example 2:Figure 2 shows array of through-etched titanium mirrors bonded to an array of silicon electrodes. This structure is formed using bulk micromachining. The actuated mirror is shown in the lower right side of the image. [20].

2.4 GHz. SEM images of the structures are given in image 3.[18]

Image 2: Array of through-etched titanium mirrors bonded to an array of silicon electrodes

Image 3: SEM photographs of the fabricated 20-turn, allcopper solenoid inductor (upper: overview, lower: magnified view)

B. Surface Micromachining Silicon Surface micromachining is employed to fabricate micro electro mechanical systems from deposited thin films. Recently, there have been great advances in development of surface micromachining technologies.

Different types of actuators and sensors are being fabricated using this technology. It is highly efficient in developing very thick microstructures by employing LPCVD (Low pressure chemical vapor deposition) or MBE (molecular beam epitaxy) of polycrystalline Silicon. We can get better control over mechanical and thus electrical properties of the thin films. This technology was usually employed for Integrated circuit fabrication only.[16] Films of polysilicon or Silicon Nitride are deposited or removed in a selective manner to build three dimensional microstructures. The first step consists of establishment of polycrystalline material for forming required structures. The main reason for selection of polycrystalline Silicon than Single crystalline Silicon is the difference in mechanical properties such as strength, Young’s modulus and fracture point.

Single crystalline Silicon is robust and its Young’s modulus isunidirectional and offers great strength in that particular direction. It is brittle and develops fracture. On the other hand polycrystalline Silicon shows flexible characteristics and thus is a suitable candidate for makingstructures and thus is a better option for MEMS fabrication.Polycrystalline Silicon is deposited by employing LPCVD (Low pressure chemical vapor deposition) at a temperature of about 858K890K. Example: Surface Micromachined Solenoid on Si substrate.

Jun-Bo Yoon, Bon-Kee Kim, Chul-Hi Han, Euisik Yoon and Choong-Ki Kim fabricated solenoid on-chip inductors on a Silicon substrate using Silicon micromachining technologies. The thickness of insulating layer was 15µm and peak quality factor of 16.7 at operating frequency of

V. CHALLENGES FOR FUTURE APPLICATIONS A. Thick, High aspect ratio: The microstructures being developed by the micromachining technology should yield thick, high aspect ratio (thickness to width ratio). The device fabricated must produce large electrical outputs that can be sensed by the interface device unit. The microstructures developed should be thick as well. Thus new technologies are required to improve the aspect ratio of the device and thus to modulate the performance of the device along with size. [13].

B. Mixed mode Signals In recent time, there is a great requirement for device to be intelligent. For such application there is a great need of multiple operations i.e. the MEMS should be able to process a variety of input signals. The device has to process various input signals such as optical, magnetic, radiative, mechanical as well as other non electric input signals and convert them into electric parameters. The microstructures should be able to deal with these signals efficiently. For example, to process optical signals, the device must be equipped with mirror like surfaces with movable microstructures in order to perform different operations.

Therefore, there is a great requirement of modification in the technology involved in Silicon micromachining so as to generate a design that will carry all these signal processing operations that too with minimum area consumption.

C. Integration with Electronics The MEMS architecture and design considerations must be made in such a way that it is well adaptable to other electronic device integration. This acts as a very important characteristic for working of a sensor or an actuator. This is

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very important to make highly efficient sensors by integrating more and more electronic circuits in a single unit. Another purpose for integration of MEMS with electronic devices is for wireless communication of the device to the surroundings. For that, we have to fabricate a transmitter, an oscillator as well as a receiver on the same substrate. Thus new methodologies are to be discovered to overcome this challenge of integrating multiple electronic devices along with MEMS that too with reduced size.

D. Wafer Level Packaging Packaging is one of the major concerns while developing MEMS based device. Packaging is one of the most expensive parts of the whole fabrication sequence. The packaging of the device offers various advantages to the device. It protects the device from any kind of perturbation from external environment. It also protects the device from moisture and different external factors that can somehow harm the whole structure fabricated. It also helps in dissipating the heat generated by the device into the atmosphere. Thus to meet the requirements of many of such challenges micromachining can offer certain solutions. Thin films of polycrystalline silicon or glass can be deposited and vacuum can be generated which can further be batch bonded to the wafer containing the device.

Along with these challenges, Silicon micromachining technologies must be modified and proper research should be done to make the whole micromachining process cost effective. It should also be able to employ high yield and high performance so that the cost reduces as well as the life of the device increases. [17].

VI. CONCLUSIONS This paper reviewed the different processes involved with the Silicon micromachining technologies. Along with the recent advancements and the background of the Silicon micromachining technologies future aspects are also focused. There is a great requirement to focus in the field of fabrication of MEMS based device using Silicon micromachining so that we can fabricate high performance sensors and actuators with reduced size and considerable deduction in the cost. We also reviewed some challenges and requirements of the currently employed process and what is required to maximize the output of MEMS based devices.

REFERENCES  

K. D. Wise, "Integrated Microinstrumentation Systems: Smart Peripherals for Distributed Sensing and Control,"Digest IEEE mt.

Solid-State Ckts Con., p. 126, 1993.

K. Suzuki, Single-Crystal Silicon Microactuators," Technical Digest, mt. Electron Devices Meeting, pp. 625-628,December 1990, San Francisco, CA.



K. Suzuki, Single-Crystal Silicon Microactuators," Technical Digest, mt. Electron Devices Meeting, pp. 625-628,December 1990, San Francisco, CA.  L. Lin, K.M. McNair, R.T. Howe, and A.P. Pisano, "VacuumEncapsulated Lateral Microresonators," Proceedings, mt. Conf. on Solid-State Sensors and Actuators, pp. 270-273, June 1993, Yokohama, Japan  B. Ziaie, J. Von Arx, M. Nardin, and K. Najafi, "A Hermetic Packaging Technology with Multiple Feedthroughs for Integrated Sensors and Actuators," Proceedings, mt. Conf. on Solid-State Sensors and Actuators, pp. 266-269, June 1993, Yokohama, Japan  A. Mason, N. Yazdi, K. Najafi, and K.D. Wise, "A Low-Power Wireless Microinstrumentation System for Environmental Monitoring," Digest, mt.Conf on Solid-State Sensors and Actuators, Transducers '95, Stockholm, Sweden, June 1995.  C.T-C. Nguyen, and R.T. Howe, "CMOS Micromechanical Resonator Oscillator," Technical Digest, mt. Electron Devices Meeting, pp. 199-202, December 1993, Washington DC.  W. Ehrfeld, P. Bley, F. Gotz, P. Hagmann, A. Maner, J. Mobr, H. 0.

Moser, D. Munchmeyer, W. Schelb, D.Schmidt, and E. W. Becker, "Fabrication of microstructures using the LIGA process," Proc. iEEE Micro Robots &Teleoperators Workshop, Hyannis, MA, Nov. 1987.  Y. Gianchandani, and K. Najafi, "A Bulk-Silicon Dissolved Wafer Proces for Microelectromechanical Systems," Technical Digest, mt.

Electron Devices Meeting, pp. 757-758, Dec. 1991, Washington DC.  W.H. Juan, and S.W. Pang, "A Novel Etch-Diffusion Process for Fabricating High Aspect Ratio Si Microstructures," Digest, mt. Conf. on Solid-State Sensors & Actuators, Transducers '95, pp. 5610-563, Stockholm, Sweden, June 1995.  H. Khan, S. Stemmer, K. Nandakumar, A.H. Heuer, R.L. Mullen, R. Ballarini, and M.A. Huff, " Mechanical Properties of Thick, Surface MicromachinedPolysilicon Films, "Proceedings, IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS) Workshop, pp. 343-348, San Diego, CA, Feb. 1996.  M.W. Putty, and K. Najafi, "A Micromachined Vibrating Ring Gyroscope," Invited Paper, Technical Digest, Solid- State Sensors and Actuators Workshop, pp. 213-220, June 1994, Hilton Head, SC.  A. Bruno Frazier and Mark G. Allen, "High Aspect Ratio Electroplated Microstructures Using a Photosensitive Polyimide Process," Proceedings, IEEE Workshop on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, Travemunde, Germany, pp. 87-92, Feb. 1992.  H. Guckel, T.R. Christenson, K.J. Skrobis, D.D. Denton, B. Choi, E.G. Lovell, J.W. Lee, 5.5. Bajikar, T.W. Chapman, "Deep X-Ray and UV Lithographies for Micromechanics," Digest, Solid-State Sensors & Actuators Wkshp,Hilton Head, SC, p. 116, June 1990.  A. Selvakumar, and K. Najafi, "High Density Vertical Comb Array Microactuators Fabricated Using A Novel Bulk/Poly-Silicon Trench Refill Technology," Digest, Solid-State Sensors andActuators Workshop, pp. 138-141, June 1994, Hilton Head, SC.  R.D. Nasby, J.J. Sniegowski, J.H. Smith, S. Montague, C.C. Barron, W.P. Eaton, P.J. McWhorter, D.L. Hetherington, C.A. Apblett, and J.G. fleming, "Application of Chemical-Mechanical Poolishing to Planarization of Surface-Micromachined Devices, " Technical Digest, Solid-State Sensor and Actuator Workshop, pp. 48-53, Hilton Head, S. Carolina, June 1996.  M. Esashi, " Micromachining for Packaged Sensors," Proceedings,Jnt. Conf. on Solid-State Sensors and Actuators, pp.

260-265, June 1993, Yokohama, Japan.  Surface Micromachined Solenoid On-Si and On-Glass Inductors for RF Applications: Jun-Bo Yoon, Student Member, IEEE, Bon-Kee Kim, Chul-Hi Han, Member, IEEE, Euisik Yoon, Member, IEEE, and Choong-Ki Kim, Fellow, IEEE  Integrated Polysilicon and DRIE Bulk Silicon: Micromachining for an Electrostatic Torsional Actuator: Jer-Liang Andrew Yeh, Student Member, IEEE, Hongrui Jiang, Student Member, IEEE, and Norman C. Tien, Member, IEEE.  High-aspect-ratio bulk micromachining of titanium; Marco F. Aimi, Masa P. Rao, Noel C. MacDonald, Abu SamahZuruzi and David P. Bothman; Nature Materials 3, 103 - 105 (2004).

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Low Cost and User-Friendly Environmental Monitoring System Amit Garg1, Avinash Kumar Shudhanshu2, Sadashiv Raj Bharadwaj3, Raj Kumar4, Shaksham Tyagi5 Department of Electronics Acharya Narendra Dev College, University of Delhi Govindpuri, Kalkaji, New Delhi, India 1 agarg@andc.du.ac.in, 2avinashsudhanshu@gmail.com, 3kunalb1995@gmail.com, 4raj.kinng@gmail.com, 5 sakshamt007@gmail.com Abstract— Presently, even after a lot of advancement in technology, monitoring different dynamic parameters of our surrounding environment remains offbeat. Either we are dependent on government’s satellite weather forecasting data or are bound to mass media like Newspaper and live news channels for update of estimated maximum and minimum temperature, humidity etc. Again it gives us ‘estimated’ values instead of absolute one. Also, we are neither able to have some real time acquisition of monitored data and or log that data. So it becomes a requirement of present time to have an environmental monitoring system in our houses that can give us precise values as well as full access for logging and manipulation of that data. Present paper reports integration of sensors and electrical circuits that can make monitoring of our environment much handier, easier, low cost as well as precise.

Index Terms—sensors, microcontrollers, data logging, low cost, handy.

controlled by sensors fitted in them with preprogrammed microcontroller in it.

But all these sensors are bound to do specific functions assigned to them and we do not have access to them.

Therefore, we need a data acquisition system which we can alter and use extensively as per our need.

A. Basic idea of the system Fig. 1. shows a flowchart depicting the working model of the system. It shows how we can monitor different aspect of a remote environment using sensors and microcontroller. 

We can use low frequency radio signals to transmit data over large distance.



In case we have multiple locations and we want to calibrate, control and collect data from a single station then, various modulation techniques can be used in like frequency modulation, angular modulation etc. Because we cannot transmit baseband signals over a large distance, we need to modulate them over a carrier wave for avoiding loss of useful data and retrieval of original signals at receiving end



Digital modulation and multiplexing techniques may help in case the system consists of more complex network. Further, we can install antennas at receiving and transmitting end for wireless communication.



Once the signal is transmitted successfully, we need to work on receiving end. After receiving the signal we first demodulate the signal as per the modulation technique used at the transmission end. After demodulation, we need to demultiplex them to separate data from each sensor which were multiplexed at the time of transmission.

These data can now be sent to our displaying and logging devices which are discussed in the methodology section.

I. INTRODUCTION In present times, we are surrounded by a range of sensors and equipments that uses them. For example: 

Refrigerators, air-conditioners, microwave ovens with temperature and humidity sensors; further they may contain rotary motion and current sensors.



Smart phones having inbuilt proximity sensor (IR transmitter and receiver), light sensor, temperature sensors, magnetic field sensors (for GPS navigation), gyroscope sensor (for sensing orientation of device used in gaming and measuring tools), free fall sensor.



Security systems deployed at various public places like traffic signals, bus stops and railway stations may have metal detectors, escalators and automatic sliding gates which may include proximity sensor, pressure sensor as well as magnetic field sensor.



Automobile like our cars, bikes are now running on electronic engines which means flow of fuel is based on rotation of wheel. It is electronically

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a. Since signals generated are of low frequency and low frequency signals cannot be transmitted over large distance.

Multiplexing, Modulation and RF transmission module

Sensors on remote location

b. Size of transmitting antenna is inversely proportion to the frequency of signal. Thus higher the frequency signal, lower the size of antenna.

We have used Radio Frequency (RF) power transmission in the present system [3].

C. Calibration of raw data from sensors: The data we get from sensors is raw voltage of the order of few millivolts. We need to calibrate this data from different sensors to display it as meaningful data.

The calibration may be linear or nonlinear depending on the sensors and behavior of physical quantity. We need a reprogrammable microcontroller to serve our purpose. These microcontrollers may be of different types; PIC, AVR or some prototype board with inbuilt GPIO (General Input Output Pins) like ARDUINO or CHIPKIT. A prototype board of Arduino Mega ADK has been preferred due to following reasons:

RF receiver, demultiplexing and demodulation

i. Arduino Mega ADK provides interface with most common mobile platform i.e. Android. ii. It has a wide range of connectivity options like, USB cable, Ethernet shield, Bluetooth shield etc. iii. It also provides many options to power the microcontroller making it robust and versatile. Like it can be powered using USB port or via External DC Power source. iv. It uses ATmega2560 microcontroller which has 256KB of Flash memory, which is easier to handle with bigger and extended programs, especially for beginners. v. It has clock speed of 16 MHz which is fast enough for accuracy at this level. vi. It provides current up to 50 mA which is enough to drive sensors and wireless shields. vii. It is very easy to reprogram as it provided with IDE (integrated development Environment), which does not requires expertise in programming. viii. It is an open source hardware which does not require copyright for experimental purpose [4] [5].

Display devices: Mobile devices, PCs, LCD, Internet Servers

Fig. 1. Flowchart depicting the basic working model of

the system II. METHODOLOGY Fig. 2. shows the detailed methodology of the working model of the low cost and user friendly environmental monitoring system.

A. Deploying sensors: Since we need to convert the physical data to electrical one for smooth transmission, we need transducer/sensors that can produce electrical signal corresponding to the physical quantity to be measured.

We can use a thermocouple for sensing temperature, piezoelectric devices for sensing pressure, LDR (light dependent resistor) for sensing light etc. We have used various sensors of ‘Vernier’ make [1] in the present system.

D. Logging of data to a storage device.

B. Multiplexing, modulation and RF transmission of the signals: As we cannot transmit data from a number of sensors over a single transmission line simultaneously thus, we need to multiplex them all.

In telecommunications and computer networks, multiplexing (termed as MUXing) is a method by which multiple analog message signals or digital data streams are combined into one signal over a shared medium [2].

Further we cannot transmit this multiplexed signal over a long distance because of following reason:

Now a days it’s a very common practice to store our data to small storage devices like a SD card. The proposed system is capable of logging the data from sensors to these user-friendly storage devices. This can be done by using an inbuilt library in ARDUINO IDE i.e. <SD.h>.

The SD library allows reading from and writing to SD cards e.g. on the Arduino Ethernet Shield. It is built on sdfatlib by William Greiman. The library supports FAT16 and FAT32 file systems on standard SD cards and SDHC cards. It uses short 8.3 names for files. The file names passed to the SD library functions can include paths separated by forward-slashes, /, e.g. "directory/filename.txt". Because the working directory is always the root of the SD card, a name refers to the

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same file whether or not it includes a leading slash (e.g. "/file.txt" is equivalent to "file.txt"). As of version 1.0, the library supports opening multiple files.

The communication between the microcontroller and the SD card uses SPI, which takes place on digital pins 11, 12, and 13 (on most Arduino boards) or 50, 51, and 52 (Arduino Mega). Additionally, another pin must be used to select the SD card. This can be the hardware SS pin - pin 10 (on most Arduino boards) or pin 53 (on the Mega) - or another pin specified in the call to SD.begin(). Note that even if you don't use the hardware SS pin, it must be left as an output else the SD library won't work [6].

Further this data can be uploaded to different Open source sensor client that can be accessed worldwide like ‘Xively sensor Client’. Arduino has inbuilt library for using Xively sensor client.

Sensor 1

Sensor 2

Sensor 3

Sensor 4

Multiplexer

E. Distribution of data over internet and Bluetooth devices on user-friendly devices like mole phones and PCs

Modulator

Using internet for wireless distribution of data: It has been implemented by deploying Ethernet shield over Arduino. The Arduino Ethernet shield allows an Arduino board to connect to internet using the Ethernet library [7]. The Arduino IDE is provided with Ethernet library. The example sketch for Ethernet can be used to acquire data but change of IP address is mandatory according to the IP addresses of other surrounding device in order to provide an identical IP to the shield.

Further, MAC address also needs to be changed if we are using more than one shield. The Ethernet library uses clint.ptint(); syntax which allows us to send text or data back to the web page. This way we use only local browser i.e. when Ethernet shield and the display device is connected to same internet source (router). If we require transmitting data more remotely then we need to assign static IP address to our system. If the service provider is not able to provide a static IP, then one can use Dynamic DNS provider. A Dynamic DNS provider offers us our own static IP hostname (e.g. mojo.monkeynuts.com) instead of a number; keep track of your changing IP address and linking it to the new hostname [8]. We will also need to do port forwarding which tells the router where to redirect incoming requests from the outside world. When the modem receives such a request, we want to send that request to the port number of our Ethernet shield [8] [9].

RF Amplifier

RF Receiver

Demodulator

Microcontroller

Data Logging

External Memory Device

Wireless Shield Ethernet Shield/Bluetooth Shield

Using Bluetooth for wireless distribution of data: Similarly we can use Bluetooth shield over ARDUINO, just by connecting serial data from ARDUINO to corresponding TX and RX pin of the Bluetooth shield.

Further we can develop ready to use application for different operating system like android, windows and Linux. There are various tools available like Visual Basic, Eclipse IDE for windows and Android respectively.

User 1

User 2

User 3

User 4

Fig. 2. Flowchart depicting the detailed working model of proposed system.

Xively (formerly known as Cosm and Pachube) is a division of LogMeIn Inc (LOGM), a global, public company that is a leading provider of essential remote services.

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Organizations worldwide rely on LogMeIn's suite of SaaS customer care, remote IT management, access and collaboration products. Xively is built on LogMeIn's cloud platform Gravity, which handles over 255 million devices, users and customers across 7 datacenters worldwide. [10] III. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM As discussed above we can use internet for acquiring data over internet as well as Bluetooth. Fig. 3. shows the circuit diagram for connecting sensors to Ethernet shield and Bluetooth shield. Ethernet shield can be piled up above an Arduino and require no wired connection in between them.

Fig. 4(a). Internet based data acquisition on a Linux based PC

Fig. 3. Circuit Diagram showing connection of wireless shields with sensors However we can connect Ethernet Shield and Arduino without piling up by connecting their ICSP header, Pin 4 and Pin 10 together. We can connect a number of sensors to corresponding analog input i.e. A0, A1, A2 and so on. Different Arduino boards have different number of Analog inputs. In this case we are using Arduino Mega ADK as it provides more number of analog inputs i.e. 15.

Fig. 4(b). Internet based data acquisition on an android based mobile phone

IV. OBSERVATIONS As we are talking about low cost and user friendly system, we are using mobile phones and PCs having Open Source operating system (OS) like Linux and Android. However, connectivity to internet and Bluetooth makes the system equally compatible to all the platforms like Windows and IOS. Figure 4(a) shows internet based data acquisition on a Linux based PC and Figure 4(b) shows screenshot of an android based mobile phone acquiring same data. Similarly Figure 4(c) and (d) shows screenshot of i-Phone and Windows based PC providing same data over internet

Fig. 4(c). Internet based data acquisition on i-phone

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Acknowledgment Authors duly acknowledge University of Delhi for providing financial assistance under Innovative Projects from Colleges scheme for the project “Development of Low cost computer controlled science laboratory using sensors and open source hardware and software tools “against sanction no. ANDC-202.

REFERENCES

Fig. 4(d). Internet based data acquisition on a Windows based PC

V. Applications i.

India being an agricultural dominated country, where 90% people opt agriculture and farming as their livelihood. It can be helpful for them to monitor their farms and accordingly acting on it.

For example they can monitor moisture and other chemical in their field soil using ‘Calcium Ion-Selective Electrode’, ‘Chloride IonSelective Electrode’, ‘Salinity sensor’, ‘Soil Moisture Sensor’ , ‘pH Sensor’ etc. and accordingly take action.

ii.

The proposed system can be used to monitor medical conditions of any person like their blood pressure, blood glucose level, heart rate, body temperature etc. from any location. This data can be made available to the doctor for necessary action.

iii.

It can be used for security purposes.

iv.

It can be used in academic as well as industrial institutions for performing and monitoring results of different experiments and processes.

[1] Information on http://www.vernier.com/products/sensors/ [2] Information On http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplexing [3] Information on http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Radio_frequency_ power_transmission [4] Avinash Kumar Shudhanshu, Amit Garg, Raj Kumar, Sadashiv Raj Bharadwaj, and Gaurav Singh “Innovation in Basic Science Laboratory through Sensors and Open Source Technology” Int. J. of Recent Trends in Engineering & Technology, Vol. 11, June 2014 [5] Michael McRoberts “Beginning Arduino”, Apress, 2010, pp.112, pp.359-414 [6] Information onhttp://arduino.cc/en/Reference/SD [7] Information on http://arduino.cc/en/Guide/ ArduinoEthernet Shield [8] Information on http://myrobotlab.net/tutorial-use-ethernetshield -with-arduino/ [9] Amit Garg, Avinash Kumar Shudhanshu, Raj Kumar, Shadashiv Raj Bharadwaj, Roopesh Tehri, Chandra Kanta Samal “Development of Open Source Low Cost Wireless Data Acquisition Systems for Science Experiments” International Journal of Information & Computation Technology. ISSN 0974-2239 Volume 4, Number 12 (2014), pp. 1123-1128 [10] Information on https://xively.com/about/

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Optically Controlled MIS Microstrip Slow Wave Structure for Ultrafast RF Signal Processing Raghbendra Singh Tomar, and Enakshi K. Sharma Department of Electronic Science University of Delhi South Campus, New Delhi, 110021, India.

E-mail: tomarrghvndr@gmail.com

Abstract—We have proposed an optically controlled Metal-Insulator-Semiconductor (MIS) microstrip line and studied the propagation behavior by finite element method using ANSOFT’s High Frequency Structure Simulator (HFSS). The proposed structure can be used as an optically controlled delay line and phase-shifter for different high speed RF signal processing schemes.

IndexTerms—Lossy Silicon, MIS, HFSS, β/β0 I. INTRODUCTION The effect of substrate conductivity on propagation behavior of RF signals in MIS microstrip line has been widely studied to understand the planar lines and high speed interconnects in VLSI circuits [1-4]. The propagation behavior can be divided into three regions of operation, namely, dielectric quasi-TEM mode, slowwave mode and skin-effect mode. These modes depend on operation of frequency and substrate conductivity.

Among these modes slow wave mode has attracted several researches due to its outstanding properties.

Initially the slow-wave mode in MIS lines was regarded as a drawback which needed to be avoided in high speed interconnects to circumvent delays and distortion in signals. But now it is possible to exploit the slow wave phenomenon to realize new kind of devices like phase shifters, semiconductor traveling-wave amplifier, delay lines, antennae, filters and many other signal processing devices. x

illumination in silicon substrate. Typical optically controlled MIS structure as shown in Fig. 1, which consist of two layers with dielectric layers of insulator and semiconducting substrate sandwiched between conducting strip and ground plane.

When silicon substrate is optically illuminated by a radiation of photon energy above the band gap it leads to change in substrate conductivity. The change in substrate conductivity effectively changes the mode of propagation in the MIS line and can control optically i.e. slowing factor and attenuation. Therefore by choosing appropriate intensity and wavelength of optical power we can introduce the different mode of propagation in the line and control the slowing factor and losses. It is also been studied and observed that using ITO as a strip conductor the losses in the line are within tolerance limit and can be used for device applications at low frequencies.

Hence the proposed structure could be seen as a new class of optically controlled device which can further be used as optically controlled delay lines, phase shifters, having attracting features like ultrafast response, high isolation between controlling and controlled devices, high power handling capacity and easy to fabricate.

II. FEM ANALYSIS OF OPTICALLY CONTROLLED MIS LINE

The propagation behavior has been studied over wide range of strip widths in MIS structures under different optical illumination. The structure has modeled and analyzed using FEM based HFSS by varying photo induced conductivity in substrate.

Optical Illumination

1E+6

y

Fig. 1. Typical optically controlled micro-strip MIS structure

In this paper we propose an optically controlled MIS Microstrip line and studied propagation behavior under optically induced conductivity on semiconducting substrate. An optically controlled MIS line can be realized by replacing the upper conducting metal strip by a transparent conductor like ITO to facilitate the

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ConductivityS/m)

hυ

1E+5 1E+4 1E+3 1E+2 1E+1 1E+0 1E+20 1E+21 1E+22 1E+23 1E+24 1E+25

Carrier Concentration(/m3) Fig.2. Variation of conductivity with optically generated carriers

50 40 β/β0

60

100 MHz Solid-ITO Dotted-PEC

50 w/h=10

30 w/h=0.2

w/h=10

20

10

10

w/h=0.2

1E+1 1E+2 1E+3 1E+4 Substrate conductivity (S/m)

0 1E+0

1E+5

Fig. 3 (a)

1E+1 1E+2 1E+3 1E+4 Substrate conductivity (S/m)

2

500 MHz Solid-ITO Dotted-PEC

100 MHz Solid-ITO Dotted-PEC

0.4

w/h=60

Loss (dB/mm)

1.5 w/h=60

0.3 0.2

1E+5

Fig. 3 (b)

0.5

Loss (dB/mm)

w/h=60

30

20

0 1E+0

500 MHz Solid-ITO Dotted-PEC

40

w/h=60

β/β0

60

w/h=10 w/h=0.2

w/h=10

1 w/h=0.2

0.5

0.1 0 1E+0

1E+1 1E+2 1E+3 1E+4 Substrate conductivity (S/m)

0 1E+0

1E+5

1E+1 1E+2 1E+3 1E+4 Substrate conductivity (S/m)

1E+5

Fig. 4 (b)

Fig. 4 (a)

Fig. 3. (a) and (b) variation of slowing factor with optically induced conductivity and 4(a) and 4( b) attenuation in MIS line with optically induced conductivity.

First, the strip and ground plane were considered as perfectly conducting planes. The FEM using HFSS simulator has been carried out with variation of optically induced conductivity from 1S/m to 1E+5 S/m.

In more realistic way the metal strip has been analyzed by replacing the metal strip by conducting ITO strip. The conductivity of ITO was chosen as 4x105 S/m with the thickness of e have used a typical MIS line on a silicon substrate of thickness h2=190µm with an insulating layer of SiO2 of thickness h1=0.3µm and dielectric constant ε1=4.5. The dielectric constant of silicon has been considered as complex due to photo induced conductivity which takes different values with different levels of optical power. Fig 3 has been used to show the variation of slowing factor with optically induced conductivity at the frequencies of (a)100 MHz and (b) 500 MHz while Fig. 4 shows the variation of propagation loss with conductivity at (a) 100 MHz and (b) 500 MHz. It can be seen in Fig. 3(a) and (b) that the slowing factor varies with optically induced conductivity. In first the slowing factor β/β0 increases with increase in conductivity and reaches to a maximum value of ~53 (for our structure). But further increase in conductivity, does not change in slowing factor and remains constant till a range. After the range with further increase in conductivity the slowing factor starts to decrease.

In Fig. 4 the variation of loss with conductivity shows an interesting behavior. First the losses increase very high and dominated. But further increase in conductivity leads to minimum value of loss till a certain range. Again increase in conductivity leads to further increase in loss. Results show Page 16

that using ITO as a strip conductor does not affect much in the performance at relatively low frequencies.

III. CONCLUSION This study proposes a new class of optically controlled device which can be used as delay line, phase shifters, having features like ultrafast response, high isolation between controlling and controlled devices, high power handling capacity and easy to fabricate Acknowledgment CSIR India acknowledges for financial support for this study.

REFERENCES [1] C.H. Lee, P.S. Mak and, A.P. DeFonzo, Optical control of millimeter wave propagation in dielectric waveguides, IEEE J Quantum Electron QE-16 (1980), 277-288.

[2] H. Guckel, P.A. Brennan, and I. Paloz, A parallel plate waveguide approach to microminiaturized planar transmission lines for integrated circuits, IEEE Trans Microwave Theory Tech MTT-15 (1967), 468-476.

[3] H. Hasegawa, M. Furukawa and, H. Yanai, Properties of microstrip line on Si-Sio2 system, IEEE Trans Microwave Theory Tech MTT-19 (1971), 869881.

[4]A. Bhadauria, E.K. Sharma, “Equivalent transmission-line model for optically controlled microstrip slow-wave structure,” Microw. opti. Tech.

Letters, vol. 31, no. 04, pp. 292-297, Nov. 2001.

Current-Voltage (I-V) characteristics of MWCNT/polyaniline nanocomposites Samina Husain

Monika Tyagi

Centre of Nanoscience & Nanotechnology Jamia Milia Islamia University New Delhi, India khan.samina@gmail.com

Department of Instrumentation Shaheed Rajguru College of Applied Sciences for Women, University of Delhi Delhi, India monikatyagi1@gmail.com

Abstract: One of the materials with great potential in the field of organic electronics is carbon nanotubes. Another important material undergoing research these days are polymers. Both these materials have their abilities and limitations. To overcome the challenges of both materials carbon nanotube-polymer nanocomposites were developed. In this paper we synthesize multiwall carbon nanotubes and polyaniline (MWCNT/PANI) nanocomposites and study their current voltage characteristics.

Keyword:

MWCNT, characteristics.

I.

polyaniline,

nanocomposites,

INTRODUCTION

One type of materials commonly used for manufacturing organic electronics at low cost is polymers, given their ability to be processed in solution. Most polymers are electrically insulating, and have been traditionally used in electrical applications as insulator materials. Then new types of polymers were discovered, which upon chemical doping could greatly increase their conductivity. This new type of polymers, named intrinsically conductive polymers (ICPs), offers many advantages in the field of organic electronics in terms of process ability, flexibility and conductivity. ICPs are expected to find their potential applications in multidisciplinary areas such as electronics, electrochemistry, membranes and sensors. However, there are series of challenges that need to be overcome: the lower level of conductivity that ICPs present compared to metals and the poor stability (ageing) that many of these ICPs exhibit under atmospheric conditions.

Another material with great potential in the organic electronics field is carbon nanotubes (CNTs). The research on these nanostructured materials was boosted by the research on single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT) and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT). Thanks to their remarkable properties, many device structures have been proposed having potential applications in the field of electronics and nowadays in organic electronics [1,2].

However, due to their poor solubility in both water and organic solvents, CNTs have very poor process ability, limiting their use in practical application. Fortunately, in

the recent years, a variety of approaches have been proposed to solubilize them and thus enhance their process ability, including the covalent functionalization by treatment with strongly oxidizing acids , extensive highpower sonication followed by non-covalent modification of the nanotubes with polymers and surfactants .

In order to overcome the challenges of both materials, one possible is to develop carbon nanotube/polymer composites [3,4]. In this type of composites, the process ability of the nanotubes is improved, while the conducting polymer can benefit from reinforced mechanical properties and enhanced conductivity. The combination of carbon nanotubes with polymers could introduce also new electronic properties based on the new morphological disposition or based on the electronic interaction between the two components which leading to new functionalities and applications. In this paper we study the I-V characteristics of MWCNT and polyaniline nanocomposites.

II. EXPERIMENTAL SYNTHESIS OF MWCNT/PANI NANOCOMPOSITES The MWCNTs powder, purchased from Sigma-Aldrich is prepared by electric arc-discharge method with outer diameter x length as 7-15 nm × 0.5-10 μm. We use in-situ chemical polymerization for the formation of nanocomposites. In this polymerization method, the CNTs are dispersed in monomer followed by polymerization.

0.01 g MWCNTs are dispersed in 10 ml TCE and sonicated for 8 hrs. Then 10 ml of Aniline monomer and its derivative PMT is added to the MWCNTsTCE vial respectively. In another vial, 0.5 g of ammonium peroxidisulphate ((NH4)2S2O8), which acts as oxidising agent, is dissolved in 20 ml of water. This oxidising agent is now added slowly to the MWCNTsTCE/Aniline, MWCNTsTCE/PMT vials. The dispersed solution is finally left untouched for 24 hours to obtain MWCNTsTCE/PANI and MWCNTsTC/PMT nanocomposites dispersion. The powdered nanocomposite samples obtained are first dried in a furnace at a temperature range of 60-80oC and then pressed into pellets for characterization.

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III. CHARACTERIZATION I-V characteristics were performed by a Keithley-4200 SCS. Prior to characterization, all the samples were pressed into pellets by a hydraulic press at a pressure of 5 tons. The measurements were taken in a sample holder at room temperature. Two contacts were made on the pellets by using silver paste. The two contacts acts as electrodes for making I-V measurements. Forward current was measured up to 20 volts, with a current compliance limit of the instrument set to 10 mA.

IV. RESULTS Figures given below shows a typical I-V curve of MWCNT, pure PANI, MWCNTsTCE/PANI, MWCNTsTCE/PMT samples at both forward bias and reverse bias. As apparent, samples (MWCNTs, PANI, MWCNTsTCE/PMT) show linear behaviour till 15 V which indicates that ohmic contact has been established. It may be due to the interaction of MWCNTs with the nitrogen atoms of PANI and its derivatives PMT, leading to an expansion of the compact PANI chains into more stretching conformations [5]. I-V curve clearly demonstrates that the contact is rectifying. As the voltage goes beyond 15 V, the downward curvature in I–V curves appears indicating the reduction of resistance, and the nonohmic behaviour becomes highly significant. While the value of the potential barrier for all samples remain all the more same, the ideality factor increases from 1.8 to 3.30 from pure MWCNTs to MWCNTsTCE/PMT respectively.

Further analysis of the I-V characteristics has shown that the dominant current conduction mechanism for most of the applied voltage range is space-charge limited emission [6]. Figure 2 shows that MWCNTsTCE/PANI nanocomposite shows a complete non-ohmic behaviour which improves on preperaing MWCNTsTCE/PMT nanocomposite as shown by figure 3.

Figure 1: I-V characteristic curves for MWCNT

Figure 2 : I-V characteristic curves for PANI and MWCNTsTCE/PANI

Theoretical calculations predicted that the contact resistance between CNTs can vary from 100 K to 3.4 M. The complexity of contact resistance is further enhanced when CNTs are dispersed in a matrix material. Foygel et al. [7] estimated the contact resistance between CNTs in composites to be in the order of 1013 ohms and suggested that the high resistance was caused by tunneling-type contacts between CNTs belonging to percolation cluster.

Table 1: I-V characterization parameters for WCNTs, PANI, MWCNTsTCE/PAN and MWCNTsTCE/PMT Contact Resistance ‘Rc’ mΩ

Ideality Factor ‘η’

MWCNTs

Potential Barrier Height ‘ɸB’ Ev 0.62

6.86

1.8

Sample

PANI

0.53

0.86

2.92

MWCNTsTCE/PANI

0.62

6.83

2.69

MWCNTsTCE/PMT

0.64

5.13

3.30

Figure 3 : I-V characteristic curves for WCNTsTCE/PMT

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V. CONCLUSION

3.

It is concluded that Pure PANI, MWCNTsTCE/PANI and MWCNTsTCE/PMT samples show linear behaviour till 15 V which indicates the ohmic behavior of the samples. Beyond 15 V, downward curvature in I–V curves appears indicating the reduction of resistance.

It is also concluded that MWCNTsTCE/PANI nanocomposite shows a complete non-ohmic behaviour which improves on preperaing MWCNTsTCE/PMT nanocomposite. It is also seen that the complexity of contact resistance is further enhanced when CNTs are dispersed in PANI matrix material.

REFERENCES 1.

2.

JN Coleman, U Khan, WJ Blau, YK Gun'ko, Carbon, Volume 44, Issue 9, August 2006, Pages 1624–1652.

Yao Li, Cheng-Kang Mai, Hung Phan, Xiaofeng Liu, Thuc-Quyen Nguyen, Guillermo C. Bazan and Mary B. Chan-Park, Advanced Materials Volume 26, Issue 27, pages 4697–4703, July 16, 2014.

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Elias P. Koumoulos, Pravin Jagdale, Ioannis A. Kartsonakis, Mauro Giorcelli, Alberto Tagliaferro and Constantinos A. Charitidis, Early View (Online Version of Record published before inclusion in an issue).

4. Richard Gulotty, Micaela Castellino, Pravin Jagdale, Alberto Tagliaferro, and Alexander A. Balandin, ACS Nano, 2013, 7 (6), pp 5114–5121.

5. HuaBai and Gaoquan Shi, Sensors 2007, 7, 267-307.

6. P. C. Ramamurthy, W.R. Harrell, R.V. Gregory, B. Sadanadan3, A.M. Rao, Mat. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc.

Vol. 791 2004.

Alan Kin- Tak Lau , CRC press, Taylor and FRansis group, 2011 USA.

Preparation and Properties of Polyvinyl Alcohol/ Titanium- Di- Oxide/Iodine Composite Flexible Membranes Rakhi Grover, Omita Nanda, Nidhi Gupta, Kanchan Saxena Amity Institute of Advanced Resaerch and Studies (AIARS) (Materials and Devices) Amity University Noida, U.P. 201303, India rgrover1@amity.edu

Abstract— The present study demonstrates the preparation of nanocomposite of titanium–di-oxide and iodine based on polyvinyl alcohol as the matrix. The prepared nanocomposite can be easily solidified in the form of thin flexible membranes. The microstructures of the prepared films have been studied by using scanning electron microscopy image analyses. The optical studies have been carried out by using photoluminescence spectra. The thin membranes so formed can be used as a promising active material in sensing applications.

Keywords—nanocomposite nanoparticles.

I.

membranes,

metal

its high thermal stability. It is also resistant towards organic solvents, oil and most of the natural gases. These kinds of

oxide

Introduction

Fig.1 : Molecular structure of Poly vinyl alcohol.

Nanomaterials are gaining significant interest owing to their size dependent electronic and optical properties which can be easily controlled as well as employed in diverse fields [1].

More specifically, metal oxide nanoparticles based on copper [2, 3], manganese [4] and iron [5] etc are generally employed in many electro-optical devices as their thin films can be easily optimized depending on the application. For example, titanium di oxide (TiO2) nanoparticles have also been studied to function as an active component of sensors based on polymers. The nanoparticles like TiO2 [6], CNT [7], can be integrated with in polymeric matrices to form nanocomposites which enhances their permeability and selectivity properties.

However, the sensitivity of such nanoparticles can be easily controlled by adding other different components which can act as better sensing platform thereby increasing the sensing response. In the present study, the microstructure and optical properties of TiO2 nanoparticles have been investigated by adding iodine molecules. Prilled iodine is a shiny, grey colored non-metal which sublimes easily to produce purple vapors. However, it is generally difficult to integrate nanoparticles in the form of thin films along with the other components. Therefore, the selection of polymer as a matrix is also a significant issue. In the present work, poly vinyl alcohol (PVA) based on ethanol monomers, as repeating units, is employed as a polymer matrix. Its molecular structure is shown in Fig. 1.

PVA exhibits hydrophilic nature and flexibility owing to the presence of alcohol groups and its linear structure. Moreover, its high glass transition temperature (850C) is responsible for

characteristics are desirable to obtain thin films when PVA is used as a matrix and make it an ideal candidate for many applications.

The present study aims at investigating thin films based on TiO2 and I2 and their composite membranes when PVA is used as a matrix. The morphology, particle size and the effective surface area of the films play a significant role and are therefore focused upon in detail. In addition, these attributes greatly affect the adsorption capability and electrontransfer properties of the overall composite so formed.

II. EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS Different samples of PVA/TiO2/I2 nanocomposite were prepared as follows: Powdered PVA in fixed known amount was mixed with distilled water by constant stirring. This process was carried out at constant temperature of 40 0C for 3 hours and was continued until a homogeneous dispersion of polymer was obtained. This dispersion was utilized to form a stock solution.

Then, different concentrations of I2 (100%, 20 %, and 0%) were mixed in the stock solution. This mixture was again stirred continuously for 3-4 hours. The different colors of materials were visible even before mixing as shown in Fig. 2.

TiO2 dispersion in water was prepared separately by mixing a known quantity of TiO2 nanoparticles in distilled water. This dispersion was slowly and carefully added to PVA / I2 dispersions with different concentrations while stirring. The

Page 20

process was continued until a homogeneous dispersion was observed after the addition of TiO2 nanoparticles which did not sediment noticeably in several hours. The material so formed settled into a gel like material which was spread on a glass plate and kept for a day in dark, at room temperature, until all the water evaporated. This drop casting technique facilitates the formation of dense polymeric layer. The PVA membranes adhered to the glass support were then peeled off the glass plates. Fig. 3 shows the picture of flexible membrane so formed.

High orders of uniformity, confirming good adhesion between organic and inorganic phases, was obtained when the composite so formed was drop casted in the form of thin films.

In general, PVA has a great capacity to swell which helps in the transport of gases to be sensed. Further, the addition of TiO2 nanoparticles stimulates the presence of voids and disruption of chain packing in PVA. These characteristics are known to be responsible of high degree of gas permeation in such composites [8].

The presence of TiO2 as a hydrophilic nanomaterial inside the nanocomposite also helped in the formation of a homogeneous dispersion in the present case [9].

Fig.2 : A photograph showing PVA based dispersions with different concentrations of iodine.

Fig. 3: A picture showing the nanocomposite based flexible membrane.

Fig. 4: SEM micrographs of (a) I2 (b) TiO2/ I2 thin films on glass

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

substrates.

Scanning electron microscopy image analysis was employed to investigate the thin film cross-section of TiO2/I2 nanocomposites so formed. Thin films were prepared on 1cm x 1 cm glass substrates. Fig. 4(a) shows the SEM image of iodine thin film on plain glass substrate. A uniformly porous thin film is formed when these iodine molecules are mixed (20 % by wt.) with TiO2 nanoparticles, as shown in Fig. 4(b).

Many applications require these kinds of porous structures e.g. in the case of sensors because of the presence of large surface area which helps in fast and efficient redox reactions between sensing surface and the material to be sensed. These molecules were then employed to form relatively uniform dispersion throughout the whole polymer matrix (PVA).

However, the amount of TiO2 also needs to be optimized as its high concentrations generally results in increased thickness of the skin layer. This in turn makes the dispersion viscous and minimizes the presence of voids in the film and finally decreases the solvent/solute rate exchanges [9, 10].

To explore the optical properties of the nanocomposite so formed, detailed photoluminescence (PL) studies were also carried out. PL response of the polymeric membranes with TiO2 nanoparticles and different concentrations of I2 were measured. Fig. 5 shows the PL response at different excitation wavelengths. At an excitation of 410 nm as shown in Fig. 5(a), the response of TiO2 nanoparticles was obtained.

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also found to be insensitive to ambient temperature with reproducible characteristics. The microstructures of the films were analyzed by SEM image analyses. The samples exhibit uniformly porous structures. These porous structures are highly desirable for many applications e.g. sensors as they provide a large surface area for fast and efficient redox reactions between sensing surface and the material to be sensed.

Acknowledgment The authors are thankful to Dr. Ashok K. Chauhan, Chairman, Amity University, Noida, UP, for his continuous encouragements. Authors are also thankful to Mr. Pramod Kumar for his technical help in the experimental work.

References J. Wang, “Nanomaterial-based electrochemical biosensors,”Analyst, vol.

130, pp. 421–426, 2005.

[2] Y. Zhongke, J. Zhao, L. Qin, F. Mu, P. Wang, and X. Feng. "Nonenzymatic hydrogen peroxide sensor based on a gold electrode modified with granular cuprous oxide nanowires." Microchimica Acta, vol. 180, no. 1-2, pp. 145-150, 2013.

[3] L. Yuanjun, G. Zhu, C. Bao, A. Yuan, and X. Shen. "Intrinsic Peroxidase‐like Activity of Porous CuO Micro‐/nanostructures with Clean Surface." Chinese Journal of Chemistry, vol. 32, No. 2, pp. 151156, 2014.

[4] Q. Han, P. Ni, Z. Liu, X. Dong, Y. Wang, Z. Li, Z. Liu,. "Enhanced hydrogen peroxide sensing by incorporating manganese dioxide nanowire with silver nanoparticles, Electrochemistry Communications, vol. 38, pp.110–113, 2014.

[5] J. Zhuang, J. Zhang, L. Gao, Y. Zhang, N. Gu, J. Feng, D. Yang and X. Yan. "A novel application of iron oxide nanoparticles for detection of hydrogen peroxide in acid rain." Materials Letters, vol. 62, pp. 3972– 3974, 2008.

[6] T. H. Bae, T. M. Tak, “Effect of TiO2 nanoparticles on fouling mitigation of ultrafiltration membranes for activated sludge filtration,” Journal of Membrane Science, vol. 1, pp. 249, 2005.

[7] F. Peng, C. Hu, Z. Jiang, “Novel Poly(vinyl alcohol)/carbon nanotube hybrid membranes for pervaporation separation of bezene/cyclohexane mixtures,” J. Membrane Sci.,vol. 297, pp. 236–242, 2007.

[8] S.S. Madaeni, B. S. Moahamadi, M. V. Vatanpour, N. Ghaemi, “Effect of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles on Polydimethylsiloxane/Polyethersulfone Composite Membranes for Gas Separation,” Polymer Engineering and Science, 2012.

[9] Y. Yang, P. Wang, Q. Zheng, “Preparation and Properties of Polysulfone/TiO2 Composite Ultrafiltration Membranes,” Journal of Polymer Science Part B: Polymer Physics, vol. 445, pp. 879–887, 2006.

[10] L. Y. Yu, H. M. Shen, Z. L. Xu, PVDF– TiO2 Composite Hollow Fiber Ultrafiltration Membranes Prepared by TiO2 Sol–Gel Method and Blending Method, Journal of Applied Polymer Science, vol. 113, pp.1763–1772, 2009.

[1]

Fig.5 : PL spectra of the PVA/ TiO2/I2 nanocomposite thin film at an excitation wavelength of (a) 410 nm and (b) 350 nm..

However, the excitation of the same sample was performed at a wavelength of 350 nm to study the response of I2 as shown in Fig. 5(b). Both the components became active at different excitation wavelengths. Even after the formaton of the composite, films retained the PL properties of individual constituents which can be quite advantageous while optimizing concentrations of the components as per the required application.

IV. CONCLUSIONS The nanocomposite of TiO2/I2 has been prepared by using PVA as a matrix. The nanocomposite could be casted in the form of thin films or free standing membranes. These samples exhibited photoluminescence response corresponding to TiO2 and I2 at different excitation wavelengths. These films were

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“Instrumentation in ion-atom collision experiments: Signal processing in X-Ray Detectors” Kusum Sharma, Sweta Singh

Ruchika Gupta

Department of Physics Banasthali University, Banasthali Rajasthan, India

Department of Physical, Kurukshetra University , Kurukshetra, Haryana, India

Tanvi,

Punita Verma

Department of Applied Physics, Amity University, Noida, U.P. , India

Department of Physical, Kalindi College, University of Delhi New Delhi, India

Abstract— A general ion-atom collision facility is being developed in the LEIBF area of IUAC with the flexibility provided to each experimentalist to use all or some of the features for accurate x-ray detection and measurements.

This involved planning of positioning possibilities in chamber, target ladder possibilities, fabrication of mounts and stands for the x-ray detectors to be used and dimensions of target ladder. In order to plan an error free setup of an experiment, a deep understanding of the collision parameters, the physics involved and know how of the x-ray detectors had to be developed. One of the x-ray detectors was tested for its energy and efficiency calibration with standard radioactive sources.

using electronic circuitry and a computer interface. The energy calibration is required for proper identification of the x-rays produced during collision and a proper efficiency calibration enables a correct and accurate measurement of cross sections.

Keywords— ion-atom collision; x-rays;

semiconductor detectors; Low energy germanium detectors ; calibration.

I. INTRODUCTION Mass analyzed highly charged ion beams of energy ranging from a few keV to a few MeV plays an important role in various aspects of research in modern physics. During an ion-atom collision experiment x-rays are produced whose production cross sections and ionization cross sections have to be measured. Solid state semiconductor x-ray detectors such as Si(Li), Low Energy Germanium Detector (LeGe) and peltier cooled detectors (manufactured by Amptek) are used to record the x-rays. An appropriate ion-atom collision chamber has been designed where ion-atom interaction can take place at the Low Energy Ion Beam Facility (LEIBF) of IUAC, New Delhi. LEIBF consists of three beam lines each dedicated to a different field of research viz. Material science, atomic physics and molecular physics. One of the important features of this facility is the availability of relatively large currents of multiply charged positive ions from an electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) source placed entirely on a high voltage platform. Each beam line ends in a collision chamber. Various designs were created and adopted in order to build a setup for accurate data collection from an ion-atom collision experiment at the chamber of atomic physics beam line. In order to perform energy and efficiency calibration, radioactive sources have been used with the SiLi, LEGe and Amptek detector

Fig. 1: Beams light at LEIBF at IUAC.

II. LEIBF (LOW ENERGY ION BEAM FACILITY) LEIBF consists of three beam lines for experiments. The 105° beam line is used to study the interaction of the ion beam with liquid/gas targets, the 90° beam line is mainly dedicated for materials science related experiments specially implantation studies at room temperature as well as at elevated temperatures while the 75° beam line has been used to develop the atomic physics ion-atom collision chamber.

The ECR ion source together with the Tinsel lens, Gate Valve, Accelerating Column, Pumping Station, Electrostatic Steerer, Double slit, Beam Profile Monitor (BPM), Faraday Cup and a fast acting Pneumatic Straight Through Valve (PSTV) coupled to the dipole magnet through a flexible bellow,

Page 23

constitutes the pre-analyzer station of LEIBF. Fig. 1 shows the various beam lines at LEIBF. A. Detector mounts and stand designs Fig.2 gives a schematic diagram of the ion-atom collision chamber. Various possibilities of placing the x-ray detectors in the chamber were present such as: possibility A: LEGe at position 1, SiLi at position 2 and Amptek at 7 and possibility B: LEGe at position 2, no SiLi and Amptek at 1. For either of these possibilities, the mount plates and stands for each detector had to be developed. Detector datasheets were consulted and the detector dimensions were measured with an accuracy of ±5mm. In order to get a proper solid angle and maximum count rate, it was necessary to ensure that the height of the stand and mount plates be such that the axis of the detector window aligns precisely with the axis of the port.

Mounts and stands were designed keeping this requirement in mind for Amptek, LeGe and SiLi detectors.

many number of targets as possible in order to avoid venting the evacuated chamber during an experiment leading to loss of time. The target ladder is suspended in the evacuated collision chamber by a target manipulator. The latter would facilitate proper positioning of targets with respect to beam which includes inclination.

Fig. 3 Schematic diagram of the chamber along with SiLi detector.

Since the ladder in the chamber would be moved up and down during an experiment, thus the ladder was designed with a height (~170mm) equal to half the height of the chamber (~165mm) and the number of targets that could be loaded was decided by the dimensions of the standard target holder i.e. 20x25mm2. 25x25mm2 area aluminum sheet was also required to weld the ladder with target manipulator. Hence, we were able to design a ladder having six target holders.

III.CALIBRATION OF CdTe XR-100T X-RAY DETECTOR Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of the ion-atom collision chamber with its ports marked, positions of vertical LEGe, SiLi and Amptek x-ray detectors is indicated.

Fig. 3 shows the atomic physics chamber, a cylinder of height 32 cm and radius 16.24 cm. The centre of the chamber was made to coincide with the port axis by appropriate stand designed for it, it lay 175 cm above the ground. Si(Li) detector window axis was raised 175 cm above the ground by means of stands and plates to be in line with the beam axis. Similar designing of mounts and plates was done for LeGe and Amptek detectors also.

B. Target ladder dimensions In an ion-atom collision experiment, the element chosen as “atom” is made as a target. The target is prepared as a thin film on a standard target holder having a hole of 10mm diameter which is then screwed on to a target ladder carrying many such targets. The target ladder is designed so that one can load as

The energy and calibration of the X-ray detector is an important parameter since the multiple ionization of the target material is measured by the shift in energy of its characteristics x-ray transition. At the same time absolute xray cross sections are a strong function of the efficiency of the detector.

The energy calibration of the x-ray detectors was done by using standard radioactive sources of 55Fe, 57Co and 241Am. The radioactive source was placed in front of the detectors and the x-ray spectra were recorded. With the prior knowledge of the energy of the transitions occurring in these radioactive sources, the energy calibration of the detector was done by plotting the channel number corresponding to the energy of the x-ray/ray lines emitted by the radioactive sources. A first order polynomial was fitted to the plotted curve. This polynomial was used for identification of the characteristic x-rays of a target element and the presence of any impurities in the target.

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A. Signal processing Normally in Ge type of detectors, a signal height of few mV is expected before the preamplifier and this signal is also embedded in noise. Hence an appropriate noise filtering circuit is required for better improved signal to noise ratio [1]. It is also better to have a preamplifier near to detector site and further processing can be done.

Detectors are not generally accessible because of proximity to radiation hence preliminary amplification is done at the amplifier and further processing of signal is normally done at data processing NIMB bin which is far away from the experimental site. The final signal processing is done by using an amplifier which consist of series of differentiator and integrator circuits and hence it improves signal to noise ratio.

Amplified signal is then fed to Analog to Digital converter (ADC) to convert the signal in the digital form. In general the peak sensing ADC based on Wilkinson method [2] is used to generate the digital signal. ADC is generally housed in CAMAC crate where digitized signal has been transported to the computer through a CAMAC bus. To trigger the CAMAC rate, a logical signal is required which should be in coincidence with the signal obtained from the amplifier and this amplified signal is processed through a Constant Fraction Discriminator (CFD) where one obtains a logical information of the above said signal. As for the requirement of the height and the width of the logical signal, a Gate and Delay Generator (GDG) may be placed in between CFD and the CAMAC crate. The CAMAC crate equipped with CAMAC controller transfers the digital data to the computer in compact form and later this data can be displayed through “CANDLE” [3] which is a specifically designed LINUX software developed at IUAC to record and analyse the acquired data.

Further the software is also required to analyze the data.

B. Data acquisition for AMPTEK Data acquisition is an extremely important part of any radiation detection system. A typical modern data acquisition system is composed of amplifiers, analog and digital processing modules, computer interface, computer, software, and storage device.

fraction timing compensated for varying amplitudes and essentially eliminated timing shift which gave consistently better timing results. For the internally set 50% fraction, the output occurred soon after the midpoint on the linear input trailing edge to facilitate gating and accumulation of data at very high input rates. Pulses of ns period were generated.

The output of Timing Single Channel Analyser (TSCA) was fed into Gate Delay Adjuster (GDA). GDA continuously confined the group delay (i.e. time taken by signal to propagate) in the required range such that there was no distortion in the signal. Finally, the output of the GDA was sent into Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) which converted the signals into readable form for the computer.

“CANDLE” was used to record and analyse the acquired data from Am241 source. Fig. 4 shows the schematic diagram of data acquisition electronics used for calibrating AMPTEK detector.

Fig. 4: Schematic diagram of data acquisition electronics used for calibrating AMPTEK detector.

C. Energy calibration Fig. 5 shows the energy calibration graph of AMPTEK CdTe detector for Am241 source by the above mentioned procedure.

During the calibration of AMPTEK CdTe detector, a strong radioactive source of Americium (Am241) was placed near the window of AMPTEK detector avoiding any physical contact between them. Power to the XR-100T-CdTe was provided by the PX2T. The PX2T was DC powered by an AC adaptor and provided a variable Digital Pulse Shaping Amplifier (0.2 μs to 100 μs shaping time) and all necessary power supplies for the detector and preamplifier. The output of the PX2T was fed into an AMPLIFIER with a gain of 50. The output from amplifier was fed into Timing Single Channel Analyser (TSCA) module which performed the dual function of single-channel pulseheight analysis and timing signal derivation. Constant-

Fig. 5: Energy calibration graph of AMPTEK CdTe detector for Am241 source.

Page 25

Since the channel number of the photopeak is considered to be approximately proportional to the energy of the gamma or X-ray, we expected exact linear relation between channel number and energy. In order to establish this linear relation, we firstly identified the energy of the various peaks by matching their intensities with known spectrum of Am241.

Then the channel number of the corresponding peaks was noted. On fitting the identified peaks in the CANDLE software we got the following details:

REFERENCES 1.

2.

3.

4.

A graphical software was used to plot a graph between the channel number on x-axis and Energy (keV) on y-axis. This resulted in a straight line graph, showing linear relation between the channel number and the energy of the x-rays/rays detected by AMPTEK. D.

Conclusion

Instrumentation required for performing an ion-atom collision experiment was designed and fabricated. This included the fabrication of a chamber and appropriate mounts and plates for placing solid state x-ray detectors like the LeGe Si(Li) and AMPTEK x-ray detector around the chamber with an appropriate solid angle so that x-rays emitted during collision could be collected by these detectors efficiently.

Subsequently the energy and efficiency calibration of LeGe presented in [4] and AMPTEK x-ray detector using radioactive sources like Fe55, Co57 and Am241 was performed successfully.

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“Radiation and detection measurement” by G.F. noll.

“Techniques for nuclear and particle measurements” by W.R. Leo. B. P. Ajith Kumar, E. T. Subramaniam, R. K. Bhowmik.

DAE SNP 2001, Kolkata ((http://iuac.res.in/NIAS/Downloads/candle Neelam Shukla. Kusum Sharma, Ruchika Gupta and Punita Verma, Proceedings of National Conference on “Striving & Thriving Towards Diffusion of Student-driven Research in Science and Technology for Inspired Learning” organised by Maharaja Agrasen Coll., Univ. of Delhi.

ISBN No. 978-81-7273-958-4, pg. 256, Oct., 2014.

Nanobiosensors: A Scientometric study in last 25 years Sukriti Sharma Madurai Kamaraj University Palkalai Nagar, Madurai - 625 021, Tamil Nadu Sukriti1223@gmail.com

Abstract— In

the present study, we used bibliometrics, knowledge systems and data mining for the last 25 years (1989-2014) to characterize the acceleration in the field of Nanobiosensors. The corpus was defined by building logical conclusions and observations and userdirected expert elicitation from the said field. This was combined with appropriate Boolean logic and queries emphasizing research groups, research lines, and institutions. All this was analyzed statistically. We have comprehensively resorted to tabulating and network mapping. According to our findings, publishing in this field increased over these two decades and this trend appears to continue as a result of the growing production of commercial materials using nanotechnology.

Keywords—Nanobiosensors,Bibliometrics, data mining.

I. INTRODUCTION Nanotechnology is science, engineering, and technology conducted at the nanoscale, which is about 1 to 100 nanometers. Nanotechnology is growing at a rapid pace and it is estimated that it will have a remarkable consequences on trade, civilization, human health, environmental concerns and sustainable development.

Nanotechnology is believed to be an amalgamation of distinct science and engineering disciplines different from each other but is joined by a common thread. It has blurred the traditional distinction between pure and applied research. [1,2,3]. Nanoscience and nanotechnology (N&N) have been acknowledged by various stakeholders as a key future technology area. The most important aspect of Nanotechnology is its widespread nature of N&N and its close interaction with other sciences as well as technologies has stimulated interdisciplinary researches and communications. In other words, this scientific discipline only thrives in a collaborative environment where faculty and students from different disciplines discuss ideas, collaborate and share their expertise [4].

Biosensors are mainly based on the transduction mechanisms which convert the responses of bioanalyte interactions in an exclusive and reproducible manner. This is achieved by converting the specific biochemical reaction energy into an electrical form through the use of transduction mechanisms.

Nanomaterials can be amazing incumbents in this aspect as they have high surface area to volume ratios which allow the surface to be used in a better and far more diversely functional manner. Also, their electromechanical properties

has a lot in biosensing technology.Nanotechnology has revolutionized molecular biology. Integration of both is possible as nanotechnology provides an opportunity for manipulation of atoms and molecules. This results in the monitoring of the biological phenomenon at the physiological level with great accuracy. Some claim that the term nanobiosensors is a misnomer in the sense that it has the word nano prefixed to it. The word nano as prefix leads to the misconception that the chemical is manipulated at a scale of equivalent to one- billionth of a meter. Amalgamation of Nanotechnology and Biotechnology helps us to design complex and optimized soft structures with synergistic properties [5] Nanobiosensing is an important area with significant potential that remains to be fully investigated.

Nanobiosensors can have exceptional physical and chemical properties such as responsiveness to mechanical, optical, thermal, magnetic, and electric stimulation which enable these matrices to be applied in electronic, optical, sensor, actuator and microfluidic systems as well as in catalysis, separation devices, drug delivery,and many other biotechnological areas [6] This paper analyzes nanobiosensors for the period of the last 25 years (1989-2014) to characterize the pace with which this area is growing via bibliometrics and tech mining.

This study is an attempt to make the quantitative study of research output on Nanobiosensors. Data of this study is obtained from Scopus (http://www.scopus.com) online database for the period 1989-2014, and analyzed with different viewpoints. The study reveals that 221 papers were published during the period under study. A bibliometric study in this area will help the scientists to understand the progress in this field. In particular, the study was limited to the following objectives: A. To examine the chronological growth of literature on Nanobiosensors during the period1989-2014.

B. To identify Nanobiosensors in context of different research areas.

II.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The data for this study has been obtained from Scopus multidisciplinary database for a period during 1989-2014.

Records related to Nanobiosensors were retrieved in between the period 1989-2014. A total of 221 records were transfered to Microsoft Excel 2010, and data were analyzed

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as per the objectives of this study. Various statistical tools were also used to quantify the data and reach logical conlusions. We consider whether our findings signify the maturation of a scientific field and the extent to which this denotes the emergence of a shared scientific understanding regarding nanotechnology [7]. As fields develop, the trend toward increasing specialization produces an ever more specialized and fragmented vocabulary. On the other hand, some science and technology scholars maintain that nanoprefixed terminology represents a ‘‘catchphrase’’ for a set of political, social, and economic dynamics which inform yet are still distinct from the intellectual pursuit of knowledge[8].

graphical representation of the six major research area is given in figure-2.

FIGURE 2: SIX MAJOR RESEARCH AREAS IN NANABIOSENSORS

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 1) Year-Wise Growth of Nanobiosensors Literature As can be seen from the graph (Figure 1) there has been an increase in the number of publications more so in the last decade where there is almost an exponential rise. There is a slight decline in 2008 and 2010 but that can be attributed to the ever evolving field of Nanotechnology in which various factors play very important role. There are so many subfields in Nanotechnology that some fields have outnumbered Nanobiosensors in the said years. Also it is possible that some research papers do not have the nomenclature Nanobiosensors in their title but the research is in the same area. Also, there is the possibility of overlapping of various objects.

FIGURE-1: NO. OF PUBLICATIONS FROM 1st Januaray,200019THDECEMBER,2014

Surprisingly, engineering is the leading subject in which nanobiosensors are being studied. On deeper analysis, one realizes that nanobiosensors are actually machines integrating Nanotechnology and Biotechnology. This is followed by material science and then chemistry. Contrary to the expectations, Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology come at fourth place. One would like to think that since it is biosensing so there should be large magnitude of research in this subject area. But our analyses proves it otherwise.

Table 2: NANOBIOSENSOR REACHERS IN TERM OF REACHERS AREA No. of Publications

Subject Area Engineering Materials Science Chemistry Physics and Astronomy Biochemistry, Genetics Molecular Biology Chemical Engineering

2) Distribution of Nanobiosensors in terms of subject areas In total, 19 research areas were chosen and research output in these areas was studied. Primarily six major research area emerge: Engineering, Materials Science, Chemistry, Physics and Astronomy, Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology and Chemical Engineering in that order.

Chemistry and chemical engineering have not been clubbed together as chemical engineering is application –based.

These six areas account for 83.26% of the publications.

Also there can be duplication as same journal is included in more than one area so this is an approximate figure but it does give us a very good idea about the trend. Taking into account that the same journal can be included in a different research area, the results are shown in Table-1.Also, a

102 89 77 and

75 49 41

Medicine

26

Computer Science Mathematics Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics

17 13 8

Agricultural and Biological Sciences

6

Environmental Science Immunology and Microbiology Social Sciences

5 4 3

Multidisciplinary

2

Business, Management and Accounting Decision Sciences Energy

1 1 1

The escalating development of miniaturization and nanomaterials research has motivated the use of these materials for sensing several key pathways in the body

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and regulatory events. With the ongoing progress and thorough research in biosensing technology, more and more researchers are venturing in this arena. Inspite of the fact that manufacturing a biosensor is unwieldy and expensive due to its technical complexities, there is great surge in this field because of the incorporation of nonmaterial's .

III REFERENCES 1. Roco MC, Bainbridge WS (2002) Converging technologies for improving human performance: integrating from the nanoscale. J Nanopart Res 4:281–295 2. Roco MC, Bainbridge WS (2005) Societal implications of nanoscience and nanotechnology: maximizing human benefit. J Nanopart Res 7:1–13 3. Roco MC, Mikrkin CA, Hersam MC (2011) Nanotechnology research directions for societal needs in2020: summary of international study. J Nanopart Res 13:897–919

4. Braun,T. Schubert,A. and Zsindely, S. 1997. Nanoscience and nanotechnology on the balance.Scientometrics, Vol.38,no. 2: 321–325 5. http://www.hindawi.com/journals/isrn/2013/327435 6. P. Schexnailder, G. Schmidt, Nanocomposite polymer hydrogels, Colloid Polym.Sci. 287 (2009) 1–11 7. http://www.nano.gov/nanotech-101/what/definition 8. http://www.crnano.org/developing.html

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Impact of Green Electronics on Global Environment Lovleen kaur arora Institute of Environmental Studies, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, Haryana, India

Abstract— Instrumentation and electronics technology embodies processes, applications and equipment be which information can be accessed, created, communicated, organised, analysed or presented. This technology is becoming all pervasive and is causing a tremendous impact in the field of environment and human health. It has dramatically reduced costs, increased speed and improved productivity in virtually all fields. It has opened up new challenges and opportunities. The internet and the World Wide Web provide a vast quantum of current data that is readily accessible throughout the globe. It provides the most and relevant information in specific fields of knowledge. The information regarding the environment and its impact on human health that is available at the click of a button makes it possible to take corrective and preventive measures at the earliest. The role of information technology in environmental education and training has been well recognized and perceived as a tool that has the power to transform the country into a prosperous and pollution free healthy nation. In the wake of recent developments in instrumentation and electronics technologies, a number of useful data banks have been established in various countries.

These databases provides information about wildlife, conservation, forest cover, pollution control, clean technologies, remote sensing, coastal technology, biodiversity, mining, environmental management, etc. A vast amount of such information is available and this is also easily understood by everyone. Remote sensing and Geographical Information System (GIS) are the techniques of super imposing various thematic maps using digital data on a large number of related aspects. Much software has been developed for analysis and interpretation of the GIS data. These help in preparing zone wise atlases. Satellites also help in providing information about the monsoon, climate conditions etc. Accurate forecasts of storms with proper prevention measures and disaster management techniques can greatly save life and property.

The ministry of environment and forest, government of India has created the Environmental Information System which is functioning in 25 centres all over our country. ENVIS is a body that generates network databases in the area of pollution control, remote sensing, coastal technology, biodiversity, renewable energy, mining, environmental management, etc.

The body is also involved in developing Tsunami warning system in the Indian Ocean.

Telemedicine is an important application in the field of human health. Through this technology a doctor in the US can diagnose, treat and even operate a patient in India. This technology is particularly useful in heart surgery and results in cost effective treatment. It helps in broadcasting the preventive measures to be taken against communicable diseases and diseases like Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS).

The Indian Council for Medical Research (ICMR) has developed a database for diseases like AIDS, malaria etc. The development for automated DNA sequencing and other innovative methods have reduced the costs and time needed to discover the genetic makeup of various organisms.

Additionally, innovations such as high through put screening and micro arrays are enabling studies of gene and protein functions (that is genomics and proteomics).

India is rapidly emerging as a Green Electronics Superpower India has acquired a foremost position in the map of the Technology world. India’s progress in this sector is quick and influential, providing the economy a boost. Indian service sector, mainly due to It has emerged as the most growing base of economy. The use of technology in governance, company, management, banking, advertising, and insurance, and education, medical, engineering and industrial fields is increasing day by day. Indian software services have great demands in the world. Exports of software’s have earned India foreign currency in a big amount. Investors are attracted to invest in the Technology sector. There is a flow of FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) in this sector, giving India required capital to develop its economy.

Indian Institutes of Technology have prepared expert technicians for whom a demand exists in the world market Software engineers in India have provided services to the whole world. This progress of Green Electronics sector in India has helped Indian economic growth. Due to importance of this sector, Indian government is making policies to help it grow by providing infrastructure to it.

There are many major environmental issues that require urgent attention to make the ecology friendly. One among them is “electronic and nuclear waste”.

Electronic waste, or e-waste, is a term for electronic products that have become unwanted, non-working or obsolete, and have essentially reached the end of their useful life. Because

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technology advances at such a high rate, many electronic devices become “trash” after a few short years of use. In fact, whole categories of old electronic items contribute to e-waste such as VCRs being replaced by DVD players, and DVD players are replaced by blue ray players. E-waste is created from anything electronic: computers, TVs, monitors, cell phones, PDAs, VCRs, CD players, fax machines, printers, etc.

Obsolete electronic devices are rapidly filling the landfills of the globe. In the US alone, more than 100 million computers are thrown away with less than 20% being recycled properly.

The EPA (Environment Protection Agency) estimates as much as 60 million metric tons enter landfills every year. In 2005, Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) estimated India’s ewaste at 1.47 lakh tonnes or 0.573 MT per day. A study released by the Electronics Industry Association of India (ELCINA) at the electronics industry expo – “Componex Nepcon 2009” had estimated the total e-waste generation in India at a whopping 4.34 lakh tonnes by end 2009. The CPCB has estimated that it will exceed the 8 lakh tonnes or 0.8 MT mark by 2012 .Most electronics that are improperly thrown away contain some form of harmful materials such as beryllium, cadmium, mercury and lead. These materials might be trace elements, but when added up in volume, the threat to the environment is significant.( http://www.mwaste.com/ewaste-electronics-recycling )

destruction and follow certified documented procedures to safely dispose of electronic waste. Some unscrupulous recyclers ship e-waste overseas where it is disposed of improperly, posing a threat to the environment and its' people.

Table: Effects of E-Waste constituent on health Source of ewastes Solder in printed circuit boards, glass panels and gaskets in computer monitors

Constituent



Lead (PB)

 

Chip resistors and semiconductors

Cadmium (CD)

   

Relays and switches, printed circuit boards

Mercury (Hg)

Corrosion protection of untreated and Hexavalent galvanized steel chromium plates, decorator (Cr) VI or hardner for steel housings

Cabling and computer housing

Plastics including PVC

Plastic housing Brominated of electronic flame equipments and retardants circuit boards.

(BFR) Front panel of Barium (Ba) CRTs

Besides adding harmful elements to the environment, improper disposal of e-waste is a recycling opportunity lost.

Almost all electronic waste contains some form of recyclable material, including plastic, glass and metals. Solving the ewaste problem starts with education, and habit changes as a result of knowledge. Most people are trained to recycle a newspaper, bottles, and cans. Almost anything electronic in nature can be recycled properly with effort. Some municipalities have transfer stations that accept e-waste, and of course, Electronix Redux accepts e-waste for recycling. It is important that any e-waste processor is fully certified in safe

Health effects

Motherboard

Beryllium (Be)



 

Damage to central and peripheral nervous systems, blood systems and kidney damage.

Affects brain development of children.

Toxic irreversible effects on human health.

Accumulates in kidney and liver.

Causes neural damage.

Teratogenic.

Chronic damage to the brain.

Respiratory and skin disorders due to bioaccumulation in fishes.

Asthmatic bronchitis.

DNA damage.

Burning produces dioxin. It causes  Reproductive and developmental problems;  Immune system damage;  Interfere with regulatory hormones



Disrupts endocrine system functions

Short term exposure causes:  Muscle weakness;  Damage to heart, liver and spleen.  Carcinogenic (lung cancer)  Inhalation of fumes and dust. Causes chronic beryllium disease or beryllicosis.  Skin diseases such as warts.

In the late 1980s, a tightening of environmental regulations in industrialized countries led to a dramatic rise in the cost of hazardous waste disposal. Searching for cheaper ways to get

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rid of the wastes, "toxic traders" began shipping hazardous waste to developing countries. International outrage following these irresponsible activities led to the drafting and adoption of strategic plans and regulations at the Basel Convention. The fundamental aims of the Basel Convention are the control and reduction of trans-boundary movements of hazardous and other wastes including the prevention and minimization of their generation, the environmentally sound management of such wastes and the active promotion of the transfer and use of technologies.

A set of interrelated and mutually supportive strategies are proposed to support the concrete implementation of the activities is described below:1. To involve experts in designing communication tools for creating awareness at the highest level to promote the aims of the Basel Declaration on environmentally sound management and the ratification and implementation of the Basel Convention, its amendments and protocol with the emphasis on the short-term activities.

2. To engage and stimulate a group of interested parties to assist the secretariat in exploring fund raising strategies including the preparation of projects and in making full use of expertise in non-governmental organizations and other institutions in joint projects.

3. To motivate selective partners among various stakeholders to bring added value to making progress in the short-term.

4. To disseminate and make information easily accessible through the internet and other electronic and printed materials on the transfer of know-how, in particular through Basel Convention Regional Centres (BCRCs).

5. To undertake periodic review of activities in relation to the agreed indicators; 6. To collaborate with existing institutions and programmes to promote better use of cleaner technology and its transfer, methodology, economic instruments or policy to facilitate or support capacity-building for the environmentally sound management of hazardous and other wastes.

It is estimated that 75% of electronic items are stored due to uncertainty of how to manage it. These electronic junks lie unattended in houses, offices, warehouses etc. and normally mixed with household wastes, which are finally disposed off at landfills. This necessitates implementable management measures.

In industries management of e-waste should begin at the point of generation. This can be done by waste minimization techniques and by sustainable product design. Waste minimization in industries involves adopting:  inventory management,  production-process modification,  volume reduction,  recovery and reuse The National Centre for Electronics Recycling (NCER) is a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization formed in 2005 that is dedicated to the development and enhancement of a national infrastructure for the recycling of used electronics in the U.S. There are 10 States that contribute to 70 per cent of the total ewaste generated in the country, while 65 cities generate more than 60 per cent of the total e-waste in India. Among the 10 largest e-wastes generating States, Maharashtra ranks first followed by Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Delhi, Karnataka, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Punjab. Among the top ten cities generating e-waste, Mumbai

ranks first followed by Delhi, Bengaluru, Chennai, Kolkata, Ahmadabad, Hyderabad, Pune, Surat and Nagpur.(http://rajyasabha.nic.in/rsnew/publication_electronic/ E-Waste_in_india.pdf) Radioactive Waste Management Information Systems An authoritative source of information and data on waste management is needed by waste management organizations, government bodies and individual scientists in Member States, as well as by other United Nations organizations. Also, many Member States rely for their national planning and reporting to international organizations on waste management and related issues on a reliable, robust and consistent body of information.

No globally comprehensive source of such information exists at present. The Agency is therefore gathering, on a global scale, data on research, inventories, facilities and management practices on radioactive and other wastes for analysis and dissemination to its Member States and other interested parties, using up-to-date Internet technology. Improvement in waste management can be achieved by the use of appropriate technology and by facilitating the exchange of information and expertise on the various issues involved, for instance by advisory missions, expert contact groups and international peer reviews of waste management programmes and practices and by organizing and cooperating in conferences and symposia on important waste management issues. The Agency is uniquely placed to acquire and disseminate information on radioactive waste management through co-operation with its member state.

Activities and Databases: Net Enabled Waste Management Database (NEWMDB) In this activity, the Agency developed and launched the Net Enabled Waste Management Database (NEWMDB). The NEWMDB contains information on national radioactive waste management programmes, radioactive waste inventories, radioactive waste disposal, relevant laws and regulations, waste management policies, and plans and activities. The first NEWMDB data collection cycle was conducted in March 2002 (for year 2000 data). Subsequent collections have been performed annually from 2003 onward. NEWMDB is now in Version 3, with a new interface.

The principal objectives of the NEWMDB are to:  improve access to relevant waste management data;  provide a system for maintaining corporate memory of such information;  provide readily accessible reference material to both the Member States and the Agency's Technical Assistance programme, Waste Management Technical Review and Assessment Program (WATRP), and other programmes;  provide a means to research and assess the development and implementation of national systems for radioactive waste management in Agency Member States; and  provide a tool to Member States that supports the reporting requirements of the Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management (Joint Convention

Radioactive Waste Management Registry (RWMR) The Radioactive Waste Management Registry (RWMR) software is a computerized tool for recording and processing of information on radioactive waste management activities,

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tracking licensees, generators, and facilities, and providing a means for radioactive waste inventory tracking. It has been developed to assist Member States in the better implementation of their Quality Assurance (QA) programme.

The Radioactive Waste Management Registry – RWM Registry is a software application developed by the International Atomic Energy Agency to assist Member States in keeping track of and better control their own radioactive waste. RWM Registry deals primarily with the management and recording of reliable information on radioactive waste during its life cycle (i.e., from generation to disposal). It deals with solid and liquid waste and disused sealed sources. From the processing point of view, information on batching, pretreatment, treatment and conditioning is included. The system is also able to track history of waste records. The quality control of the waste product and the quality assurance programme involved are addressed. The RWM Registry is structured to allow, as much as possible, a high degree of flexibility. There is a set of customized tables to be prepared by the users according to their requirements and needs.

Waste Management Research Abstracts (WMRA) In this activity, the Agency developed an Internet-based database for the collection and dissemination of information about research planned or in progress in the field of radioactive waste - including activities related to the decommissioning of nuclear facilities and environmental remediation. Because of dropping demand and the increased availability of technical documents directly through the Internet, this activity is no longer supported. Researchers may access the International Nuclear Information System (INIS) collection, which comprises almost 3.5 million bibliographic records and more than 350 000 full-text non-conventional publications.(http://www.iaea.org/OurWork/ST/NE/NEFW/Te chnical-Areas/WTS/informationsystems.html )

environmental parameters (mainly temperature) and radiation levels. (ftp://ftp.cordis.europa.eu/pub/fp5-euratom/docs/fp5euratom_somos_projrep_en.pdf)

Conclusion Previously we were submerged in the ocean of microbes but the present era is known as the ocean of microwaves where IT is at boom. IT influences our everyday life and has potential role in past, present and future consequences of environmental components. There is a need to evaluate the positive and negative impacts of IT and to discover new ways to maximise the outcome and to reduce the negative consequences. Our mother Earth is a fragile planet, every action of ours has a significant impact on the environment, so it is upto us that how efficient, economical and ecofriendly IT can be implemented to serve the nature.

References ftp://ftp.cordis.europa.eu/pub/fp5-euratom/docs/fp5euratom_somos_projrep_en.pdf http://rajyasabha.nic.in/rsnew/publication_electronic/EWaste_in_india.pdf http://www.mwaste.com/e-waste-electronics-recycling/ http://www.iaea.org/OurWork/ST/NE/NEFW/TechnicalAreas/WTS/informationsystems.html

Safety and Operational Monitoring of Nuclear Waste Repositories with Fibre Optic Sensing Systems (SOMOS) The objectives of the SOMOS techniques consist of a substantial contribution to the development of a long-term reliable fibre optic monitoring information technology for nuclear waste repositories. The types of fibre optic sensors in this technology are limited to three basic monitoring parameters to be measured: radiation, temperature and hydrogen sensing. Based on preliminary studies on fibre optic sensors for the measurement of radiation dose, temperature and hydrogen, a suitable fibre optic monitoring system is developed together with a qualification methodology fulfilling the requirements needed. Distributed or integrated dosimetry on the other hand is tested with respect to robustness for environmental parameters. The long-term aspects (which consist mainly of reliability and re-calibration issues) and the qualification will be partly addressed by considering the potential for renewable sensor systems when optical fibres are placed in small tubes. These small tubes in their turn are installed and buried in the vicinity of the actual (high-level) waste. Intermediate results are reported on the performance of the three sensor types in laboratory setups as the project is to be terminated by the end of 2004. For temperature sensing, these include results on overall performance and radiation resistance of on low reflectivity fibre Bragg gratings. For hydrogen monitoring, three types of fibre sensors are tested (in absence of radiation). Finally, radiation monitoring is performed with special doped fibres where the radiation induced attenuation is studied with respect to other Page 33

Integration of water quality indices with GIS to access water quality Dr.Deeksha Katyal (Corresponding Author) Assistant Professor, University School of Environmental Management, GGSIP University, Sector- 16C, Dwarka-110078, Delhi, India Ph. +91-9971430324 deekshakatyal@gmail.com

Dr. Varun Joshi Associate Professor, University of Environmental Management, GGSIPU University, Sector-16C, Dwarka110078, Delhi, India Ph. +91-9971122817 varunj63@yahoo.com

Nida Rizvi Research Scholar, University School of Environmental Management, GGSIP University, Secto-16C, Dwarka110078, Delhi, India Ph. +91-9654039820 nrizvi8@gmail.com

Abstract- Water quality index aims at providing single value, which is used to evaluate the quality of water at a certain location and time.WQI is simple and compressive tool which enables easy interpretation of large amount of data. There are several water quality indices developed worldwide having some advantages over another. With the advancement in the field of water quality management, WQI’s are integrated with other advanced techniques to provide more realistic and easy to understand results.

Integration of WQI with GIS is one among them which enables us to generate pollution potentiality maps of a particular area. This paper focuses in brief about the studies on the integration of WQI and GIS along with its significance in the field of water quality assessment.

INTRODUCTION The term “water quality”is a widely used expression and has an extremely broad spectrum of meanings. From the user’s point of view this term is used to define those chemical, physical, biological, or radiological characteristics by which we evaluate the acceptability of water. Water quality depends on the quality of recharged water, atmospheric precipitation, inland surface water, rock water interaction time, mineral weathering, ion exchange process and sub-surface geochemical processes (Singh et al.

2013).Monitoring of water quality is the integral part of any water management programme. However, the water quality is difficult to be evaluated from a large number of samples, each containing concentrations of many water quality variables (Almeida et al. 2007). Traditional practices involve the comparison of observed values with the local norms but this does not provide comprehensive assessment of water quality (Nikoo et al. 2011). To overcome this gap, water quality index came into light which aims at providing single value for the assessment of water quality. Numerous water quality indices have been formulated all over the world which can easily judge out the overall water quality within a particular area promptly and efficiently (Bharti, N., & Katyal, D. 2011).

For example, US National Sanitation Foundation Water Quality Index (NSFWQI) (Sharifi, 1990), Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment Water Quality Index (CCMEWQI) (Lumb, 2002), Oregon Water Quality Index (OWQI)( Abbasi, 2002; Debels et al., 2005; Kannel et al., 2007) and Weighted Arithmetic Water Quality Index Method (Rao et al., 2010; Chowdhury et al.2012).

GIS is an effective tool not only for collection, storage, management and retrieval of a multitude of spatial and non spatial data, but also for spatial analysis and integration of these data to derive useful outputs and modeling (Srivastava et al. 2008; Gupta and Srivastava 2010). It can be a powerful tool for developing solutions for water resources problems for assessing water quality, determining water availability, preventing flooding, understanding the natural environment and managing water resources on a local or regional scale (Tjandra et al. 2003). GIS is widely used for collecting diverse spatial data and for overlay analysis in spatial register domain to represent spatially variable phenomena (Bonham-Carter 1996; Babiker et al.

2007; Gupta and Srivastava 2010). GIS-based, simple, and robust WQI is an essential tool for rapid transfer of information to water resources managers and the public (P.K. Srivastava et al., 2011).

IRRIGATION WATER QUALITY INDEX Simsek and Gunduz (2007) have proposed a GIS integrated tool to evaluate the quality of irrigation waters with regards to potential soil and crop problems. It is mainly an index method that addresses five types of hazards: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Salinity hazard Infiltration and permeability hazard Specific ion toxicity Trace-element toxicity Miscellaneous impacts on sensitive crops

The water quality parameters for the IWQ index were selected on the basis of the guidelines presented by Ayers

Page 34

and Westcot (1985). These parameters are expected to not only best characterize the associated hazard but also combine with others to form a general pattern of water quality for the particular resource. IWQ index can be calculated by using following formula

Few studies regarding Integration of WQI and GIS in Surface water quality mapping

IWQ= Where, i= incremental index G= representative of contribution of the each of the five hazard categories Type of hazard Salinity Hazard

Representative factor Electrical conductivity

Infiltration and permeability hazard

EC-SAR combination

Specific Toxicity

SAR chloride and boron

ion

Trace element toxicity

Average of all ions available for analysis

Miscellaneous effects to sensitive crops

Nitrate- nitrogen and bicarbonate ions and pH of the water

Earlier reports on ground water quality assessment using WQI and GIS include the assessment of pesticides impacts in pine plantation, Australia (Pollock et al. 2005), Assessment of ground water quality in highland village in Kerala, India (Hatha et al., 2009) and many more.

Formulae G1=W1R1 , Where W1 is the weight of this hazard group and R1 is the rating value of the parameter G2=W2r2, Where W2 is the weight of this hazard group and R2 is the rating value of the parameter G3= , Where j is an incremental index, W3 is the weight value of this group and r is the rating value of each parameter G4= , Where k is an incremental index, N is the total no. of trace element, W4 is the weight of this group and r is the rating value of each parameter G5= , Where m is an incremental index, W is weight value and r is the rating value

The developed technique is implemented to assess the irrigation water quality of the Simav Plain located in western Anatolia, Turkey.

Use of WQI and GIS in aquifer quality mapping Ketata et al. (2011) integrated the WQI with geographical information systems to generate maps of ground water quality of the El Khairat aquifer, Tunisia. Author uses GIS contouring methods with Arcview 3.2a, and created spatial distribution maps of pH, TDS, EC, TH, Cl, HCO3 , SO4, NO3, Ca, Mg, Na and K. An interpolation technique, ordinary Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW), was used to obtain the spatial distribution of groundwater quality parameters.

There are numerous studies regarding use of WQI to assess water quality or comparison of various WQI (Akkayunlu et al., 2012) but the use of integrated approach of WQI with GIS is still very limited. Few studies find a mention to fill this gap in which the work of P. k. Srivastava et al. (2011) is remarkable. He generate quality database by analyzing physico chemical parameters of selected study sites.

Author adopted the method of Tiwari and Mishra (1985) for the computation of water quality indices and uses inverse distance weighted spatial interpolation technique for the generation of pollution potentiality maps of the River Mahi.

The study of Katyal et al. (2012), who clubbed the overall index of pollution(OIP) with GIS for an effective elucidation of the quality status of the river Yamuna shall be discussed as a case study . The research was conducted on a a 12 km stretch of Yamuna River starting from Wazirabad barrage to the ITO Bridge( Figure 1). The samples were analysed for various parameters like Temperature, pH, Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Total Suspended Solids (TSS), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), turbidity, total hardness as CaCO3, Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD).

The analysed data was interpreted through Overall Index of Pollution (OIP) developed by Sargaonker (2003). OIP recommends classification of surface water in five classes i.e. C1 as excellent (pristine), C2 as acceptable (requires disinfection), C3 as slightly polluted (requires filtration and disinfection), C4 as polluted (requires special treatment and disinfection) and C5 as heavily polluted (cannot be used).

To bring all the parameters into single unit, , an integer value is assigned to each of the classes C1, C2, C3, C4 and C5, in geometric progression i.e., 1, 2, 4, 8 and 16 respectively, where, the number termed as class index indicates the level of pollution in numeric terms. This forms the basis for comparison of water quality from excellent to heavily polluted. Mathematical expressions are fitted for each of the parameter concentration levels to obtain this numerical value called an index (Pi) indicating the level of pollution for that parameter( Figure 2)n. Finally, Overall Index of Pollution (OIP) is estimated as the average of all the pollution indices (Pi) for individual water quality parameter considered in this study and is given by the mathematical expression:

n



Pi i  1 OIP  n Where Pi = pollution index for ith parameter. i = 1, 2. . . n and n = number of parameters.

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16

14

14

12

12

10

10 index

index

16

8

8

6

6

4

4

2

2

0 2

4

6

8

10

0

12

0

16

16

14

14

12

12

10

10

8

1000

2000

3000 TDS

4000

5000

0

6000

0

16

14

14

12

12

10

10 index

16

8

1000 hardness

1500

2000

8

6

6

4

4

2

2

0

500

0

0

100

200 DO

300

400

0

5

10

15 BOD

Discussion and conclusion: To recognize a unique water quality index for assessing water quality of any region or area with a definitive solution is very difficult. Therefore, GIS and WQI which synthesize different available water quality data into an easily understood format, provide a way to summarize overall water quality conditions in a manner that can be clearly communicated to policy makers. So, there is a need of efforts by researchers, institutions and other government/non government agencies to develop GIS and WQI based methods for assessment having significance in the field of water quality management that can be Figure II Value function curves for important water quality parameters

500

2 0

index

400

4

2 0

After the formulation of maps, based on the estimated values of OIP, the sampling stations where pollution control measures are required can be identified. The OIP data of various sampling points has been pictorially represented using GIS( Figure 3) . The figure can be directly used to analyze and compare water quality conditions improving the comprehension of the current status. Details about the specific parameters responsible for pollution can be obtained by referring to the concentration ranges, and further the level of treatment required to make the water suitable for specific use can be decided.

300

6

4

After OIP calculation ,the study area was delineated from the IRS LISS IV satellite imagery of 2008. Thematic maps like base map were prepared from SOI toposheets and updated using satellite imagery on 1:50,000 scale to obtain the baseline data. The spatial and attribute database generated from analysis of samples was integrated for the preparation of spatial distribution maps of water quality parameters such as BOD and DO .Finally maps were prepared to depict spatial distribution and to easily identify the variation in concentrations of the different parameters in the surface water of study area.

200

8

6

Figure 1: Sampling stations

100

Turbidity

index

index

pH

Figure III Spatial distribution of OIP of River Yamuna

Page 36

20

25

applicable to various regions worldwide. GIS is an effective tool for the preparation of various digital thematic layers and maps showing the distribution of various water quality parameters. Moreover, GIS makes the water quality maps in an easily understood format.

GIS-based, simple, and robust WQI is an essential tool for rapid transfer of information to water resources managers and the public. GIS can be useful for taking quick decision as graphical representation would be easy to take decision by the policy makers.

There are various studies reported regarding integrated approach of WQI and GIS in the field of ground water quality assessment but very scarce studies have been found in case of surface water. Therefore there is a need to carry forward this integrated approach in the field of surface water quality management programs.

14.

15.

16.

17.

M. Sharifi, “Assessment of Surface Water Quality by an Index System in Anzali Basin”, In The Hydrological Basis for Water Resources Management, IAHS Publication no. 197., 163-17., 1990.

18.

P. K. Srivastava, S. Mukherjee, and M. Gupta, “Groundwater quality assessment and its relation to land use/land cover using remote sensing and GIS”, In: Proceedings of international groundwater conference on groundwater use efficiency and sustainability: groundwater and drinking water issues, Jaipur, India, 19–22 March 2008.

19.

PK Srivastava, S Mukherjee, M Gupta, SK Singh, 2011.

Characterizing Monsoonal Variation on Water Quality Index of River Mahi in India using Geographical Information System. Water Quality, Exposure and Health. 2 (3-4), 193-203

20.

Pollock, D.W., Kookana, R.S., Correll, R.L., 2005. Integration of the pesticide impact rating index with the geographical information system for the assessment of pesticide impact on water quality.

Water, Air and Soil Pollution: Focus 5 (1-2), 67-68.

21.

Simsek, C., Gunduz, O., 2007. IWQ Index: A GIS integrated technique to assess irrigation water quality. Environmental monitoring and assessment 128(40603), 277-300.

22.

Singh, P.K., Tiwari, A.K., Panigary, B.P., Mahato.(2013) Water Quality Indices Used for Water Resources Vulnerability Assessment Using GIS Technique: A Review. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 06, No. 06(01), pp. 1594-1600

23.

Tiwari TN, Mishra M (1985) A preliminary assignment of water quality index to major Indian rivers. Indian J Environ Prot 5:276–279

References: Abbasi, S.A., (2002), Water quality indices, state of the art report, National Institute of Hydrology, scientific contribution no.

INCOH/SAR-25/2002, Roorkee: INCOH, pp 73.

2.

Akkoyunlu, A., & Akiner, M.E. (2012). Pollution evaluation in streams using water quality indices: a case study from Turkey’s Sapanca Lake Basin. Ecological Indicator, 18, 501–511. doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2011.12.018 3.

Ayers, R.S., Westcot, D.W., 1985. Water quality for Agriculture, 174pp. Rome, FAO, Paper 29.rev.1.

4.

Babiker IS, Mohamed AA, Hiyama T (2007) Assessing groundwater quality using GIS. Water Resour Manag 21:699–715 5.

Bharti, N., & Katyal, D. (2011). Water quality indices used for surface water vulnerability assessment. International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 2(1), 154–173.

6.

Bonham-Carter GF (1996) Geographic information systems for geoscientists: modeling with GIS. Comput Methods Geosci 13:1–50 7.

C.A. Almeida, S. Quintar, P. Gonzalez, M. A. Mallea, “Influence of urbanization and tourist activities on the water quality of the Potrero de los Funes River (San Luis-Argentina)”, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 133., 459-465., 2007.

8.

C.S Rao, B.S. Rao, A.V.L.N.S.H. Hariharan, M.N. Bharathi, “Determination of water quality index of some areas in Guntur District Andhra Pradesh”, Int. J. Appl. Biol. Pharma. Technol., 7986., 2010.

9.

Debels, P., Figueroa, R., Urrutia, R., Barra, R., and Niell, X., (2005), Evaluation of water quality in the Chilla’n River (Central Chile) using physicochemical parameters and a modified water quality index, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 110, pp 301–322.

10. Deeksha, K., Ahmed, Q., Ali, H.I., Kiranmay, S., 2012. Water quality assessment of Yamuna River in Delhi region using index mapping. Interdisciplinary Environmental Review, 13 (Nos. 2/3), 170-18.

indicators for river water classification and urban impact assessment, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 132, pp 93–110.

Ketata, M., Gueddari, M., Bouhlila, R., 2011. Use of geographical information system and water quality index to assess groundwater quality of EL Khairat deep aquifer (Enfidha, Central East Tunisia).

Arabian journal of geosciences, 1-12.

Lumb, A., Halliwell, D. and Sharma, T., (2002), Canadian Water Quality Index to Monitor the Changes in Water Quality in the Mackenzie River–Great Bear. In: Proceedings of the 29th Annual Aquatic Toxicity Workshop, (Oct. 21–23), Whistler, B.C.,Canada.

M.M.I., Chowdhury, M. Farhad, and M.A. Haque, “Status of surface water treatment plant in Bangladesh”, Undergraduate Thesis, Shahjalal University of Science & Technology, 2012.

1.

24. Tjandra FL, Kondhoh A, AMA Mohammed (2003). A conceptual database design for hydrology using GIS. In: Proceedings of Asia pacific association of hydrology and water resources, 13–15 March, Kyoto, Japan

11. GuptaM, Srivastava PK (2010) Integrating GIS and remote sensing for identification of groundwater potential zones in the hilly terrain of Pavagarh, Gujarat, India. Water Int 35:233–245 12. Hatha, A.A.M., Rejith, P.G., Jeeva, S.P., Vijith, H., Sowmya, M., 2009. Determination of ground water quality of a Highland village of Kerala (India) using geographical information system. Journal of Environmental Health 71 (10), 51-58.

13. Kannel, P. R., Lee, S., Lee, Y. S., Kanel, S. R., and Khan, S. P., (2007), Application ofwater quality indices and dissolved oxygen as

Page 37

ALGAE: POWER PLANTS OF FUTURE Dr. Geeta Mongia and Dr. Inderbir Kaur

Dr. Ruchi Gulati Marwah

Department of Electronics Bhaskaracharya College of Applied Sciences, University of Delhi, Sec 2, Dwarka Delhi-110075, India. mongiag@rediffmail.com inderbirkaur@rediffmail.com

Department of microbiology Bhaskaracharya College of Applied Sciences, University of Delhi, Sec 2, Dwarka Delhi-110075, India ruchi_g1@yahoo.com

Abstract— The increasing demand for energy consumption

old, and people with pre-existing respiratory disease and other ill health, are more at risk. Hence, there is a primary need to use renewable energy sources like, solar, wind, tidal, biomass and energy from waste material, also called non-conventional sources of energy.

with decreasing supplies of fossil fuels has led to great interest recently in alternate energy production technologies[1]. There is increased interest in methods of harnessing solar energy for various purposes. A new source that is catching attention is Bio‐photovoltaic cell technology.

Bio‐photovoltaic (BPV) devices are biological solar cells that generate renewable energy through the photosynthetic activity of living microorganisms such as algae and mosses.

In the present work we are constructing a Prototype of Bio‐photovoltaic device using algae for generation of electricity and optimizing the conditions for increasing the efficiency of the cell.

Keywords— algae, bio-electricity, photovoltaic cell INTRODUCTION The conventional sources of energy are generally nonrenewable sources of energy, which are being used since a long time. These sources of energy are being used extensively in such a way that their known reserves have been depleted to a great extent. At present, the main energy source used by humans is non-renewable fossil fuels. Since the dawn of internal combustion engine technologies in the 17th century, petroleum and other fossil fuels have remained in continual demand. As a result, conventional infrastructure and transport systems, which are fitted to combustion engines, remain prominent throughout the globe. The continual use of fossil fuels at the current rate is believed to increase global warming and cause more severe climate change. Combustion of fossil fuels generates sulfuric, carbonic, and nitric acids, which fall to Earth as acid rain, impacting both natural areas and the built environment. Monuments and sculptures made from marble and limestone are particularly vulnerable, as the acids dissolve calcium carbonate.[2] These environmental pollutions have an impact on the human beings because particles of the fossil fuel in the air cause negative health effects when inhaled by people. These health effects include premature death, acute respiratory illness, aggravated asthma, chronic bronchitis and decreased lung function. So, the poor, undernourished, very young and very,

One of the most important renewable energy source i.e. Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, is harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies such as solar heating, solar photovoltaics, solar thermal electricity, solar architecture and artificial photosynthesis.

The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires three basic attributes: 1. The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs or excitons.

2. The separation of charge carriers of opposite types.

3. The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit.

In the present paper we are presenting the results for construction of a prototype of bio-photovoltaic cell using algae for production of bio-electricity.

Bio-photovoltaic (BPV) cells are devices that generate electricity from the photosynthetic activity of living microorganisms such as algae[3]. When light falls on algae, a series of reactions takes place which split water into protons, electrons and oxygen. These are vital ingredients for transforming carbon dioxide and other inorganic materials into things like carbohydrates and proteins which allow the algae to grow [4]. BPV devices exploit this charge separation to generate electrical energy. This is achieved by placing the algae inside one of the two electrode containing chambers separated by a membrane that only allows protons to pass through it. Electrons produced during photosynthesis flow through an external circuit in order to re-combine with protons and oxygen at the reductive electrode (cathode) to form water.

The resultant current flowing in the external circuit can be used to power electronic devices [5]. BPV devices are more economical than their silicon-based photovoltaic devices.

Page 38

Experimentation A. Algal Culture Chlorella vulgaris, a green alga contains the highest known source of chlorophyll content [6]. The individual cells of the colonies an in the range of 5-10µm.Cells are green colour, unicellular, spherical in shape. Chlorella vulgaris contains the green photosynthetic pigments Chlorophyll-a and --b in its chloroplast Through photosynthesis, it multiplies rapidly, requiring only carbon dioxide, water, sunlight, and a small amount of minerals to reproduce[7]. Chlorella sp. has been selected because of its fast growth rate and easy maintenance and handling. All the physical and chemical conditions (like intensity, humidity, pH and time) for supporting maximum growth of this culture have been standardized (Table 1).

B. Construction of the prototype of the BPV Selection of membrane:- A proton selective membrane was considered [8]. It is the combination of the stable Teflon base with the acidic sulfonic groups. It is selectively and highly permeable to water. It is found effective as a membrane for proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells by permitting hydrogen ion transport while preventing electron conduction.

Solid Polymer Electrolytes, which are made by connecting or depositing electrodes (usually noble metal) to both sides of the membrane, conduct the electrons through an energy requiring process and rejoin the hydrogen ions to react with oxygen and produce water. By all the theoretical analysis Zinc and copper were used as cathode and anode respectively Operation of BPV cell:Oxygenic photosynthetic biological material-algal cells are employed in the anodic chamber. These organisms are able to use light energy to derive the oxidation of water. Electrons produced by this reaction are transferred to the extracellular environment, where they can be used to reduce an anode. The higher electrode potential of the cathode reaction relative to the reduction of the anode derives current through an external circuit. Oxygen is being reduced to water at the cathode .If water is regenerated there is closed loop in terms of electron flow i.e. light energy is the only net input required for the production of electrical power. Alternatively electrons can be used for electro-synthetic reactions that produce useful compounds, such as the reduction of protons to hydrogen gas.[9],[10]

A special glass assembly was fabricated as in the apparatus of Bio photovoltaic cell there are two chambers namely anode chamber and cathode chamber. In the cathode chamber water is kept and in the anode chamber a mixture of algae in fixed proportion with water is kept. So when light falls on algae, a series of reaction takes place which splits water into proton (H+ ions), electrons and oxygen. These are vital ingredients for transporting CO2 and other in organic natural materials into carbohydrates and proteins which helps algae to live and grow. The electrons produced during the process flow through external circuit in order to recombine with protons and O2 to form water and thus generating electricity.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The experimental conditions were optimized for growth of Chlorella which has been used as test organism for the construction of BPV. The results are presented in Table 1.

Optimization of Parameters S.No. Parameters

Range

Optima

1.

Temperature(Celsius)

16-27

20

2.

Salinity(g/l)

12-40

20

3.

Light intensity(lux)

1,000-10,0000

5,000

4.

pH

7-9

8.2

A comparative analysis for successful fabrication of BPV using two types of membranes i.e. Teflon and Nafion was carried out. It was found that better voltage production could be achieved using Nation membrane.

The current research exploits a wide range of techniques including electrochemistry, micro fabrication, chemical synthesis, molecular biology and numerical simulation. The technology is in its preliminary stage of development so a vast scope of research is possible in this field in order to develop bio-photovoltaic into commercially viable technology.

Acknowledgment This research work is being carried out at Bhaskaracharya College of Applied Sciences under DU Innovation project (2013-14). We are thankful to University of Delhi for providing financial support for the project.

We are also thankful to Indian Agricultural Research Institute (Pusa), ‘Blue –Green Algae Division’, where student research group learnt to prepare the media and standardize the conditions for the growth of algae in the plant growth chamber.

References [1] [2] [3]

Page 39

Kouroussis, D. and S. Karimi, 2006. Alternative fuels in

transportation. Bull Sci Technol Soc., 26: 346-355. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy Benedetta De Caprariis, Paolo De Filippis, Antonella Di, Battista, Luca Di Palma, Marco Scarsella, Exoelectrogenic Acitivty of a green microalgae, Chlorella Vulgaris, in a Bio-photovoltaic cells(BPVs), “ J. Chemical Engineering Treansactions, Vol. 38,2014, 523528

Algae bio-powering light by else / 23/12/2011 / ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS, SCENARIOS [5] Biophotovoltaics, Energy from Algae Alex Driver and Paolo Bombelli, Catalyst April 2011.

[6] Satyanarayana K.G., Mariano A.B. and Vargas J.V.C., 2011, A review on microalgae, a versatile source for sustainable energy and materials, Int. J. Energy Res. 35, 291-311 [7] ]-.Daphnia Research group, culture of chlorella vulgarisstandard operating procedure [4]

[8] Gang Xie andTatsuhiro OkadaWater Transport Behavior in Nafion 117 mbranesJ. Electrochem. Soc. 1995 142(9): 30573062; [9] M. Young, The Technical Writer’s Handbook. Mill Valley, CA: University Science, 1989.

[10] Exoelectrogenic 2283-9216 Activity of a Green Microalgae, Chlorella vulgaris, in a Bio-Photovoltaic Cells (BPVs) Benedetta De Caprariis, Paolo De Filippis, Antonella Di Battista*, Luca Di Palma, MarcoScarsella

Page 40

A Study of E-Waste Management on the subject of Awareness of college Students Amit Kumar, Scientific Assistant

Dr. Lalit Sharma, Associate Professor

Computer Section, Indira Gandhi Institute of Physical Education and Sports Sciences, B-Block,Vikas Puri Delhi, India Amittyagi649@gmail.com

Department of Physical Education, Indira Gandhi Institute of Physical Education & Sports Sciences, B-Block, Vikas Puri, Delhi, IndiaLalit.sharma@igipess.du.ac.in

Dr. Sanjay Tyagi, Assistant Professor Department of Computer Science, Krushetra University, Krushetra, Haryana.

Dr. Meenakshi, Assistant Professor Department of Physical Education, Indira Gandhi Institute of Physical Education & Sports Sciences, B-Block, Vikas Puri, Delhi, India

Abstract— The aim of this research paper is to know the awareness, knowledge, perception, and attitude of college going students about existence, danger and management of E-waste which is the rapidly growing problems of the world. It also tried to identify current e-waste management practiced by the students. Survey method of research was used to find out the awareness of students regarding Ewaste management. A total no of 120 students were selected. 60 student representing the professional stream and 60 student representing the non-professional stream from different colleges of University of Delhi and IP University Delhi. Simple Random sampling technique was used to collect the data. The self-developed E-Waste Management Awareness Questionnaire (EWMAQ) was used to collect the data. Questionnaire was designed to ask the students how they would respond to specific e-waste related questions and situations. It was found that there is no significant difference in the awareness regarding existence of E-waste in college students of professional stream and non-professional streams. It means all the students irrespective of their stream are having awareness of existence of e- waste. But there is significant difference in the awareness regarding danger of E-waste in college students of professional stream with their non-professional counterparts. It means students of professional stream are having more awareness of danger of e-waste than the students of non-professional stream. and students of both the streams are unaware of proper e-waste management.

generated from electric products. These hazardous and other wastes pose a great threat to the human health and environment. Electronic waste or e-waste is the collective name for discarded electronic devices that enter the waste stream from various sources. It includes items like PCs, telephones, notebook computers, TV sets, mobile Phones, electronic toys and electrical appliances like refrigerators, airconditioners etc. which have become obsolete due to:   

Advancement in Technology Change in fashion, style and status Nearing the end of their useful life.

The used and spoiled electronic appliances such as computers, laptops, game devices, mobile phones, TV and video & audio players etc. which have disposed by their original users come in the category of E-waste. The electronic goods are classified under three major heads:   

Keywords— e-waste, e-waste management, danger of e-waste, effect of e-waste

I. INTRODUCTION Increased use of electrical and electronic equipment coupled with huge population and changing consumption pattern is generating waste at an alarming rate in India. This is due to the advancement or development in technology. These spectacular developments in modern times have undoubtedly enhanced the quality of our lives. At the same time, these have led to manifold problems including the problem of massive amount of hazardous waste and other wastes

Page 41

White goods: Household appliances.

Brown goods: TVs, camcorders, Cameras Grey Goods: Computers, printers, fax machines, Scanners etc.

When electronic appliances become useless, come in the category of E-waste. Waste from the grey goods is more toxic as compared with white and brown goods. This kind of waste is posing a serious challenge in disposal and recycling in both developed and developing countries. For example a computer contains different types of elements, including valuable metals (gold, silver, platinum, copper etc.) as well as hazardous materials (cadmium, mercury, lead, brominated flame-retardants, etc.). Apart from these, computers, printers and other equipment contain a sophisticated blend of plastics. These toxic materials are complex and difficult to recycle in an environmentally sound manner even in developed countries, so these materials generated from the dismantling of computers are dumped in nearby soil and water.

Land-filling of this waste results in significant contamination of the soil and ground water while incineration of waste leads to the release of toxic gases like dioxins and furans. Due to high content of precious metals and high demand for used machines in developing countries like India, obsolete PCs are attractive to informal recyclers. The recycling of computer requires

sophisticated technology and processes, which are not only very expensive, but also need specific skills and training for the operation. Most of the recyclers currently engaged in recycling activities do not have this expensive technology to handle the waste. Even with all toxics removed recycling will cause impacts due to emissions while extracting valuable materials.

As there is no separate collection of e-waste in India, there is no clear data on the quantity generated and disposed of each year and the resulting extent of environmental risk.

The preferred practice to get rid of obsolete electronic items in India is to get them in exchange from retailers when purchasing a new item. The business sector is estimated to account for 78% of all installed computers in India (Toxics Link, 2003). Obsolete computers from the business sector are sold by auctions. Sometimes educational institutes or charitable institutions receive old computers for reuse. It is estimated that the total number of obsolete personal computers emanating each year from business and individual households in India will be around 1.38 million.

According to a report of Confederation of Indian Industries, the total waste generated by obsolete or broken down electronic and electrical equipment in India has been estimated to be 1,46,000 tons per year (CII, 2006).

Table I summarizes the health effects of certain constituents in e-wastes. If these electronic items are discarded with other household garbage, the toxics pose a threat to both health and vital components of the ecosystem. In view of the ill-effects of hazardous wastes to both environment and health, several countries exhorted the need for a global agreement to address the problems and challenges posed by hazardous waste.

EFFECT ON ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH

Disposal of e-wastes is a particular problem faced in many regions across the globe. Computer wastes that are landfilled produces contaminated leachates which eventually pollute the groundwater. Acids and sludge obtained from melting computer chips, if disposed on the ground causes acidification of soil. For example, Guiyu, Hong Kong a thriving area of illegal e-waste recycling is facing acute water shortages due to the contamination of water resources. This is due to disposal of recycling wastes such as acids, sludges etc. in rivers. Now water is being transported from faraway towns to cater to the demands of the population. Incineration of ewastes can emit toxic fumes and gases, thereby polluting the surrounding air. Improperly monitored landfills can cause environmental hazards. Mercury will leach when certain electronic devices, such as circuit breakers are destroyed. The same is true for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) from condensers. When brominated flame retardant plastic or cadmium containing plastics are landfilled, both polybrominated di-phenyl ethers (PBDE) and cadmium may leach into the soil and groundwater. It has been found that significant amounts of lead ion are dissolved from broken lead containing glass, such as the cone glass of cathode ray tubes, gets mixed with acid waters and are a common occurrence in landfills. When exposed to fire, metals and other chemical substances, such as the extremely toxic dioxins and furans (TCDD tetrachloro dibenzo-dioxin, PCDDs-polychlorinated dibenzodioxins.

PBDDspolybrominated dibenzo-dioxin and PCDFs poly chlorinated dibenzo furans) from halogenated flame retardant products and PCB containing condensers can be emitted. The most dangerous form of burning e-waste is the open-air burning of plastics in order to recover copper and other metals.

Page 42

Table I Source of ewastes Solder in printed circuit boards, glass panels and gaskets in computer monitors

Constituent

Health effects

 Lead (PB)

 

Chip resistors and semiconductors

Relays and switches, printed circuit boards

Cadmium (CD)

Mercury (Hg)

Corrosion protection of untreated and Hexavalent galvanized steel chromium (Cr) plates, decorator VI or hardener for steel housings



Damage to central and peripheral nervous systems, blood systems and kidney damage.

Affects brain development of children.

Toxic irreversible effects on human health.

Accumulates in kidney and liver.



Causes neural damage.



Teratogenic.



Chronic damage to the brain.



Respiratory and skin disorders due to bioaccumulation in fishes.



Asthmatic bronchitis.



DNA damage.

Burning produces dioxin. It causes

 Cabling and computer housing

Plastics including PVC

 

Plastic housing of electronic equipments and circuit boards.

Brominated flame retardants (BFR)



Reproductive and developmental problems; Immune system damage; Interfere with regulatory hormones Disrupts endocrine system functions

Short term exposure causes: Front panel of CRTs

Barium (Ba)

   

Motherboard Beryllium (Be)



Muscle weakness; Damage to heart, liver and spleen.

Carcinogenic (lung cancer) Inhalation of fumes and dust.

Causes chronic beryllium disease or beryllicosis.

Skin diseases such as warts.

II. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

ADMINISTRATION OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE

The present study has been undertaken with a purpose of “ewaste management on the subject of awareness of college students.”

Each subject was contacted individually & informed about the purpose of the study. Necessary with regard to follow up of questionnaire was imported and questionnaire was distributed. Questionnaire was categorized into 3 sections.

Description of questionnaire has been designed as under.

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH   

To find out the awareness on the subject of the existence of E-waste in students of professional and nonprofessional streams in colleges To find out the awareness on the subject of danger of Ewaste in students of professional and non-professional streams in colleges To find out the awareness on the subject of E-waste management in students of professional and nonprofessional stream in colleges.

Section A Section B Section C

Questions on the subject of existence of ewaste. Total no of question was 10.

Questions on the subject of danger of e-waste.

Total no of question was 10.

Questions on the subject of management of ewaste. Total no of question was 10.

COLLETION OF DATA

On the basis of the manual, the responses were evaluated and data was collected.

III. HYPOTHESES OF RESEARCH:  



There is no significant difference in the awareness on the subject of existence of E-waste in college students of professional and non-professional stream.

There is no significant difference in the awareness on the subject of danger of E-waste in college students of professional stream with their non-professional counterpart.

There is no significant difference in the awareness on the subject of E-waste management in college students of professional and non-professional streams.

IV. METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH SELECTION OF SUBJECTS: For the purpose of the study 120 subjects were selected using Simple Random Sampling Technique from the different Colleges of University of Delhi & IP University.

60 subject representing the professional (B.Tech., MCA, B.Ed) and 60 subject representing the non-professional stream(B.A., B.Sc., B.com). The illustration given below has shown the selection of subjects in brief:

Statistical Technique Statistical measures such as Mean, SD and t-tests were used to interpret the obtained data.

VI. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA Objective 1: To find out the awareness on the subject of existence of Ewaste in college students of professional and nonprofessional streams.

To achieve the above objective null hypothesis was formulated and critical test ratio was calculated. t- value of the scores of the awareness on the subject of existence of E-waste in college students of professional and nonprofessional streams is 0.00824 which is less than the table values at .05 and .01 level of significance and null hypothesis is accepted. It shows that there is no significant difference in the awareness on the subject of existence of E-waste in college students of professional and nonprofessional streams.

Table 1 Comparison of awareness on the subject of existence of Ewaste in college students of professional and non-professional streams

Total Subject

(120)

Professional stream (60)

Non Professional stream (60)

Group

N

Mean

*Std.

Professional NonProfessional

60

8.30

0.59089

Std Error mean 0.07628

60

8.03

0.60971

0.07871

t-value

0.00824

Figure 1: Graphical Presentation of Awareness about Existence of E-Waste between Professional & Non-Professional Groups

8.3 8.2

V. DESCRITPION OF QUESTIONNAIR

8.1

The questionnaire is a self-developed questionnaire containing 30 questions. Questionnaire was designed through the test-retest method. The validity of the test was accessed on the basis of the judgment of the experts.

Page 43

Professional

8 7.9

Non-Professional

7.8 Existence of E-waste

Objective 2: To find out the awareness on the subject of danger of Ewaste in college students of professional and nonprofessional streams.

To achieve the above objective null hypothesis was formulated and critical test ratio was calculated. t-value of the scores of the awareness on the subject of danger of Ewaste in college going students of professional and nonprofessional streams is 1.3098 which is greater than the table value at .01 level of significance and null hypothesis is rejected. It shows that there is significant difference in the awareness on the subject of danger of E-waste in college students of professional and non-professional streams.

Figure 3: Graphical Presentation of Awareness about Management of E-Waste between Professional & Non-Professional Groups 2.6

N

Mean

*Std.

Professional NonProfessional

60

8.10

0.354

60

5.21

0.958

Std Error mean .0457 .1237

Professional

2.5

N0nProfessional

2.45 Management of E-Waste

Figure 4: Comparison between The Students Of Professional And Non-Professional Stream On The Subject Of Existence, Danger And Management Of E-Waste

Table 2 Comparison of awareness on the subject of danger of E-waste in college going students of professional and non-professional streams Group

2.55

10 8 meann

6

t-value

4 1.3098

2 0

Figure 2: Graphical Presentation of Awareness about Danger of EWaste between Professional & Non-Professional Groups

E

se en ix st

er ng Da

an M

em ag

t en

10

Professional Non-Professional

8 6 4 2

Professional

VII. FINDINGS

N0n-Professional

● There is no significant difference in the awareness on the subject of existence of E-waste in college students of professional and non-professional streams. All the students are having awareness of existence of e-waste. ● There is significant difference in the awareness on the subject of danger of E-waste in college students of professional stream with their non-professional counterparts.

The students of professional stream are having more awareness of danger of e-waste than the students of nonprofessional stream. ● There is no significant difference in the awareness on the subject of E-waste management in college students of professional and non-professional streams. All the students are unaware of proper e-waste management.

0 Danger of E-Waste

Objective3: To find out the awareness on the subject of E-waste management in college students of professional and nonprofessional streams. To achieve the above objective again null hypothesis was formulated and t-test was calculated. Tvalue of the scores of the awareness regarding E-waste management in college going students of professional and non-professional streams is 0.31763 which is less than the table value at .05 and .01 level of significance and null hypothesis is accepted. It shows that there is no significant difference in the awareness on the subject of management of E-waste in college students of professional and nonprofessional streams.

Table 3 Comparison of awareness on the subject of management of Ewaste in college students of professional and non-professional streams Group

N

Mean

*Std.

Professional NonProfessional

60

2.5833

0.869

Std Error mean 0.1122

60

2.5166

0.650

0.0840

t-value

0.31763

VIII. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS On the basis of the results of the research it is clear that the current awareness on the subject of the existence and dangers of e-waste are extremely low and urgent measures are required to address this issue. Being a responsible citizen we can play a major role in e-waste management as donating electronics for reuse, which extends the lives of valuable products and keep them out of the waste management system for a long time. While buying electronic products, opting for those that are made with fewer toxic constituents, use recycled content, are energy efficient, are designed for easy upgrading or disassembly, use minimal packaging and offer leasing or take back options. The building of consumer awareness

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through public awareness campaigns is a crucial point that can attribute to a new responsible kind of consumerism.

While the world is moving at the technological revolution, countries like India are facing an imminent danger E-waste of developed countries disposes their wastes to India, China, Pakistan and other Asian countries.. A recent investigation revealed that much of the electronics turned over for recycling in the United States ends up in Asia, where they are either disposed of or recycled with little or no regard for environmental or worker health and safety. Major reasons for exports are cheap labor and lack of environmental and occupational standards in Asia and in this way the toxic effluent of the developed nations 'would flood towards the world's poorest nations. The magnitude of these problems is yet to be documented. However, groups like Toxic Links India are already working on collating data that could be a step towards controlling this hazardous trade. It is imperative that developing countries and India in particular wake up to the monopoly of the developed countries and set up appropriate management measures to prevent the hazards and mishaps due to mismanagement of e-wastes. Considering the severity of the problem, it is imperative that certain community based projects and management options is adopted to handle the bulk e-wastes.

MANAGEMENT OPTION Considering the severity of the problem, it is imperative that certain management options be adopted to handle the bulk ewastes. Following are some of the management options suggested for the government, industries and the public.

Responsibilities of the Government (i) Governments should set up regulatory agencies in each district, which are vested with the responsibility of coordinating and consolidating the regulatory functions of the various government authorities regarding hazardous substances. (ii) Governments should be responsible for providing an adequate system of laws, controls and administrative procedures for hazardous waste management (Third World Network. 1991). Existing laws concerning e-waste disposal be reviewed and revamped. A comprehensive law that provides e-waste regulation and management and proper disposal of hazardous wastes is required. Such a law should empower the agency to control, supervise and regulate the relevant activities of government departments.

Under this law, the agency concerned should o Collect basic information on the materials from manufacturers, processors and importers and to maintain an inventory of these materials. The information should include toxicity and potential harmful effects. o Identify potentially harmful substances and require the industry to test them for adverse health and environmental effects. o Control risks from manufacture, processing, distribution, use and disposal of electronic wastes. o Encourage beneficial reuse of "e-waste" and encouraging business activities that use waste". Set up

programs so as to promote recycling among citizens and businesses. o Educate e-waste generators on reuse/recycling options (iii) Governments must encourage research into the development and standard of hazardous waste management, environmental monitoring and the regulation of hazardous waste-disposal. (iv) Governments should enforce strict regulations against dumping e-waste in the country by outsiders. Where the laws are flouted, stringent penalties must be imposed. In particular, custodial sentences should be preferred to paltry fines, which these outsiders / foreign nationals can pay. (v) Governments should enforce strict regulations and heavy fines levied on industries, which do not practice waste prevention and recovery in the production facilities. (vi) Polluter pays principle and extended producer responsibility should be adopted. (vii) Governments should encourage and support NGOs and other organizations to involve actively in solving the nation's e-waste problems. (viii) Uncontrolled dumping is an unsatisfactory method for disposal of hazardous waste and should be phased out. (viii) Governments should explore opportunities to partner with manufacturers and retailers to provide recycling services.

Responsibility and Role of industries 1. Generators of wastes should take responsibility to determine the output characteristics of wastes and if hazardous, should provide management options.

2. All personnel involved in handling e-waste in industries including those at the policy, management, control and operational levels, should be properly qualified and trained. Companies can adopt their own policies while handling e-wastes. Some are given below:  Use label materials to assist in recycling (particularly plastics).  Standardize components for easy disassembly.  Re-evaluate 'cheap products' use, make product cycle 'cheap' and so that it has no inherent value that would encourage a recycling infrastructure.  Create computer components and peripherals of biodegradable materials.  Utilize technology sharing particularly for manufacturing and de manufacturing.  Encourage / promote / require green procurement for corporate buyers.  Look at green packaging options.

3.

Companies can and should adopt waste minimization techniques, which will make a significant reduction in the quantity of e-waste generated and thereby lessening the impact on the environment. It is a "reverse production" system that designs infrastructure to recover and reuse every material contained within e-wastes metals such as lead, copper, aluminum and gold, and various plastics, glass and wire. Such a "closed loop" manufacturing and recovery

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system offers a win-win situation for everyone, less of the Earth will be mined for raw materials, and groundwater will be protected, researchers explain.

4. Manufacturers, distributors, and retailers should undertake the responsibility of recycling/disposal of their own products.

5. Manufacturers of computer monitors, television sets and other electronic devices containing hazardous materials must be responsible for educating consumers and the general public regarding the potential threat to public health and the environment posed by their products. At minimum, all computer monitors, television sets and other electronic devices containing hazardous materials must be clearly labeled to identify environmental hazards and proper materials management.

Responsibilities of the Citizen Waste prevention is perhaps more preferred to any other waste management option including recycling. Donating electronics for reuse extends the lives of valuable products and keeps them out of the waste management system for a longer time. But care should be taken while donating such items i.e. the items should be in working condition.

Reuse, in addition to being an environmentally preferable alternative, also benefits society. By donating used electronics, schools, non-profit organizations, and lowerincome families can afford to use equipment that they otherwise could not afford.

E-wastes should never be disposed with garbage and other household wastes. This should be segregated at the site and sold or donated to various organizations.

While buying electronic products opt for those that: o are made with fewer toxic constituents o use recycled content o are energy efficient o are designed for easy upgrading or disassembly o utilize minimal packaging o offer leasing or take back options o have been certified by regulatory authorities. o Customers should opt for upgrading their computers or other electronic items to the latest versions rather than buying new equipment.

NGOs should adopt a participatory approach in management of e-wastes.

References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7]

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www.ijoem.com/E-waste hazard: The impending Challenge www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental Hazard www.yaleglobal.yale.edu www.ban.org/global waste destination www.nswai.com/e-waste_indian_perspective Freeman M. H. 1989. Standard Handbook of Hazardous Waste Treatment and Disposal, McGraw-Hill Company, USA Third World Network. 1991. Toxic Terror: Dumping of Hazardous Wastes in the Third World, Third World Network, Malaysia.

Generation of Electricity from Aloe Vera Plant: A Step towards Creating an Era Tanu Bhardwaj1, Anushka Singh2, Deeksha Agarwal2, Prerna Singh2 1

Assistant Professor B.Tech Instrumentation Students Email: tanu.bhardwaj10@gmail.com Shaheed Rajguru College of Applied Sciences for Women University of Delhi 2

Abstract— In the emerging world, there is a dire need of generating electricity. Some remote areas, which don’t have access to electricity, need some innovations to be done for energy production. Although, we have plenty of nonrenewable sources for electricity generation now, but, in future, only renewable sources of energy can help us out to harvest electricity from them. Alongwith, renewable sources of energy are also safer for humans and their environment.

Idea of using renewable souces of earth like sun and plants together, to generate electricity, makes use of three diversified fields of planetary science, botany and electronics. In this paper, a step has been taken to generate electricity from plants because plants are present everywhere. A small voltage and current was sensed from the plant “Aloe Vera” which was further amplified to glow a LED. Glowing of LED showed the success of the idea of generation of electricity from plants. Not limited to LED, further amplication of voltage and current, can lead to lightening of a bulb.

because it can be grown in deserts and withstands temperatures ranging from 104° F down to freezing temperatures5. Like all other green plants, it also harvest energy from sunlight and transform that energy into food and oxygen. This process is known as photosynthesis. During this process, transport of ions in the plant is occuring which produces ionic current in the plant. This ionic current gives rise to detection of small voltage when sensed using electrodes. Originally, electrodes work as transducer here, which reforms one form of energy into another. Electrodes senses ionic current and flips that into an electronic voltage which can be further amplified to light a LED or bulb. A general circuit diagram is shown in figure 1 to show connections of electrode, plant and amplication circuit.

Keywords— Plant, Aloe Vera, electricity, amplification, LED. I. INTRODUCTION With rise in population of India, need of basic requirements, like food, home, water, money and electricity, is also growing.

Therefore, if we focus only on necessity of electricity, with each passing day, stock of non-renewable sources is exhausting. In future, existence of renewable souces of energy can help us out to gather electricity from them. Idea of employing sources for energy production, which are easily obtainable and pocket friendly as well as eco friendly, is conveniently clever. Commercially, plants and their use will definitely give a drive for generation of electricity in our country1. Not limited to this, use of plants for electricity production creates a safeguard for our future and Earth by reducing green house effect2,3. Hence, shifting from nonrenewable to renewable energy sources for electricity generation provides beneficiary economic, alongwith environment friendly strategies4.

Figure 1: Connections of electrode, plant and amplication circuit II. METHODOLOGY A. Materials Aloe Vera Plant, Allpins as electrodes, multimeter, connecting wires, Chip AD-624, LED. B. Experiment

In this research paper, it has been shown that Aloe Vera produces voltage which can be amplified to light a LED. Amongst various plants, here, Aloe Vera plant was used

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1.

In order to check whether aloe vera can generate electricity or not, a number of allpins were injected into the leaves of aloe vera plant and were connected using conducting connecting wires in series. Ends of the wires were connected to a multimeter to check if voltage is being generated or not. Connections of allpins in plant with multimeter are shown in figure2.

A voltage of 0.9 mV and a current of 20mA were observed in the multimeter.

research work, we can say that apart from using Aloe Vera for herbal uses only, it can also be used for generating electricity.

V. FUTURE PROSPECTS Our next step is to light a bulb from Aloe Vera plant so that it can lighten up the life of those people who live in rural areas.

REFERENCES 1. T.Subramani, M. Nallathambi, 2012, “Mathematical Model For Commercial Production of Bio-Gas from Sewage Water and Kitchen Waste”, IJMER, 2(4), 1588-1595.

Figure 2: Connections of allpins in plant with multimeter

2. C. Ngo, J.B. Natowitz, 2009, Our Energy Future; Resources, Alternatives and the Environments, Wiley.

2.

3. R.A. Hinrichs, M.H. Kleinbach, 2006, Energy: Its use and the Environment, 4th ed., Thomson Brook/Cole.

Then, after verifying that Aloe Vera produces some voltage, voltage was amplified upto a voltage to glow a LED as shown in figure 3. Using Integrated Circuit named AD-624 (voltage amplifier), plant voltage of 0.9 mV voltage was amplified to 12V. As this chip was majorily a voltage amplifier, it amplified current of 20mA to 45mA with less gain.

4. Varun, R.Parakesh, I.K. Bhat, 2009, “Energy, Economics and Environmental impacts of renewable energy systems”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 13(9), 2716-2721.

5. M.Mani Teja, M.Basha, N. Balanaidu, 2011, “Green Electricity from Aloe Vera”, Int. Journal & Magazine of Engineering, Technology, Management and Research, APENG/2011/47294.

Figure 3: Circuit for volatge amplication to glow LED 3.

A LED was connected after this chip to check the amplification step.

4.

Now, our next step is to light a bulb. But, it is not as easy as it looks, since a bulb needs a voltage of 220 V to glow.

III. RESULTS After the entire work, the result came out to be positive that by using aloe vera plant, electricity can be generated.

IV. CONCLUSION It can easily be concluded that by using Aloe Vera plant, electricity can be generated. By using this electricity, a new era can be created as it will bring a new revolution in eco-friendly and pocket friendly electricity generation. Alongwith, after this

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Chromatographic fingerprinting: An emerging tool for quality control and chemo-taxonomy of medicinal plants and their drugs Daya Bhardwaj1 and Nutan Kaushik2* 1TERI University, 10th Institutional Area, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi-110070, India 2*The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), Habitat center, Lodhi Road, New Delhi-110003, India Tel. (+91 11) 2468 2100 and 41504900, Fax (+91 11) 2468 2144 and 2468, E-mail: kaushikn@teri.res.in * Corresponding author

Abstract— World Health Organization’s (WHO’s) recent survey reveals the fact of increasing demand of traditional medicines all over the world. There is a sharp increase in the number ofherbal products and the companies associated with these products. Such increase in the popularity of herbal products is also associated with the problems of adulteration, safety and efficacy issues. The people’s belief about the safe use of medicines now requires the support of a strict quality control and regulation practices system. This could only be possible by implementing strict laws and use of advance techniques of analysis. Exploring the last decade’s advancements in the field of analytical techniques this paper illustrates the utilization of chromatographic techniques for the quality control and chemotaxonomy of medicinal plants and their drugs.

Keywords— Drugs, Quality Control, Chromatography, Fingerprinting, Chemota-xonomy

INTRODUCTION The man has always been dependent on plants for his various needs. The ancient Chinese, Egyptian, Indians and American Indians civilizations have used them as a source of medicine.

Even Neanderthals seems to have made use of medicinal plants 1.Medicinal plants are used to discover lead compounds for pharmaceutical development, as traditional medicines or as botanical products2. As per World Health Organization (WHO), primary health care of 70-80% of the world's population is based on the use of medicinal plants derived from traditional systems of medicine3. Besides developing and under-developed countries, even western countries are changing over to alternative medicines. According to a survey conducted in 2005, about 71% of Canadians were using natural health products4 and in the United States, as of 2002 about 19% of adult population was using herbal medicinal products5.

Traditional medicines though act slowly, but help in providing the body an opportunity to consolidate and fortify its own immune systems. Consequently, the main mode of treatment is 'probiotic' aimed at strengthening the body system as a whole6

in contrast to the western medicine’s ‘antibiotic' approach to human body. Prolonged use of allopathic medicine system has many side effects due to a depleted immune system6. People across the world have now started realizing that 'natural is better' and hence, there is an increasing demand for 'green medicines' throughout the world.

With an increasing global demand for herbal medicines, it is necessary that the quality and the consistency of these drugs are maintained for their maximal efficacy. Although as compared with synthetic drugs, herbal medicinal products are at lower risk but they are not completely free from potential harm such as inherent toxicity of herbs, contaminations, adulteration, plant misidentification and interactions with other herbal products or pharmaceutical drugs7.Many scientific studies on adulteration of herbal medicines have demonstrated that health consequences of adulterants may vary from mild to life threatening to death. A significant number of cases have been reported about the toxicological effects of Chinese and traditional Indian medicines8. Some of the reported cases are: datura poisoning from eating a hamburger9, scopolamine poisoning from homemade ‘‘moon flower’’ wine10, atropine poisoning after drinking contaminated Indian tonic water11, atropine poisoning after eating porridge contaminated with D. stramonium 12, atropine poisoning after drinking tainted comfrey tea13, drinking of a tea blend containing D. stramonium leaves14 and atropine poisoning after eating contaminated honey15.

These issues are further complicated by the fact that many of the herbal formulations are not composed of a single species but often a mixture of many different species 2. Also, biologically active compounds form just a minute part of herbs. They are diluted with a large amount of proteins, sugars or tannins, which, in some cases, does not contribute to the pharmaceutical effect but they make the quality control of crude drugs and their medical preparations extremely difficult 16. Therefore, there is an urgent need of very efficient and selective analytical techniques, including the extraction techniques for the identification and quantitative analysis of the active compounds or drug standardization.

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Plant material Raw Drug (fresh plant or part, frozen or dried/cut)

Initial Control Monographs, TLC, LC, Spectrophotometery, essential oil

Extraction Selection of solvent

Plant extracts Interim storage, Filtration

Quality control Identity TLC, Assay LC or GLC

Mixing of all extracts

Final herbal preparation

Final Control Identity( TLC/HPTLC/HPLC/GLC/ hyphenated techniques Fingerprints), Purity, Assay of main components, Data Analysis by Chemometrics Figure:1 Manufacturing and Quality Control scheme of herbal preparation Modified from Kroll, 2006

Analytical Techniques for Chemotaxonomy, and Quality Control of Traditional Medicines: An overview The final quality of a phytomedicine depends upon the quality of the raw herbal drug, the Good Agricultural Practice (GAP), Good Laboratories Practice (GLP) Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) and Good Supply Practice (GSP). Lack of an objective and accurate inspection system is frequently one of the reasons for poor quality control of source materials.

Chemical analytical techniques can be applied at different stages of good practices in quality assurance of natural products. The amount of natural products produced by plants varies from one taxonomic group to another. This is due to the

presence of various biosynthetic pathways responsible for the production of these compounds. Biochemical characters of plants have been used extensively for plant systematics such as analyses of intraspecific variation and determination of phylogenetic relationships of families, other high level taxonomic groups and for their quality control16. The two major categories of systematically useful chemical compounds are: secondary metabolites and macromolecules (proteins, DNA and RNA). Modern chemo taxonomists divide natural products into two major classes: micro molecules as alkaloids, terpenoids, amino acids, fatty acids, flavonoid pigments, phenolic compounds, mustard oils, and simple carbohydrates and macro molecules such as complex polysaccharides, proteins, and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) are known as macromolecules.

A crude extract of a plant can be separated into its individual components, especially in the case of micro molecules, by using one or more techniques of chromatography, including Paper Chromatography, Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC), Gas Liquid Chromatography (GLC), or High-Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). Chromatography and electro migration methods (electrophoresis, capillary electrophoresis, and capillary zone electrophoresis) are the main techniques which provide a visual display or characteristic fingerprint of a plant species for the particular class of compounds under study. These analytical methods are used due to their powerful separation efficiency combined with sensitivity of detection, as indicated by several recent reviews covering the traditional medicines preparations17 or selective active compounds in a variety of sample matrices like Cinchona alkaloids18, indole alkaloids19 or tropane alkaloids 20. Fingerprinting analysis has been accepted by WHO as a methodology for the assessment of herbal drugs. Traditionally, chromatography and relative techniques are also used to evaluate the quality of plant raw materials, as the diversity of components and their content vary with not only the species but also with the growing conditions, the season when plants are harvested, the process methods and storage duration. The individual, separated components can be further purified and then subjected to one or more types of spectroscopy, such as Ultraviolet (UV), Infrared ( IR), or Nuclear Magnetic Resonance ( NMR) or Mass Spectroscopy (or both), which may provide information about the structure of the compound.

Thus, for taxonomic purposes, both visual patterns and structural knowledge of the compounds can be compared from species to species. Macromolecules are large, polymeric, and often crystalline nature so; they can be subjected to X-ray crystallography, which gives some idea of their threedimensional structure. These large molecules can then be broken down into smaller individual components and analyzed by using techniques employed for micro molecules.

Chromatographic techniques serve as an important tool for the selection of chemical markers, which are used for developing ‘fingerprints’ for a particular herb or formulation. For quality control of traditional medicines, physical and chemical characterization of botanicals is done using a model established by various countries. This characterization includes the botanical, macroscopic, and microscopic identification for the physical characterization of plants and

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the application of validated qualitative and quantitative analytical methods for chemical characterization. Fig 1 summarizes the manufacturing and quality control scheme of any herbal preparation.

The present review provides an overview of utilization of various chromatographic fingerprinting methods for the characterization of botanical raw materials and finished products on the basis of micro molecular analysis approach.

Chromatographic Fingerprinting The construction of chromatographic fingerprints plays an important role in the quality control of complex herbal medicines21.

Chemical fingerprints obtained by chromatographic techniques are strongly recommended for the purpose of quality control of herbal medicines, since they represent appropriately the “chemical integrities” of the herbal medicines and therefore be used for authentication and identification of the herbal products. Based on the concept of phytoequivalence, the chromatographic fingerprints of herbal medicines could be utilized for addressing the problem of quality control of herbal medicines22. By definition, a chromatographic fingerprint of a herbal medicine is, in practice, a chromatographic pattern of pharmacologically active and or chemically characteristic constituents present in the extract23. Thus, Chromatographic fingerprint can successfully demonstrate both similarity and differences between various samples and the authentication and identification of herbal medicines can be accurately conducted even if the number and/or concentration of chemically characteristic constituents are not very similar in different samples of herbal medicine. In a herbal medicine there are hundreds of components and many of them are in too low amounts. On the other hand, there usually exists variability within the different and even the same herbal materials.

Consequently, obtaining a reliable chromatographic fingerprint that represent pharmacologically active and chemically characteristic components is very difficult. The performance of a chromatographic fingerprint obtained is closely dependent on the chromatographic separation degrees and concentration distribution of all chemical components in the herbal medicine investigated. Chromatographic techniques such as TLC, HPTLC, GLC, HPLC offers very powerful separation ability, such that the complex chemical components in herbal medicine extracts can be separated into many relatively simple sub-fractions. Furthermore, the recent approaches of applying hyphenated chromatography and spectroscopy such as high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection (HPLC-DAD), gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS), capillary electrophoresis-diode array detection (CE-DAD), HPLC-MS and HPLC-NMR, could provide the additional spectral information, which will be very helpful for the qualitative analysis and even for the on-line structural elucidation.

Figure2 depicts various applications of chromatographic/hyphenated techniques used to access different quality parameters related to medicinal plants.

Planar Chromatography (TLC and HPTLC) Thin layer chromatography (TLC) is frequently used for the analysis of herbal medicines. Many reference text books such that Wagner and Bladt24 and Quality Standards as Quality Manual of Indian Medicinal Plants, Chinese Pharmacopoeia of Medicinal Plants, American Herbal Pharmacopoeia (AHP), developed by different countries gives or illustrate TLC profiles for commonly used medicinal herbs. TLC is preferred as an analytical technique when there are many samples to compare, for generation of rapid quantitative and semi quantitative data at low cost per sample and when flexibility is important.

Lead compounds for new drug discovery

Identification of adulterants

Differentiation of herbal medicines with multiple sources

Determination of the best harvesting time

Diagnosis of herbal intoxication

Application of chromatographi c techniques Stability test of proprietary products

Confirmation of collection sites

Identification & quantitative determination of proprietary products

Quality evaluation of herbal parts

Assessment of processing methods

lication of Analytical Techniques

Figure: 2 Applications of chromatographic techniques used to access different quality parameters related to medicinal plant TLC and HPTLC are mainly used as a screening or identification tool which actually gives base to the chromatographic pyramid which could be further narrowed down towards the top by using some advance methods of analysis like HPLC and hyphenated techniques (LC-MS, LCNMR, GC-MS, GC-IR) (Figure 3).

Confirmation Hyphenated technique

Screening and Identification

Figure: 3 Chromatographic Pyramid TLC is also preferred for the analysis of those substances which has poor detection chracteristics requiring postchromatographic treatment for detection. Infact one can use TLC as first hand analytical tool to detect adulteration, differentiate between species and detecting spiking of synthetic compounds used as marker compounds. Among all the chromatographic techniques, TLC is the most established

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method of determining the quality and possible adulteration of herbal products. It is seen normally, that in most of the reported methods, chromatographic fingerprinting is being used for more than one puposes. As in a particular study the technique could be simply used for the development of biomarker or chemical fingerprints, other may use these biomarkers or fingerprints for testing quality of medicinal plant or for identification of a particular plant species.

Screening and Identification The techniques have the advantages of many-fold possibilities of detection in analyzing herbal medicines. Identification of herbal drugs can also be possible by Botanical identification (microscopic and macroscopic), but HPTLC has many advantages over it. Table 3 gives a comparison of Botanical ID with HPTLC profiling.

Source: Camag.com Table 3: Comparison of Botanical ID with HPTLC profiling.

S.No.

Botanical ID

1.

Require highly trained professional.

Intact plant or plant part is required.

2.

3.

4.

Single specimen required.

Name is identified.

5.

Positive Identity.

6.

No change with time.

HPTLC profiling Basic analytical skills required.

Universally applicable. Intact plant (part), powder or extract of plant could be used.

Pooled sample could be used.

Fingerprint could be developed.

Qualitative Identity.

Can track changes.

A large number of papers have been published annually reporting the use of TLC/HPTLC for quality control of herbal drugs.Vermaak et al.26 used HPTLC for authentication and confirmation of presence of P57 molecule in Hoodia gordoni .

Presence of P57 is desirable for quality control of Hoodia gordoni raw material and products. The separated bands of compounds in the complex mixture by HPTLC were also confirmed by quantitative LC-MS analysis, which also confirmed qualitative reliability of HPTLC method. Tian et al.,27 also used HPTLC and HPLC-ELSD as two complementory fingerprinting methods for the classification of commercial samples of roots of Chaihu from different species of the genus Bupleurum . Both the techniques are widely used for identification of different plants available in the market under the same trade name. Various TLC/ HPTLC methods have been reported, for identifying fake medicinal plants such as identification of Brahmadand an important medicinal plant used in the Indian system of medicine (Ayurveda). Different plants are available in the market under the trade name Brahmadandi viz., roots of Echinops echinatus Roxb, and the aerial parts of Tricholepis glaberrima DC which are sold either in their crude or in powdered form.

Somashekar28 developed a HPTLC method by the quantification of the lupeol content in the drug that could be used for the identification and routine quality control of

Brahmadandi. In another method reported by Sayyada et al.29, stem bark of Saraca asoca Roxb.Wilde ( officially considered as Ashoka) were differentiated from S.declinata Linn and Polyallhia longifolia Benth which is also known as ‘Ashoka’ by developing HPTLC profile.

Authentication of medicinal plants is achieved by comparing the fingerprints of samples with standards. In the method reported by Ping et al.30 for the authentication of Radix Salviae Miltiorrhizae ( Roots of Salvia miltiorrhiza BGE) , HPTLC fingerprints were developed and authentication was achieved by comparing the fingerprints of samples with standards of water soluble phenolics and non polar tanshinones. Routine quality control of Sennosides or Senna containing drug formulation used for treatment of constipation could be done by determining individual Sennosides (A,B,C,D) using HPTLC. TLC and HPTLC are also being used for identification of analytical markers in many medicinal drugs such as Aloin was used as an analytical marker for standardization of Kumariasava. Elamthuruthy et al.32 have reported a standardization method for ayurvedic formulation Kumariasava containing Aloe Vera as one of the ingredient to check batch to batch variation. In another study a TLC method was developed for the analysis of total saponin content or aescin content in a capsule containing dry extracts of Aesculus hippocastanum and Vitis vinifera33. Eugenol and gallic acid were also identified as biomarkers using TLC densitometric method, which could be used for the quality control of clove34. Movalia et al.35, has developed a method for the determination of oleanolic acid as marker in the extracts of fruits of Randia dumetorum Lamk, and scopoletin is reported36 as a standard reference marker for the quality control of tubers of Ipomoea mauritiana which is an important ingredient of Chyavanprash. In another study a TLC method was reported for phytochemical evaluation and validation of a polyherbal formulation known as Raktadosh Nasak Vati37 by the quantification of six marker compounds. Identification or quantification of marker compounds is not only useful for the quality control of medicinal plants but many studies had reported their chemotaxonomical applications also. Khatoon et al.38 reported a TLC method for chemical evaluation of different Terminalia species by quantifying ellagic and gallic acids, as their amount varies from species to species.

Certain medicinal drugs and its formulations are subjected to degradation due to acid and alkali hydrolysis, oxidation and photodegradation or thermal degradation. TLC or HPTLC could be used for testing the stability of bulk drugs and their formulations. These techniques could effectively separate the drug from its degradation products. Piperine is susceptible to acid, base hydrolysis, oxidation and photo-oxidation. Singh et al.39, reported a HPTLC method, which could effectively separate the drug from its degradation products. Capsaicin degrades easily due to elevated temperatures along with other condition like pH or oxidation conditions. HPTLC methods reported by Subramanian et al.40, could be used for identification and quantitative analysis of capsaicin in the bulk drug.

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High Performance Liquid chromatography (HPLC) and hyphenated techniques HPLC is a popular method for the analysis of herbal medicines because it is easy to use, not limited by the volatility or stability of the sample compound and is highly accurate for the qualitative and quantitative analyses of herbal medicines8. Traditionally, the basic techniques of chromatography such as TLC and HPTLC could identify one or two marker compounds but they cannot provide a complete profile of the drug, which is necessary for the quality control of herbal medicines. In general, HPLC is considered as a universal chromatographic techniques which can analyse almost all the compounds in the herbal medicines. This is possible due to availability of both normal as well as reverse phase columns and a range of detectors with HPLC system.

Reversed-phase (RP) columns are the most popular columns used in the analytical separation of herbal medicines. One of the main advantages of HPLC is that, it could be coupled to a number of detectors such as Ultra Violet(UV), Diode Array Detector(DAD), Fluorescence Detector(FLD), Refractive Index(RID) and Evaporative Light Scattering Detector(ELSD) which supports HPLC, in its universal detection approach. In last few years many advance level detectors such as Coulometric Electrode Array Detector (HPLC-CEAD), Charged Aerosol Detection (CAD) have been introduced for the analyses of complex samples without or with weak UV absorption.Bai et al.,41 used CAD for monitoring the quality of Panax notogingseng by estmating its saponin content.

Apart from the advancements in detectors, many improvements have been done in the overall instrumentation of HPLC. Some of the advanced HPLC systems are Micellar Electrokinetic Capillary Chromatography (MECC)42, Low Pressure Size Exclusion Chromatography (SEC) 43, Strong Anion Exchange HPLC (SAX-HPLC)44 and UltraPerformance Liquid Chromatography(UPLC) .Capillary HPLC and UPLC have increased the analysis efficiency by reducing the analysis time and giving better separation45.The optimal separation condition for the HPLC depends on many factors, such as the different compositions of the mobile phases, their pH adjustment, pump pressures, selection of detector etc. Thus, a good experimental design for the optimal separation of complex mixtures such as herbal preparations is very important.

Review of literature of over last decade reveals that HPLC and hyphenated techniques are the most widely used techniques for the quality control of medicinal plants. Different HPLC methods have been developed for quality control evaluation process of herbal medicines. As we moved from year 2000 onwards, the level of methods varied from simple qualitative comparison of HPLC chromatograms with the available standards of marker compounds to the complex quantitative generation and interpretation of data obtained by advanced hyphenated HPLC methods. Combining a chromatographic separation system with a spectroscopic system on-line or with a spectroscopic detector in order to obtain structural information on the analytes present in a sample has become the most important approach for the identification and/or confirmation of the identity of target and unknown chemical

compounds. These techniques not only gives a better fingerprint picture but smartly spells out each and every components in either the raw materials or in the most complex formulations of medicinal plants. Chromatogram and spectrum generated by these methods could provide efficient separation of metabolites and valuable structure information .Various hyphenated procedures have been reported, such as HPLC-MS, HPLC-DAD-MS and HPLC-NMR. HPLC fingerprinting could be used for the identification of raw plant material by simply comparing the HPLC-UV chromatogram of sample to the standard.51,53 The identification of crude herbs on these basis is very crucial for the authentication , quality , safety and efficacy of the raw material17 so that they could be used further in different formulations of complex herbal preparations . A simple quality assesment method based on comparison between standard and sample HPLC for raw plant powder of Chironia baccifera was reported by Springfield et al.,50 for testing the co-identity of samples obtained from different species. Most of the medicinal plants are not used in their raw forms but they are used as one of the ingradient of complex herbal formulations. In such preparations the composition of the product is very complex and hence neither simple HPLC chromatogram could be obtained, nor the manual data analysis is feasible.

Manual evaluation and analysis of chromatographic fingerprints leads to many problems such as calculation of information content, peak alignment, pattern analysis , resolving two overlapping peaks etc.

Also, when comparison of large numbers of chromatograms has to be done for finding the similarity and differences between the drugs, advance statistical or chemometric methods are required for the quality control of herbal medicines. The chromatogram of such formulations are now used as a ‘fingerprint‘, which could be analysed with the help of various statistical data analysis methods (chemometric approaches) such as variance analysis, peak alignment, correlation analysis, and pattern recognition .

Various chemometric methods have been used by different research groups working with Traditional Chinese Medicines(TCMs) .The most frequently used methods are similarity evaluation method ( Software version 2004A), hierarchical cluster analysis(HCA)and principal component analysis(PCA) methods. Yi Cheng et al.,52 has used HPLC fingerprint in combination to chemometric methods; Similarity evaluation and HCA to discriminate between the Ganoderma lucidium raw herbs obtained from different origins. Jiang et al.53 gave the HPLC- DAD fingerprinting method to distinguish between two species of Notopterygium; Notopterygium forbessi(NF) and Notopterygium incisum (NI),which is the most popular Tibetan folk herbal medicine.

Both of these medicinal plants are included in Chinese Pharmacopoeia under the same name Qianghuo in Chinese.

Distinguishing between both these species was very important, as the market price of NI was higher than the NF. Also, it was reported that the concentration of major characteristic components is greatly influenced by the harvesting time, collection time and different locations. Hence, it is seen that HPLC finger printing is not just used for knowing about

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individual components, but it is a rapid and efficient method for assessing quality of different geographical raw materials.

Jinhui et al.55 could utilized HPLC-PDA fingerprinting for the geographical traceability of raw Propolish dried powder.

All these environmental and location factors should be taken in to consideration at the time of harvesting and collection of desired medicinal plant to get authentic drug of desired quality. Even though all the environmental factors affecting the quality of the medicinal plants at the time of harvesting and collection time are taken in to consideration, then also there are various other factors which affect the end composition of the finished products like drying and extraction methods used to process the herbal materials and the type of solvent used for the extraction49. With the involvement of so many variables, even fingerprints selected on the basis of active components may also not able to give efficient quality control method, so advancements are reported in terms of switching over to metabolite fingerprinting, in which the analysis of the complete set of metabolite present in a biological sample is done, irrespective of their theraupetic or biological activity and interperated by the use of chemometrics. In this approach huge data is generated so there is a need of preprocessing of chromatographic data to correct instrumental variation and concentration differences before multivariate data analysis.49 The comprehensive approach of metabolic HPLC fingerprinting could also be used to detect any possibility of intentional spiking of main chemical markers into the product. Zou et al.55, has developed a HPLCDAD finger print method for the quality evaluation of Isatis indigotica Fort roots by identifying them from its main substitute Baphicacanthus cusia . The method could be used for identification of possible spiking with synthetic compounds and prevent counterfeits. This fingerprinting method was also used for detecting frauds in final formulations of herbal preparations prepared as combinations of different extracts or herbs. Xiao-Hui et al.56, reported a multiple (binary) chromatographic fingerprinting method for the quality control of complex herbal medicine Danshen Dropping Pill (DSDP). The most important application of HPLC hyphenated system is in the determination of any traces of toxic substances present in the drug along with desired active biomarkers and also intentional adulteration of these toxic substances into the herbal medicines. The method given

by Yongnian et al.57, for the quality control of toxic molecular components present in useful TCM Atractylodes chinensis DC, used HPLC-DAD fingerprinting and ICP-AES along with PCA, K-nearest neighbors (KNNs) method and Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) as data analysis methods.

In fact, due to this trace level detection ability of HPLC hyphenated techniques they may be used in related fields like forensic toxicology.

Gas Liquid techniques

chromatography

and

hyphenated

Though it is mentioned in earlier section that HPLC has universal approach and being used extensively for the purpose of quality control of herbal medicines, however, gas chromatography is usually preferred for fingerprint development when pharmacologically active components in

herbal medicines are volatile chemical compounds. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are organic chemicals that have high enough vapour pressures under normal conditions to significantly vapourize and enter the earth’s atmosphere.

Alternatively, Health Canada classifies VOCs as organic compounds that have boiling points roughly in the range of 50 to 250ºC .The advantage of Gas Liquid chromatography over other chromatographic techniques is its high sensitivity of detection for almost all the volatile chemical compounds.

Furthermore, the high selectivity of capillary columns enables separation of many volatile compounds simultaneously within comparatively short times. Hyphenated techniques like GCMS and GC-IR have been a very powerful tool for the qualitative analysis of complex constitutents of herbal medicines and quality control of herbal medicines. However, the most serious disadvantage of GC is that it is not convenient for the analysis of thermolabile compounds. This disadvantage can be overcome up to some extent by chemical derivatization. For example saponins are not easily volatilised as they are polar in nature and quite large molecules. So, they have to be derivatized to acetyl, methyl, or trimethylsilyl ethers. As, in the case of GC analysis of sapogenins the first step is hydrolysis of intact saponins to their aglycones59. But derivatization usually increases the time, processing, and variance of analysis60. As such the utilization of GLC is also for the development of chromatographic fingerprints, so most of its applications match to other chromatographic techniques.

But, if it could be found that the compound/s of interest is/are volatile or it could be derivatized, then gas chromatography is always preferred over other techniques due to its high sensitivity and efficiency.

The majority of papers reported on utilization of GLC fingerprinting for quality control of medicinal plants are either based on identifying one of the secondary metabolites like terpenes, phenolics and nitrogen containing compounds as they give the special characteristic to the plants or identification and quantification of lipids(fixed oil, Fats, waxes and volatile oils).Lipids play a vital role in human nutrition and have a huge economic value61.The medicinal action of many crude drugs is due to the prsence of essential oils. Many of the traditional medicines are fragrance oil(s), also known as aroma oils, aromatic oils, and flavor oils, are blended synthetic aroma compounds or natural essential oils that are diluted with a carrier like propylene glycol, vegetable oil, or mineral oil. Aromatic oils are used in perfumery, cosmetics, flavoring of food, and in aromatherapy. Plant-derived essential oils as a component of perfume are always preferred over synthetic fragrance oils.

Hence, the identification of volatile components are of great importance for the understanding of flavour or fragrance quality.A large number of GLC methods have been developed to asses the quality of these medicinally or economically useful oils and flavours. Javidnia et al.62 developed a GLCMS method to identify the essential oil of several species of Nepta genus which includes aromatic and medicinal plants , out of which many of them are used in folk medicines. In another study a GC-MS fingerprinting technique, based on essential oil component was developed to discriminate

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Lingusticum chuanxiong against Chinese Angelica or other herbs with similar composition.

Quality of many medicinally useful seed oils could be tested by determining their fatty acid composition. Any variation in the fatty acid composition is a clear indication of change in its total saturation, unsaturation and collective content which are the important parameters that accertain the use of different oil for Clinical or other industrial use. A GLC-FID method was developed by estimating fatty acid composition of seeds from Butea monosperma, Jatropha glandulifera and Portulaca oleracea for the quality contol pupose as seeds of other allied species of the genera were mixed and sold in market64.In another study Kaushik et al.65 utilized this variation in fatty acids content of neem oil determined by GLC-FID for the selection of high yield neem trees, which could be further utilized for the genetic improvement of the trees. The stability and suitability of particular oil for human consumption can also be tested by estimating their fatty acid composition.

Within recent years the technique has been advanced in many respects. Many new sample extraction methods have been reported8 such as Solid-phase microextraction (SPME), head space single drop microextraction(HSDME), headspace solidphase microextraction(HS-SPME), and microextraction coupled with pressurized hot water extraction(PHWE) or microwave assisted extraction (MAE). The effective extraction technique is that which preserve volatile components without the loss of volatile species under high operating temperatures. Baijuan et al.63 developed a GC-MS fingerprinting technique based on the essential oil components to discriminate chuanxiong ( Lingusticum chuanxiong) against Chinese Angelica (Angelica sinesis ). Before developing the actual fingerprints, different extraction methods like hydrodistillation extraction (HDE), supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), soxhlet extraction (SHE), and ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) were evaluated for finding the most efficient extraction method and UAE was found to be most effective one. In another study three different extraction methods simultaneous distillation extraction (SDE), liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) and solid-phase microextraction were evaluated for the extraction of tobacco flavour. Some time these extraction techniques makes the whole analysis more time consuming, complex and tedious so, new sample injection methods like Purge and Trap and Pyrolysis GC have been used to evaluate quality of herbal medicines. In these techniques whole compounds, including high molecular weight metabolites can be analysed in one consecutive step directly from raw solid sample. Sukanda et al.66 utilized the Pyrolytic GC-MS for the development of metabolite fingerprints to evaluate quality of commercial Angelica acutiloba roots. Purge and trap method permits the analysis of a wider range of both volatile and semi volatile organic compounds. This technique was utilized to trace the geographical and botanical origin of Canadian honey67.

Volatile organic compounds were purged from commercial samples of honey from various floral sources and trapped on an adsorbent resin and then subsequently analyzed by thermal desorption GC/MS.

More recently, comprehensive two dimensional (2D) chromatography, such as GCxGC is rapidly gaining importance for the analysis of complex medicines8. In this technique two columns with different separation mechanisms are coupled via a modulator. As the sensitivity and resolution is enhanced many folds this techniques is utilized for the detection of micro-constitents or contaminants present in volatile form.Hans-Gerd et al.61 reviewed the role of comprehensive GC in the characterization of ediable oils and fats.

Conclusions As the popularity of herbal products is increasing, there is a sharp rise in the cases of adulteration and toxicity caused by these products therefore, evaluation and ensurance of their quality is of prime importance. Hence, it is necessary to adopt certain reliable approaches for their quality evaluation, which could also meet international expectations. The conventional Macroscopic and microscopic methods of quality control for identification and authentication of medicinal plants are not just sufficient, as they are unable to ensure efficacy and analyze complex nature of herbal preparations.. This could be achieved by analysing the medicinal drugs either by molecular biological fingerprinting methods such as AFLP, RAPD, ISSR or by chemical analysis.The first approach has the limitation that the available molecular biological methods could not be used for plant extracts or formulation. Hence the chemical characterization is the most suitable method for the identification and quality control of medicinal plants and their drugs.

Among the existing analytical methods, chromatographic methods like TLC and HPTLC are the most commonly used methods at the identification level. During the last decade, HPLC-UV and HPLC-DAD almost became an essential technique for the confirmation and authentication of herbal drugs.Another important addition has been the development of hyphenated techniques including HPLC: LC/MS and LC/NMR. These techniques have the advantages of separation as well as structural elucidation and confirmation for the active components of the drug. Advancements are also reported in the development of fingerprints, by shifting from one or two marker compound fingerprinting to more comprehensive metabolic fingerprinting methods.

Spectroscopic fingerprinting methods like NMR and mass fingerprinting are at their development stage and have the advantage of least or no sample preparation. But, for most of the existing quality labs and research institutes the installation and running cost of these instruments is difficult to afford.

Traditionally, the chemical profiles were analyzed by the simple descriptive statistical techniques like variance and correlation coefficient calculations. However, with the use of hyphenated techniques and spectroscopic techniques like MS and NMR which generate huge complex data, manual evaluation is not possible and analysis of chromatographic fingerprints becomes very complicated. So, many chemometric tools like Similarity evaluation method ( Software version 2004A), Hierarchical cluster analysis(HCA), Principal Component Analysis(PCA) and K- nearest neighbors (KNN) methods have been used most frequently as they show powerful ability to find the information with the help of

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mathematics, statistics and computer sciences. Hence, it could be concluded that combination of different chromatographic fingerprinting methods with chemometric data analysis has been the most powerful method for the quality control of medicinal plants and their related drugs.

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Characterization and Analysis Techniques of Nanoparticles: A Module Dr. Smriti Sharma Bhatia, Dr. Saloni Bahri, and Dr. Sushma Moitra, Miranda House, University of Delhi, Delhi-110007, India 1. Small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) 2. Small-angle neutron scattering (SANS), 3. Surface-specific analogues of SAXS and SANS i.e.

GISAXS and GISANS, where GI is grazing incidence, 4. X-ray or neutron reflectometry (XR/NR).

Abstract: The module developed by authors takes into account the introduction of students to various techniques required to comprehensively analyze and characterize nanoparticles. This was implemented for ten students pursuing science at undergraduate level of University of Delhi.

This module encompassed students with background from Chemical Sciences, Plant Sciences and Life Sciences coming together and working synergistically in a highly congenial environment. Students were introduced to techniques such as UV Spectrophotometry, Fluorescence, Scanning and Transmission Electron Microscopy. Besides, the students also learnt the preparation of nanoparticle suspensions and samples to be used in these characterization techniques.

KeywordsFluorescence, Microscopy

1.

The advantage of indirect techniques is that they are able to simultaneously sample and average very large numbers of nanoparticles and often do not require any particular sample preparation. Indirect techniques have many applications. For example, in studies of nanoparticles in raw sewage, scientists used SANS measurements, in which neutrons readily penetrated the turbid sewage and scattered strongly from the nanoparticles, to follow the aggregation behavior of the particles over time.

Nanoparticles, UV Spectrophotometry, Scanning and Transmission Electron

Table 1: Some of the important techniques to measure particals size.[2]

INTRODUCTION

Acoustic Attenuation Spectroscopy Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV)

All of us are aware of the growing importance of nanotechnology and its tremendous impact on society, industry and science. Gradually we are seeing integration of nanotechnology research with education.

Individual nanoparticles cannot be detected by the human eye as they are at least four to seven times smaller than the wavelength of time.

Also, they are observable under optical microscope only in liquid samples under certain conditions. Thus, in general, specialized techniques are required to see them, and none of these approaches is currently field-deployable.

Cascade Impaction Light Microscopy or Optical Imaging Differential Mobility Analysis (DMA) Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) Electroacoustic Spectroscopy Sieving

Techniques to detect and characterize Nanoparticles fall into two categories: direct, or “real space,” and indirect, or “reciprocal space.”

Gas Absorption Surface Area Analysis (e.g. BET) Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) Photon Correlation Spectroscopy (PCS)

Direct characterization techniques are quite helpful for determination of certain properties and give basic knowledge about the particle. These techniques can image nanoparticles, directly measure sizes, and infer shape information. Direct techniques include: 1. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), 2. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), 3. Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM).

The only problem is they can study only a few particles at a time. Also, complex preparation steps are required for sample preparation for electron microscopy. Therefore, some scientists resort to indirect techniques.

Indirect techniques use X-rays or neutron beams and obtain their information by mathematically analyzing the radiation scattered or diffracted by the nanoparticles.

Aerosol Mass Spectroscopy (Aerosol MS) Laser Light Diffraction or Static Light Scattering Condensation Nucleus Counter (CNC) Microelectrophoresis Electrical Zone Sensing (Coulter Counting) Sedimentation (Gravitational & Centrifugal) Electrokinetic Sonic Amplitude Tapered Element Oscillating Microbalance (TEOM) Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) or X-ray Diffraction (XRD)

Quasi-elastic Light Scattering (QELS)

The isolation of nanoparticles from colloidal and larger matter involves specialized techniques, such as ultra centrifugation and field-flow fractionation. These laboratorybased techniques are normally coupled to standard spectroscopic instrumentation to enable particular types of chemical characterization[1].Table 1 below lists some of the important techniques to measure particle size. All of these were theoretically discussed and some of these were explained and hands-on-experience was given to students for preparation of sample and characterization for scanning Electron

Page 59

Microscopy, Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) or X-ray Diffraction (XRD). A comparison of various NPs characterization techniques is given in Table2.

Material and Methods Since it was a pilot study, we proceeded with a mixed bag of students from chemical and life sciences. We decided to incorporate the training of students in these techniques to give them a thorough understanding of the various tools and techniques available at the disposal of a Nanobiochemist. The problem selected was the computational analysis of phytoregulatory profile of nanoparticles[3,4].





In TEM, pictures are shown on fluorescent screens whereas in SEM, picture is shown on monitor.

SEM also provides a 3-dimensional image while TEM provides a 2-dimensional picture.

Results and Discussion How to choose an appropriate technique is a major question.

Obviously, there is not one single technique one particular situation. One has to take into account the particles being analyzed, the ultimate application of the particles, and the limitations of techniques being considered. For our studies we have focused primarily on TEM, SEM and XRD.So, accordingly students were also trained for the same [5,6].

Some of the challenges as came out from the study are 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Cleaning or modification processes.

To verify that the composition is that which is expected.

To confirm that specific reaction have taken place or not.

Small differences in similar particles may have significant impacts on particle properties.

Slight differences in synthesis, processing or storage processes can produce nanoparticles with very differing properties.

Nanoparticles can aggregate or they may shrink or grow as time progresses.

The behaviors and properties of Nanoparticles frequently change when the environment changes.

Some of the differences between TEM and SEM listed by students after attending the introduction are:  

   

SEM is based on scattered electrons while TEM is based on transmitted electrons.

SEM focuses on the sample’s surface and its composition whereas TEM provides the details about internal composition. Therefore TEM can show many characteristics of the sample, such as morphology, crystallization, stress or even magnetic domains. On the other hand, SEM shows only the morphology of samples.

The sample in TEM has to be cut thinner whereas there is no such need with SEM sample.

TEM has much higher resolution than SEM. SEM allows for large amount of sample to be analyzed at a time whereas with TEM only small amount of sample can be analyzed at a time.

SEM is used for surfaces, powders, polished & etched microstructures, IC chips, chemical segregation whereas TEM is used for imaging of dislocations, tiny precipitates, grain boundaries and other defect structures in solids Page 60

Table 2: Comparison Techniques[2].

of

various

NPs

Characterization

We believe that it has helped students build skills useful for research in nanotechnology. The understanding of various analysis tools in nanotechnology increased the capability of students in the said field. More such training modules should be included to give the student’s perspective on cutting edge research in nanotechnology.

Acknowledgment We thank University of Delhi for their financial support under the Innovation Scheme MH-102. We also acknowledge the help of our students Amrita Raj, T. Chongloy, Priya Pathak, Tripti Sharma, Garima Pandey, Richa Pant, Roopam, Neelakshi, Jyoti and Shamashree. We also thank Dr. Rakesh Kumar Sharma from Department of Chemistry, University of Delhi for his guidance.

References 1.

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1109065/n anoparticle/288109/Detection characterization-andisolation.

2. www.nanoparticles.org/pdf/Scalf-West.pdf 3. S. Bahri, S. S. Bhatia, A. Sehgal, S. Moitra and N. Mann “Phytoregulatory profile of ZnO nanoparticles”. In: Proceedings of International Conference on Nanotechnology: Fundamentals and Applications. Toronto, Ontario, Canada, August 12-14, 2013.

4. A. Sehgal, S. Moitra, S. Bahri, S. S. Bhatia and N. Mann “ Effect of ZnO Nanoparticles on the seed germination and seedling biology of Polypleurum stylosum

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(Podostemaceae)”. In: Proceedings of International Conference on Nanotechnology: Fundamentals and Applications. Toronto, Ontario, Canada, August 12-14, 2013.

5. http://www.sasj.jp/JSA/CONTENTS/vol.17 _3/Vol.17%20No.3/02_Baer_r.pdf K. E. Drexler “ Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology”.

Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-19973-2, 1986.

SYNTHESIS, CHARACTERIZATION AND APPLICATION OF POLYSACCHARIDE BASED RESIN FOR YAMUNA WATER TREATMENT Sunita Hooda,* M. B. Raigar, Atul Kumar# and Sonu Kumar Department of Chemistry, Acharya Narendra Dev College (University of Delhi), GovindPuri, Kalkaji, New Delhi – 110019 Abstract—

The polysaccharide based cellulose Sulphanilic acid (CSA) resin was synthesized and characterized by FTIR, elemental and thermo gravimetric analysis. The synthesized CSA resin was found to be efficient to remove the heavy metal ions present in Yamuna water around Delhi region. The different parameters have been taken in to consideration which affects the adsorption of heavy metal ions on the synthesized resin. The physical property of CSA resin was also studied. The total ion exchange capacity of synthesized CSA resin was measured and the order of distribution coefficient values was determined. The object of the research is to treat the Yamuna water with CSA resin to remove the heavy metal ions and reduce the water pollution to a longer extent.

Keywords: Ion exchange capacity; Distribution coefficient; Yamuna water; Water pollution; Cellulose - Sulphanilic acid (CSA) resin.

1. INTRODUCTION Ion exchange method during the last decade has become increasingly important in various analyses in inorganic and organic chemistry. Now days, attention has been paid for the removal of heavy metals from industrial effluents and wastewater. The problem of water pollution is increasing with developing technology. Heavy metal pollution is one of the main problems. Heavy metal ions not only reach the surface water but also contaminate underground water in trace amounts by leaching from soil after rain. Heavy metals such as, ferrous, copper, zinc, lead, etc. are detected in waste streams from mining operations, tanneries, electroplating, battery and steel industries. It has a harmful effect on human physiology and other biological systems when they exceed the tolerance levels. These are non biodegradable and accumulate in living organisms causing various types of disorders.

Therefore, their presence in water should be controlled. The removal of heavy metal ions from wastewater can be achieved by several processes, such as precipitation [1] solvent extraction [2, 3] chemical and electrochemical technique [4] and advanced oxidation process [5, 6].

Most of these processes may be ineffective, extremely expensive, or generate secondary pollution. In recent years, the adsorption of metal ion by ion exchange method [7-14] has received much attention and becomes one of the most popular

method for the removal of heavy metals from the wastewater because of its competitive and effective process for the above purpose. An effective adsorbing material should consist of a stable and insoluble matrix and recent developed polysaccharide materials have been demonstrated to be such kind of material [15].

Many studies have shown the functionalization of a polysaccharide matrix with different chelating functionalities for metal ions removal [16-24]. In addition, CSA resin is also inexpensive and easy to regenerate. The adsorption of metal ions using chelating ion exchange resins is a green analytical method since it does not involve the use of toxic chlorinated organic solvents, which are very frequently used in conventional liquid-liquid extraction technique or other methods [25]. The main objective of the most of the research works on chelating resins is preparation of insoluble functionalized polymers which can provide more flexible working conditions together with good stability and high capacity for certain metal ions. The interest in this type of chelating resins are due to the rapid adsorption of metal ions, higher selectivity and less swelling, in comparison with the analogous organic polymers [26]. Cellulose is a natural polymer, a long chain made by the linking of smaller molecules. The links in the cellulose chain are a type of sugar: ß-D-glucose. The sugar units are linked when water is eliminated by combining the -OH group of one unit and H of other sugar unit. Linking just two of these sugars produces a disaccharide called cellobiose.

Cellulose is a polysaccharide produced by linking additional sugars in exactly the same way. The length of the chain varies greatly, from a few hundred sugar units in wood pulp to over 6000 for cotton. Cellulose is a major component of wood. Cellulose fibers in wood are bound in lignin, a complex polymer.

Cellulose for industrial use is mainly obtained from wood pulp and cotton. The structure of cellulose is given in Fig. 1.

The present work was undertaken to synthesize and characterize new cellulose-Sulphanilic acid [CSA] resin, which selectively remove heavy metal ions from Yamuna water in the form of batch and column processes. The effects of various adsorption conditions, such as pH, treatment time, agitation speed, temperature, flow rate and adsorbent dose were also investigated.

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2.3. Physical property of CSA resin.

The physico -chemical properties like percentage moisture content, percentage solid, true density, apparent density, void volume fraction, swelling studies and volume capacity were studied according to standard methods [27, 28]. These resultsare shown in Table 2.

Table 2: Physical property of CSA resin Fig. 1. Structure of Cellulose polysaccharide.

2. Materials and Method 2.1 Sample The characteristic features of Yamuna water samples collected from different areas of Delhi are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1:The characteristics features of Untreated Yamuna water Appearance: Turbid

pH: 4.4

Total hardness: 965

Metal ions Fe (II) Cu (II) Zn (II) Pb (II) Cd (II) Cr (II) Ni (II) Co (II) Mg (II) Ca (II)

Property % moisture % Solid True density,( g/cm3) Apparent density,( g/cm3)

Value (SD) 10.8  0.5 9.2 0.5 1.18 0.02 0.6216  0.0053

Void volume fraction Volume capacity, mmol/cm3

0.3442  0.1114 2.67 0.05

2.4. Resin durability The resin durability of the metal ions on the resin was subjected to several loading and elution operations. It was observed that the absorbency of different metal ion on the CSA resin after 10 cycles for all the five metal ions varied by less than 2%. The adsorbed metal ions were easily desorbed by treatment of different strength of acids, at room temperature. These results are shown in Table 3.

Concentration (In ppm) 1.15 2.02 3.25 0.82 0.18 0.72 0.14 0.68 19.20 80.00

Table 3: The adsorption percentage of different metal ions onto CSA resin (adsorption and desorption) Metal Ions

adsorption % of different metal ions onto CSA resin after 10 cycles 0 cycle

2 cycles

4 cycle

8cycles

10cycles

Fe (II)

97.89

95.87

91.83

91.83

91.83

2.2 Synthesis of Cellulose Sulphanilic acid [CSA] resin

Cu (II)

95.67

91.76

88.16

88.16

88.16

The synthesis of cellulose Sulphanilic acid [CSA] resin was accomplished in the following two steps [A] and [B].

Zn (II) Cd (II)

93.81 90.96

89.63 87.45

86.92 83.41

86.92 83.41

86.92 83.41

[A] Preparation of epoxypropyl ether of Cellulose

Pb (II)

87.96

85.94

80.76

80.76

80.76

Other anions (ppm): Fluoride = 0.27; Sulphate = 0.12; Cyanide = 0.04

18.2 g (0.2 mol) of cellulose powder was taken in round bottom flask and slurred in dioxane. 50 % of aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide was added in the flask to make it alkaline, till pH reached to 9.5. The solution was stirred for one hour. 9.25 g (0.1 mol) epichlorohydrin was added drop wise and stirring was continued for 5 h at 600C. The product epoxy propyl ether of cellulose was formed and it was used as such for further reaction.

[B] Preparation of Cellulose Sulphanilic acid resin Epoxy propyl ether of Cellulose was allowed to react with 17.3 g (0.1 mol) of Sulphanilic acid in the alkaline medium and the stirring was continued for another 4 h at 60°C. The product was filtered under vacuum and washed with 90 % methanol, containing few drops of hydrochloric acid to remove inorganic impurities. Finally it was washed with pure methanol. The product cellulose Sulphanilic acid resin was free flowing light yellow powder. The yield was 20.83 g.

2.5. Determination of ion exchange capacity Resin capacity is usually expressed in terms of equivalents per liter (eq/L) of resin or mill equivalents per dry gram of resin.

The ion exchange capacity, which is generally taken as a measure of the hydrogen ion liberated by neutral salt to flow through the composite cation exchanger was determined by standard column process. 0.1 g (dry mass) of the composite ion exchange material in H+ form was placed in a glass column with a glass wool support at the bottom. It was washed with demineralized water to remove any excess of acid remained on the particles. The hydrogen ions eluted with 0.1M solution of different alkali and alkaline earth salts. The flow rate was kept 4 ml min−1. The collected effluent was titrated against a standard solution of sodium hydroxide using phenolphthalein as an indicator. The hydrogen ions released were then calculated.

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2.6. Determination of removal percentage of metal ions The percent removal of metal ions by CSA resin was calculated using this formula. %R = [(I - F / I) x 100]

variable peak at 1600-1500 cm-1 is attributed to C-H bending.

The IR spectra of CSA resin is shown in Fig.3.

Where R is removal, I and F are initial and final equilibrium concentrations of metal ion in solution respectively, which was determined by AAS. 2.7. Determination of distribution coefficient (Kd) of metal Ions Distribution coefficient (Kd) is defined as the ratio of the concentration of a given metal ion in the exchanger to the concentration of that metal ion in the solution at equilibrium.

The distribution coefficient (Kd) of metal ions was determined by batch method. The pH of the solution was adjusted with HC1 and NaOH and maintained by a suitable buffer at desired values: KC1-HC1 buffer for pH 2, acetate buffer for pH 3 to 5, phosphate buffer for pH 6 to 8. A sample solution (100 ml) containing a known concentration of the studied metal ions were transferred to a Erlenmeyer flask and after adjusting its pH values, 0.1g of the modified CSA resin was added to the solution and the mixture was shaken continuously in a temperature controlled shaker at 25 ± 2OC for 4 h. The amounts of metal ions in the solution before and after equilibration were determined by using ASS. The distribution coefficient (Kd) of metal ions was calculated by the following equation i.e.

Kd

=

[(I – F / F) X V/ M]

ml g-1

Where I is the initial amount of the metal ion in solution, F is the final amount of metal ion after equilibrium with resin, V is the volume of metal ion solution (ml) and M is the weight of the resin taken (g).

2.8. Column operation:

Fig. 2. Reaction scheme for synthesis of Cellulose sulphanilic acid (CSA) resin.

100.0

% TRANSMITTANCE

The column operation used for analyzed the recovery of metal ion. In the column experiment, a glass tube with 1.6 cm internal diameter and 20 cm height, packed with 9 cm of resin (8.5g) was used. 50 ml of the metal ion solution were passed through the column at a flow rate of 4 ml per minute. The flow rate was controlled by a peristaltic pump. The column followed by treating with distilled water to remove the last traces of undesirable ions.

3. Results and discussion 3.1. IR characterization

0.00

IR spectra of CSA resin was obtained by KBr method. The spectra of polysaccharide are generally observed in the region 3600 -3100 cm-1 due to an - OH stretching frequency. The peak at 3050 cm-1 is attributed is to C-H stretching vibration.

A strong peak in the region 3000-2500 cm-1 denotes O-H stretching in –COOH group. The peak at 1725-1700 cm-1 characteristic C=O stretching vibrations in acidic group. A strong peak in the region 1250 - 1070 cm-1 denotes C-O stretching vibrations. The peak at 2950 cm-1 is attributed is to C-H stretching vibration. The TSA resin shows the asymmetric and symmetric S=O stretching frequency in the region 1350 -1342 cm-1 and 1165 – 1150 cm-1. Another

4000

3500

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

WAVE NUMBERS (CM-1)

Fig. 3. FTIR spectra of Cellulose sulphanilic acid (CSA) resin 3.2. Thermo gravimetric analysis The polymer sample was powdered to the same average mesh size and dried carefully in vacuum desiccators. The boat was packed uniformly for analysis. For the dynamic measurement, the system was heated at a constant heating rate of 200C per minute under static air atmosphere till the complete decomposition. The CSA resin is found to be stable up to 2550C and then the degradation was found to be rapid. The obtained TGA curve of CSA resin is shown in Fig. 4.

Page 64

500

100

3.8. Statistical analysis The relative standard deviation values (RSD) of optimum removal percentage of metal ions are shown in Table 6. All data represent the mean of three independent experiments. The results revealed that the relative standard deviation (R.S.D) of the method was lower than 3.0%, which indicated that the method had good precision for the analysis of trace metal ions in solution samples.

Weight (%)

80

60

40

Table 6: Optimum results for the removal of metal ions from the Yamuna water.

20

Metal ions 0

200

400

600

800

Temperature (C)

Pb (II) Cd (II) Zn (II) Cu (II) Fe (II)

Fig. 4. TGA curve of CSA resin.

3.3. Swelling studies The equilibrium water content (EWC) of resin is 8.7 %.

Metal ions Pb(II) Cd(II) Zn(II) Cu(II) Fe(II)

The results of percentage removal of metal ions from Yamuna water by CSA resin are given in Table 4. It is clear from the reported Table that the percentage removal of metal ions first increases and then deceases with increasing pH, the optimum results obtained at pH 6.0.

3.5. Chelating complexes formation by CSA resin CSA resin contains Sulphanilic acid functional group, which possesses not only protons that can exchange with cations, but also oxygen atoms that can coordinate directly with metal ions. Therefore, the adsorption ability of CSA resin for enriching metal ion may be very strong. The bonds formed in this kind of metal sorption have both covalent and ionic characteristics.

3.6. Distribution coefficient (Kd) of metal ions.

The pH has a strong effect on the distribution coefficient (Kd) of metal ions. The results of distribution coefficient (Kd) of metal ions from Yamuna water samples are given in Table 5.

The perusal of the results shown that the distribution coefficient value first increases and then decreases with increasing pH, the optimum results were obtained at pH 6.0.

Metal sorption starts when the pH rises to the range where most acidic ion exchange sites start to exchange hydronium ion for metal and the capacity reaches the maximum value in the pH range where all the ion exchange sites take part in the reaction and the functional group is able to form complex with the metal cations [29]. The decrease in Kd values after the maximum in the neutral and alkaline region can be explained by the complex formation with different ligands.

Pb(II)

Cd (II)

Zn (II)

Cu (II)

Fe (II)

2.0 3.0

8.88 10.59

15.14 21.80

18.93 25.68

21.36 29.74

25.93 34.81

4.0

15.97

28.17

35.76

42.85

55.22

5.0

24.81

41.66

47.82

63.99

85.59

6.0

70.35 10.97 6.74

100.51 23.71 930.77

151.53 28.28 10.86

220.85 33.17 13.11

463.25 46.87 15.68

7.0 8.0

Amount loaded on CSA Resin 0.15 0.74 3.04 1.93 1.12

% Removal

RSD%

87.56 90.93 93.81 95.67 97.89

1.19 1.88 2.77 2.82 2.98

Table 7: Quantitative separation of metal ions on CSA column

3.4. Removal of metal ions from Yamuna Water

pH

Amount of Metal ions in Effluent 0.18 0.82 3.25 2.02 1.15

Amount Loaded 0.15 0.74 3.04 1.93 1.12

Amount found 0.14 0.72 3.01 1.91 1.12

% Recovery 96.79 97.85 99.08 98.99 100.00

Eluent use 0.05 N HCl 0.5 N HCl 1.0 N HCl 1.5 N HCl 2.0 N HCl

Eluent volume 60 50 45 40 30

3.9. Quantitative separation of metal ions The superior selectivity towards multivalent cations exhibited by chelating resin has been demonstrated in column experiments by using Kd values. The values of Kd are shown in Table 7. The considerable difference in distribution coefficient of the divalent cations implies that separation of metal ion from their mixtures would be possible. An ideal situation would be such that one Kd values is greater than the Kd value for other metal ions. The first eluting fractions of hydrochloric acid carry one metal ion which has smaller Kd values. The second metal ion was eluted by changing the hydrochloric acid concentrations. In case of the separation of Lead (II) from other metal ions, chelate lead (II) and other metals were separated by selective adsorption. Pb was eluted with 0.05 N HCl solution of pH 6.0 because at the same condition other metal ions showed highest kd values.

Therefore, first few fraction contained only lead (II) and other metal ions were eluted quantitatively with different strength of HCl solution. The results are summarized in Table 7.

3.10. Effect of pH The pH is an important parameter for adsorption of metal ions from aqueous solution because it affects the solubility of the metal ions, concentration of the counter ions on the functional groups of the adsorbent and the degree of ionization of the adsorbent during reaction. To examine the adsorption % of metal ions with pH, the pH was varied from 2.0 to 8.0 as shown in Fig. 5. The uptake of free metal ions depends on pH, where optical adsorption of metal ions occurs at pH 6 and then declining at higher pH. Adsorption of metal ions on CSA resin increased over pH range from 2.0 to 6.0. At pH greater than 9.0, insoluble metal ions starts precipitating from the solution, making true sorption studies impossible.

Table 5: Distribution coefficient (Kd) of metal ions (Kd X 102) Page 65

100 85

Adsorption %

70 55 40 25 10 1

2

3

4

5

Fe(II)

6 pH Cu (II)

7

8

9

10

Zn (II)

Fig.5. Effect of pH on adsorption of metal ions on CSA resin.

Fig. 7. Effect of changing treatment temperature on the adsorption of metal ions on CSA resin.

3.11. Effect of treatment time

3.13. Effect of agitation speed

The results (Fig. 6) of treatment time indicate that adsorption percentage of metal ions increased with an increase in contact time before equilibrium is reached. It can be seen that adsorption of metal ions on CSA resin increased when contact time was increased from 30 to 240 minutes, hence optimum contact time for CSA resin was found to be 240 min. Other parameters such as pH of solution and agitation speed were kept optimum, while temperature was kept at 25 0C. Greater availability of Sulphanilic functional groups on the surface of cellulose which are required for interaction with metal ions, significantly improved the binding capacity and the process proceeded rapidly. This result is important, as equilibrium time is one of the important parameters for an economical wastewater treatment system.

The effect of agitation speed on adsorption of metal ions was studied by varying the speed of agitation from 0 (without shaking) to 200 rpm, while other parameters keeping optimum. As can be seen from Fig.8, the adsorption of metal ions on ion –exchange resin generally increased with increasing agitation speed. The adsorption of metal ions on CSA resin increased when agitation speed increased from 0 to 120 rpm. These results can be associated to the fact that the increase of the agitation speed, improves the diffusion of metal ions towards the surface of the adsorbents. This also indicates that a shaking rate in the range 100-200 rpm is sufficient to assure that all the surface binding sites are made readily available for metal ions uptake. Then, the effect of external film diffusion on adsorption rate can be assumed not significant. For convenience, agitation speed of 120 rpm was selected as the optimum speed for CSA resin for removal of metal ions from Yamuna water.

Fig. 6. Effect of changing treatment time on the adsorption of metal ions on CSA resin 3.12. Effect of treatment temperature Figure 7 shows the effect of treatment temperature on the adsorption % of the metal ion on CSA resin. The adsorption percentage of metal ion decreases by increasing the treatment temperature from 250C to 750C.

Fig. 8. Effect of agitation speed on adsorption of metal ions on CSA resin.

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3.14. Effect of CSA dose on adsorption of metal ions The adsorption of metal ions is significantly influenced by the amount of the CSA resin added. The amount of CSA resin added into the solution determined the number of binding sites available for the adsorption. The effect of the adsorbent dose on the amount of metal ions removed was studied by the application of varying CSA doses. The maximum adsorption

by CSA resin was achieved with an adsorbent dose of 0.1 g and continued decreasing up to 0.2 g. The initial increase adsorption percentage of metal ions was due to the availability of more adsorption sites. On increasing the CSA resin concentration further, the binding of metal ions steadily decreased. This effect might be attributed to overlapping or aggregation of adsorption sites of resin resulting in a decrease in the total surface area of the adsorbent. The results are shown in Fig. 9.

due to its cost effectiveness, eco-friendliness, and rapidness.

The selectivity and ion-exchange capacity of these materials towards metals ions can be controlled by pH of the medium, contact time, temperature, adsorbent dose, agitation speed, etc.

Therefore the CSA resin is applicable for the removal and recovery of heavy metal ions from Yamuna water.

Acknowledgments The Authors are thankful to Principal, Acharya Narendra Dev College, University of Delhi, New Delhi, for providing the financial support during this investigation under ELITE program.

References 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

Fig. 9. Effect of adsorbent dose on adsorption of metal ions on CSA resin.

10.

3.15. Effect of flow rate In the column experiment, the flow rate of the sample solution was an important parameter not only affecting the recovery of metal ions, but also controlling the time of analysis. Therefore, the effect of flow rate on adsorption of metal ions were investigated under the optimum conditions (pH, eluent, etc.) by passing 100 ml of sample solution through the micro column. The flow rates were adjusted in range of 1.0 – 5.0 ml min−1 controlled by a peristaltic pump. It was found that the optimum flow rate for these metal ions was 3-4 ml min-1 for maximum loading and thereafter for stripping off from the chelating resin. Flow rates slower than 2 ml min-1 were not studied to avoid long analysis times. However, at a flow rate greater than 4 ml min-1, there was a decrease in the percentage of metal ion recover, as the metal ions probably could not equilibrate properly with the resin bed. Thus, a flow rate of 4.0 ml min-1 was selected throughout the column experiment.

11.

Conclusions

18.

The experimental results reported here in validate that CSA resin is a promising adsorbent for removal of heavy metal ions from Yamuna water. The removal of heavy metal ions by CSA resin is now considered one of the most promising techniques

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

19.

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Lee, C. H., Kim, J. S., Such M. & Lee, W. A. (1997). Chelating resin containing 4- (2-Thiazdy resorcinol) as the functional group synthesis and sorption behavior for trace metal ions. Anal. Chim. Acta, v. 339, No.3, pp.303-312.

Singh, A. & Saraf, S. K. (2009). Synthesis, characterization and ionexchanging properties of a novel ion-exchange resin, part II. Int. J. Polym. Mater., v. 2009, No.10, pp.499-508.

Das, D., Das, A. K. & Sinha, C. A (1999). New resin containing benzimidazolylazo group and its use in the separation of heavy metals. Talanta, v. 48, No.5, pp.1013-1022.

Lata, A.G., George, B. K, Kannan K.G. & Ninan, K.N. (2003) .Synthesis of a polyacrylamide chelating resin and application in metal ion extractions. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., v. 43, No.6, pp.11591163.

Nabi, S.A. & Naushad, Mu. (2007). Synthesis, characterization and analytical applications of a new composite cation exchanger cellulose acetate-Zr (IV) molybdophosphate. Colloids Surf. A: Physico. Eng. Aspec., v. 293, No.1-3, pp.175-183.

Crini, G. (2005). Recent developments in polysaccharide – based materials used as adsorbents in waste water treatment. Prog. Poly.

Sci., 30, No.1, pp.38-70.

Santosa, S.J., Siswanta, D., Sudiono S. & Sehol, M. (2007). Synthesis and utilization of chitin–humic acid hybrid as sorbent for Cr (III).

Surf. Sci., v. 601, No.5, pp.5148-5154.

Wan Nagh, W.S., Endud, C. S. & Mayanar, R. (2002). Removal of copper (II) ions from aqueous solution onto chitosan and cross-linked chitosan beads. React. Funct. Polym., v. 50, No.2, pp.181-190.

Crini, F. G., Bertini, S., Filiatre, C. & Torri, G. (2005). Preparation, characterization and sorption properties of crosslinked starch-based exchangers. Carbohy. Polym., 60 , No.1, pp.67-75.

El- Mensnawy, A.M., Salama, A. & El – Asmy, A. A. (2008). New modified cellulose for separation and determination of mercury in environment water sample. Can. J. Anal. Sci. Spectrosc. v. 53, No. 5, pp.206 -213.

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Desalination, v. 143, No.3, pp.141-145.

Kozlowski, C. A., Walkowiak T. W. & Koziol, J. J. (2005). Application of hydrophobic β-cyclodextrin polymer in separation of metal ions by plasticized membranes. Separ. Purifi. Techno., v. 46, No.3, pp.136-144.

Chauhan, K., Chauhan, G. S. & Ahn, J. H. (2009). Studied the synthesis and characterization of novel guar gum hydrogeals and their use as Cu (II) sorbent. Biosour. Techno., v. 100, No.3, pp.3599-3603.

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Synthesis and analytical application of a chelating resin based on a crosslinked styrene/maleic acid copolymer for the extraction of tracemetal ions, J. Appli. Polym. Sci., v. 94, No.4, pp. 1771–1779.

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In - silico study of inhibition of Cysteine protease (papain) Dr. Smriti Sharma Bhatia Gunsheen Kaur D S Kothari Centre, Miranda House, University of Delhi Abstract— This paper presents computational studies that estimate docking protocols to view the binding affinities for the protein, cysteine protease 1pe6.pdb with its inhibitor methanol.

Papain protein is an enzyme, a major component of papaya and is naturally present in the skin, which on interaction with methanol from pharmaceutical or cosmetic products leads to skin deterioration. On performing the docking protocol and assembling it using RMSD values one gets the right MOH configuration, which was found to be 214 MOH. Thus, by obtaining the right configuration computationally, chemists can directly abstract the correct configured MOH, so as to obtain the best suited product which is consumer friendly and industrially viable. These are preliminary studies that indicate a pattern and more sophisticated investigations are required for detailed analysis.

Keywords: Cysteine Protease, Docking, Papain, RMSD

INTRODUCTION Papain, also known as papaya proteinase I, is a cysteine protease enzyme present in papaya (Carica papaya) and mountain papaya(Vasconcellea cundinamarcensis)[1].

Papain is involved in the activities of various proteins like aminopeptidases, endopeptidases, dipeptidyl peptidases and a range of enzymes with both exo- and endo-peptidase activity [2]. Members of the papain family are widespread, found in baculovirus, eubacteria, yeast, and practically all protozoa, plants and mammals.The proteins are typically lysosomal or secreted, and proteolytic cleavage of the propeptide is required for enzyme activation.Papain-like cysteine proteinases are essentially synthesised as inactive proenzymes (zymogens) with N-terminal propeptide regions[3]. This paper presents computational studies that estimate docking protocols to view the binding affinities for the protein, cysteine protease 1pe6.pdb with its inhibitor methanol . Papain protein is an enzyme , a major component of papaya and is naturally present in the skin, which on interaction with methanol from pharmaceutical or cosmetic products leads to skin deterioration.

The in-silico study done here includes use of a computational chemistry open source software Argus lab to carry out the basic docking procedure and using this procedure to analyse the most energetic and the most stable poses while docking takes place. Also it includes the estimation of several docking and storing protocols for estimating binding affinities for a set of ligands/inhibitors, estimation of best performing docking protocol using a consensus score and ensemble the docking to obtain a rich affinity compound studied via RMSD value. Also the aspects of competitive and non-competitive inhibition are highligted as seen in

studied inhibitors , using the set of ligands as obtained using pdb files which include moh,e6c for hydrolase . Thus, the docking procedure for both the proteins are studies and the future prospects of the inhibition are concluded.

METHODOLOGY Docking calculations attempt to place ligands into binding sites.

Before docking, one needs to define the atoms that make up the ligand (drug, inhibitor, etc.) and the binding site on the protein where the drug binds.

The structures used (in both the cases) are from the brookhaven protein databank[4] and already contains a co-crystallized menaquinol and papain; we made copies of the inhibitor and docked it to the protein and compared the docked structure with the x-ray structure also analyzing the energetic poses and thus the future uses.

RMSD distance This was observed to conclude, how close the docked structure is to the x-ray structure.Although the docked structure had a very small RMSD value, it was also observed before docking for verification purposes.

View tool Here the best energetic poses were observed giving us several dimensional poses and final configurations with elapsed time.

Log file All the intricate details about each docking were observed in this notepad while format in an assembled form.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 1: Computational Analysis of Cysteine protease (papain) and its inhibition S.NO.

INHIBITOR

RMSD VALUE

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

213 E6C 214 MOH 215 MOH 216 MOH 217 MOH 218 MOH 219 MOH 220 MOH 221 MOH 222 MOH 223 MOH 224 MOH 225 MOH 226 MOH

6.349456ang.

1.264784ang.

1.884876ang.

2.710645ang.

3.012388ang.

2.842485ang.

2.447363ang.

4.070813ang.

3.724177ang.

2.890828ang.

3.164685ang.

1.166332ang.

4.051316ang.

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ELAPSED TIME AND CONFIGURATIONS NON TARGETED 0 SEC,80 UNIQUE. 4 SEC,83 UNIQUE. 0 SEC, 46 UNIQUE. 1 SEC,45 UNIQUE. 4 SEC,80 UNIQUE. 1 SEC, 72 UNIQUE. 2 SEC, 74 UNIQUE. 1 SEC,55 UNIQUE. 0 SEC,57 UNIQUE. 1 SEC,65 UNIQUE. 1 SEC,71 UNIQUE. 1 SEC,74 UNIQUE. 3 SEC, 85 UNIQUE.

15.

16.

17.

227 MOH 409 MOH 410 MOH

2.523009ang.

0.376162ang.

0.376162ang.

1 SEC, 68 UNIQUE. 1 SEC, 54 UNIQUE. 0 SEC, 54 UNIQUE.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The least RMSD distance once docking is complete is with a methanol configuration of 409 and 410 mOH , whereas, 214 mOH has the highest RMSD. 214 methanol if used in cosmetics and medicinal products whereever mandatory, will cause less of skin damage than other docking products used. Moreover, reaction with papain of 214 methanol, would yield 80 unique configurations of its inhibition, so pharma companies can choose any of the configuration to get te least harm of methanol either intestinally as well as when applied on skin. Papain, which is present in papaya and also as cysteine protease of our skin is very important for the texture and glow of the skin, but most beauty products have methanol present in them, which may harm the skin tracts causing lustreless and wrinkled skin, so if apt configuration of methanol is used as studied in this in silico docking mechanism, we may get the best cosmetic products possible giving great results. Methanol being the most active papain inhibitor cannot be neglected, and so proper site binding of it is required for better skin based products.

We would like to thank DSKC, Miranda house, University of Delhi for providing efficient lab support for computational studies. We would also like to thank Dr. Pratibha jolly, Principal Miranda House and Principal Investigator, DSKC, Miranda House, University of Delhi for all her support and guidance.

REFERENCES

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1.

2.

3.

4.

Rawlings ND, Barrett AJ (1994). "Families of cysteine peptidases". Meth. Enzymol. 244: 461– 486. doi:10.1016/0076-6879(94)440344. PMID 7845226 E.SLUYTERMAN philips research labs, the Netherlands;effect of methanol, urea and other solutes on papain. Biochimica et biophysica acta. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papain http://www.rcsb.org/pdb/home/home.do

An Innovative Approach to Make E-resources on Frequently encountered Electronic Devices Used by Undergraduate Science Students Deeksha Agarwal1, Pratibha Sangam2, Shivani Ranjan3 (B.Tech Instrumentation) Shaheed Rajguru College of Applied Sciences for Women University of Delhi

Abstract— Technological advancements have always played an epochal role in the literary progression of mankind. Today advanced technology has became synonyms to magical world, and has bestowed us with an era known as informative computerized era. This era as came up with a plethoric information showing an advancement in every field, majorly in the electronic resources. In the present scenario students are more amicable with the net surfing and upcoming technologies. This friendly approach is fruitful tool of learning from electronic resources. From past there has been a foot print of large people towards the advancement in online content on various theoretical subjects of electronics but the problem which is usually faced is either with the language of the content or with the unavailability of relevant data. If such E-Resources will be developed which are easy to understand for the students then it will enhance the enthusiasm among young researchers toward its studies in practical as well as in theoretical aspect.

Our major approach is to maintain the students keen by providing them with the visualization and experimental form of devices by just a click of mouse. For efficacious learning of different electronics devices e - modules has been developed.

The framework includes developing of various e-resources like presentations, manuals, videos and animations on theories and practical aspect of various electronic devices. These videos would act as a handy tool for anyone who wishes to perform these experiments and will be stepping stone in the realm of practical based learning for the forthcoming students of science.[1] INTRODUCTION Advances in computer applications during the past few decades have brought radical changes in the way information is gathered, store, organized, accessed, retrieved and consumed.[2] Before the development of computer and internet technology, printed version of resources like books, journals, dictionaries, work books, etc played a significant role in teaching and learning process. But these printed versions are not easily accessible to all and are also expensive in nature. In this computer age, e-version of books, journals, etc or eresources in general have become inevitable and hence it is very much needed to convert the printed version into e-version

for future needs. Therefore, knowledge of the different eresources, developing e-resources and preservation of them has become the need of the hour.

Knowledge of different e-resources: Generally, e-resources may be classified into two major areas viz, Online e-resources and Offline e-resources Online e-resources • • • • • •

e-books e-journals e-library e-learning ( courses) e-dictionaries Websites

Offline e-resources • • • • •

CD ROM based e-resources Offline e-books Offline e-dictionaries MS Office applications (power point presentation) Training software (mouse training)

Young learners are mainly concerned with action as they want to feel and experience everything. They can become more actively involved learners if the instructor uses variety of tools and techniques to teach the required project knowledge and skills. Learners experience and learn the most when they themselves are involved in doing action and least when they merely listen theory.

The bewilderment that a student experiences on starting an experiment, the confusion that builds up and the way in which the experiments are performed in the laboratory with a little idea about electronics involved, laid the foundation of this paper.[5] Keeping this in consideration, e-resource are being developed on important electronic devices and components along with their applications. The module consists of entire literature along with a documentation of the same in the form of animations and videos on standard procedure of operation of important electronic and optoelectronic devices. This paper includes the description of the same.

The significance of e-module is based on the fact that the

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students learn more when things are visualized. It creates a better understanding in an individual's mind. The best part of the paper is that we, being a student are developing with these resources facing all the difficulties and the queries on the student level so our reference will be easier for them to grasp it effectively. A comparative analysis shows that the students who learned by visual means scored much better then the students who were just taught verbally in classroom. [6] Hence for a students e-modules are more convincing and can be used for efficient retrieval and meeting information needs. This paper elucidates the imperative need of multimedia in the development of e-resources for the various electronic experiments.

TECHNOLOGY USED To design the exquisite e-module following open source software were used: • Manuals and power point presentation were created on Libre office 4.2.

• Circuits and graphs were made using Multisim and QUCS(electronic device simulation software) • Animated images were created online using GIF maker.

• Animations were designed using blender 2.59/2.71.

Movie maker was used for the video editing.

METHODOLOGY In order to develop e-resource one should have requisite knowledge of the basic computer handling techniques and internet skills. In this work, a schematic procedure has been followed to developed these e-resources:

1. First of all, the following devices and components to be studied were identified. The devices and the components are: •

Laboratory equipments: Cathode ray Oscilloscope, Digital Storage oscilloscope, Function generator, Regulated DC Power supply and multimeters.

•

Semiconductor Devices: Diodes, MOSFET, Integrated circuits, IC testers.

•

Optical instruments: spectrometer,Spectrophotometer.

Screen-shot of the GIFF image showing the extrinsic semiconductor

2. In next step, team of ten students from electronics and instrumentation department were made and the devices/ components were allotted to different students for thorough study.

3. After exploring and doing an elucidate study on each devices/ components, manuals and power point presentation were developed.

Screen-shot of GIFF image showing the step of IC fabrication

4. Next, for demonstrating the practical operation of these devices/ components and their experiments videos were shot.

5. Later for the broader visualization of the devices/components theory, animations are being created.* 6. Lastly, entire work will be compiled to form a single e-module which is to be presented on the web porch “ www.emanualz.wordpress.com”* *work in progress

Screen-shot of the Zener diode circuit made by using Multisim.

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Screen-shot of videos showing the experiment of p-n junction Diode

Figure: 2 Fig 1 and Fig 2: screen shot of the animation of DSO and CRO functioning made using BLENDER.

RESULT

Images of the ICs captured by the HD camera

Screen-shot of animation showing formation of depletion region in an unbiased p-n junction diode.

A feedback survey was conducted with the response of 170 students. It was found that out of videos, animations, PowerPoint presentations and e-manuals videos are highly preferred whereas animations the least.

Figure: 1

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CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

As a student programmer, all the difficulties faced by the students while dealing with these devices were analyzed and tried to cope up by developing e-modules based on the students intellectual level. Being on this progression path, manual, power point presentations. videos and animations on each of the mentioned devices have been made and will be uploaded on the website “ www.emanualz.wordpress.com ”.

All work done in development of e-modules would be fruitful for the undergraduate science students. After referring to these e-resources they can candidly deal with the devices/components and perform there experiments in a reforming way. Simultaneously, this work can be advantageous for an individual who are beginners in this field as well as to those who are keen to learn about these devices.

In the present scenario where there is a shortage of time, all the concepts can be revised using these e-resources with a blink of eye. Hence, this can be proven as a better exposure of intellectual study for overall growth and better insight of the subjects.

1. Ms. Himani Dua, Dr. Amita Kapoor, Dr. Sneha Kabra; University

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors are grateful to the University Of Delhi, India for the financial support and our mentor, Prof. Mridula Gupta for her perpetual guidance. We also take an opportunity to thanks our Faculty Team: Dr. Sneha Kabra, Dr. Amita Kapoor, Ms. Himani Dua for their continuance guidance and supervision.

Author sincerely thanks the team members( Bharti Kathoiya, Dolly Singh, Madhu Pandey, Neha Daga, Neha Khan, Priya Mishra, Smita Gupta) who provided us with an unconditional support.

of Delhi, Delhi. “E-learning Based Approach For Teaching Experiments in Electronics”. Striving & Thriving Towards Diffusion Of Student Driven Research in Science and Technology for Inspired Learning(2014) 2. Dr. Chetan Sharma: Electronic Journal of Academic and Special Librarianship v.10 no.1(spring 2009), Guru Govind Singh Indraprastha University, Delhi.

3. Dr. S. Rajasehkar, E-RESOUCES FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING, Annamalai University.

4. Active Teaching-Active Learning Teaching Techniques and Tools, Oregan State University Extension Services, 4-H 02591, Reprinted November 2005.

5. Akansha,Avnee, Kavita, Sakshi, Sanya, Sumedha, Madhuri, Meenakshi, Karishma And Punita Verma; Department of Physics, Kalinidi College, Delhi; Department of Physics, CCS University, Meerut, U.P.. “An innovative approach to Practicals in Physical Laboratory.

Striving & Thriving Towards Diffusion Of Student Driven Research in Science and Technology for Inspired Learning(2014) 6. Impact of Multi-media Tutorials in a Computer Science Laboratory Course – An Emperical Study, MedhaDalal, Department of Information Science, MVJ College of Engineering Banglore, India.

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Enhancing the Learning Experience of Undergraduate Students Through Designing Mobile-APPS Geetika Jain Saxena, Amit Pundir Department of Electronics, Maharaja Agrasen College, University of Delhi INTRODUCTION In this paper, we report a case study carried out over a one year period, investigating how learning experience of undergraduate science students can be enhanced through designing APPS using available mobile technologies. The pedagogy of subjects like electronics and computer sciences are based around problems based learning as well as traditional learning in face to face, online and laboratory experiments. These students are to be proficient in mobile technologies because electronics and computer sciences today find applications across so many different domains of life.

Learners learn in different contexts and the figure 1 depicts the various learning spaces in which they are expected to study.

Within each of these domains students should have access to all the resources they need, as well as ability to create resources, reflect on and extend their creativity. This project attempts to find a solution that facilitates learning within and across these contexts. Designing and developing applications, integrating technologies related to these domains support interactions and reflections across these contexts amongst learners and hence enhances learning experience.

Integrating technologies into teaching and learning and building students creative and innovative capabilities with technologies, is necessary for preparing students for the unknown futures. Being able to quickly adapt to new technologies, services and environments is already regarded as a highly valuable skill by employers, and can facilitate both formal and informal learning.

There is an urgent need to focus on the dual priorities of students acquiring discipline knowledge, and developing general capabilities such as ICT, innovation and creative capabilities. An undergraduate student needs extra technical skills when it comes to the technologies in Internet communications and media. The students should have the ability to use ICT appropriately to access, manage, integrate

and evaluate information, develop new understandings, and communicate with others in order to participate effectively in society.

Teachers and educational institutes must create learning environment that encourages both teachers and students to experiment with these ideas. A challenge for teachers aiming to build students innovation and creative capabilities with and through technologies, however, is to move students from being users and consumers of technologies, to being creators and producers with technologies. Used well these technologies can enhance students, learning by facilitating collaboration, innovation and creativity.

In today’s world Smartphone is the number one means of communication. Facebook, Twitter, WhatsApp, Angry Birds, Candy Crush: Smartphone screens are used more often than any other medium. This means apps should be an integral part of our communication mix. Apps are especially developed for Smartphone's and therefore function much better than a mobile website, no matter how responsive.

In this project we aim to equip our undergraduate students to address some of the social issues / issues of relevance to them, using digital technology. Students are learning to build and design apps from scratch with a particular objective in mind.

In the process they are learning and using the technology such as various web applications, operating systems, technical languages, hardware to support this software etc to create the desired application. They are required to work creatively and collaboratively in a group to design these apps using a large amount of social and communication interactions. Other than acquiring technical skills, which are not part of their curriculum, students get a learning environment that will be of value to them in future. The process also plays a role in developing their general capabilities and introducing them to interdisciplinary approach. The interactions between teachers and students offer opportunity to include social and explorative aspects in their learning. Keeping this vision in mind following are some of the apps designed by our undergraduate students.

1.

DU-APP

This APP aims at mapping all the colleges of ' University of Delhi'. It aims at providing students the benefit of locating as well accessing the relevant information of their colleges at the distance of a click. The app combines the features of a mapping application as well as information portal and allows a greater level of interactivity.

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The App covers following features:  Location Finder: In this application we have developed an interface by which students can find their respective DU colleges in map. The college location, surrounding areas, name of the principal, contact no. of college, nearest bus stop and nearest metro stations etc.  Course Finder: In this part of the app the students can find their list of colleges providing the desired course, total no. of seats in course in a particular college, previous year cut-offs for admissions etc.  College Finder: In this part of the app, students can find their desired college and the list of courses offered by the college.  Calendar: There is an embedded calendar which keeps record of the important dates and events.

We used Web Application Platform (Web App) from Web App, Client Side Scripting (Languages HTML, CSS), JavaScript, Action Script, PHP and server side scripting for designing this App.

111 Advantages:

 



E-app is basically for taking pictures of our surroundings/environment for any aberration and automatically lodging the complaint with the concerned officials. A great amount of speculative analysis of complaint systems has led to the making of a very simple yet advanced system for lodging day to day complaints with the proof of a visual.

At present, it is built with the aim of preventing environmental pollution although the application can be extended further. It enables the users to click pictures like garbage dumped on the road sides, choking of sewers, burning of garbage, unauthorized cutting of trees etc. It sends them to a target address (related to the concerned authorities) along with the location where the picture has been taken. The location is captured using GPS technology, which is easily available in phones. The App supports latest KitKat version of android along with backward compatibility with previous versions of Jellybean and Ice Cream Sandwich to support older devices as well. It is coded in Java using ADT (android developer tools).

Benefits: Effective mechanism to lodge complaints with proof



This App brings all the relevant information about various colleges of University of Delhi onto a single platform.

It gives the student a detailed information about a particular college including nearest bus route, metro route etc. We are also planning to incorporate the locations of famous food joints, coffee shops book shops, markets etc near the college.

The App provides direction to any college in University of Delhi from the current position of the user in the form of Google maps.

It gives the user a single application model that lets him deploy the complaint to the related authorities and also to hundreds and thousands of users across a wide range of devices—from phones to tablets and beyond.  User friendly and easy to use  Supports Android’s latest versions as well as older versions.

There are also some shortcomings of the app such as poor Image quality and large time taken in fetching latitude and longitude due to hardware limitations.

Screenshots of E-APP:

Welcome screen

2. E-APP - Step towards environment consciousness Page 76

Enabling the GPS to work if it is disabled.

donation and registered them so that they can be contacted at appropriate time.

The GPS is now in this image.

In this image location data enabled is being fetched

Fetching the image

Clicking image

Retrieving image

Launching the e-mail application. Sending e-mail.

Receiving the e-mailed image information

Location (Lattitude and longitude) recorded.

3. Red Gold App This App can save life by providing blood to a person in need.

Presently, whenever a person needs blood, we contact the blood bank and in case the required blood group is not available, we contact our near and dear ones to donate the same. Sometimes it can become a real trauma to find a rare blood group in emergency. The app is designed to help the registered users in case of these emergencies.

It is a Hybrid app, i.e. HTML, JAVASCRIPT AND PHP is used for developing this app. Database Management System used is SQL. The app can be used on any mobile OS platform like android, ios and windows etc.

The Blood Donor of today may be recipient of tomorrow.

How is this achieved?

Once the registration part is complete the user can login and use the app to locate the person with the required blood group and once he/she has found out the person, the user can contact him/her personally using the available contact details in the app.

At present our app is restricted to Delhi and NCR region only.

The area has been divided into five parts north, south, east, west and center. We have done surveys in all the zones and searched for the individuals who are interested in blood Page 77

4. Background Knowledge Probe App Are you in the right course? Are your marks in the last qualifying examinations indicative of your interests? Every year we get few students who due to lack of confidence or perhaps awareness choose the course in which they are not interested or don’t have the aptitude for the same. These are the students who need initial support to identify the right starting point to start learning journey of the course or may require course correction. The research method used in this case was based on the importance of determining the knowledge levels and interests of the students before they start their undergraduate learning journey. In courses like honours in electronics, to foster critical engagement with technology, it is essential that students are given sufficient time to explore the hardware and software applications before they start learning journey in the core subjects. The questionnaire was prepared not to test the knowledge of the students in the subject but to explore the interest of the students in the subject. The exploratory approach in designing questions, the participatory approach of the students in taking the tests and the solutions or improvements helped both students and teachers. Each sub-group of teachers presented a rationale for their questions and activities explaining relevant pedagogy. In aptitude section each statement was configured with answer options – strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree.

‘Background Knowledge Probe’ APP based on above model was developed. The APP gives students broad view of the subject in an interactive MCQ and save the results in an automated system. The app can also be used as an evaluation tool for students for their regular tests. The APP provides teachers an instant, honest assessment of the students that helps in deciding the number of zero level classes required and in designing content for the same.

The app has minimal hardware and software requirements.

While at the backend the whole platform is based on PHP, JAVA and JavaScript, the database is managed by phpmyadmin. At present the framework is developed for giving a basic knowledge of the subject, but in near future it can also be used to impart specific and hard-core knowledge of the subject. The platform can also be used to give away assignments and test in regular teaching and thus paving the way for a new era of highly flexible digital education.

Figure 2: The phased model of development and deployment.

Advantages:  It caters to the need of specific subjects by having a specific base line quiz about every subject.  Students are benefited by getting a head-start basic knowledge about the subject and by knowing the prerequisites of the subject in the form of appropriately designed questions.  No need of any physical evaluation as the answers and their explanations are fed into the quiz at the time of creation.  Interactive way of learning by not testing the students but giving them a basic knowledge of the subject.

Throughout the period of investigation data was collected and analysed from observations. It was observed that students’ level of interest in course particularly in laboratories increased. The quality of feedback improved over time, which is indicative of deeper level of thinking.

Conclusion and Challenges:

Figure 1: ‘An agile project that quickly adapts’ - Background Knowledge Probe (BKP) with feedback model.

Feedback from the students, via online and paper base selfreflection sheets, revealed that the students enjoyed the complete process of development, collecting large amount of data and analyzing it. Large number of students responded that collecting, analyzing and uploading the data on self-designed e-learning portal was easy, interesting and technically stimulating experience. Feedback was taken to measure the learners’ ideas about the use of mobile technologies and its impact on their learning experience suggests. Very high

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percentage of this feedback was positive. All the learners involved in the project have mobiles but very limited connectivity particularly in the education domain. Their perception of connectedness was challenged. Their internet enabled device was able to connect them to internet and hence provide immediate access to information making them a great consumer of information. This exercise, however, was for them to develop ability to record their own data electronically in the field, analyse, upload and become creator of data. In the next phase, more emphasis should be on connectivity, creating communities online. The students are able to design prototypes of some basic apps by learning the technologies, which are not part of their course curriculum. They acquired technical skills which can benefit them in future by increasing their chances of employability. They were encouraged and motivated to think creatively and innovatively during the process. The students from various disciplines interacted and worked in a team collaboratively for achieving same goal, developing their generic capabilities. The overall exercise improved their capacity to think flexibly, to communicate well and to work in a team and the capability to think creatively, innovate, solve problems and engage with new disciplines in addition to acquiring new technical skills. Managing the expectations of learners is challenging and important. If done, it enhances the learning experience to a great extent.

(The project is carried out under Innovation Project “Development of University Applications (DU-Apps) for mobile platforms, MAC-210” awarded by University of Delhi. The students involved in the project are Mr. Dheeraj Khetrapal, Mr. Aradhya Neeraj Mathur, Mr. Kashish Bakshi, Mr. Rishabh Chandhak Mr. Sparsh Singhal Mr. Prayas Gupta, Mr. Amit Kanderi Ms. Alka Ms. Kanupriya Sharma Mr. Divyansh Lohia… ) This work is done under the mentorship of Dr. Sanjeev Singh, Institute of Informatics and communications (IIC), South Campus, University of Delhi.

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Technology embellished teaching and learning Punita Verma Department of Physics, Kalindi College, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India p.verma.du@gmail.com

Abstract- The internet poses to be a threat to the profession of teaching with its vast database of knowledge, however it is not useful to the students without the guidance of the teacher. Innovative methodology has been developed for using the computer and internet as an assistant in the laboratory as well as theory classes.

Keywords— Internet; computer; laboratory; cross check results

I. INTRODUCTION In the present day world where internet is posing as a threat to the profession of teaching, retaining the relevance of classroom teaching and regaining its fast losing glory is indeed becoming the most daunting task in front of the teaching community. E-learning is fast emerging as an alternative to classroom teaching. Although it appears that internet with its unending and vast ocean of knowledge has made teaching and learning easier, the picture when seen in detail is not so rosy.

On the contrary, it has posed more challenges to the teaching and learning process. Any person searching for just some information is bombarded in seconds with a large number of search results with no clue about the authenticity of the information(s) available and the chronological order that must be followed to first get introduced and then increase the depth of understanding regarding any subject/topic. Most of the time the information available on the internet creates more confusion than clarity. Thus the need of a teacher/guide is felt by the inquisitive searcher so that time is not lost in reading unnecessary/wrong information or reading information in the inappropriate order of complexity. This fact kindles hope for the teaching profession and the teacher can act as a beacon of light to the bewildered searcher in the vast ocean of information.

The internet also offers several videos and animations over the experiments that are performed in school and undergraduate laboratory which are not only beautiful to watch, they increase the understanding too. Tailor made videos and audios, ppts have been made by the author, along with the undergraduate students [1] in the college for various experiments which as per their feedback have increased their understanding of science. The depth of understanding increases more by planning a video/audio by oneself rather than just watching on the net. Both can be used for the benefit of the students.

Innovative method has been developed to save the time of both the students and teachers so that the same can be devoted to understanding of the details of any experiment. A survey on the understanding of the students has clearly shown that the experiments are performed mechanically without giving

attention to the parameters controlling or affecting the experiment. However, technology can act as a helping hand to meet these challenges. Actually computer and internet can both be used to assist teaching and learning in a way which is lucrative to both the teachers and students.

II. COMPUTER AS AN ASSISTANT IN THE LABORATORY A. Challenges faced in laboratory by students and teachers A common problem encountered by the teachers in the science laboratories is that a large number of students are working simultaneously and each of them demands and expects individual attention which is a daunting task for any teacher.

The most common query from the students is whether the observations recorded by him/her are in order and according to expected values. Additionally, whether or not he/she has to repeat the observations at the same time expecting a nod from the teacher to go ahead with the calculations of result(s). The paucity of time allotted to laboratory classes in semester system adds to the anxiety of both the students and teachers as it does not allow sufficient time to delve deeper into the nuances of the experiment. It is practically impossible for any teacher to examine the observations of each experiment being performed by a small group of students because the number of experiments being performed simultaneously is large and varied in nature. In such a situation a need is felt of some way by which the requirement could be met and the students feel satisfied that their queries have been answered. Further, it is imperative that they are guided properly and they realize their mistake(s) if any and understand the source(s) of errors in their observations. The whole exercise should develop critical thinking and scientific attitude towards dealing with any problem.

B. Improved learning with the assistance of the computer The solutions to the above mentioned problems lies in using our friend, the computer as an assistant of the teacher and as a guide to the student. Each experiment to be performed in the laboratory is programmed in detail using Microsoft Xcel (any version is suitable). The observation tables required in each experiment are made on separate sheets in Xcel with a separate column for each step of observation or calculation. In each sheet denoting a single observation table, each mathematical operation devotes a separate column whether it is addition, subtraction, multiplication, division etc. in a particular formula. All columns are programmed with appropriate formulae as required by the observation table.

Clear instructions are provided to the student to just enter the observations as recorded by him/her and not to perform any calculations in sheets. Since the Xcel sheets are programmed

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for all columns with appropriate formulae, as soon as the observations are entered, the result of each step of the calculation of the formula(e) is displayed automatically on that sheet. The student can thereby assess immediately whether his/her observations have been recorded appropriately. Errors in the results of that particular observation table become clear to the student simultaneously as the range of values expected for that particular table are indicated in that sheet itself. The range of values for any particular parameter will depend on apparatus as well as experiment and hence will be laboratory specific in nature. Similarly, all the observation tables of a particular experiment are prepared as separate sheets in the same Xcel file and can be similarly filled by the student with simultaneous calculations of formula(e) being done with the programmed Xcel sheet. Finally the last or concluding calculation sheet is linked to the data in all other sheets in such a way that any alteration of data in the sheets for initial observation tables will automatically alter the data in the last sheet. This avoids any human error as well as loss of time. So as soon as the student enters the observation in the respective sheets, he/she gets the results of each step of calculation as well as the final result. For the experiments where the results can be compared to standard values, the Xcel sheets provide the comparison. Lastly, error calculation, both percentage error as well as log error is also done in the final sheet of result which too is automatic.

The entire above exercise can be completed within the time it takes to enter only the observations! Now these sheets with all detailed calculations can be used as an assistant by the teacher to immediately assess whether the students have performed the experiments properly and whether the observations are within the range of values expected. This will save time of the teacher and will lead to an accurate judgement of the students' work. On the other hand, after an attempt or two the students would become well versed with the above mentioned method and can use it to do a self assessment of their work. In this case this method will guide them regarding the experiment whether they have to repeat observations or not. In case their observations are correct, they can use it to cross check their results with the programmed Xcel sheet and verify them. The entire exercise trains the brains of the students to be careful at each step, are forced to be aware of the sources of errors in the performance of an experiment and approach the experiment with a scientific attitude.

Alternatively, the formulae for any experiment can be programed step by step using any programming language (say C++ or fortran) and the same can be used by the students to either make an assessment of their observations or cross check their results. The teacher can use these programs for an assessment of observations of the students or for cross checking their results. The whole endeavor makes it easy to point out the exact mistake(s) of the students (if any) in calculations. Further, it provides sufficient time for the teacher to devote towards understanding of the science behind the experiments rather than whether the calculations have been performed correctly. He/she will thus be able to focus attention on a larger group of students in the laboratory.

and capable of least square fitting. The graphs generated with the least square fitting would enable the students to compare their hand drawn graphs with those by the software in order to understand how the judicious choice of the best fit to the data and its slope controls the final results in an experiment.

III. COMPUTER AS AN ASSISTANT IN THE THEORY CLASSES

A. Challenges faced in learning and teaching theory The obstacles in the path of understanding theoretical concepts of science are well known. Although a lot of theoretical concepts are taught in various subjects, the curricula are not designed to include the real life applications of those concepts.

As a result the topics do not appear to be lucrative to the students and their relevance in real life world is not clear to them. This leads to loss of interest and decreases the enthusiasm of the students towards science and kills the scientific temper in them.

Another problem commonly faced by the students is that of visualization. Although science students study many subjects including mathematics where three dimensions are introduced in school itself, but a large number of students cannot visualize any object/phenomena in three dimensions easily. As a result, solid state physics including three dimensional crystal structures or shapes of orbitals in an atom are examples amongst several others of confusion in the minds of students.

B. Improved learning with the assistance of the internet The internet should be used to complement classroom teaching. Students should be given the assignment to surf a particular topic on the internet and then one or two of their searches should be discussed in class. Students should be guided by the teacher on how to distinguish between different types of information and how to arrange them in chronological order of increasing complexity. With a small training the students would become adept with this methodology.

Classroom teaching should be complemented with the assistance from computer showing visuals, diagrams, animations, videos, etc. Social networking sites to which the students are addicted to can be used for increasing their knowledge by inspiring them to maintain and run their own blogs or email accounts etc. where discussion of academic work can be done. The teacher should willingly be a part of this endeavor. As per the feedback of the students, it has been found after trying this methodology that this generates interest towards science in the students and kindles their curiosity.

Working in harmony and with cooperation is extra benefits of these exercises, values which are much needed in society.

References [1]

Lastly, the calculations performed by the students can be fed in any software generating graphs (such as origin, xfig etc.)

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Akansha, ., Punita Verma,“An Innovative approach to practicals in physics laboratory”, Proceedings of National Conference on “Striving & Thriving Towards Diffusion of Student-driven Research in Science and Technology for Inspired Learning”organised by Maharaja Agrasen Coll., Univ. of Delhi. ISBN No. 978-81-7273-958-4, pg. 311, Oct., 2014.

“Compare the Level of Security Risk between IT User/Employee & Non-IT User / Employee” Amit Kumar (Tyagi), Scientific Assistant

Dr. Lalit Sharma, Associate Professor

Computer Section, Indira Gandhi Institute of Physical Education & Sports Sciences, B-Block, Vikas Puri, Delhi, India Amittyagi649@gmail.com

Department of Physical Education, Indira Gandhi Institute of Physical Education & Sports Sciences, B-Block, Vikas Puri, Delhi, India Lalit.sharma@igipess.du.ac.in

Dr. Sanjay Tyagi, Assistant Professor

Dr. Meenakshi, Assistant Professor

Department of Computer Science, Krushetra University, Krushetra, Haryana.

Department of Physical Education, Indira Gandhi Institute of Physical Education & Sports Sciences, B-Block, Vikas Puri, Delhi, India.

Abstract— The purpose of the study was to determine the level of security risk on the Users/Employees of IT group & Non IT group in relation to their experiences. For the Present study 80 subjects were selected using convenient sampling. 40 subjects representing the IT group & 40 representing the Non-IT group and these groups further divided into 4 subgroups on the behalf of their working experiences (0-2, 3-4, 5-10, 10+). The risk was tested through the Questionnaires. “User /Employee Security Awareness Survey” Questionnaires was designed to ask users how they would respond to specific security related questions and situations. The obtain data was analyzed by using Detailed Description Statistics, Two-Way ANOVA, One-way ANOV, & t-test. It was found that that there was a significant difference between the IT & NON-IT and subgroup of IT & Non-IT. Results further indicate that more than 90% of user or respondent say negligent or malicious employee. So there is a strong recommendation to conduct “Security Awareness Survey” program to trained and aware their employee about security and security risk.

Keywords—Security Risk Level, User / Employees Security Awareness Survey, Security, IT- Security Risk, IT group, Non-IT Group.

INTRODUCTION Computer Security Risk & Awareness

Computer Security Risk, or IT risk, IT-related risk, is a risk related to information technology. This relatively new term is coined due to an increasing awareness that information security is simple one facet of a multitude of risks that are relevant to IT and the real world processes it supports.[1] Information security means protecting information and Information systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, perusal, inspection, recording or destruction.[2]

Information security grew out of practices and procedures of computer security.

One of the most significant security risks that organizations and corporation face today is not with systems or applications but with the users / employees. Computer security in the workplace is not the sole responsibility of the IT staff.

Everyone in the company or organization has a role to play in securing corporate resources and data. Corporate IT security strategies are only as good as the user’s awareness of his/her role in maintaining that corporate security strategy.

Security Awareness is an often-overlooked factor is an information program while organization expands their use of security technology and they train their security professional, May little is used to increase the security awareness among the normal users, making them the weakest link in any organization. Today, organization expand their use of advanced secure technologies, computer data stealer called “Hackers” are attempting to break into organizations by targeting the weakest link, the uneducated computer user .Computer user mistakes and computer & network expert’s negligence are considered one of the top threats to IT security in organizations.

This paper presents the risks, responsibilities, and liabilities (known and unknown) of which every employee either computer security experts or normal user should be aware, as well as simple protective steps to keep corporate data and systems secure. Easy-to-understand strategies for secure password management, surfing the Internet, email and file transfer, storing and disposing of sensitive customer data, and accessing corporate resources remotely are just some of the topics covered in this concise security tool.

In this paper, we will also show the need for security awareness programs time to time or included in the syllabus of the schools, universities, governments and private organizations. We will try to make a user habitual through the user security awareness program about the basics of computer security from the school level; it will not increase the level of

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security that save data more precisely but also will a part of education.

1) The study will be helpful to find the alertness between different working experience groups in IT & Non-IT group. .

2) The result of the study may help to find out the difference between Security Risk Level of IT & NonIT Group 3) Findings of study will show the need of IT Security Awareness Program.

As we know the process of Digitalization has begun with the announcement of Mr. Narender Modi, Prime Minister of India. The use of technology will increase; the probability and possibility of data steal will also increase. So there is a need to aware the user through the awareness program.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The present study has been undertaken with a purpose to “Compare the Level of Security risk between IT User/Employee & Non-IT User / Employee”.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The following objectives have been set for the study:1.

2.

3.

4.

To Compare the Level of Security risk among different subgroups based on experience in IT field.

To Compare the Level of Security Risk among different subgroups based on experience in NON-IT field.

To Compare the Level of Security Risk between IT & Non-IT Groups.

To access the overall level of security Risk among Users / Employees.

DEFINITIONS AND EXPLANATION OF THE TERMS There are certain technical terms which have been used again and again in this study defined in the following manners for better understanding: Risk: Risk is the potential of losing something of value.

Values (Such as Physical Health, Social status, emotional wellbeing or financial wealth) can be gained or lost when taking risk resulting from a given action, activity and/or inaction, foreseen or unforeseen. Risk can also be defined as the intentional interaction with uncertainty. Risk perception is the subjective judgment people make about the severity and/or probability of a risk, and may vary person to person. Any human endeavor carries some risk, but some are much riskier than other.

Data Breach: A data breach is the intentional or unintentional release of secure information to an untrusted environment.

Other terms for this phenomenon include unintentional information disclosure, data leak and also data spill such as credit card or bank details, personal health information, personally identifiable information, trade secrets of corporations or intellectual property. Incidents range from concerted attack by black hats with the backing of organized crime or national governments to careless disposal of used computer equipment or data storage media Cyber Security: The field covers all the processes and mechanisms by which digital equipment, information and services are protected from unintended or unauthorized access, change or destruction, and are of growing importance in line with the increasing reliance on computer systems of most societies worldwide.

Hacker: Someone who seeks and exploits weaknesses in a computer system or computer network

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY The following is the significant of the study.

PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY SELECTION OF SUBJECTS For the purpose of the study 80 subjects were selected using convenient sampling from the Institutions & Organization like Delhi university colleges and departments, Delhi police department, hospitals, private organizations. These selected subjects were 40 trainees of IT educated group and 40 from NON-IT group. Further, groups were categorized according of their working experiences in four sub groups. The illustration given below has shown the selection of subjects in brief:

DESCRIPTION OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE The questionnaire is a self-developed questionnaire containing 28 questions & responses in five point of scale. Questionnaire was designed & Tested several time to evaluate the correctness of questionnaires under the guidance of Dr. Sanjay Tyagi. Description of the five point scale has been designed as under: Low (28 -41)

Elevated (42-52)

Moderate (53-80)

Significant (81-105) High (106-128)

Users are aware of good security principles and threats, haven properly trained, and comply with all organizational security standards and policies.

Users have already been trained on organizational security standards and policies, they are aware of threats, but may not follow good security principles and controls.

Users are aware of threats and know they should follow good security principles and controls, but need training on organizational security standards and policies. They also may not know how to identify or report a security event.

Users are not aware of good security principles or threat nor are they aware of or compliant with organizational security standards and policies.

Users are not aware of threats and disregard known security standards and policies or do not comply.

They engage in activities or practices that are easily attacked and exploited.

The results of this survey can be used to determine areas of the program that need to be improved and to calculate a risk score, or the probability of compromise or breach involving users. The generated score and risk level can be tracked over time as a metric to measure program goals and initiatives.

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Statistical Technique In Order to analyze the data a detailed Description Statistics, Two Way ANOVA, One-Way ANOVA and t-test was applied and the level of significance was set at 0.05

Table No. 2: Two-Way ANOVA Test (2 x 4) on Risk Factor between of IT and Non-IT users with different years of experience.

Source

Administration of the Questionnaire Each subject was contacted individually & informed about the purpose of the study. Necessary with regard to follow up of questionnaire was imported and questionnaire was distributed.

Collection of Data On the basis of the manual, the responses were evaluated and data was collected.

FINDINGS OF THE STUDY The data collected from subjects was analyzed by employing descriptive statistics, Two-Way ANOVA test, One-Way ANOVA test, and t test. The calculation was performed using SPSS 16.0 software and the findings pertaining to above test has been presented below: Table No. 1: Descriptive Statistics on Risk Factor among different variables of IT and Non-IT users with different years of Experience.

Group IT Group

Non-IT Group

Experience

Mean

Std. Deviation

N

0-2

58.64

10.624

14

3-4 5-10 10+ Total 0-2 3-4 5-10 10+ Total

58.38 49.91 36.86 52.38 68.09 68.00 68.12 59.50 66.35

8.434 6.848 3.024 11.412 2.914 7.130 2.997 3.207 5.772

8 11 7 40 11 13 8 8 40

Group group * experience Error Total

Type III Sum of Squares 4235.505 583.402

df

3318.640 292197.000

72 80

Sig ** P<.05

Mean Square 4235.505 194.467

1 3

f

Sig.

91.892 4.219

**.000 **.008

46.092

*P>.05

Based on estimated marginal means *. The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.

There is significant difference in interaction between groups i.e. IT & NON-IT and different duration of experiences. As the f value was obtained 18.477 at p value 0.01 Since, the significant difference was obtained between the group and among different experience. Therefore, analysis of variance was obtained. Findings are presented in test.

Table No. 2 (i): Pairwise comparison of Risk Factor of IT & Non-IT Group (I) group

(J) group

Mean Difference (I-J)

Std. Error

Sig.a

IT Group

Non-IT Group

-14.983*

1.563

.000

Non-IT Group

IT Group

14.983*

1.563

.000

Above Table 2(i) reveals that mean difference (i-j) value is 14.983 which is significant at .01 level. It means there is significant difference in this course of risk factor between IT Group & Non-IT Group.

Table No. 1, shows the mean and standard deviation values of different experienced based group (0-2,3-4,5-10, 10+) belong to either IT Group or Non-IT group. It shows that the person having an experience 10+ have low level of risk in both groups. In IT, mean value is 36.86 and Non-IT, means value is 48.93 which is less than other subgroups. Graphical representation of the data is presented in figure 1.

Table No. 3: One – Way ANOVA TEST on Risk Factor among different variables of IT Users among different years of experience.

Between Groups Within Groups Total

Sum of Squares 469.316

df

Mean Square

f

Sig.

3

156.439

6.787

.001

829.784

36

23.050

1299.10

39

Above Table reveals that f value is 6.787 which is significant at .01 level with df = 3, 36. It means there is significant difference in this course of risk factor of different years of experience in IT Users.

Table No. 3(i): Pairwise comparison of Risk Factor of IT users among different Years of Experience.

(I) experience 0-2

3-4

Figure 1: Graphical presentation on Risk Factor among different variables of IT and Non-IT users with different years of Experience

5-10

10+

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(J) experience 3-4 5-10 10+ 0-2 5-10 10+ 0-2 3-4 10+ 0-2 3-4 5-10

Mean Difference (I-J) .091 -.034 8.591* -.091 -.125 8.500* .034 .125 8.625* -8.591* -8.500* -8.625*

Std. Error

Sig.

1.967 2.231 2.231 1.967 2.157 2.157 2.231 2.157 2.400 2.231 2.157 2.400

1.000 1.000 .006 1.000 1.000 .004 1.000 1.000 .011 .006 .004 .011

*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

Graphical presentation of Risk Factor of IT users

Table reveals that who are having more than 10 years of experience has lower risk factor (M=36) then the user having 2 years of experience(58.64) followed by 3-4 years of experience(58.38), 5-10 years of experiences(49.91).

Therefore it may be concluded that the experience is an influencing determinant for risk factor in IT group.

Graphical presentation of Risk Factor of IT users

Figure 3: Graphical presentation on Risk Factor among different variables of Non-IT users with different years of Experience.

Table No. 5: t-test on Risk Factor among different Variables of IT and Non-IT users Variable

Figure 2: Graphical presentation on Risk Factor among different variables of IT users with different years of Experience

Experien ce group

Group (0-2)

Table No. 4: One – Way ANOVA TEST on Risk Factor among different variables of Non-IT Users among different years of experience.

Between Groups Within Groups Total

Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

f

Sig.

2590.519

3

863.506

12.4 90

.000

2488.856

36

69.135

5079.375

39

Risk scores

Above Table reveals that f value is 12.490 which is significant at .01 level with df = 3, 36. It means there is significant difference in this course of risk factor of different years of experience in Non-IT Users.

Table No. 4(i): Pairwise comparison of Risk Factor of Non-IT users among different Years of Experience.

(I) experience 0-2

3-4

5-10

10+

(J) experience 3-4 5-10 10+ 0-2 5-10 10+ 0-2 3-4 10+ 0-2 3-4 5-10

Mean Difference (I-J) .268 8.734 21.786* -.268 8.466 21.518* -8.734 -8.466 13.052* -21.786* -21.518* -13.052*

Std. Error

Sig.

3.685 3.350 3.849 3.685 3.864 4.303 3.350 3.864 4.020 3.849 4.303 4.020

1.000 .097 .000 1.000 .206 .000 .097 .206 .025 .000 .000 .025

1 IT 2Non-IT

N

Mea n

1

14

58.64

Std. Devia tion 10.62 4

dt

tvalue

23

-2.855

2

11

68.09

2.914

15.425

-3.179

Group (3-4)

1

8

58.38

8.434

19

-2.805

2

13

68.00

7.130

13.040

-2.690

Group (5-10)

1

11

49.91

6.848

17

-7.009

2

8

68.12

2.997

14.522

-7.849

Group (10+)

1

7

36.86

3.024

13

2

8

59.50

3.207

12.907

14.005 14.065

This table shows the means and Std. Deviation between IT and NON-IT user of different group based on experiences.

Table reveals that there is significant difference in risk factor having 0 to2 years of experience between IT & Non-IT as the t value is 2.86 which is significant at 0.01 level with df = 23, 3 to 4 years of experience as the t value is 8.43 with df= 19, 5 to 10 years of experience as the t value is 6.85 with df=17 & experience more than 10 years, as the t value is 3.024 which is significant at 0.01 level with df 13.

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

Table 4(i) reveals that who are having more than 10 years of experience has lower risk factor (M=59.50) then the user having 2 years of experience(68.09) followed by 3-4 years of experience(68), 5-10 years of experiences(68.12). Therefore it may be concluded that the experience is an influencing determinant for risk factor in Non-IT group.

The aim of the present study was to determine the level of security risk between IT group & NON-IT group in relation to their experience. The Result of the study clearly indicates that there were significant difference b/w the IT & NON-IT Group and Subgroup (based on Experience) of IT & Non-IT Group.

It is evident from the Table No. 1 (Descriptive Statistics on Risk Factor among different variables of IT and Non-IT users with different years of Experience) that the means value decrease as the experience increase in IT & Non-IT Group. It indicates that as the experience increase, it decreases the level of security risk in IT & Non-IT Group. Table No. 2 shows that there was a significant different in interaction between groups i.e. IT & NON-IT & different duration of experience. As the f value was obtained 18.477 at p value .01. Table No. 3 show One Way ANOVA test on risk factor among different variables of IT users among different years of experience. It reveals that f value is 6.787 which is significant at 0.01 level

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with df = 3,36. It means there is significant difference in this course of risk factor among different user of IT Group. Table No 3(i) shows pairwise comparison of risk factor of IT users among different years of experience reveals that those who are having more than 10 Year of experience (M=36) has lower the risk factor then the user having 2 years of experience (58.64) followed by 3-4 year of experience (58.38), 5-10 years of experiences (49.91). The result of One-way ANOVA test on risk factor among different variables of Non-IT (Table No. 4) user among different years of experience was the same as the result of One-Way ANOVA in IT group. Table No 4(i) pairwise comparison of risk factor of Non-IT users among different years of experience reveals that those who are having more than 10 Year of experience (M=59.50) has lower the risk factor then the user having 2 years of experience (68.02) followed by 3-4 year of experience (68), 5-10 years of experiences (68.12). t-test (Table No. 5) shows the means and Std. Deviation between IT and NON-IT user of different group based on experiences. Table 5 reveals that there is significant difference in risk factor having 0 to2 years of experience between IT & Non-IT as the t value is 2.86 which is significant at 0.01 level with df = 23, 3 to 4 years of experience as the t value is 8.43 with df= 19, 5 to 10 years of experience as the T value is 6.85 with df=17 & experience more than 10 years, as the t value is 3.024 which is significant at 0.01 level with df= 13. In all the cases, there is a significant difference between the IT & Non-IT group & subgroup of IT & Non-IT group.

This present study on 80 in which 40 representing to the IT group and 40 representing the group of Non-IT, finds over 90% respondents say negligent or malicious or other insiders have been responsible for at least one data breach within the organization. When we analyzed the data group wise, we found in IT Group that the approximate 20% IT user / employee were the safe user who follow the almost all the safety guard while using the Workspace. These safe users had having an experience more than 10 years. A great tool to measure the effectiveness and strength of the organization’s security awareness program is with a survey. So it is a necessity to conduct security training awareness program by the organization to their employee about security and security risk.

learn the material but they should also apply it in their daily life. This is not a simple task to achieve and not the sole responsibility of the user or the organization. Many groups have to be involved to produce an IT security-aware resident.

We summarize some of the recommendations below: 

Governments Government should produce cybercrime laws and enforce them.



Computer Emergency Response Teams (CERT) Should be established to enhance the security awareness among residents. CERT can also help establish new cybercrime laws, train computer forensic teams, and assist organizations and users in fighting cybercrime.



Police Departments Should have computer forensics teams that are specialized in obtaining, recovering, examining, analyzing, and presenting electronic evidence stored on computers or electronic devices



Enterprises Should offer security training to its employees and clients. This could be online or onsite training or a combination of both. The training should be done regularly, e.g. twice a year, since new IT security threats appear constantly. The enterprise management should endorse and financially support the training.

The method of preparing the awareness material is very important and the content needs to be customized for different users. For example, language and culture must be taken into consideration when preparing the awareness material. Similarly, the method of delivering the awareness material is very important and the communication process needs to be customized for different users. For example, in a university, social media websites, such as Facebook, can be used to deliver the awareness material since a large number of students are likely to be using social media websites.



Telecommunication Companies (ISPs) Should offer advices on how to use the internet safely or configure any internet device securely.

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Users: Should train themselves by constantly reading magazines, books and online articles on IT security threats and what to do to protect themselves from such threats.

Schools and Universities: Should offer security awareness campaigns and integrate IT security Topics into their computer courses curriculum.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION Conclusion 1.

2.

3.

4.

There was significant difference between the IT & NON-IT Group.

There was a significant difference among the Sub Group (based on experience) of IT There was a significant difference among the Sub Group (based on experience) of Non- IT There was also a significant difference in subgroups between IT and NON-IT.

Recommendations

The Following are the recommendation for every user of each field that use a computer system  

User / Employee Security Awareness Program Hackers are continuously identifying new means of stealing information. Unfortunately, the presence of “uneducated” users in an organization makes them an easy target for hackers and vulnerable to privacy attacks. User education and training is a must to combat IT security threats. User should not only

Be Aware: You are responsible (Within reasonable limits) for what happens on your computer and with you accounts.

Know about the company security policy and follow-it.

The security experts who wrote the policy did so in the company’s best interests and your also



Show consideration for the security policies. They are serious, and breaches can be costly and embarrassing.



Choose your passwords wisely; do commit your password to memory rather than writing it down.

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

Don’t share your password with anyone. That includes your spouse or even the system administrator

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Don’t use easy-to-guess passwords. Such words or numbers as maiden name, SSN, DOB, the word “password”, and so on are easy to figure out.

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Keep Your password secure, Practice safe Data Transfer



Deal with Viruses and Malwares

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Use corporate resources only to do your work



Know the risks associated with e-mail, deal with email hoaxes

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Surf the web wisely at work, Be aware of the dangers of the Internet



Secure the laptop for remote usage, Make remote access secure



Use your hand-held device safely, Backup and secure your data



Manage sensitive information wisely, Dispose of digital media safely.

REFERENCE 1.

Hansson, Sven Ove; Edward N. Zalta, editor (Spring 2014).

"Risk". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 9 Sep. 2014.

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Webopedia. vulnerability scanning. Darien: Jupitermedia, undated, accessed 12 October 2014; available from http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/V/vulnerability_scanning.html ; Internet.

3. Wikipedia. Anti-virus software. Wikipedia, 2014, accessed 06 October 2014; available from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-viral_software; Internet.

4. Wikipedia. Network Mapping. Wikipedia, 2014, accessed 12 October; available from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_Mapping; Internet.

5. Yip Chung, Christina. Anomaly Detection in Database Systems.

Davis: UC Davis Computer Security Laboratory, 1999, accessed 12 October 2014; available from http://seclab.cs.ucdavis.edu/projects/anomaly.html; Internet.

6. Zwicky, Elizabeth D., S. Cooper and D. B. Chapman. Building Internet Firewalls,2nd Edition. Cambridge: O'Reilly, 2000.

7. Lillian Ablon, Martin C. Libicki, Andrea A. Golay. Markets for Cybercrime Tools and Stolen Data: Hackers' Bazaar : RAND Corporation , 2014.

8. Tarek N. Saadawi, Louis H. Jordan Jr. Cyber Infrastructure Protection: Strategic studies Institute,2011.

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Kanish, Bob. An Overview of Computer Viruses and Antivirus Software. Unknown: Kanish, 1996, accessed 12 October 2014; available from http://www.hicom.net/~oedipus/virus32.html; Internet.

10. Manu. Firewall Basics. Unknown: SecurityDocs.com, accessed 06Oct 2014; available from http://www.securitydocs.com/library/2413; Internet

FRIENDSHIP AMONG ADOLESCENT GIRLS: ANALYSIS USING GEPHI Sheetal Varshney and Amita Kapoor, Department of Electronics, Shaheed Rajguru College of Applied Sciences for Women, Vasundhra Enclave, Delhi-110096

Abstract— In recent years, social network analysis tools

METHODOLOGY

have been employed to predict human behavior, disease transmission, and even routing networks. Social network analysis is a method by which we can predict how the people are related or connected to one another. In this paper we study the change in friendship among adolescent girls in their final year of the undergraduate study program. To do the analysis we use Gephi an open source network analysis tool.

The data is collected from an all girl class in the final year of their undergraduate study. They were asked to name five of their close friends within the class. Based on this data, a network was built in Gephi. (Figure 1) The node in the network represented the individual girl student and edges (directed) corresponded to the five (or less) close friends that girl has.

INTRODUCTION Social network analysis (SNA) [1,2] is a method by which we can analyze the connections across individuals or groups or institutions. SNA focuses on interaction between individuals rather than individual behavior. It allows us to examine how the configuration of networks influences, how individuals and groups, organizations, or systems function. In a network, nodes are the people and edges connecting nodes show the relationship between the nodes. It helps in understanding both the visual and the mathematical aspect of human behavior.

SNA today transcends the boundary between various science disciplines; it can be applied across varied disciplines, viz., social networks, political networks, electrical networks, transportation networks [3], and so on. SNA have wide ranges of applications like as in data aggregation and mining, community maintained resource support, and location based interaction analysis, social sharing and filtering. In this paper we explore the SNA tools to analyze friendship among adolescent girls.

Adolescence is considered the transitional stage from childhood to adulthood. It is a time of both disorientation and discovery. Early adolescent friendships have been assumed to be especially intense and especially significant for development. According to Douvon et al [4], same sex friendships are closer and much more intense in early adolescence than in any other phase of human life span. They also suggested that friendships at this age have major influence on the development of personality, social skills and social behavior in the future adult life. A very crucial aspect in girl's life at adolescence is the need to be “important”, as Duncan [5] rightly says “It's important to be nice, but it's nicer to be important”. We in this paper using the measure of centrality, degree and modularity try to predict the most popular and most nice girl student in the class.

Figure 1: A network of a typical all-girl class. Node represent the individual girl student and edges(directed) correspond to five (or less) close friends that girl has. The graph is a directed graph with 55 nodes and 155 edges.

The reason for choosing this data set, beside convenience was to explore how the relationships develop in same sex groups.

Since they are final year students, they have spent last two years together, which is a sufficient good time for developing fruitful friendships.

Data Analysis The above dataset was analyzed on following aspects namely, degree, centrality and modularity. Degree centrality of a node in a network is by definition the number of edges incident upon a particular node. In our case, the degree centrality will indicate the number of girls in the class who consider this girl (node) as one of her five close friends. In our case though the out-degree for all nodes can be maximum five, but it is the indegree which is will measure the popularity or importance of a node. The in-degree distribution of our network is shown in figure 2. It demonstrates that while a large number of girls have a zero value of in-degree, symbolizing that no one in

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class wants to associate them as their friend. Only two girls stand out with in-degree of eight and nine respectively, making them the most popular girls of the class. Let us call these two nodes “Alison” and “Emily”. The Eigenvector centrality of these two nodes is also high with being 1.0 and 0.89 respectively, signifying that theses two nodes are indeed most popular girls in the class.

algorithm [6] to determine the modularity of the network. On our network we found modularity of 0.554, with 7 modularity classes, with a resolution of one. In a class of 55, 7 is a large number of communities. As compared with a random graph of same number of nodes and edges the modularity value is almost double; this seems to re-affirm the general perception that girls prefer smaller communities/groups over being part of a large community.

RESULT Friendship relationships between a group of 55 students all girls class of a undergraduate course were analyzed using Gephi. Using degree centrality and eigenvector centrality we were able to determine the most popular girls in the class, whom we name, “Alison” and “Emily”. We also tried to find the girl, with whom most communicate, using betweenness centrality, as expected a nice girl is different from the popular girl. Another interesting result was that the group had a high modularity score.

Figure 2: In-degree distribution of the all girl's class network Next we measured betweenness centrality of the nodes, the betweenness centrality quantifies how many times a particular node comes in the shortest chosen path between two other nodes.

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK With the fast changing tech world, everyone is short of time.

Children in adolescent age waste lot of their time and suffer lot of heart ache in the process of making friends. To stay popular in a class, in a community is something everyone wants. From our analysis we were able to find most popular and nice girl in a class. The analysis also made us aware of the communities within the class. By analyzing the social network using analytical tools we may be able to predict how people choose friends, and develop a recommender system which students joining a new institute can use to make friends.

REFERENCES 1.

2.

3(a)

3(b)

Figure 3 (a) Nodes colored according to degree centrality (The darker node, higher is the degree centrality) (b) Nodes colored according to betweenness centrality (The darker node, higher is the betweenness centrality)

3.

A node with highest betweenness centrality can play a significant role in the communication/information flow within the social network. The betweenness centrality of a node x is given by the expression:

4.

5.

6.

where σst is the total number of shortest paths from node s to node t and σst (x) is the number of those paths that pass through node x. In our case a node with highest betweenness centrality will represent the girl who communicates with all, and thus should be a “nice” person, not necessarily “important or popular”.As expected this was a different node.

Another important aspect of any network is modularity; it measures the strength of division of network into modules or clusters. A high modularity score indicates a sophisticated internal structure of a community. In Gephi we use Vincent's Page 89

Knoke, David, and Song Yang, eds. Social network analysis. Vol. 154. Sage, 2008.

Marin, Alexandra, and Barry Wellman. "Social network analysis: An introduction." The SAGE handbook of social network analysis (2011): 11-25.

Kim, Yusoon, et al. "Structural investigation of supply networks: A social network analysis approach." Journal of Operations Management 29.3 (2011): 194-211.

Douvan, Elizabeth Ann Malcolm, and Joseph Adelson. The adolescent experience. New York: Wiley, 1966.

Duncan*, Neil. "It's important to be nice, but it's nicer to be important: Girls, popularity and sexual competition." Sex Education 4.2 (2004): 137-152.

Vincent D Blondel, Jean-Loup Guillaume, Renaud Lambiotte, Etienne Lefebvre, Fast unfolding of communities in large networks, in Journal of Statistical Mechanics: Theory and Experiment 2008 (10), P1000.