RI Research Journal Volume 3

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EDITORIAL BOARD Editor in Chief

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Dr. Helen S. Molano, Royal Institution, Philippines hsmolano@ri2020.com / +6325262727

Associate Editor

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Dr. Marlene C. Tillah, Royal Institution, Philippines mct@ri2020.com / +6325262727

Executive Editors

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Ms. Arabella Bogene, Royal Institution, Singapore b@ri2020.com / +6562258311 Mr. Benjamin Tindall, Royal Institution, Singapore bt@ri2020.com / +6562258311

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Managing Editor

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Dr. Athena Georgene, Royal Institution, Singapore georgene@ri2020.com / +6562258311

Technical Staff

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Ms. Margareth Cabreros, Royal Institution, Philippines cabreros@ri2020.com / +6325262727 Ms. Liezel Margie Lou S. Bastian, Royal Institution, Philippines lb@ri2020.com / +6325262727 Mr. Ronie Mark T. Estaliosa, Royal Institution, Philippines rm@ri2020.com / +6325262727 Ms. Lavilyn Hysthea N. Malte, Royal Institution, Philippines lav@ri2020.com / +6325262727

: : :

International Review Board : Dr. Clarke Slemon, Royal Institution, Singapore cs@ri2020.com / +6562258311 : Dr. Ma Guinevere G. Uy, Royal Institution, Singapore uy@ri2020.com / +6562258311 : Dr. Samuel M. Salvador, Polytechnic University of the Philippines, Philippines sms@ri2020.com / +6327166307 loc 207 : Dr. Emmanuel Y. Angeles, Angeles University Foundation, Philippines eya@ri2020.com / +6322468383 : Rev. Fr. Dr. Herminio V. Dagohoy, University of Santo Tomas, Philippines hvd@ri2020.com / + 6327313123 : Dr. Ruperto P. Somera, RPS Tax Consultancy, Philippines rps@ri2020.com / +639177917311 Publisher

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Royal Institution Pte Ltd, Singapore Royal House 287 Tanglin Road Singapore 247940

Copyright 2014 Š Royal Institution

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PREFACE The RI Research Journal was conceptualised and materialised by the Royal Institution, Singapore to realise its vision and mission. This Research Journal is envisioned to create boundless opportunities for progressive learning among RI members, from different disciplines and across the globe.

This maiden publication is the compilation of Research Papers presented by the duly conferred Research Fellows of the Royal Institution during its International Congress and Conferment Ceremony held at the Theatre of Sutera Harbour Marina Golf and Country Club in Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, on May 1, 2014. Ten scholarly prepared Research Papers are featured and classified into Business, Organisation, and Management and Education and Social Sciences.

All research papers have been reviewed by the International Review Board.

The Editorial Board invites Researchers in any field of specialisation or discipline, to share their knowledge and ideas by contributing Research Papers, Scientific Articles and/ or Policy Papers. Submissions can be sent to ri@ri2020.com for inclusion in the succeeding volumes of RI Research Journal.

RI hopes that you will find the contents of this Research Journal informative, significant, and valuable, as we found it to be. We extend our gratitude to all who have given their unwavering support in completing this volume and making this publication possible, from the Editorial Staff, International Review Board, and to the Authors of the 10 Research Papers included herewith.

Editorial Board

EDITORIAL POLICY The Royal Institution (RI) Research Journal is a refereed journal published by the Royal Institution Pte Ltd, Singapore, in furtherance of its mission to continuously provide opportunities in enhancing the status of its members. This research journal accords an opportunity for knowledge and idea exchange, and in becoming the premiere platform for global networking and collaboration.

This research journal will only publish original manuscripts that are aligned with the Theme or Topic set by the Editorial Board. Manuscripts submitted will be reviewed anonymously by referees with expertise on the topic.

Contents of the RI Research Journal represent the opinion of the authors and not necessarily those of the Editorial Board and Publisher. The Editorial Board and Publisher assume no responsibility or liability for damages arising from any error or omission, from use of any information or advice contained within the Papers. Authors are responsible for obtaining permission to reproduce copyrighted materials from other sources and ensuring that the paper has not been published elsewhere and that it has not been submitted simultaneously for publication elsewhere.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No. Editorial Board

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Preface

3

Editorial Policy

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Correcting the Patterns of Discrimination in Public Employment: The Philippine Experience Valentino G. Baac, PhD, FRI(Rs), FRIPAr

5

An Assessment on Consumer Satisfaction Re: Technological Innovation on Mobile Phones Julio O. Castillo, Jr, DBA, FRI(Rs), FRIBA

16

Index of Readiness of College of Business Education (CBE) Graduating Students for Business Leadership Angeles A. De Guzman, DBA, CPA, FRI(Rs)

22

Quality Assessment of Public Secondary Schools in National Capital Region: Basis for Proposed Secondary School Improvement Plan Rommel Mar C. De Guzman, DEM, FRI(Rs), FRIEdr

32

The Level of Implementation of the Line Item Budget System of the University of Santo Tomas: Basis for Budget Development Plan Patricia M. Empleo, PhD, CPA, FRI(Rs)

44

Differential Item Functioning Detection in Reading Comprehension Test Using Mantel-Haenszel, Item Response Theory, and Logical Data Analysis Teodora M Salubayba, PhD, FRI(Rs)

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Correlation on Multiple Intelligence and Academic Performance of Students with Visual and hearing Impairments Cheryl D. Taclawan, EdD, FRI(Rs)

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The Level of Awareness and Implementation of the Generic Law in the Drugstore Business in the National Capital Region Danilo A. Valenzuela, DBA, FRI(Rs), FRIBA

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First Generation Entrants : Personality Traits, Resiliency and Achievement Indicators Christine V. Yambao, RGC, PhD, FRI(Rs)

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Predictors of CPA Board Performance: A Five-Year Retrospective Study Antonio O. Yu, DBM, DBE, CPA, FRI(Rs)

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About the Authors

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CORRECTING PATTERNS OF DISCRIMINATION IN PUBLIC EMPLOYMENT: THE PHILIPPINE EXPERIENCE Valentino G. Baac, PhD, FRI(Rs), FRIPAr when Sir Charles Tevelyan borrowed it from the British administration in India and applied it to English conditions. In a very broad sense it "included simply the professional body of officials employed by the state in non-military and nonjudicial services" (Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, 1959).

ABSTRACT The research delved into the diffusion of the merit system, equal employment opportunities, and affirmative action in the Philippine Civil Service system. It looked into the plight of government workers in the three branches of the Philippine government – the Executive, the Legislative, and the Judiciary. The study proposes policy direction on public employment practices as means of correcting patterns of discrimination in the Philippine public employment.

The principles governing the integrity of the civil service are of universal validity, to wit: The civil service system rests on the principle of application of the merit system instead of the spoils system in the matter of appointment and tenure of office (Barry v. Jackson, 30 Cal. App., 1916).

INTRODUCTION Apart from the merit system, which is traditionally emphasised by the Philippine Civil Service System in the hiring and treatment of workers, the values of equal employment opportunity and affirmative action have also become increasingly important, in the hiring and treatment of government employees. Equal employment refers to government efforts to eliminate employment discrimination based on race, ethnic background, sex, age, or physically challenged employees. It simply seeks to ensure that all persons have an equal chance to compete for and hold positions of employment based on their job qualifications.

Affirmative action, on the other hand, involves the use of positive, results-oriented practices to ensure the equitable representation of women, minorities, handicapped or physically challenged persons, and other protected classes of people in the organisation (Hall & Albrecht, 1979).

To that end, the charter establishes a classified civil service system, with exclusive power in the civil service commission to provide qualified personnel, for the various municipal departments and to classify or reclassify positions according to prescribed duties (Hanley v. Murphy, 255 P. 2d, 1953).

Furthermore, civil service laws are not enacted to penalize anyone. They are designed to eradicate the system of appointment to public office based on political considerations and to eliminate as far as practicable the element of partisanship and personal favoritism in making appointments.

These laws intend to establish a merit system of fitness and efficiency as the basis of appointment; to secure more competent employees, and thereby promote better government (Gervais v. New Orleans Police Department, 77 So.2d 393, 1954; State ex rel. Kos vs. Adamson, cited in Civil Service Board of the City of

This also holds true in the practice of public administration in the three branches of the Philippine government – the executive, the legislative, and the judiciary.

Accordingly, one common peculiar characteristic of the 1935, the 1976, and the 1987 Philippine Constitutions is the inclusion of the provision on equal employment opportunity.

This paper investigated public employment practices in the application of the merit system, equal employment opportunities, and affirmative action as means of correcting the patterns of discrimination in Philippine public employment.

The term civil service dates back to 1854 5

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Correcting Patterns of Discrimination In Public Employment: The Philippine Experience Phoenix vs. Warren, 244 P 2d 1157, 1952)

reward for party service (Antonio Lacson vs. Honorio Ramero, et. al., G.R. No. L-3081, 1949).

During the American occupation in the Philippines, the Filipinization of the Philippine government was gradually implemented as early as 1899. The Schurman Commission proclaimed as one of its regulative principles of cardinal importance in guiding U.S. policy, “that there shall be guaranteed to the Filipino people an honest and effective Civil Service, in which to the fullest extent practicable natives shall be employed.” William Howard Taft, the First American Civil Governor in the country, announced the famous slogan “the Philippines for the Filipinos”, and declared in one of his official reports that the passage of the first Civil Service Law in the Philippines was a condition precedent to the establishment of proper civil government in the Islands.

In the Philippines, the Civil Service or the merit system is part of the conscience of our government, for as a reform movement, it is essentially ethical (Del Rosario, 1956). Only after the nations of the world took cognizance of its merits was the merit system adopted. In 1789, the constitutional right of the President of the United States to act alone in the matter of removals sanctioned the political patronage in the government service. From the time of Andrew Jackson, the principle of 'to the victor belong the spoils' dominated the Federal Government. The system undermined moral values and destroyed administrative efficiency (Aruego, 1936).

The Philippines enjoyed the benefits of the merit system since the establishment of the American Regime in the country. The Schurman Commission advocated in its report that 'greatest care should be taken in the selection of officials for administration. They should be men of the highest character and fitness, and partisan politics should be entirely separated from the government.' The fifth act passed by the Philippine Commission created a Board of Civil Service. It instituted a system that was far more radical and thorough than in the United States. The Governors-General after William Taft adopted the policy of appointing Filipinos in the government regardless of their party affiliation. Because of these, 'the personnel of the Civil Service had gradually come to be one of which the people of the United States could feel justly proud.'

U.S. President Mc Kinley’s instructions to the Second Philippine Commission on April 7, 1900 enjoined the establishment as soon as possible of a system for "ascertaining the merit and fitness of candidates for Civil Service Offices.” This paved the way for the passing of Act No. 5, otherwise known as the Civil Service Act of 19 September 1900, entitled an “Act For the Establishment and Maintenance of an Efficient and Honest Civil Service in Philippine Islands”, creating a Philippine Service Board of three members. The Board became known as the Bureau of Civil Service in 1905.

Keeping faith with the American legacy, the members of the Committee on Civil Service of the Commission that drafted the Constitution for the Philippine Commonwealth in 1935, said:

As may be noted, Civil Service Law (Republic Act No. 2260) states that its general purpose is to:

The adoption of the “merit system” in government service has secured efficiency and social justice. It eliminates the political factor in the selection of civil service employees which is essential to an efficient personal system. It ensures equality of opportunity to all deserving applicants desirous of a career in the public service. It advocates a new concept of the public service as a career open to all and not the exclusive patrimony of a party or faction to be doled out as a

insure and promote the general mandate requiring appointments only according to merit and fitness, and to provide within the public service a progressive system of personnel administration to insure the maintenance of an honest and efficient progressive and courteous civil service in the Philippines.

Safety mechanism in place like Section 19, Book V of Executive Order No. 292 (The Administrative Code of 1987), provides: Section 19. Recruitment and Selection of Employees – (1) 6

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Correcting Patterns of Discrimination In Public Employment: The Philippine Experience Opportunity for government employment shall be open to all qualified citizens, and positive efforts shall be exerted to attract the best qualified to enter the service. Employees shall be selected on the basis of the fitness to perform the duties and assume the responsibilities of the position.

appointee assumes his duties immediately and shall remain effective until it is disapproved by the Commission, if this should take place, without prejudice to the liability of the appointing authority for appointments issued in violation of existing laws or rules; Provided, finally, that the Commission shall keep a record of appointments of all officers and employees in the civil service. All appointments requiring the approval of the Commission as herein provided, shall be submitted to it by the appointing authority within thirty days from issuance, otherwise the appointment becomes ineffective thirty days thereafter.

Section 12 of the same Executive Order, also provides: Section 12. – The Commission shall administer the Civil Service and shall have the following powers and functions: (a) Administer and enforce the constitutional and statutory provision of the said merit system...." (Emphasis supplied)

From the foregoing provision, it is clear that the CSC has the power to approve or disapprove an appointment and not the power to make the appointment itself or to direct that such appointment be made by the appointing authority.

The CSC can only inquire into the eligibility of the person chosen to fill a vacant position and if found qualified, it must so attest. The CSC’s duty is to attest appointments – such function is purely ministerial on the part of CSC. However, it shares significant quasi-judicial function when it acts on appointment grievances.

This means that the primary objective of the Civil Service Commission (CSC) is to promote and establish professionalism by ensuring a high level of morale among the employees and officers in the career civil service. Pursuant to this constitutional mandate, the CSC should see to it that the merit system is applied, enforced and implemented in personnel actions involving appointments affecting all levels and ranks in civil service at all times.

Paragraph H, Section 9 of Presidential decree No. 807, otherwise known as the Civil Service Decree of the Philippines, provides:

The Constitutional Mandate The inclusion of provisions regarding the merit system in the 1935, 1976, and the 1987 Philippine Constitutions is a necessity of modern times. As its establishment secures good government and good governance, the citizens have a right to expect its guarantee as a permanent institution.

Section 9. Powers and Function of the Commission. – The Commission shall administer the Civil Service and shall have the following powers and functions:

Unlike the 1935 Constitution, which merely set down the underlying principles of a civil service system and commanded that a civil service system be created by law, the 1976 Constitution itself creates the system with basic structure, powers and prohibitions. Explaining the change, Constitutional delegate Guinigundo (1972) said that a constitutionally created system was necessary:

(h) Approve all appointments, whether original or promotional, to positions in the civil service, except those of presidential appointees, members of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, police forces, firemen, and jail guards, and disapprove those where the appointees do not possess the appropriate eligibility or required qualifications. An appointment shall take effect immediately upon issue by the appointing authority if the

…[b]ecause we believe that the Civil Service created by law has not been able to eradicate the ills and the evils 7

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Correcting Patterns of Discrimination In Public Employment: The Philippine Experience envisioned by the framers of the 1935 Constitution; because we believe that the Civil Service created by law is beholden to the creators of that law and is therefore not politics-free, not graft-free and not corruption-free; because we believe that as long as the law is the reflection of the will of the ruling class, the Civil Service that will be created and recreated by the law will not serve the interest of the people but only the personal interest of the few and the enhancement of family power, advancement and prestige.

competitive and non-competitive positions.

Appointment to a competitive position must be according to merit and fitness as determined, as far as practicable, by competitive examinations.

Appointments to non-competitive positions are those by their nature are policy – determining, primarily confidential, or highly technical.

Early jurisprudence on this subject established that what makes it non-competitive is the nature and not just the label of the position. Thus, “much more than ordinary confidence is reposed in the occupant of a position that is primarily confidential.

The latter phrase denotes not only confidence in the aptitude of the appointee for the duties of the office but primarily close intimacy which insures freedom of intercourse without embarrassment or freedom from misgivings or betrayals of personal trust on confidential matters of state” (De los Santos vs. Mallare, GR No. L-3881, 1950).

Table 1. Merit System

1935 Philippine Constitution

1976 Philippine Constitution

Art. XI, Sec. 1 – A Civil Service embracing all branches and subdivisions of the Government shall be provided be law.

Appointments in the Civil Service, except as to those, which are policy-determining, primarily confidential or highly technical in nature, shall be made only according to merit and fitness, to be determined as far as practicable by competitive examination.

A policy – determining position is one charged with the duty to “formulate a method of action for the government or any of its subdivisions” (Id.). A position is highly technical if the occupant is required “to possess a technical skill or training in the supreme or superior degree” (Id.).

The competitive and non-competitive positions correspond to the classification in the Civil Service Code into Career Service and NonCareer Service. Section 5 of the Code says:

Art. XII (B), Sec. 2 – Appointments in the Civil Service, except as to those which are policy-determining, primarily confidential, or highly technical in nature, shall be made only according to merit and fitness, to be determined as far as practicable by competitive examination.

The Career Service shall be characterized by (1) entrance on merit and fitness to be determined as far as practicable by competitive examinations, or based on highly technical qualifications; (2) opportunity for advancement to higher career positions; and (3) security of tenure.

Art. IX (B) – The Civil Service Commission

1987 Philippine Constitution

Sec. 2 (2) – Appointment in the Civil Service shall be made only according to merit and fitness to be determined, as far as practicable, and, expect to positions which are policydetermining primarily confidential or highly technical, by competitive examination.

Section 6 says: The Non-Career Service shall be characterized by (1) entrance on bases other than those of the usual tests of merit and fitness utilized for the career service; and (2) tenure which is limited to a period specified by law or which is co-terminous with that of the appointing authority or subject to his pleasure, or which is limited to the duration of a particular project for which purpose employment was made.

The general objective of a civil service system is to establish and promote professionalism and efficiency in public service. Sec. 2 is the basis for classifying positions in the Civil Service into 8

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Correcting Patterns of Discrimination In Public Employment: The Philippine Experience Equal Opportunity in Employment

Constitutionalist, Fr. Joaquin G. Bernas, S.J. (1997) mentioned that the assurance of equality in employment and work opportunities regardless of sex, race, creed is also given by the equal protection clause of the Bill of Rights. The specific mention of “race”, however, made by the 1973 Constitution as a prohibited basis of discrimination might present an interesting question: Did the provision prohibit the nationalization of labor?

Under the 1935 Constitution, citizenship was a valid basis of classification for purposes of employment opportunities if “race” means citizenship, then citizenship can no longer be a valid basis for discrimination in employment opportunities and benefits – unless the provision is to be understood as a one-edged sword that protects only Filipinos. There is evidence, in fact, that the mention of “race” in the 1973 Constitution intended to protect protection Filipinos working in their own country. In his sponsorship speech, Delegate Corpus pointed to the discrimination practiced against Filipinos in American military bases and suggested that the Constitution should give Filipinos protection against discrimination within their own country (Session, 1972). In the 1987 Constitution the words race, and sex, for that matter, no longer appears.

The Philippine government’s concept of equal opportunity has a firm basis in its Constitution, as well as, its legal history and framework.

Table 2. Equal Employment Opportunity 1935 Philippine Constitution

1976 Philippine Constitution

1987 Philippine Constitution

Art. XIII, Sec. 6 – The State shall afford protection to labor, especially to working women and minors, and shall regulate the relations between landowner and tenant, and between labor and capital in industry and in agriculture.

The State may provide for compulsory arbitration.

Art. II, Sec. 9 – The State shall afford protection to labor, promote full employment and equality in employment, ensure equal work opportunities regardless of sex, race, or creed, and regulate the relations between workers and employers.

The State shall assure the rights of workers to self-organization, collective bargaining, security of tenure, and just and humane conditions of work. The State may provide for compulsory arbitration.

Art. II, Sec. 14 – The State recognizes the Role of women in nation-building, and shall ensure the Fundamental Equality before the law of women and men.

Table 3. Indigenous Communities 1935 Philippine Constitution

The 1973 Constitution adopted the provisions of the 1935 Constitution with additional injunction that the State should “promote full employment and equality in employment, ensure equal work opportunities regardless of sex, race, or creed” and “assure the rights of workers to selforganization, collective bargaining, security of tenure, and just and humane conditions of work”.

People

/

Cultural

Art. II, Sec. 5 – The promotion of social justice to ensure the wellbeing and economic security of all the people should be the concern of the State.

1976 Philippine Constitution 1987 Philippine Constitution

The 1987 Constitution provision is new.

Beyond stating that women have a role in nation building, the provision makes a more important assertion that there exists a fundamental equality of women and men before the law. There was, however, no intent to advocate absolute sameness because there are obvious biological differences between men and women (IV Records 685, 1972). It was precisely to make room for these natural differences that the provision was made to read “fundamental equality before the law”.

Art. II, Sec. 22 - The State recognizes and promotes the rights of indigenous cultural communities within the framework of national unity and development.

The implementation of this policy is found principally in the provisions of the 1987 Philippine Constitution on Cultural Communities found in Article X, on Local Governments, Article XII, on the Economy, Article XIV, on Arts and Culture, and Section 12, Article XVI, on a consultative body to advise the President. It is also worth noting that, in the initial discussions of this provision, among its objectives was the “banning and rectifying of 9

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Correcting Patterns of Discrimination In Public Employment: The Philippine Experience erroneous allusions to ethnic minorities in books, museums, other institutions and records of government” (IV Record 730, 1972). Bernas (1996) commented that the final text does not reflect this objective – the pursuit of which can involve weighing of considerations of freedom of experience.

poverty through policies that provide adequate social services, promote full employment, a rising standard of living, and an improved quality of life for all. (Emphasis supplied) Equal Opportunity in Employment

On Affirmative Action

One of the emerging issues on the status of the Filipino women of the 21st century is equal opportunities in employment. The principle of basic human rights calls for equal civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights for all individuals. In the Philippines and around the world, there is a growing recognition that it would be impossible to achieve development and poverty reduction with all the groups not having equal access to decision-making, planning, political participation, education, and productive resources.

As earlier defined, affirmative action involves the use of “positive, results-oriented practices to ensure that women, minorities, handicapped persons, and other protected classes of people will be equitably represented in the organization" (Hall & Albrecht, 1979, p. 2). Originally, it referred only to special efforts to ensure equal opportunity for members or groups that had been subject to discrimination. These efforts included public advertisement of positions to be filled, active recruitment of qualified applicants from the formerly excluded groups, and special training programs to help them meet the standards for admission or appointment. There was also close attention to procedures of appointment, and sometimes to the results, with a view to detecting continued discrimination, conscious or unconscious.

As a matter of policy, provisions of the 1986 Philippine Constitution, which took effect on 02 February 1987, provided among other things the following: Sec. 14, Article II – The State recognizes the role of women in nation building, and shall ensure the fundamental equality before the law of men and women.

More recently, the term has come to refer also to some degree of definite preference for members of these groups in determining access to positions from which they were formerly excluded. Such preference might be allowed to influence decisions only between candidates who are otherwise equally qualified, but usually it involves the selection of women or minority members over other candidates who are better qualified for the position. The first sort of policy is called "weak affirmative action" and the second "strong affirmative action." It is in the "strong affirmative action" – the policy preference – that arouses controversy.

Sec. 14, Article XIII – The State shall protect working women by providing safe and healthful working conditions, taking into account their maternal functions, and such facilities and opportunities that will enhance their welfare and enable them to realize their full potential in the service of the nation.

In addition, the following provisions of the Labor Code of the Philippines (P.D. No. 442, as amended) provide, among other things, enabling mechanisms to enhance gender equality sought for by the Filipino women:

The 1935 and the 1976 Philippine Constitutions are depleted of provisions on affirmative action. The 1987 Constitution includes only Art. II, Sec. 9 as the nearest provision of the country's fundamental law on affirmative action, to wit:

Art. 132. Facilities for women. – The Secretary of Labor shall establish standards that will insure the safety and health of women employees. In appropriate cases, he shall, by regulations, require any employer to:

Art. II, Sec. 9 – The State shall promote a just and dynamic social order that will ensure the prosperity and independence of the nation and free the people from

(a) Provide seats proper for women and permit them to use such 10

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Correcting Patterns of Discrimination In Public Employment: The Philippine Experience seats when they are free from work and during working hours, provided they can perform their duties in this position without detriment to efficiency;

by law to maintain a clinic or infirmary shall provide free family planning services to their employees which shall include but not limited to, the application or use of contraceptive pills and intrauterine devices.

(b) To establish separate toilet rooms and lavatories for men and women and provide at least a dressing room for women;

(b) In coordination with other agencies of the Government engaged in the promotion of family planning, the Department of Labor shall develop and prescribe incentive bonus schemes to encourage family planning among female workers in any establishment or enterprise.

(c) To establish a nursery in a workplace for the benefit of the women employees therein; and (d)

To determine appropriate minimum age and other standards for retirement or termination in special occupations such as those of flight attendants and the like.

ART. 133. Maternity leave benefits. –

ART. 136. Stipulation against marriage. It shall be unlawful for an employer to require as a condition of employment or continuation of employment or continuation of employment that a woman employee shall not get married, or to stipulate expressly or tacitly that upon getting married a woman employee shall be deemed resigned or separated, or to actually dismiss, discharge, discriminate or otherwise prejudice a woman employee merely by reason of her marriage.

(a) Every employer shall grant to any pregnant woman employee, who has rendered an aggregate service of at least six (6) months for the last twelve (12) months, maternity leave of at least two (2) weeks prior to the expected date of delivery and another four (4) weeks after normal delivery or abortion with full pay based on her regular or average weekly wages.

The employer may require from any woman employee applying maternity leave the production of a medical certificate stating that delivery will probably take place within two weeks.

ART. 137. Prohibited acts. – (a) It shall be unlawful for any employer: (1) To deny any woman employee the benefits provided for in this Chapter or to discharge any woman employed by him for the purpose of preventing her from enjoying any of the benefits provided under this Code.

(a) The maternity leave shall be extended without pay on account of illness medically certified to arise out of the pregnancy, delivery, abortion, or miscarriage, which renders the woman unfit for work, unless she has earned unused leave credits from which such extended leave may be charged.

(2) To discharge such woman on account of her pregnancy, or while on leave or in confinement due to her pregnancy;

(a) The maternity leave provided in this Article shall be paid by the employer only for the first four (4) deliveries by a woman employee after the effectivity of this Code.

(3) To discharge or refuse the admission of such woman upon returning to her work for fear that she may again be pregnant.

ART. 134. Family planning services; incentives for family planning. – (a) Establishments which are required 11

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Correcting Patterns of Discrimination In Public Employment: The Philippine Experience ART. 138. Classification of certain women workers. – Any woman who is permitted or suffered to work, with or without compensation, in any night club, cocktail lounge, massage clinic, bar or similar establishment, under the effective control or supervision of the employer for a substantial period of time as determined by the Secretary of labor, shall be considered as an employee of such establishment for purposes of labor and social legislation.

women force of 827,157 (58.7%) suffers at different levels significant deficits as shown in their participation in the elective and cabinet positions in the country: Table 4. Regional Distribution of Women Occupying Career Positions in Government, 2010 CAREER REGION Male Female 1 2 3 4A 4B 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 NCR CAR CARAGA ARMM TOTAL

The latest 2010 inventory of government personnel conducted by the Civil Service Commission reveals that the number of female government employees exceeded the number of male government employees. Female employees totaled 827,157 or 58.7% of the total government workforce, whereas male employees totaled 582,503 or 41.3% of the total government population (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Sex Disaggregation of Government Personnel (CSC, 2010)

21, 814 14, 415 30, 832 31, 504 12, 169 20, 175 30, 947 22, 900 19, 690 16, 793 15, 833 13, 045 14, 335 201, 986 9, 164 10, 461 3,195 489, 258

36, 899 21, 400 71, 364 76, 510 25, 403 48, 136 61, 506 49, 428 42, 721 30, 116 33, 718 27, 911 29, 291 177, 579 15, 328 22, 888 1, 829 772, 027

The Executive Department The President of the Republic of the Philippines heads the Executive Department with the Vice president as the successor. In the doctrine of the co-equal branches of government, the executive department is in charge of the implementation of the laws of the country. To achieve this end, cabinet members are appointed as the President’s alter ego in running the affairs of governance. Since President Corazon C. Aquino, the first Filipino woman President, up to the current dispensation, the following data shows the number of women appointed as members of the President's official family:

Of this total number of women workers, 772,027 occupy career positions and 5,130 occupy non-career positions.

These career positions are distributed to all regions across the country as shown in Table 4.

Table 5. Percentage of Women in the Cabinet (1986-present) ADMINISTRATION

These are the women force engaged in various government services involving the provision of access and delivery of programs and projects that will enhance the attainment of the merit system, and equal employment opportunities. But while this women force have contributed to modest achievement on the implementation of the merit system and equal employment opportunities in the country, the

Pres. C. Aquino (1986-1982) Pres. Ramos (1992-1998) Pres. Estrada (1998-2001) Pres. Arroyo (2001-2010) Pres. B. Aquino III (2010-present) TOTAL

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No. of Women in Cabinet

No. of Cabinet Posts

Women in Cabinet (%)

5

22

42%

7

25

28%

7

41

17%

13

27

48%

7

27

26%

39

142

27%

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Correcting Patterns of Discrimination In Public Employment: The Philippine Experience The percentage of women members in the Cabinet, as shown in Table 5, is rather inconsistent, unstable or erratic. In the current administration of President Benigno Simeon Aquino III, women members of his cabinet comprise only 26% as compared to his predecessor, the Macapagal – Arroyo administration, which had 48% women members of cabinet. It was 42% during President Corazon C. Aquino’s administration, 28% during the Ramos administration, and 17% during the short-lived Estrada administration.

men were appointed as Associate Justices to the Supreme Court. Since then, 13 other women have been appointed as Associate Justices of the Supreme Court to include the current Chief Justice Maria Lourdes P.A. Sereno. Justice Muñoz-Palma later became the Chairperson of the 1986 Constitutional Convention, which drafted the 1987 Philippine Constitution.

The milestone appointment of Chief Justice Maria Lourdes P.A. Sereno, as the 24th Chief Justice and the First woman Chief Justice of the Philippine Supreme Court, by President Simeon Benigno C. Aquino III, on August 16, 2010 broke the Supreme Court’s prevailing glass ceiling - an unacknowledged discriminatory political term used to describe the unseen, yet unbreakable barrier, based on attitudinal or organizational bias in the work force, which keeps women and minorities from rising to positions of power or responsibility within the corporate ladder, regardless of their qualifications or achievements. At age 52, she is the second youngest appointee to the Supreme Court since Manuel Moran in 1945. This record was surpassed by Marvic Leonen who was appointed to the Supreme Court at the age of 49.

Chief Justice Sereno will retire in 2030, after 20 years in office (18 years as Chief Justice), pursuant to the requirements of the 1987 Philippine Constitution.

The Legislative Department The Legislative Department is accorded the function of making laws. Table 6 shows that indeed, there has been an increase on the number of women legislators since the 8th Congress.

Table 6. Percentage of Women in Congress (1987-2016) Period

Women Senators %

Women Representatives %

8th

1987-1992

8

9

9th

1992-1995

17

11

10th

1995-1998

17

11

11th

1998-2001

17

12

12th

2001-2004

13

14

13th

2004-2007

17

14

14th

2007-2010

17

21

15th

2010-2013

13

22

16th

2013-2016

25

26

Congress

Table 7. Percentage of Women Justices in the Supreme Court (1991-present) No.

The 16th Congress shows a significant number of women in both Houses in Congress - (Senators, 25%; Representatives, 26%) – as compared to the 8th Congress (Senators, 8%; Representatives, 19%). However, the 14th Congress made a breakthrough in the appointment of the first woman Deputy Speaker of the Philippine Congress, Amelita Villarosa.

19th 20th

21st

22nd 23rd

The Judiciary

24th

The third co-equal branch of government, the judiciary, interprets laws within the ambit of their constitutionality. The inclusion of women justices in this branch of government started with the appointment of Justice Cecilia Muñoz-Palma, the first woman Associate Justice of the Supreme Court, on October 29, 1973, by then President Ferdinand E. Marcos. Until her appointment, only

Chief Justice/ Administration Andres Narvasa (1991-1998) Hilario G. Davide, Jr. (1998 - 2005 ) Artemio Panganiban (2005-2006) Reynato Puno (2006-2010) Renato Corona (2010-2014) Maria Lourdes P.A. Sereno (2014 –present)

Total No. of Justices 15

Women Justices No. % 2 13.33%

14

2

14.3%

15

6

40%

15

2

13.33%

15

4

26.67%

15

3

20%

There has been an increase, however, in the appointments of lady Justices as members of the Supreme Court from 1991-1998 (14.3%) to 2014present (20%). It was during the incumbency of Chief Justice Artemio Panganiban (2005-2006) 13

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Correcting Patterns of Discrimination In Public Employment: The Philippine Experience that the Supreme Court had 40% women appointee as Associate Justices: Consuelo Ynares-Santiago, Angelina Sandoval Gutierrez, Ma. Alicia Austria-Martinez, Conchita Carpio Morales, Minita Chico Nazario, and Estela Perlas Bernabe.

On Physically Challenged Disabilities (PWDs)

/

Persons

proposes that one (1) percent of all positions in all government agencies including government owned corporations and financial institutions, state universities and colleges and LGUs be reserved to qualified PWDs.

with On Indigenous Peoples (IPs)

The Philippine Magna Carta for Disabled Persons (1992) defines disabled persons as “those suffering from restriction or different abilities, as a result of a mental, physical or sensory impairment, to perform an activity in the manner or within the range considered normal for a human being.� Separate reports released by the Philippine National Statistics Office and the Asian Development Bank in 2005, stated that only about 10 to 30 percent of employable PWDs in the country are engaged in regularly paid work. A sizeable 50 percent work in the informal sector, and the rest are homemakers or are dependent on other family members, government aid, and even begging for economic survival.

In The CERD Concluding Observations of 2009 and the Philippine Universal Periodic Review (UPR) Report of April 2007, a consolidation of the various human rights issues and concerns on the IPs has been first classified into several human rights agenda as follows: development aggression, armed conflict, non-representation in governance, non-delivery of basic services, non-recognition and non-appreciation of traditional structures and mechanisms, overlapping of policies, and negative or discriminatory outlook on ICCs/IPs. To attain positive outlook on the various human rights issues and concerns, the classifications were later on changed with focus on: (a) economic rights; (b) civil and political rights; and, (c) social and cultural rights.

The Philippine government guarantees the capacitating and inclusion of PWDs into the mainstream society by stressing the importance of their rehabilitation, self-development and selfreliance as stipulated in the Constitution and the Magna Carta for Disabled Persons.

CONCLUSIONS The study showed concrete attempts of the government to diffuse the merit system, equal opportunity in employment, and affirmative action in the three branches of government – the executive, the legislative and the judiciary.

However, such diffusion did not manifest a more systematic and efficient participation of women, persons with disabilities or the physically challenged, and indigenous members of society since the inception of the 1987 Philippine Constitution, which is nearly three (3) decades ago.

The Philippine Human Rights Plan (20122016), states among other things the following on equal opportunity for the employment of Persons with Disabilities or those that are Physically Challenged: Equal opportunity for employment is a challenge for all duty-bearers and stakeholders.

Section 5 paragraph 2 of the Magna Carta for Disabled Persons (RA 7277) provides that one (1) percent of all casual, emergency and contractual positions in the DSWD, DOH and DepEd and other government agencies, offices or corporations engaged in social development shall be reserved for PWDs. The NCDA is pushing for the amendment of this provision; Further, the NCDA

The mere existence of laws and policies on the merit system, equal opportunity in employment, and affirmative action of government did not warrant diffusion.

It is imperative, therefore, that the diffusion of the merit system, equal opportunity in employment, and affirmative action of government can only come about when laws and policies are concretely translated into concrete programs and projects that are cascaded from the national to the 14

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Correcting Patterns of Discrimination In Public Employment: The Philippine Experience local level of governance in the country.

Kos vs. Adamson, 226 Minn. 177, 32 N.W. 2d 281, 284.

Civil Service Decree of the Philippines, 1975.

This calls for a strong political will on the part of the national and local leadership that remain to be male – dominated and rich – driven. This direction for a more effective diffusion must be effectively supported by a methodical statistical system that would track and monitor the progress achieved on periodic basis. It should be characterised by disaggregation of data and information that would reveal achievements in the level of implementing the merit system, and the participation of women, physically challenged and indigenous members of society in the three branches of government.

De los Santos vs. Mallare, 87 Phil. 289, 298, 1950.

Gervais vs. New Orleans Police department, 77 So 2d, 393; Hall and Albrecht (1979). Organization Theory.

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Hanley vs. Murphy, 255 P. 2d, 1, 4.

Labor Code of the Philippines, P.D. No. 442, 1974 Magna Carta for Disabled Persons, R.A. No. 7277, March 24, 1992 Philippine Constitutions, 1935, 1976, 1987.

Notwithstanding bureaucracy should be depoliticised which calls for a strong political will in the midst of rampant political dynasty practices, political patronage in government appointment undermining the merit system, equal opportunity in employment, and affirmative action of government.

Philippine Human Rights Plan (2012-2016).

Samson vs. Court of Appeals, 145 SCRA 654, 658-659, 1986.

Session of 24 November 1972 in the deliberations of the Philippine Constitution: IV Record 730; and IV Records 685, 726—727.

Speech delivered by then Civil Service Commissioner Amado del Rosario at the Conference on Public Administration, Youth Center, YMCA, Manila, 16 November 1956.

Speech delivered by Constitutional delegate Gunigundo, Session of 18 February 1972.

UNDP (2007). Universal Periodic Review: Philippines (UPR) Report of April 2007

Finally, the national and local government units should commit performance targets that would quantify concrete manifestation of diffusion in their respective jurisdictions, with mechanisms for rewarding best practices and institutional support for their replication in order to speed up diffusion.

REFERENCES Administrative Code of 1987. E.O. No. 292, 1987 Antonio Lacson vs. Honorio Ramero, et. al., G.R. No. L-3081, 14 October 1949.

Aruego, Jose M. (1936). The Framing of the Philippine Constitution.

Michigan: University Publishing Company, Inc. Barry vs. Jackson, 30 Cal. App. 165, 169, 157.

Bernas, Joaquin G., S.J. (1997). The 1987 Philippine Constitution: A Commentary.

Manila: Rex Bookstore.

CERD (2009). CERD Concluding Observations of 2009 Civil Service. Vol.3, Encyclopedia of the Social Science 515 (1959).

Civil Service Act, 19 September 1900.

Civil Service Board of the City of Phoenix vs.

Warren, 244 P 2d 1157 citing State ex rel.

15

AN ASSESSMENT ON CONSUMER SATISFACTION RE: TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION OF MOBILE PHONES Julio O. Castillo Jr., DBA, FRI(Rs), FRIBA Qi, et.al. (2009), agreed that the demand and the supply of mobile data services are increasing as the third – generation mobile technology does.

Subscribers adopt the mobile data services.

Consumers are attracted to the third generation technology, thus making it highly commercialized.

According to the study (Id.), the subscribers of the mobile telecom are easily attracted and attached to the widely commercialized mobile data services.

ABSTRACT Different mobile phones offer variation and uniqueness in terms of product designs and brands. Consumers have become more definite with their preference of product attributes through each subsequent purchase. This research determined consumer satisfaction – their expectations and preferences, and the factors affecting their next purchase consideration.

According to the project Converging Technologies for Improving Human Performance (National Science Foundation, 2003), the enhancement of the human performance due to the nanotechnology, biotechnology, information technology and cognitive science or the NBIC convergence is the satisfaction of the consumers to technology. The satisfaction of it is through the notion of its improvement through the human performance.

INTRODUCTION Modern technology plays a significant role in today’s society. It allows you to communicate through mobile phones, emails, chats, video calls, etc. with less effort in making handwritten mails and definitely makes sending by post unnecessary. You can watch movies, research, and be updated with the latest news and trends here and abroad with just a few clicks, using the internet. Modern technology brings convenience making it a part of humans’ daily life.

Chayet, Kouvelis, & Yu (2011) agreed that consumers make product choices to maximize a linear utility function of price, quality level, and waiting cost. A developed integrated marketing operations model provides insights on the factors determining the right level of product variety to offer, the relative quality positioning of the products in the line, the resulting market coverage and segmentation, and the effects on production costs and congestion levels of the processes.

It is imperative to acquire and develop additional knowledge on how the consumers react, adapt and get attached with technology innovation and determine the factors affecting consumer satisfaction with these products.

Various gadgets are launched in the market more frequently. There are phones built with an operating system, equipped with advanced computing capability and connectivity.

Smartphones consist a functionality of portable media players, compact digital cameras, pocket video cameras, and GPS navigation units in one device. High resolution camera, web browsers and high speed access data are provided by WiFi and mobile broadband. These innovations continue and improve as new products are launched.

Bill Ablondi (2010) says that consumer attitudes about the benefits of smart grid technology are still in a formative stage. Several conditions are clear. This article states that there are conditions in which a consumer will consider.

Of course, everyone wants to benefit from a certain technology product and that is the goal of the companies, to give satisfaction.

Satisfaction of consumers correlates with the technology innovation of smartphones.

Consumers get the needed satisfaction with every smartphones acquired. Technology advancement on mobile phones is an advantage in so many ways but consumers have to learn to detach sole dependency on them.

Consumers must be conscious on how to use them properly and with outmost usability.

According to Han, Chung, & Yong (2009), high technology portable gadgets like digital cameras, MP3 players and gaming devices have become “consumer essentials” in this day and age. Today, several convergence products (eg. mobile phone and digital camera into a camera phone) offer consumers a legitimate alternative to dedicated products, affecting consumer attitude towards 16

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: An Assessment on Consumer Satisfaction Re: Technological Innovation of Mobile Phones buying a certain product. Instead of buying a mobile phone and a digital camera separately, consumers will prefer buying converged products because it is more convenient to them.

expectations of a new expensive mobile phone and a five year old model (Schiffman & Kanuk, 2004).

Serralvo, João, & Cardoso (2011) analysed the brand loyalty of consumers as a result of the products' attributes. Results showed that the brands triggered feelings from the consumers, thus developing a brand loyalty behaviour because of some attributes of the product. These product attributes are important factors companies focus on to maintain consumer loyalty. If they are satisfied with the product, the tendency is that they will be loyal to the certain product.

However, according to Bayraktar et al. (2012), Seongwon et al. (2011), Milutinovic et al. (2011), as cited in Dobrota, et.al., 2012, since the launch of mobile phones, there has been a remarkable development both in their product sophistication and their fast and global adoption. Nowadays, consumers are continuously facing the dilemma: which phone to buy. After the smart phones have been released, the choice seemed to be even harder, because of the seemingly endless opportunities and offers available.

The researcher included models that will convey clearer grasp of the subject.

Fournier & Mick (1999), as cited in Dobrota, et.al., 2012, said that over the past decade, the mobile phone industry has recognized the significance of consumer satisfaction and experience. In today’s rapidly changing business environment, consumer satisfaction is a critical factor for the industry to maintain and improve their profitability. Prior studies found that consumer satisfaction contributes to company's profitability and consumer loyalty and several authors claim that a higher consumer satisfaction leads to a higher market share. Consumer satisfaction is central to consumer behaviour concept and it is now common to find consumer satisfaction as one of important goals in company politics.

Figure 1. Disconfirmation Model Consumers engage in a constant process of evaluating things they buy as they integrate these products into their daily activities. Consumer satisfaction or dissatisfaction is determined by the overall feelings, or attitude, a person has about a product after it has been purchased. (Fournier & Mick, 1999; Oliver 1981; Solomon, 2004 as cited in Dobrota, et.al., 2012)

Disconfirmation Model (Oliver, 1980) states that the satisfaction of consumer’s to the product performance that is purchased by the consumer. It is considered as the outcome of purchase and use, resulting from the buyers’ expected rewards, benefits and incurred cost of the purchase in relation to the consequences.

This model is based on the comparison of consumer’s expectations and their perceived performance ratings. Specifically, an individual’s expectations are confirmed when the product performs as expected. There are four constructs to describe the traditional disconfirmation paradigm and these are expectations, performance, disconfirmation, and satisfaction.

This model somehow is similar to attitude as it can be evaluated as the sum of satisfactions with some features of product.

Consumer satisfaction is a function of consumer expectations. A consumer whose experience falls below expectations (e.g. mobile application does not work fast enough) will be dissatisfied. Consumers whose experiences match expectations will be satisfied. And consumers whose expectations are exceeded will be very satisfied or delighted. Therefore, consumer satisfaction as the individual’s perception of the performance of the product or service is in relation to his or her expectations.

Consumers will have drastically different 17

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: An Assessment on Consumer Satisfaction Re: Technological Innovation of Mobile Phones The researcher distributed sample questionnaires to different consumers from selected malls in Metro Manila. The matrix of the questionnaire is a question followed by a “yes” or “no” box or an underline where they can put their answers. It included questions that measured the satisfaction of consumers in selected malls in Metro Manila on mobile phone products.

Figure 2. Technology Acceptance Model RESULTS

The Technology Acceptance Model (Davis, et.al., 1989) states how new technology can influence their decision in buying and it states that people tend to think that he/she would enhance in job performance and would be free from any effort when using the newest products of technology, thus, they think that these products would make their lives easier including their works. This theory proves that we are attached with these kinds of products because of its different benefits to us.

The demographic profile of the consumer was determined.

Majority of the 100 respondents were 16 years of age (28%); 78% were female comprised, and 33% were consumers from SM Megamall.

Moreover, 48 out of the 100 respondents are professionals (Table 1).

Table 1. Socio-demographic Profile of Consumers (n=100) (%)

With the continuing growth of innovation of mobile phones in the market, consumer satisfaction in terms of choosing, buying and owning a product, need to be addressed. As technology innovates and moves forward, consumers also shift their needs of satisfaction in favor of the product features.

Variable Age 16 years old 17 years old 18 years old 19 years old 20 years old and above Sex Male Female Selected Malls SM Manila SM Megamall Robinsons Magnolia Isetann Recto Social Status Professional Working Class Students Others

This research aimed to measure consumer satisfaction towards mobile phone, and identify the product features a consumer seeks in a mobile phone.

METHODOLOGY The researcher used the descriptive type of research to determine the consumer preference and satisfaction. It helped the researcher identify patterns or trends on the mobile phone, product attributes, features and considerations a consumer finds in the product. This may also determine the developmental studies of the consumer satisfaction towards the technology innovation on mobile phones.

Percentage 28 23 15 14 20 22 78 20 33 23 24 48 15 13 24

Table 2 shows the ranking of brands used by the consumer respondents. 39% owned Apple, 26% owned Samsung and the least percentage of 4% owned HTC mobile phones. 65 out of the 100 consumer respondents had been using their phones for one year.

The researcher used non-probability, judgmental sampling or purposive sampling since not all consumers in the selected malls are using Smartphones. Survey questionnaires were distributed to the target respondents. The instrument was validated by three (3) selected consumers from the malls of Metro Manila.

18

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: An Assessment on Consumer Satisfaction Re: Technological Innovation of Mobile Phones plus factor for phones. Mobile innovative in the claimed that a attention.

Table 2. Personal Product Profile of Mobile Phone Consumers (n=100) (%) Variable Percentage Brand Used Apple 39 Samsung 26 Blackberry 12 HTC 4 Sony 5 Others 14 Mobile Phone Use Duration 1 year 65 2 years 14 3 years and more 11

consumers in buying mobile phones had been so much market, 57% of the respondents new product has caught their

Table 4. Usefulness and Attachment with Mobile Phones Variables Usefulness Ease of Use Necessary piece today Attachment with mobile phones Popularity Application Communication Trends Features Fashion Formality Good advertising Others Considering new mobile phones

Further, when asked what they consider purchasing next, 70% of the respondents preferred to have an Apple phone (Table 3).

Consumer Percentage 100 96 93 12 18 15 11 25 8 5 5 57

Table 3. Purchase Consideration (n=100) (%) Variable Percentage Preferred Brand of Mobile Phone Apple 70 Samsung 21 Blackberry 2 HTC 1 Sony 6 Others 0 Considering Top Brands 72 Top 3 Mobile Phone Brands Apple 32 Samsung 30 Blackberry 15 Others 23

In considering their next purchase, consumers looked at the features and benefits that a mobile phone can offer. The different variables that the researcher utilized were User-Friendly, Internet, Built in Camera, Built in GPS, SMS, MMS, QWERTY keypad, Touchscreen, Media player, Applications, Games, Prestige, Fashion, Trend and Software. Moreover, the respondents reported expectations on mobile phones in terms of quality, value, price, durability, brand name, product origin, appearance, features, performance and service.

Seventy-two percent of the respondents considered buying one of the top brands for their next purchase. The top three mobile brands were Apple, Samsung and BlackBerry, as ranked by the consumer respondents.

Table 5. Consumer Satisfaction on Mobile Phones Overall 1 2 3 4 5 Satisfaction

Table 5 shows consumer satisfaction on mobile phones.

Overall Quality Perceived Reliability Extent of Consumers Need Fulfilled Brand Loyalty Intentions to Repurchase Frequency Percentage

Further, Table 4 shows that majority of the respondents agreed that mobile phones are useful (100%), easy to use (96%) and necessary in today’s generation (93%).

According to Mashable.com, intelligent features, popularity, application, communication, trend, features, fashion, formality and good advertising are the reasons consumers choose and get attached with their mobile phones. As an acknowledgement, features garnered quarter of the respondents. This means that the feature is a

3

1

3

35

58

4

0

7

43

46

3

1

5

41

50

3

3

12

35

47

4 17 3

0 5 1

11 38 8

37 191 38

48 249 50

Half of the respondents reported having a high overall satisfaction with the overall quality, reliability, extent of need fulfilled, brand loyalty, 19

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: An Assessment on Consumer Satisfaction Re: Technological Innovation of Mobile Phones and the intentions to repurchase. In contrast, 3% reported low overall satisfaction, citing unsatisfactory technological innovations on mobile phones as their reason.

Chayet, S., Kouvelis, P., & Yu, D.Z. (2011).

Product variety and capacity investments in congested production systems.

Manufacturing & Service Operations Management, Volume 13, Issue 3, p. 390 – 403.

Retrieved from http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2007330 Davis, F. D., Bagozzi, R. P., and Warshaw, P. R. "User Acceptance of Computer Technology: A Comparison of Two Theoretical Models," Management Science, 35, 1989, 982-1003

DISCUSSION The Mobile Phone industry has been offering a variety of mobile phones and consumers get interested in every new phone the market has to offer, feeling the need to possess the latest innovations. This is partially because of the features and attributes it can provide to the consumers. A large percentage of these consumers comprise the younger generation, given that they are the ones who are attached and updated with new technologies.

Dobrota, M., Nikodijević, A., & Mihailović , D. (2012). Influence of the customer experience on satisfaction with mobile phones.

Journal of Engineering Management and Competitiveness, Vol. 2, No. 2, 2012, pp. 69-75. Retrieved from :http://www.tfzr.rs/jemc/files/Vol2No2/V2 N22012-05.pdf Fournier, S., & Mick, D. G. (1999). Redescovering Satisfaction. Journal of Marketing, 63(4), pp. 5-23.

Results showed that majority of the respondents considered the mobile phone’s usefulness, ease of use, and features and functions it offers, for their next purchase. Majority of the respondents reported having a high overall satisfaction with the overall quality, reliability, extent of need fulfilled, brand loyalty, and the intentions to repurchase.

Han, J.K., Chung, S.W., Yong, S.S. (2009).

Technology Convergence: When Do Consumers Prefer Converged Products to Dedicated Products?.

Journal of Marketing: July 2009, Vol. 73, No. 4, pp.

97-108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1509/jmkg .73.4.97 Mehta, Foram. “How Cell Phones are Changing Our Society”.

Buzzle.

1 Oct 2011. Buzzle.com. 25 Sept 2012.

The researcher recommended manufacturers of least preferred brands to be aggressive in their research and development to cope up with competition. Retailers of mobile phones must have a considerable amount on inventory of top brands to maximize profits and highlighting new technologically enhanced mobile phones. The manufacturers, retailers and marketers perform regular needs analysis of the market because of its dynamic nature, in terms of consumer preferences and product purchase habits.

Milutinovic, M., Barac, D., Despotovic Zrakic, M. Markovic, A., & Radenkovic, B. (2011).

Developing Mobile Application for Learning Japanese Language – FONJAPGO. Management, 16(60), pp.

27-34.

REFERENCES

Myers, Sydney. “Have Cell Phones Changed the Way We Communicate?” PhoneDog. 31 Aug 2010.

Ablondi, B. (2010). Consumer attitudes and the benefits of smart grid technologies.

Retrieved from :http://www.altenergymag. com/emagazine/2010/10/consumer-attitu des-and-the-benefits-of-smart-gridtechnologies/1592.

Bayraktar, E., Tatoglu, E., Turkyilmaz, A., Delen, D., & Zaim, S. (2012). Measuring the Efficiency of Customer Satisfaction and Loyalty for Mobile Phone. Expert Systems with Applications, 39(1), pp. 99-106.

Oliver, R. L. (1981). Measurement and Evaluation of Satisfaction Processes in Retail Settings. Journal of Retailing, 57(3), pp.

25–48.

Qi, J., Li, L., Li, Y., Shu, H. (2009). An extension of technology acceptance model: Analysis of the adoption of mobile data services in 20

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: An Assessment on Consumer Satisfaction Re: Technological Innovation of Mobile Phones China. Systems Research and Behavioral Science, 05-06 2009, vol./is. 26/3, p. 391 407.

Retrieved from http://www.library.nhs.uk/booksandjourna ls/details.aspx?t=China&stfo=False&sc=b nj.ebs.cinahl,bnj.pub.MED,bnj.ovi.psyh&p =130&sf=&sfld=fld.title&sr=bnj.ovi&did=o vid.com:/bib/psycdb/2009-07588004&pc=872&id=6453.

Roco, M.C., & and Bainbridge, W.S. (2003).

Converging Technologies for Improving Human Performance, National Science Foundation.

Schiffman, L.G. & Kanuk, L.L. (2004). Consumer behavior (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Seongwon, P., Kwangeak, K., & Bong Gyou, L. (2011). Developing English Learning Contents for Mobile Smart Devices. In P.J. James, Y.T. Laurence & L. Changhoon (Eds.), Future Information Technology, pp. 264-271: Springer Berlin Heidelberg.

Serralvo, F.A., JoĂŁo, B.N., & Cardoso, O.O. (2011). The importance of product's attributes on brand loyalty development.

International Journal of Business Resear ch, Vol. 11, Issue 1. Retrieved from http://www.freepatentsonline.com/article/I nternational-Journal-Business-Research/ 272511055.html Solomon, M. R. (2004). Consumer Behavior: Buying, Having and Being (6th ed.). NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The researcher thanks Engr. Bong Calulu, Dir. Arriane Ariva, Vera Isberto Lim, among others who have helped in the completion of this research.

21

INDEX OF READINESS OF COLLEGE OF BUSINESS EDUCATION (CBE) GRADUATING STUDENTS FOR BUSINESS LEADERSHIP Angeles A. De Guzman, DBA, CPA, FRI(Rs) 2005 for (BSEntrep). Being rationalized therein are specific articles covering the authority to operate, the program specifications, competency standards, curriculum, course specifications, administration, faculty, curriculum standards, library, physical facilities, admission, retention, residence, and graduation requirement, research, repealing clause, effectivity clause and transitory provision. TIP-QC has complied with all these requirements to continuously offer these business programs.

ABSTRACT This study determined the index of readiness of CBE graduating students through the use of the descriptive method. The primary data-gathering tool, survey questionnaire, focused on the graduates’ readiness aspects and factors for business leadership. An index of readiness test supported the study in evaluating the readiness of graduating students for business leadership.

Findings showed that the graduating student respondents met the competencies and skills stated in the CHED CMO 39 as most of them possessed the business knowledge requirements as well as business leadership experiences in most of upper-level courses. Responses in the index of business leadership test revealed that they have leadership potential but needed experience to become capable and confident.

Although it is good that compliance is there, it is worth to validate whether the implementation of these policies, standards, and guidelines have produced the intended outcomes. In May 2010, the Alumni and Placement Office of TIP-QC conducted a graduate tracer study for Business Administration Graduates from 2005-2009. CHED initiated the tracer study through selected Universities and Colleges as partners to focus on gathering data for the periodic review and development of curriculum. This will also facilitate a partnership program between academe and industry for a strong regard to training, practicum, and curriculum renewal to address the problem on employment mismatch.

INTRODUCTION The College of Business Education (CBE) of the Technological Institute of the Philippines-Quezon City (TIP-QC) endeavours to transform students into competent and socially responsible business professionals by providing adequate and relevant learning resources and learning opportunities.

One of its objectives is to provide students with the fundamental knowledge in Business Education through quality instruction and services.

With some limitations, the tracer study identified areas to be a cause of concern to the institution by exploring career-outcomes of Business Administration graduates of TIP-QC. Based on significant results, majority of the graduates were employed except that most of them landed in clerical jobs and only very few landed in the supervisory/managerial positions.

Further, the graduates felt that the course they took in college had a bearing for them to be hired except that none of them became a business leader. As business administration graduates, it is expected that they will be interested in establishing their own business after gaining experiences from employment, which is one of the learning outcomes of the program.

Its program offerings are Bachelor of Science in Accountancy (BSA), Bachelor of Science in Business Administration (BSBA) which emphasizes flexibility by allowing the students to specialize in any of the major courses offered, Financial and Management Accounting (FMA), Human Resources Development Management (HRDM), Logistics Management (LM), and Marketing Management (MM) and of course, Bachelor of Science in Entrepreneurship (BSEntrep).

The policies, standards and guidelines for these business programs are in accordance to the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) Memorandum Orders (CMOs) No. 3 s 2007 for (BSA), No. 39 s 2006 for (BSBA) and No. 17 s

This shows that the school was able to impart to them the basic business knowledge useful in their employment. Moreover, the program needed to instill and nurture important qualities and skills, 22

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Index of Readiness of College of Business Education (CBE) Graduating Students For Business Leadership which are essential for organizing and leadership in business as none of them were involved in managing entrepreneurial activities or self – employed. More emphasis should therefore be given to the development of entrepreneurs and managers’ competencies and skills of students.

BSBA program develops the students’ managerial skills by giving them a broader perspective through knowledge of all functions, enhancing their decision-making capability and sharpening their communication skills. The methodology involves training through practical experience in the form of case studies, projects, presentations, industrial visits, and interaction with experts from the industry. With such inputs, BSBA graduates have an edge over other graduates and get direct entry into the corporate world. (CHEDCMO No. 39 series 2006).

The study aimed to identify the readiness of graduating students based on the aspects/factors required by the CHED CMOs specifically CMO No. 39 S 2006, particularly the imparted basic business knowledge and importantly the qualities and skills essential for future business leadership and organizational success. It will also establish an index of readiness for business leadership of graduating students. Business students should not only be ready for entry-level jobs but they should be able to start venturing to any business activities that will direct them to become business leaders. Our society needs to develop the next generation of graduates who will not be satisfied for being gainfully employed, instead innovate ideas leading to a business ventures.

Business Administration graduates have a consistently excellent track record in finding graduate jobs in the private and public sectors such as management trainees, marketing officer, consultant, graduate managers, accountants, commercial managers, finance officers, marketing assistant. In most universities, the degree is conferred upon a student after four years of fulltime study (120 credit hours) in one or more areas of business concentrations. The BSBA program usually includes general business courses and advanced courses for specific concentrations (CHED-CMO No.39 series of 2006).

The Business Administration program was designed to deepen students’ understanding of how businesses operate and to develop students’ ability to recognize and analyze the economic, technical, financial and social parameters within which modern managers make decision. This program makes student able to specialize in an area of particular interest and relevance to his/her chosen career (CHED-CMO No. 39 series of 2006).

Students must face real life challenges one day when they venture out of their protected life.

Therefore, it is essential that students be prepared to be future leaders. Leadership activities are ways of creating simulated conditions, similar to real world, where students are given a chance to develop their leadership skills. These should be designed to develop all the qualities that makes a good leader and has to be wide ranging and equally challenging, to bring out the most important of all, the 'Character'.

This program aims to prepare students for different challenges and for a successful career in management. A Business Administration student will be a problem solver, planner and a leader, challenge with meeting student's organizations objectives by deploying key resources such as time, people and money effectively and efficiently.

(CHED-CMO No. 39 series of 2006). BSBA (Bachelor of Science in Business Administration) is a four-year full-time course designed to give the basic knowledge and a clear understanding of all the functions of a company like marketing, finance, systems, human resource management and so on, and in that respect, is similar to an MBA (Master in Business Administration) program. In the final year, the student can specialize in any one stream (CHED-CMO No. 39 series of 2006).

Leadership training techniques and methods play a crucial role in conducting leadership activities for the youth (Rampur, 2009). With the advent of technology, there are many training means such as movies, documentaries, educational and leadership videos, etc. Other effective training activities may include action research and education, decision-making games and case studies. It should also be noted which participants display the qualities of a potential leader. This is to identify specific leadership education methods and techniques to be used in training them.

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RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Index of Readiness of College of Business Education (CBE) Graduating Students For Business Leadership If we are trying to simulate conditions of the real world, through activities, they need to be well designed (Pilgrim, 2009). Essentially, most problems that students will face when they venture out are people problems. Being a leader is all about understanding the people around you and bringing out the best in your team. Therefore, the leadership activities for students must be focused on developing communication skills, team building skills, time management skills and finally skills of planning and executing strategy.

effective leadership qualities.

Stephen Cohen (2009), one of the authors at LiveLoveCoffee.com, an online coffee shop with articles discussing interesting morning chats and reviews on Bunn Coffee Makers discusses how to become a leader in his or her respective business: First, you have to understand what it means to be a leader. Being a superior for some people under your supervision does not necessarily mean you are a leader.

This is a struggle of power and many bosses make bad leaders. Being a leader means gaining and following from others through your actions and words. They may not directly call you a leader but they take note of what you do and may follow you in your ways. It is also a way to show you respect.

Creating and conducting these leadership activities, as well as evaluating students, is a great leadership activity for the instructor too. Teachers need to take up the roles of facilitators who learn along with the students through these activities.

It is not that one is born with business leadership skills (Bose, 2009). It's true that some have quite a few leadership traits that make others look up to them but there are others that can be developed. Many leadership programs teach us different leadership styles and help us realize and hone some of our business leadership skills.

However, the best leadership training comes from the concise effort of rising above the rest and to put collective interests before personal gains.

One of the best ways of becoming a leader is gaining the respect of your fellow co-workers. You will never have people who will stay loyal and listen to you if you do not show them the same respect you expect from them. As a co-worker, start by supporting others in the company and help them out when they needed yours.

Being a great business leader takes time and knowledge of who you are (Cohen, 2009). Working in business is much like being an athlete. You have leaders who seem to take control of situations for a team or a business. In crucial situations, these are the people you count on to make decisions or to come through in a clutch way. Many people look up to these leaders and find advice from them. Business leaders are essential for a company to be successful. You have to have someone who is willing to put it all on the line and make tough decisions that can make or break a company.

Use your actions to speak louder than your words. This goes a long way and people seem to notice positive actions rather than over powering voices. Others always notice staying late and coming in early to go an extra mile in your business.

You may find some people who think you are over doing it, but that simply is not the case. Be supportive of other co-workers. It is a little thing that you will be noticed by.

One day, if you think you have what it takes to be a leader in your business or in business in general, then a great way to learn is to find a mentor. Whether it is someone you work with or someone who is outside of business, it is a great way to learn from others as to how they go about being a leader.

At a very early age, you would observe that a potential leader displays particular attributes such as independent-minded, patient, strong, hardworking among others (Rampur, 2009).

However, an efficient leader can also be developed. In today's world, who can be better leaders than the young generation? With the help of youth leadership activities and trainings, young individuals can certainly be molded into better leaders of tomorrow, possessing energetic and

Once you have become a leader in your business, be an effective leader. Do not be power hungry and lose perspective of what who you are and what you are doing.

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RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Index of Readiness of College of Business Education (CBE) Graduating Students For Business Leadership Be effective and continue to lead by example. Not everyone is made to be a leader whether it is in business or outside of business. But, for those who feel they are meant to lead and lead effectively, it is something that comes to you. Never rush trying to lead, and allow your actions to speak louder than your words. These words are nicer to hear but difficult to endure or easier said than done.

However, these theories are with basis and there’s no harm of using it.

management training while Mr. Polsky offers another benefit of entrepreneurship training. Some people, not actually cut out for the risk and worry, will take the classes and recognize that it's not for them.

The word entrepreneur, from French word entreprendre meaning to undertake and defined as one who organizes, manages and assumes the risks of a business or enterprise (Webster’s Dictionary, 2007) seemed to crawl out of the woodwork in the 1980s. Oddly enough, corporate types began embracing it as proof that they weren't, corporate types. In the 1990s, it became increasingly associated with start-ups, a rather narrow field. In some circles, Mr. Polsky says, "a lot of people equate entrepreneur as the guy who made a lot of money."

Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation thinks that it is possible to teach someone to be an entrepreneur as they have counted more than 1,500 U.S. colleges offering some sort of entrepreneurship classes (Bailey, 2003).

According to the report, these classes and programs designed specifically to encourage entrepreneurs to spread widely in recent years, which traditionally have prepared students in big corporations and the service firms that feed off big corporations. That is, to satisfy the demand from young who do not want to be corporate drones, and partly, because many business and academic leaders believe the economy would benefit from having more and better entrepreneurs. They are the people who start and build growth in companies, boosting employment and wealth.

Mr. Zell, as cited in Bailey, 2003 lists some traits as entrepreneurial, including 1. high-energy level; 2. the word failure is nonexistent; 3. lonely; 4. thinks about solutions even if it's not his role; 5. a leader; 6. a certain amount of living on the edge; 7. a significant need for recognition; and most importantly, 8. understands that if you ever have to take a vote, you've lost.

Those kinds of people, of course, aren't always hanging around the business school. It's much more likely they're coming out of an engineering school than a business school. These organizations just wanted universities to broaden the reach of their entrepreneurship programs.

It is a widely held belief among established entrepreneurs that they possess an innate trait that spurred them to take risks, devote long hours and lead others to make a business a success, be it a start-up, a turnaround, an acquisition or some other business challenge.

Business school relevance is an issue, judging from the predominance of responses by people who are business graduates and currently involved in business organizations around the world. The ways of increasing relevance were advanced, but the question of whether, in the current academic context, they can be implemented remains.

Michael Polsky, a Ukrainian immigrant who made a fortune building independent power plants doesn’t believe that you can’t teach someone to be an entrepreneur, as far as teaching purely entrepreneurial skills (Bailey, 2003). Mr. Polsky, who graduated from Chicago's graduate school of business, says, "I certainly learned a lot of business skills in graduate school”. But he adds, "a lot of entrepreneurial skills are very personal skills" (Bailey, 2003).

Sources of concern centered on business school faculty, curricula, and research. Placing research-focused faculty members in front of students who lack any perspective gained through experience, does little in enhancing the managerial skill sets of the graduates (Drobny, 2005).

Mr. Schramm, the Kauffman Foundation chief, believes the failure rate among new businesses would be greatly reduced if driving ambition were more frequently paired with essential financial and

Also, Lisa Marks Dolin (2005), a business school dean, feels that much of the problem lies in 25

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Index of Readiness of College of Business Education (CBE) Graduating Students For Business Leadership the way teachers are trained. Business schools are asked to produce graduates who can integrate, adapt, manage global diversity, work in teams, and bring out the best in others, yet most faculty members do not have mastery on these skills themselves.

lacked relevance to the jobs they were hoping to apply for in future (Playfoot & Hall, 2009).

EEE report quotes a 2006 World Bank report for India saying, "only one in every five schoolleavers (secondary pass-outs) had the necessary skill to get a job and the figures for university graduates were one in four". The report said, “while provisions for education were expanding rapidly in India, it was often at the expense of quality, relevance and value." It pointed out that the "quality and methods of assessment in vocational education lacked accuracy and relevance, knowledge and skills taught in professional and education courses were outdated by the time the student reached the workplace, there was little focus on behaviour or employability skills and in-work progression and training were often inadequate. There were key skill gaps in areas of leadership, teamwork, innovation and creativity, along with a mismatch between the perception of value in relation to certificates - with learners/employees valuing them much higher than employers”. At least 40 percent of all the learners polled believed their academic and professional qualifications failed to prepare them for work and 45 percent employees said they were receiving little training from their employers.

Leonard Lane (2005) reinforces this view and says "relevancy requires that the instructor be a true practitioner-scholar who has …run or been a key part of a global business and has an advanced degree". As an alternative way of achieving this objective, Bobby Mackie (2005) suggests, “faculty development could include more two-way movement of staff, building communication links, and networking between academia and employing organizations".

Mismatch between Education System, and Job Requirements What is being taught in schools and colleges doesn't match the skills that businesses are looking for in new recruits in countries like India, China and the United Arab Emirates (UAE), says a new global study (IANS, 2009). It focused on five of the world's fastest growing economies - India, China, Brazil, South Africa and the UAE. According to the study (Id.), there was a "remarkable mismatch between what is being taught in schools, colleges and universities and the knowledge and skills businesses and organizations are looking for in new recruits”.

Claire Stuart, international marketing manager of Edexcel, believes that the focus should be on creating a culture of learning, giving women more work space, developing businesses that impart education and focusing on creativity, ideas and the knowledge economy.

The study was anchored on the premise that the students took up business courses to develop into an entrepreneur, which will direct them to become business leaders. Further, there was a need to validate whether the intended purposes of the business program as stated in the curriculum were attained. The role of the institution in producing globally competitive graduates is dependent on the aforementioned factors. Figure 1 presents the conceptual framework used in the study.

The yearlong study, Effective Education for Employment (EEE) (Playfoot & Hall, 2009) interviewed 2,000 students, teachers and employers in the five focus countries. Perhaps the most striking finding was the consistency with which we heard the calls for reforms, wherever we went. Many of the businesses felt that their education failed to effectively prepare individuals for the workplace according to Ross Hall, international director of Edexcel and co-author of the study. Even learners felt that their education

Profile Age & Gender Course Full Time / Working Student Reasons for Choosing Business Program

Index of Readiness for Business Leadership Competencies & Skills Based on CHED CMO No. 39 series of 2006

Figure 1. The Conceptual Framework 26

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Index of Readiness of College of Business Education (CBE) Graduating Students For Business Leadership consider finding a mentor to help them reach the next level of leadership.

METHODOLOGY The descriptive method was used in this research for an in-depth analysis and interpretation of data.

A Survey questionnaire was administered to 4th year graduating students of TIP –QC College of Business Education enrolled for the 2nd semester of SY 2010-2011 taking up Business Administration Program with majors in Financial Management Accounting (FMA), Logistics Management (LM), Human Resources Development Management (HRDM), and Marketing Management (MM).

4-6: There are indications that they may have leadership potential. They may be young leaders who need to gain experience in order to become a capable and confident leader.

They can take advantage of opportunities to develop their skills and whenever possible, exercise leadership – no matter how small the assignment.

The statistical tools used to analyze the data gathered were frequency and percentage, weighted mean, and chi – square.

The survey determined their readiness aspects and factors for business leadership and an index of readiness test of graduating students.

The respondents were interviewed using an informal structure to clarify some responses and to supplement the written research.

RESULTS Table 1 shows the frequency of the student respondents according to Course, Age, Sex and whether Full Time or Working Student.

Items in the questionnaire were studied as against other related studies and the researcher consulted experts to ensure that relevant data are collected. The author used following 5-point scale to know the readiness aspects and factors of the respondents: Scale 1 2 3 4 5

Description Very Good Good Barely Acceptable Poor Very Poor

Table 1. Graduating Student Respondents Clustered According to Course, Age and Sex (%)

Mean Rating ( 1.00 – 1.50 ) ( 1.50 – 2.50 ) ( 2.51 – 3.50 ) ( 3.51 – 4.50 ) ( 4.51 – 5.00 )

Scoring for the Index of Business Leadership Test was based on the number of questions to which they answered, "Yes".

Course

Mean Age

Students (n=149)

Male

Female

(n=44)

(n=105)

BSBAFMA

20

41.6

19

81

BSBALM

20

22.1

39

61

BSBAHRDM

20

18.8

29

71

BSBAMM

21

17.5

42

58

The respondents’ mean age is 20 years except for Marketing Management (MM) whose mean age is 21. Of the total 149 respondents, 41.6% were Financial Management Accounting (FMA) students while 22.1% were Logistics Management (LM) students. The remaining were Human Resources Development Management (HRDM) students (18.8%) and MM students (17.5%). Females comprised 70% of the respondents.

10 +: It demonstrates a high level of leadership abilities. Although there may be room for improvement in a few areas, they are well on their way to achieving whatever goals in business and leadership. In the meantime, they should think about ways that would share their expertise with others.

7-9: It exhibits several strong leadership traits and is on the track to become a great leader.

Their ability to grow as a leader will depend on their willingness to actively seek out resources and development tools to strengthen their areas of weakness. They may even want to

Table 2 shows that out of the total respondents, 127 or 85% were full time students, while 22 or 15% were working students. Thus, most of the graduating students had minimal job 27

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Index of Readiness of College of Business Education (CBE) Graduating Students For Business Leadership experiences, which they need in venturing to an entrepreneurial activity.

Table 4 presents the relationship between the students’ reason in taking business course to their gender.

Table 2. Distribution of Graduating Student Respondents Clustered According to Course and Student Classification (n=149) (%) Course

Full Time (n=127)

Working(n=22)

BSBA-FMA BSBA-LM

87 73

13 27

BSBA-HRDM BSBA-MM

89 92

11 8

Table 4. Students’ Reason in Taking Business Course as to Gender Statistical Test

64

29

46

41

Prospect for career advancement or employment abroad

24

24

18

12

21

Influence of parents or relatives

18

6

21

12

15

Plan to establish a business or continue the existing family business.

26

6

32

30

23

Calculated Value

0.802, df = 3

Critical Value

7.815

Table 5. Students’ Reason in Taking Business Course as to Course Statistical Test Significant Level Calculated Value Critical Value

FMA LM HRDM MM Total (n=62) (n=33) (n=28) (n=26) (n=149)

32

0.05

In contrast, Table 5 presents a significant difference in the students’ reason of choosing the BA Program when grouped according to their Course.

Table 3. Graduating Student Respondents’ Reasons of Choosing Business Administration Program (%)

Prospect for immediate employment

Significant Level

The calculated chi-square association value of 0.802 is statistically less than the critical value of 7.815 at the 0.05 level of significance with 3 degree of freedom. Thus, the null hypothesis of no significant relation between their reason in taking business course and their gender is accepted.

Results showed no significant association between the students’ gender and their reasons in choosing a business course.

Moreover, when asked about their reasons on choosing Business Administration Program, Table 3 shows that 61 respondents, comprising 41% of 149 respondents chose business course for prospect of immediate employment while 21% considered business courses due to prospect for career advancement or employment abroad.

Further, 23% planned to establish or continue the existing family business. Only 15% of the respondents were influenced by their parents or relatives to take business courses.

Reasons for Choosing BA Program

Chi - square

Chi - square 0.05 17.212, df = 9 16.919

The calculated chi-square association value of 17.212 statistically is greater than the critical value of 16.919 at the 0.05 level of significance with 9 degree of freedom. Thus, the null hypothesis of no significant relation between their reason in taking business course and their chosen course is rejected. Results showed a statistically significant relationship between the students’ reasons in taking a business course and their chosen course.

Moreover, Table 6 presents the students’ competency and skills measured based on CHED’s Memorandum Order S 2006 as Readiness Factors.

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RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Index of Readiness of College of Business Education (CBE) Graduating Students For Business Leadership studies in business. While for business leadership experiences included in the majority of upper-level courses, the mean rating of 2.15 equivalent to above average meant that the graduating students were provided with practical project component, offering the opportunity to apply the problem solving theories and concepts learned in the classroom to real situation through on the job training and apprenticeship.

They also had extensive opportunities to meet business professionals and gain practical experiences through seminar and symposium.

Table 6. Competency and Skills Based on CMO S 2006 as Readiness Factors Competency & Skills

Mean Interpretation

1. Knowledge based on the curriculum of business administration program specifically on the following aspects:

2.175 Above Average

1.1. Complete understanding of business basic concepts, principles, theories, and philosophies 1.3. Assistance to seek employment 1.2. Encouragement in organizing or managing entrepreneurial activities 1.4. Pursue a career advancement or graduate studies in business.

2. Business leadership experiences included in the majority of upper-level courses such as: 2.1. A practical project component, offering the opportunity to apply the problemsolving theories and concepts learned in the classroom to real situations through on the job training and apprenticeship.

2.2. Extensive opportunities to meet business professionals and gain practical experiences through seminar and symposium.

2.2

Above Average

2.2

Above Average

Further, Table 7 presents correlation between the students’ competencies and skills requirement to their course.

2.2

Above Average

Table 7. Students’ Competencies and Skills Requirement to Course

2.1

Above Average

Treatments Error

2.15

Above Average

2.2

Above Average

2.1

Above Average

The calculated ANOVA value of 9.143 statistically is greater than the critical value of 8.54 at the 0.05 level of significance with 21 degree of freedom treatment and 145 degree of freedom error. Thus, the null hypothesis of no significant difference between their course and the student competencies and skills required in CHED CMO No. 39 is rejected. The student’s responses about their competencies and skills requirements in CHED CMO No. 39 varied significantly in terms of their course. It is worth noting that the courses offered by the institution met the requirements stated in the CHED CMO No. 39, based on the Above Average scores reported by the respondents.

Source

SS

DF

MS

F

17.663 93.377

3 145

5.888 0.644

9.143

Likewise, majority of the graduating students responded positively to the questions about the index of business leadership. 72% answered positively on the question whether they can consistently spot problems and improve processes. Further, they have affirmative answers of 80% and above to all other questions (Table 8).

The knowledge of graduating students based on the curriculum of business administration program showed a mean rating of 2.175 equivalent to Above Average. This meant that the graduating students have good understanding of business concepts, principles, theories, philosophies, with proper assistance to seek employment and encouragement to organize or manage entrepreneurial activities including pursuing a career advancement or graduate

Using the scoring based on the number of questions to which they answered, "Yes" in the Index of Business Leadership Test, 83% of the respondents answered Yes 10 times and more to all questions, demonstrating a high level of leadership abilities. Although there may be room 29

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Index of Readiness of College of Business Education (CBE) Graduating Students For Business Leadership for improvement in a few areas, they were well on their way to achieving whatever goals in business and leadership. In the meantime, they should think about ways that would share their expertise with others.

that they may have leadership potential. They may be young leaders in need of experience in order to become a capable and confident leader. They can take advantage of opportunities to develop their skills and whenever possible, exercise leadership – no matter how small the assignment.

Table 8. Index of Business Leadership (%) Questions 1. Are you confident in your ability to analyze problems and make solid decisions?

2. Do you have a reputation for meeting goals and following through on commitments?

3. Can you clearly and effectively communicate your ideas to others?

Yes

No

83

17

Table 9 presents the correlation between the students’ readiness in becoming business leaders and their course.

3

Table 9. Students’ Index of Readiness for Business Leadership to their Course Statistical Test Chi - square

97

86

14

4. Are you a good listener?

94

6

5. Do you embrace risk and real world challenges?

91

9

83

17

72

28

80

20

95

5

48

52

89

11

6. Do you think in terms of the big picture?

7. Can you consistently spot problems and improve processes?

8. Are you adept at knowing, growing, and coaching other people?

9. Do you accept responsibility for outcomes?

10. Are you easily hurt by criticism?

11. Do you demonstrate a high level of integrity in your personal and professional life?

12. Are you able to inspire others to excellence?

13. Do you learn from mistakes and constantly seek to improve you skills?

91

9

95

5

Significant Level

0.05

Calculated Value

35.171, df = 21

Critical Value

31.671

The calculated chi-square association value of 35.171 statistically greater than the critical value of 32.671 at the 0.05 level of significance with 21 degree of freedom, the null hypothesis of no significant relation between their course and the student readiness index in becoming business leader is rejected. The student’s readiness indexes in becoming business leaders were statistically associated with their course. Further, results showed that the courses offered by the institution have met the readiness for business leadership.

DISCUSSION This study aimed to determine: a) the profile of the graduating students and their reasons for taking up Business Administration, b) the competencies and skills of graduating students based on CHED CMO No.39 series of 2006, c) the index of readiness for business leadership of graduating students, d) the significant relation between the demographic variables gender and course to their reason in taking business course, e) the significant relation between their course and the student competencies and skills required in CHED CMO No. 39 series of 2006, and f) the significant relation between their course and index of readiness in becoming business leaders.

16% of the respondents answered Yes 7 times to 9 times in all of the questions. It exhibits several strong leadership traits and is on the track to become a great leader. Their ability to grow as a leader will depend on their willingness to actively seek out resources and development tools to strengthen their areas of weakness. They may even want to consider finding a mentor to help them reach the next level of leadership. Only 1% of the respondents answered Yes 4 times to 6 times in the entire questions. There are indications

The average age of the majority of the graduating student-respondents is 20 years old and most of them were full time students. 70 30

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Index of Readiness of College of Business Education (CBE) Graduating Students For Business Leadership percent are females, 62% chose to take business course because of immediate employment, career advancement or employment abroad. Only 23% chose business course to establish business or continue the existing family business. The rest of the respondents have chosen business course due to influence of their parents or relatives.

trainings, strict monitoring of students apprenticeship program should be considered.

REFERENCES Bailey, Jeff (2003). Entrepreneurship: Can the Touch be Taught?

Banks, Bernard (2010). Developing Critical Thinkers and Creative Leaders, Posted on Harvard Business Review

The graduating students-respondents based possess knowledge about business concepts, principles, theories, and philosophies. They were also provided with business leadership experiences through seminars, forums and trainings as well as practical project component, offering the opportunity to apply the problem solving theories and concepts learned in the classroom to real situation through on the job training and apprenticeship.

Bennis, Warren G. and O'Toole, James (2005),"How Business Schools Lost Their Way”, Harvard Business Review, pp. 96-104.

Bluestein, Adam and Barrett, Amy (2010) Entrepreneurship Education for All, A Special Report.

Clark, Dorie ( 2010), Become a Thought Leader in Six Steps, Posted on Harvard Business Review

The graduating students-respondents reported having met the competencies and skills stated in the CHED CMO No. 39 as most of them possessed the business knowledge requirements as well as business leadership experiences included in the majority of upper-level courses.

Commission on Higher Education (2006). CHED Memorandum Order No. 39 s 2006.

Cruz, Isagani (2009) College not for all, Mini Critique, (The Philippine Star) Dolin, Lisa Marks (2005), Dean, School of Management Capital University.

The graduating students-respondents have the required qualities of becoming a business leader based on their perception when they answered the index of business leadership test.

Results showed a high level of leadership abilities and potential. Their ability to grow as a leader will depend on their willingness to actively seek out resources and development tools to strengthen their areas of weakness. They can take advantage of opportunities to develop their skills and whenever possible, exercise leadership – no matter how small the assignment.

Drobny, Chuck (2005), How can business Schools Be Made More Relevant?

Based on the findings of this study, the researcher recommends an introduction of some entrepreneurial activities like New Business Ideas Exposition (NBI) and other projects during the earlier years of business students to encourage and motivate them to become business leaders.

Continuous partnership with organizations like “GoNegosyo” will persuade students to venture in business undertakings instead of aiming to become employees of well-known companies. A review of the Curriculum of business program must be conducted and inclusion of seminars and

IANS (2009). Mismatch between system, job requirements.

Francisco, Felizardo Y (2009), Education Matters, Navigating higher education to a better future,, Manila Times.

Glaser, Mark (2008) In Digital Age, Journalism Students Need Business, Entrepreneurial Skills, Heskett, James (2005), How Can Business Schools Be Made More Relevant?, Holstein, William J (2005), "Are Business Schools Failing the World?", The New York Times, p.BU13. education

Mackie, B. (2005).

Associate Dean, Undergraduate Programmes, Caledonian Business School.

McCarthy, Ryan (2009). Entrepreneurs save the world, Box Water, and China Struggles.

Playfoot and Hall (2009), Effective Education for Employment: A Global Perspective

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QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOLS IN NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION: BASIS FOR PROPOSED PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT PLAN Rommel Mar C. De Guzman, DEM, FRI(Rs), FRIEdr principal transition point from childhood to adulthood, from family dependence to personal independence, playfulness to seriousness, from being a liability to an asset, or uselessness to usefulness.

ABSTRACT This study holistically looked at both internal and external circumstances of public high schools in National Capital Region. It aimed to assess the quality of the public high schools in the National Capital Region and propose a public secondary school improvement plan.

This is why the government has allocated so much brain racking, planning and resources to a dream upgrading, if not a total overhaul, of the Philippine public secondary education system for the past decades. Solutions, however, have been piecemeal and fragmented, and perhaps illogical or misplaced.

INTRODUCTION Giving proper education to one’s children is the primary dream and concern of every Filipino parent, whatever their status in life is. They will run the proverbial mile to earn enough to send their children to school.

Glorious book-bound plans and programs- the Manual on Quality Management System and The Project Sterling Silver Accreditation for Secondary Education have been presented. According to DepEd Memorandum No. 343 s. 2004, in an effort to improve the quality of education offered by the public school system and to fully empower secondary school heads, the Department of Education gives full support to Project Sterling Silver (PSS) Peer Accreditation System. This project is funded by FORD Foundation, and spearheaded by the University of Asia and the Pacific (UA&P), the Bureau of Secondary Education (BSE) and the National Association of Public Secondary School Heads Inc. (NAPSSHI).

The FORD Foundation will support the program until December 2004. The UA&P shall serve as consultant to this project.

As the world becomes more interconnected and business becomes more complex and dynamic, human activity must be filled with learning. Ideally, learning should lead to acquisition of new skills, new insights and new circumstances that can help open up a new life path for both young and adult, or at least enable them to improve the quality of their lives.

Basic education system for its citizenry, values and cultural propagation are every country’s irreplaceable basic investment towards survival and competitiveness.

Basic education, encompassing pre-school to secondary level, has gone beyond the ambit of simply being able to read and write…let that be confined to the narrow definition of “literacy”.

To attain these objectives the Project Sterling Project- PSS trained Master Teachers, Guidance Coordinators, and School Administrators shall form part of the accrediting teams. Hands-on training, conferences and seminars are held in order to institutionalize the accreditation system successfully.

According to Filipinos: Their Education Yesterday and Today (2005), the Philippine educational panorama, synergized by the people’s abiding faith in education (for white- collar economic opportunities), has for many years allowed the country a reputation- rightly or wrongly- of having the highest literacy rate in Asia, if not the world. That, now, is a thing of the past.

Having a high literacy, if indeed that label was accurate, has now become ironic and meaningless.

In order to ensure successful institutionalization and continuity of the accreditation system, this project will charge application fees from schools applying for accreditation. Application may be charged against local funds, subject to the usual accounting and auditing rules and regulations. Certainly, these are impressive, for they may have been compendiums of numerous studies by ivory tower institutions and

This ignominy is heaped naturally, upon the country’s public school system, in particular, the secondary or high school level which is the 32

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Quality Assessment of Public Secondary Schools in National Capital Region: Basis for Proposed Secondary School Improvement Plan more advanced countries. In a preliminary discussion by the researcher with the program division of Department of Education, however, it appears that such programs may have reached a dead-end. Not only have they been implemented too narrowly and even arbitrarily, but seem now to be lost in the woods despite or perhaps due to their very sophistication. Where to, and how? With apologies to the well-meaning and scholarly functionaries in the Department of Education, all these look good for executive branch appreciation and budgetary allocation, and certainly for show window presentations. This researcher remains doubtful as to their imposition beyond pilot cases.

public high schools, the National Capital Region represents the heftier concentration of enrolees in the secondary level and may, due mainly to the relative affluence of the cities and municipalities, be benefiting from much more perks, assistance and resources than what the provincial high schools are enjoying.

Moreover, these schools’ proximity to the seat of governmental policy-making should theoretically be translating into a faster, more closely monitored implementation of quality management programs by the Department of Education.

However, these schools’ setting, characterized by the unmitigated influx of population from the provinces, may be astride the country’s most serious concentration of urban blight. Hence, what strategic advantages they may have with respect to location may ironically be having a huge adverse bearing on the quality of these schools and the delivery of their mandate.

A vast grey area remains unclear: the questionable quality of public secondary schools in the country expressed variably in qualitative terms such as teachers’ performance and job satisfaction, the schools’ reputation built through the years, some fame and triumphs, administrative effectiveness, organizational harmony, and alumni accomplishments, or in quantitative terms such as student passing rate from one level to the next, the number of finishers every year, important ratios and percentages, the schools’ rated performance in national examinations, etc.

As a research base, therefore, the National Capital Region’s public secondary schools offer the researcher the most complex mix of variables and factors that influence a school’s management and operational effectiveness. While the difficulty in undertaking the research in this front may be ten-fold, that of doing it otherwise in any other locale outside of the National Capital Region, it cannot be denied that National Capital Region schools offer the researcher a much wider perspective for substantive analysis and, subsequently, a much richer wellspring of ideas and parameters for a credible concept of a “proposed public secondary school improvement plan”.

Are public high schools generally effective in turning out the kind and number of graduates who are prepared for either the tertiary level of education or the hard demands of real life after high school as adults or income-earners?

Numerous studies and statistics point to the negative answer, and this is the compelling rationale for this study. The researcher aimed to contribute his share to the national quest for informed truth by conducting an assessment of the situation, not necessarily countering well-funded government effort, but with a direct – perhaps even confrontational- and bias-free frame of mind.

If, on the other hand, the perceived weaknesses and defects in National Capital Region-based schools remained sacrosanct, ignored or unmitigated, what should be the public school system’s best foot forward (or showcase) could be its worst shame.

While there will be no intention to belittle or downgrade any previous government or privatesector initiative, there will in the same vein no intention to tread lightly or sparingly. The problem has become too great and grave to be handled with kid’s gloves.

Numerous reforms in education have been installed by the government over recent years, calling for an improved, relevant and modern teaching-learning environment in a transformation mode. Republic Act 7722, for one, mandated the recognition of Centers of Excellence and Centers of Development to serve as “catalysts” toward the

This research has been undertaken at selectively representative public secondary schools in National Capital Region with a few exceptions from among the country’s provincial 33

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Quality Assessment of Public Secondary Schools in National Capital Region: Basis for Proposed Secondary School Improvement Plan development of exemplar programs to serve as models for other schools in the various regions.

seems to bolster the dim perception of National Capital Region schools insofar as over-all quality is concerned.

Along this direction, the Department of Education has issued DepEd Order No.3, s. 2006, which opens the door for private elementary and secondary schools desiring to attain standards of quality over and above minimum state requirements to seek accreditation. The accreditation program has began in the 1950s for both private and public elementary schools, leaving to the former the choice between the government-run and the private-sector system.

The program is extended to the secondary level sometime in the mid-60s, to include public high schools.

Still, the government through its most recent pronouncements is adamant towards fundamental reforms “to sustain better performance and the pursuit of policy reforms that, as a whole, seeks to systematically improve critical regulatory, institutional, structural, physical and informational conditions affecting basic education provision, access and delivery on the ground.”

Even more recently, the Department of Education and Commission on Higher Education have both declared an agenda of better training for public school teachers, leadership training for principals, sex education for students, and strengthened curriculums for good governance and responsible citizenship.

Private secondary schools, as of the latest account, have been shying away from the voluntary government-managed accreditation system reportedly due to the fee imposed by the Department of Education. On the other hand, the accreditation for public secondary schools will charge application fee and may be charged against local funds or local school board funds based on DepEd Memorandum No. 343, s. 2004 which could explain why the awarding of such accreditation has been excruciatingly slow and, for some observers, surprising. Or perhaps, the scarcity of candidates and the stiffness of requirements is yet another indication of the lessthan-satisfactory state of most public high schools in the country.

If, for the skeptics, the government pronouncements and promulgations are nothing more than lip service, to the researcher, these are clear indicators of the prevailing conditions in the public school system and are wake-up calls for various sectors to rally around, think about and work upon.

Bertalanffy (2001) stated that Systems theory provides an internally consistent framework for classifying and evaluating the organization. It studies the structure and properties of systems in terms of relationships, from which new properties of wholes emerge. He also mentioned that "there are many instances where identical principles were discovered several times because the workers in one field were unaware that the theoretical structure required was already well developed; in some other fields, the rise of systems theory forced scientists to view organizations as open systems that interacted with their environment. Although there is now a consensus on the importance of the environment, there is still much disagreement about which features of the environment are most important.

According to Arcelo (2003), accreditation as a practice is good. At this time, expect for the sudden appearance and implementation of the best efforts and practices of certain groups of administrators and faculty of a program. Because once accredited, a school can say it has done well, based on the accreditation indicators and standards. The accredited school may now stand shoulder to shoulder with its peers. Unless of course in some cases when accreditation programs become a reason for an instant “show window” for accreditation purposes. Then the values of accreditation is being prostituted.

In addition, he emphasizes that real systems are open to, and interact with, their environments, and that they can acquire qualitatively new properties through emergence, resulting in continual evolution systems theory which focus on the arrangement of and relations between the parts which connect them into a whole (holism).

The DepEd’s choice of certain provincial high schools ahead of most non- specialized public high schools in the National Capital Region as pilot grounds for both its QMS (Quality Management System) and Sterling Silver Accreditation Project 34

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Quality Assessment of Public Secondary Schools in National Capital Region: Basis for Proposed Secondary School Improvement Plan Thus, this organization determines a system, which is independent of the concrete substance of the elements.

standards and guide actions. These include curriculum guides, policy handbooks, instructions, standard forms, rosters, rules and regulations, and standard operating procedures. (4). Promulgate clear plans and schedules for the participants to follow. These include teachers’ lesson plans and schedules of the school, and (5) Add supervisory and administrative positions to the hierarchy of the organization as necessary to meet problems that arise from changing conditions confronted by the educational organizations.

Getzels-Guba (2001) states that open systems theory is the basis for the analysis of behaviour of people in an organization. His model is often used in conceptualizing organizational behaviour as a function of the interaction between demands of organizational requirements and the needs-dispositions of individuals in the organization. This is also used to illustrate the dynamic relationship between the organizational system and its external larger system.

In that view, Stake (2006) expresses preference to work with the responsive evaluation design as an evaluator because it does service to specific person. He further explained that doing the responsive evaluation entails a series of tasks that would include arranging for persons to observe the program.

Self-organization plays into this perception of organization remaining in its current state within the environment relative to the likelihood of it changing as a result of pressures the environment places on the system.

Moreover, educational organization exists for the purpose of achieving something, particularly achieving the goals and accomplishing the tasks.

There are four organization factors such as task, structure- (gives an organization order and system), technology- (this includes program inventions designed to solve problems) and people- (their contribution to task achievement).

These variables may differ from time to time. As a system, the interdependence of these variables means that a significant change in one will result in some adaptation on the part the other factors.

The principal, as school leader today, is supposed to act as an entrepreneur, a person of vision, able to inspire, empower, motivate teachers and is able to change the system in the education. Considering that leaders influence the quality of the school and through it, on teachers’ performances, it is of utmost importance to investigate the functioning and the well-being of principals in today’s autonomous schools.

Hence, such gathering procedures for accreditation, use questionnaires of the PAASCU evaluation tools in the areas of Faculty, Curriculum and Instruction, Library and Audio Visual Center, Laboratories and Facilities, Physical Plant, Student Services, Administration, School and Community.

METHODOLOGY The study used the descriptive type of research and looked into the quality assessment of administrators and teachers from different public secondary high schools in National Capital Region as basis for a proposed public secondary school improvement plan.

After the passage of time concepts of educational organizations have given rise to new ways of thinking on organization. The bureaucratic approach tends to emphasize the five mechanisms in dealing with the organization. (1) Maintain firm hierarchical control of authority and close supervision of those in the lower ranks; wherein administrator is inspector as well as evaluator. (2) Establish and maintain adequate vertical communication which helps to assure that good information will be transmitted down the line for implementation. Decision makers must have accurate information concerning the operating level in order to make high-quality decisions. (3) Develop clear written rules and procedures to set

The participants of this study were the principals and head teachers from different public secondary schools in the National Capital Region, of varying age, educational attainment, location, and length of service in the respective institutions.

The study covered school year 2010-2011.

The 150 public secondary schools with no application for accreditation were selected accordingly. These schools were from National Capital Region which is composed of sixteen (16) cities such as; Manila, Caloocan, Las Pinas, Makati, Mandaluyong, Marikina, Paranaque, Muntinlupa, Pasay, Pasig, Quezon City, 35

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Quality Assessment of Public Secondary Schools in National Capital Region: Basis for Proposed Secondary School Improvement Plan Valenzuela, Malabon, Navotas, Taguig/Pateros and SanJuan. The schools are identified according to their public school identification number.

As shown in Table 2, 56.4 percent of the principal respondents were females; 37.2 percent were 51-60 years of age; and 81.90 percent were married. 63 principal respondents had been in service for 21 years and above. Out of 94 principal respondents, 46.8 percent attained a master’s degree while 31.9 percent were doctorate degree holders, at the time of study.

Out of 235 public secondary schools in National Capital Region, 150 are selected. The city with the highest number of schools is Quezon City with 28 or 18.70 percent and the least number is San Juan with one (1) school in the division. This meant that the more number of students in the area, the more number of public high schools are being operated.

Similarly, 80.40 percent head teacher respondents were females and 19.60 percent were males. Both principal and head teacher positions were occupied mostly by females.

Further, most of the head teachers were aged 41 – 50 years; 70.2 percent were married; 41.9 percent had been in service for at least 21 years; and 50.40 percent attained a master’s degree or earned units towards a master’s degree and 2 percent of the 726 head teacher respondents had a doctorate or earned units for a doctorate.

The random sampling method is employed to get the proportion of the respondents from the whole population. A fish bowl technique is used to determine the specific sample from each school based on the school division they belong to in the National Capital Region.

Table 1 shows that the city with the most number of principals and head teachers had the most number of respondents for the study.

Quezon City has the highest number of respondents with 204 or 24.90 percent and the least number is from San Juan with 8 respondents or 1 percent. Thus, the number of respondents per city was dependent on the number of schools per division.

Table 1.

Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Principal and Head Teacher Respondents According to City City Caloocan Las Piñas Makati Malabon Mandaluyong Manila Marikina Muntinlupa Navotas Parañaque Pasay Pasig Quezon City San Juan Taguig Valenzuela Total

Frequency 95 21 34 40 43 93 72 23 16 19 19 49 204 8 39 45 820

Percentage 11.60 2.60 4.10 4.90 5.20 11.30 8.80 2.80 2.00 2.30 2.30 6.00 24.90 1.00 4.80 5.50 100.00

The principal respondents of this study are the principals and head teachers in the one hundred fifty (150) public secondary schools in the National Capital Region.

36

Table 2. Socio-demographic Profile of the Respondents (n=820) (%) Head Principals Characteristics Teachers (n=94) (n=726) Sex Male 43.6 19.6 Female 56.40 80.4 Age 25 – 30 years old -7.30 31 – 40 years old 8.50 24.20 41 – 50 years old 27.70 33.90 51 – 60 years old 37.20 25.80 60 years old and 26.60 7.20 above Civil Status Single 12.8 21.9 Married 81.9 70.2 Separated -1.8 Widowed 4.3 3.7 Living-in -0.6 Single Parent -1.0 OFW 1.1 -Length of Service 1-5 years 2.1 8.5 6-10 years 4.3 15.3 11-15 years 12.8 19.0 16-20 years 13.8 15.2 21 years and 67.0 41.9 Above Educational Attainment College 21.3 46.7 Master 46.8 50.4 Doctorate 31.9 2.9

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Quality Assessment of Public Secondary Schools in National Capital Region: Basis for Proposed Secondary School Improvement Plan The main instrument for data gathering was the survey questionnaire. The questionnaire consisted of two (2) parts: Part I is a researchermade instrument that included the demographic profile of the respondents and Part II, nine (9) criteria for quality assessment; namely, Teachers, Curriculum and Instruction, Library and AudioVisual Center, Laboratory, Physical Plant/ Facilities and Equipment, Student Services, Administration, School and Community Linkages/ Relationships and Partnerships, and School Improvement Plan. Further, Part II of the instrument was patterned from PAASCU criteria for basic education. This was revised with some modification on the same instrument used by Tolentino (2009) to measure the “Institutional Competence of the Selected Catholic Schools to Undergo the Accreditation Process”.

questionnaires and retrieval was at the Principal’s Office.

The instrument adapted was validated by experts from the Department of Education based on the set-up of public secondary schools.

There were nine (9) areas rated by the principal and head teacher respondents who were grouped according to designation and cities or municipalities to assess the quality of the public secondary schools. The areas were teachers, curriculum and instruction, library and audio-visual center, laboratory, physical plant/facilities/ equipment, student services, administration, school linkages/relationships/partnerships and school improvement plan.

The areas of analysis used for this study were the quality criteria in assessing public secondary schools in the National Capital Region.

All data and information gathered were analyzed and interpreted by the researcher using different statistical tools such as frequency and count percentage, weighted mean, one-way analysis of variance, T-test for two independent variables and likert scale.

RESULTS Out of 820 respondents: 94 or 11.5 percent are principals while 726 or 88.5 percent are head teachers.

Data gathering started after the approval of the study by the research adviser and upon endorsement by the Department of Education to the principals and head teachers to accomplish the questionnaire. Also, the researcher obtained the list of the public secondary schools in the National Capital Region with the corresponding number of head teachers per school used in the study from the Office of the Planning Services in the Department of Education. In addition, the researcher asked permission from the Office of the Director to interview the Secretary of the Department of Education on the quality assessment of the public secondary schools to come up with a proposed public secondary school improvement plan. The request for the administration of questionnaire was forwarded to the different Division offices for the approval of the School Division Superintendent. After seeking permission from the Schools Division Superintendent, the researcher delivered and collected the questionnaires personally with the help of an aide from the selected public secondary high schools in the National Capital Region. The researcher explained the purpose of the study to the principal and asked help to distribute the questionnaires to the head teachers who were also respondents in the study. The respondents were given at least 3 days to accomplish the

Table 3 (see next page) shows the significant difference in the assessment on the quality of public secondary schools based on nine (9) areas and its categories, weighted and remarks.

A significant difference was found among the respondents’ assessment of quality of the public secondary schools based on the nine (9) areas when grouped according to their city of location.

Among sixteen (16) cities in the National Capital Region, Navotas got the highest assessment on the areas namely: Teachers, Curriculum, library and audio-visual center, laboratory, physical plant / facilities /equipments, administration and community linkages / relationships / partnerships; Muntinlupa, on Teachers, and audio-visual center, laboratory, physical plant / facilities / equipments, student services, administration and community linkages/ relationships / partnerships; Pasig and Las Piñas, on the area of student services; Paranaque on the area of Teachers; and Valenzuela on the area of Physical plant / facilities / equipments.

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RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Quality Assessment of Public Secondary Schools in National Capital Region: Basis for Proposed Secondary School Improvement Plan Table 3. Assessment on the Quality of Public Secondary Schools Based on Nine (9) Areas Area

Weighted Mean

Remarks

3.65 3.09

Significant Significant

Curriculum

3.40

Significant

Student learning

3.41

Significant

Evaluation of Academic Achievement

3.55

Significant

Co-curricular activities

3.48

Significant

Administrative concern for effective instruction

3.67

Significant

Library and Audio-visual center Services for students

3.02

Significant

Accessibility of Library and Audio-Visual Center Services

2.89

Significant

Laboratory Laboratory experiments and activities

2.98

Significant

Technology and livelihood laboratories

3.05

Significant

Computer laboratories

3.26

Significant

Food service laboratories

3.06

Significant

Physical plant/facilities/equipment Building Services

3.36

Significant

Classrooms

3.38

Significant

Canteen/ Dining room/ Kitchen

3.05

Significant

Offices and faculty rooms and others

3.22

Significant

Student Services Admission

3.33

Significant

Orientation Program

3.17

Significant

Testing and Research Services

3.20

Significant

Placement and Follow-up services

3.04

Significant

Health and Food services

3.10

Significant

Transportation services

3.08

Significant

Student activity program

3.39

Significant

Administration Governing Body

3.34

Significant

Administrative Organization

3.41

Significant

Administrative Performance

3.59

Significant

Academic Administration

3.51

Significant

Administration of Non-Academic Personnel

3.49

Significant

Student Administration

3.40

Significant

Financial Administration

3.37

Significant

Administration of Records and Reports

3.49

Significant

School and community linkages/ relationships/ partnerships Basic data about the School and Outside Community

3.47

Significant

School and Community Relations

3.54

Significant

Teachers Teachers’ Academic and Professional Preparation Salaries and other benefits Curriculum and Instruction

Significant

School Improvement Plan

38

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Quality Assessment of Public Secondary Schools in National Capital Region: Basis for Proposed Secondary School Improvement Plan When respondents were grouped according to designation, Administration was found to have significant difference among the nine (9) areas as assessed by the principal and head teacher respondents. There was significant difference in the perception of the respondents when they were grouped according to city or municipalities.

instruction namely: classroom instruction, (3) Library and Audio Visual Center particularly on library and audio-visual center personnel, financial support and accountability, selection, holdings, organization of holdings, services for faculty and administrators, and physical facilities, (4) Laboratory, namely classrooms, equipment and supplies, maintenance and improvement, physics laboratories, biology laboratories, and speech laboratories, (5) Physical Plant/ facilities and equipment particularly on site/campus, buildings, auditorium/covered court, and medical and dental clinic facilities, (6) Student services, namely; guidance organization and administration, individual inventory, counselling, service to administrators, teachers and parents, and career guidance developmental services, and (7) School and Community Linkages / Relationships / Partnerships particularly on school- community awareness and involvement.

DISCUSSION Most of the principal and head teacher respondents were females. The females outnumbered the males to a substantial degree.

Most of the respondents belonged to the bracket 41-50 while those whose age ranged from 25-30 has the least number. Most of them were still on their prime and could still perform their duties and responsibilities effectively for the improvement of their respective schools. Results also revealed that respondents have attained a master’s degree or have earned a number of units for the degree.

Since the respondents can still perform their duties and responsibilities, the Department of Education should monitor the efficiency and effectiveness of the principals and head teachers with regard to their output and performance so that they can formulate policies that will mandate retirement at 60 years old. In addition, there should be a strict monitoring and implementation of the assessment tools put together by the Department of Education.

The principal respondents assessed the nine (9) criteria particularly the Teachers, Curriculum and Instruction, Library and Audio Visual Center, Laboratory, Physical Plant/Facilities/ Equipment, Student Services, Administration, School and Community Linkages/ Relationships/ Partnerships and School Improvement Plan higher than the head teachers.

Among the sixteen (16) cities in the National Capital Region, Navotas got the highest assessment rating on the eight (8) areas except for student services; Muntinlupa got seven (7) highest assessment rating on seven areas except; Curriculum and Instruction and School Improvement Plan; Pasig and Las PiĂąas got one (1) highest rating except on the areas namely; Teachers. Curriculum and Instruction, Library and Audio-visual Center, Laboratory, Physical Plant, Administration, School and Community Linkages and School Improvement Plan; Paranaque ranked highest on the area of Teachers; and Valenzuela, on the area of Physical plant / facilities / equipments.

The local government should provide scholarships for further graduate studies in order to equip the school heads with the latest trends, issues and innovations in basic education.

Principals must show what the real situation of public secondary schools is in the National Capital Region. They should provide honest answers on the present conditions of the public high schools to ensure their improvement.

The Department of Education should focus in formulating programs for the professional growth of the teaching and non-teaching personnel.

Curriculum and instruction must not only focus on the implementation of programs and projects of the Department of Education, but also the effect of such implementation upon the stakeholders. They should include teachers in the curriculum planning. The school should have a licensed librarian who is equipped with knowledge in handling the work in the library.

There were no significant differences in the areas of (1) Teachers, particularly on selection of teachers, teaching experience and length of service, teaching assignment and load, professional performance, faculty development, and tenure, leaves of absence, dismissal and retirement provisions, (2) Curriculum and 39

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Quality Assessment of Public Secondary Schools in National Capital Region: Basis for Proposed Secondary School Improvement Plan The laboratory is the area for the hands-on activity of the students. It is important them to provide laboratory needs and instructional materials for the learning experience of the students. The physical plant particularly public high school buildings should be conducive to learning. There must only be 40-50 students in a class.

Gay,

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The school guidance counsellor should design concrete programs for the students who may have financial, psychological and learning problems.

The school should also practice the open system where the school is open for external stakeholders to provide the needs of the school in order to give the students the best quality of basic education.

Future researchers should delve deeper into the set-up, fundamentals and progress of the BESRA- (Basic Education Sector Reform Agenda) as basis for future program study.

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Unpublished Dissertation, PUP, 2002 Mercado, J., “ Personal Needs, Job Satisfaction and Work Related Characteristics as Correlates of Teacher Commitment Among Mathematics Faculty Members of State Universities andColleges in the National Capital Region”, 2003 McMillan, E. Considering organization structure and design from a complexity paradigm perspective’, Tackling industrial complexity: the ideas that makes a difference conference, Downing College Cambridge, 9-10 April 2002 Poblete, A.V.. “An Evaluation of the Performance of Teachers’ Cooperatives in Public High Schools in Region III”.

Unpublished Dissertation, PUP, 2007 Salazar, C., “ Relationship of Managerial Skills to Job Performance and Job satisfaction of Oriental Mindoro College Administrators”, Unpublished Dissertation, PUP, Manila, 1999 Servida, Nieves G.,”Culture and Levels of Commitment and Their Relationship to Educators’ Effectiveness in DeLa Salle University Dasmarinas”, Siggelkow, N. & Levinthal, D,. “Adapting to Adapt, Sequencing Organizational Structures to Satisfy Conflicting Demands”a paper presented at strategic Management Society International conference, Paris, Published Dissertation, 2002

Thesis/Dissertation Albano, M.R. . Principal Empowerment in Public Secondary Schools: Basis for the Development Primer.

Dissertation PNU, Manila, 2006 Alegre, L. A.. “Work Values: Correlation with Demographic Characteristics and Performance Rating of Faculty in Three Selected State Universities in the National Capital Region”Unpublished Dissertation, PUP, Manila, 2004 Ang, J.G. ”The Culture of St. Benedict College: Its Influence on Faculty Commitment” Unpublished Dissertation, PUP, Manila, 2001 Ejimofor, F.O.. ”Principal’s Transformational Leadership Skills and their Teacher’s Job Satisfaction in Nigeria” Published Dissertation, Cleveland State University, 2007 Ferrer, M. “ Relationship of Personal Characteristics, Leadership Style Job Satisfaction to Adversity Quotient of Academic Heads of Selected State Colleges and Universites in the National Capital Region” Unpublished Dissertation, PUP, Manila, 2009 Garovillas, E. P.”Correlation of Organization Development Change Levers and Accreditation Goals of Selected Private Colleges and Universities in the National Capital Region”Unpublished Dissertation,PUP, Manila, 2006 Hughes,V.M.. “Teacher Evaluation Practices and 42

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Quality Assessment of Public Secondary Schools in National Capital Region: Basis for Proposed Secondary School Improvement Plan Terhune,M.. “A Study of Demographics and Job Related Categories That Influence The Quality Teacher Work Life in Montana Schools With Indigenous Populations” Published Dissertation, Montana State University, 2002 Tolentino, Ma. B.T.. “Institutional Competence and Motivation to Undergo Accreditation of Selected Catholic Schools in Rizal Province. Unpublished Disssertation.

PUP, 2009 Victorino, I., “ Organizational Factors perceived to Affect Institutional Climate of Don Bosco Schools and Their Impact on Performance and Empowerment of Faculty and Non-Teaching Staff”, Unpublished Dissertation, PUP, Manila, 2007 Yii, L. “ The Association Between Organizational Culture and leadership Behavior and Organizational Commitment, job Satisfaction and Employee Performance”: A Malayan Perspective (Published Dissertation), 2008

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THE LEVEL OF IMPLEMENTATION OF THE LINE ITEM BUDGET SYSTEM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS: BASIS FOR BUDGET DEVELOPMENT PLAN Patricia M. Empleo, PhD, CPA, FRI(Rs) the budgeted figures over those opportunities characterized by uncertainties (Marginson, 2005).

ABSTRACT This study assessed the level of implementation of the line item budget system of the University of Santo Tomas. Assessments were made by two groups of managers, the administrative officers and the academic officials, on the adequacy of their budgeting skills and the effectiveness of the budget system adopted by the University. The university managers likewise identified whether irregularities occur and problems were encountered in the implementation of the budget.

Responses on the items provided in the questionnaires were analyzed and interpreted using the following statistical tools: summary tables, relative frequencies, mean and weighted mean, t-test for differences between means of independent groups, correlation analysis and ranking.

Some managers and employees view budgeting negatively, frequently associating it with excessive pressure related to unrealistic goals, unreasonable restrictions, authoritarian decision making, lack of control, and subjectivity. Budgets fail to reflect reality because they focus only on results, with no input from middle or lower managers and are based on assumptions and judgment. Most budgets require revisions and modifications during the course of a company’s reporting year to reflect unanticipated changes in the operating management (Barsky and Catanach, 2005). Because of negative views about budgeting, others endorse abandonment of the budgeting process in enterprises because of the following arguments: (a) business environment changes at a rate faster than the rate in the change in the budget system; (b) the achievement of budgeted figures become much more important to managers because their performance is generally measured against the budgets, which sometimes result in action that are not in the best interest of the organization; and (c) the strength of the traditional budget is undermined by selfish behavior of the managers who resort to budget games.

For instance, managers may set a less demanding budget at a level lower than what they believe they can realistically achieve, because almost always the unfavorable variances between the budgeted and actual figures are charged against the performance of the manager. In other instances, an expense incurred is charged under a wrong heading because the budgeted expenditure has already been exhausted. Other managers may have developed the practice of spending for items not considered necessary because the expense allowance under the budget is underspent. The unnecessary spending behavior may continue in future years, because the budget holder is trying to avoid a cutback in the particular expense (Poston, 2006).

INTRODUCTION The need for a budget stems from the stewardship function of the management. The managers have the responsibility for maximizing the use of enterprise resources to achieve the goals of the organization and satisfy the needs of all its stakeholders. For an organization to succeed, it must formulate its strategic and operational plans against which budgets are set and monitored for effectiveness.

A well-functioning budget system helps the management in carrying out the following functions: planning, facilitating communication and coordination, allocating resources, controlling profit and operations and evaluating performance and providing incentives (Hilton, 2009).

Budgeting also creates an early warning system for potential problems so that management can make changes before things get out of hand (Weygandt, 2008).

In recent years, however, the budget and the budgeting process have been subjected to certain criticisms. Budgeting can cause excessive pressure and nervousness in the organization, which may lead to bias in the budget goals and to activities, and are counterproductive for the organization’s overall goals (Ihantola, 2006).

Budgets, or the ways budgets are applied, may also constrain innovation and learning, because managers may prefer activities that will achieve

Arguments against abandoning the budget include the following: (a) Budgets can be used as both strategic tools and control mechanisms; (c) Key performance indicators used by those which do not adopt the budget process can be manipulated in the same manner as budget figures; (c) The annual budget acts as a guide to 44

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: The Level of Implementation of the Line Item Budget System of the University of Santo Tomas: Basis for Budget Development Plan future requirements, such that if a business thinks that there is a good chance of making a profit by doing something outside its budgeted activities, the organization will find the necessary resources; and (d) for other companies, variance analysis is perfectly suitable for assessing performance at a glance (Proctor, 2006)

academic official. The budget figures are uploaded in a system called the Budget Forecaster. The Budget Forecaster is a software that aids the budget committee to monitor actual expenditures.

UST applies the traditional line item budgeting approach, which provides a line item in the budget report for each type of income and expenditure.

The line item is considered simpler than the program based budgeting approach because the latter requires justification of each program of activities for a given budget year. As criticized by book authors, the line item budget process merely provides figures without citing reasons for the expenditures.

The varying views about the budget process may point out that the success of the budgeting process depends to a large extent on some important variables, such as the organization culture, education and training of the managers, realistic standards and the approaches by which budgets are developed. Budget approaches include line item budgeting, activity or program budgeting, incremental program budgeting, and performance based budgeting.

The study aimed to measure the level of implementation of the line item budget system of University of Santo Tomas as assessed by the administrative officers and academic officials.

Administrative officers are the university’s executive officers of administrative and servicing units while academic officials are the officials of all academic units and include principals, assistant principals, deans, regents, assistant deans, college or faculty secretary, university department chairs and program chairs.

The line item approach is the traditional approach and provides a separate line item of revenue or expenditure in the budget format, regardless of the originating activity or program.

Its primary focus is on the past, with the previous year as the “base’. The line item budget is perceived to be working well when budget time is short and there is considerable complexity in the environment within which the entity operates. Its primary weakness is its inability to measure the success of programmed activities, because it does not provide adequate information on how specific expenditure cuts or increases might affect individual programs.

Specifically, this study assessed the administrative officers and academic officials’ adequacy of budgeting skills; determined the effectiveness of the UST budgeting system as assessed by the administrative officers and academic officials in terms of the following functions of the budget: enhancement of managerial skills; coordination and monitoring of organizational activities; controlling costs and utilization of resources; observance of performance standards; and formulation and implementation of strategic plans; and identified the problems encountered by the two groups of respondents in the implementation of item budget system of UST.

Although operating not mainly for profit, an educational institution is still considered as an economic entity that must sustain financial viability.

This is the reason why resource allocation is one of the key directional areas identified in the process of the strategic planning of the University of Santo Tomas (UST). Founded in 1611, UST is the oldest existing university in the Philippines and in Asia. At the present time, it enjoys an autonomous status granted by the Commission on Higher Education (CHED). It is also the largest Catholic University in the world in a single campus in terms of student population (UST Student Handbook, 2011).

The findings of this study may serve as bases for enhancement of identified strengths and formulation of corrective actions of the University of Santo Tomas management, when necessary.

This study is also relevant to other educational institutions in their search for a model of a budget system that will fit their specific needs. Likewise, management consultants, accounting, business and finance teachers as well as students may find the results as practical applications of the theories of budgeting system and addition to vast but conflicting literatures on the adoption of the budget and the budget process.

In order to carefully allocate its resources, UST installed a budgeting system to plan, monitor and control its financial performance. A budget committee, headed by the University Treasurer, oversees the implementation of the budget process. The preparation of the budget for each college, school, or department is the primary responsibility of the chief administrative officer or 45

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: The Level of Implementation of the Line Item Budget System of the University of Santo Tomas: Basis for Budget Development Plan METHODOLOGY

RESULTS & DISCUSSION

The researcher obtained responses from the survey questionnaire administered to the administrative officers and academic officials of UST for the academic year 2011 - 2012, all of whom were involved in the budget development process. There were forty five (45) administrative officers and one hundred fourteen (114) academic officials at the time of study. A total of thirty seven (37) administrative officers and eighty nine (89) academic officials submitted the duly accomplished questionnaires. The responses obtained provided a maximum allowance of 5% error and 90% desired reliability, based on the recommended sample sizes of the Philippine Social Survey Council.

Responses on the question items were analyzed and interpreted using the following statistical tools: summary tables, relative frequencies, mean and weighted mean, t-test for differences betweens means of independent groups, correlation analysis and ranking.

Table 1 shows the distribution of the respondents based on their demographic profile.

Table 1. Demographic Profile of Administrative Officer and Academic Official Respondents (n=126) Admin.

Characteristics Officers (n=37)

Age Range 21 – 30 3 31 – 40 9 41 – 50 10 51 – 60 13 > 60 yrs old 2 Sex Male 21 Female 16 Length of Service Less than 3 5 years 3 years to 6 5 years More than 6 27 years Educational Attainment Bachelor’s 4 degree only With Master’s 8 units With Master’s 10 degree With Doctorate 10 units With Doctorate 5 degree

A likert scale with the following verbal interpretation of the computed means were closely observed in the questionnaire administered to administrative officers and academic officials, for the statement indicators assessing the adequacy of skills of the respondents and the effectiveness of the UST Line Item Budget System.

Weight 5 4 3 2 1

Range 4.50 – 5.00 3.50 – 4.49 2.50 – 3.49 1.50 – 2.49 1.00 – 1.49

Verbal Interpretation Strongly Agree Agree Neither Agree Nor Disagree Disagree Strongly Disagree

3 24 27 26 9

4.76 26.19 29.37 30.95 8.73

38 51

46.83 53.17

11

12.70

7

9.52

71

77.78

0

3.17

4

9.52

37

37.30

26

28.57

22

21.42

The academic official respondents demonstrated a more impressive profile than did the administrative officer respondents, in terms of educational attainment. This is explained by the fact that completion of at least a master’s degree is a requirement for tenureship in any academic position in the tertiary level in the University.

For the test of relationship between the assessments of the two groups of respondents on the adequacy of their budgeting skills, the following verbal interpretation of the computed value of the correlation coefficient were used.

Value of r 0.90 to 1.00 0.70 to 0.89 0.40 to 0.69 0.20 to 0.39 0.00 to 0.19

Academic Percentage Officials (n=126) (n=89)

As shown in Table 2, the academic officials provided a slightly lower assessment on the adequacy of their skills in using the UST budget system.

Verbal Interpretation Very High Correlation High Correlation Moderate Correlation Weak Correlation No Correlation

It is worth noting that officials from different colleges provided varying responses, maybe because the manner of budget formulation and development differs from one academic unit (college or school) to another.

46

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: The Level of Implementation of the Line Item Budget System of the University of Santo Tomas: Basis for Budget Development Plan Table 2: UST Administrative Officers and Academic Officials’ Assessment of the Adequacy of their Skills in Using the UST Budget System Indicator (1) I have attended training on the application of the UST budget system.

(2) My superior / former superior has oriented me on the application of the University budget system.

(3) My previous work provided me enough skills to formulate budgets.

(4) My educational background provided me reasonable level of understanding on the development and implementation of a budget.

(5) I fully understand the budget guidelines of the UST. Grand Mean

Mean Admin. Academic Officers Officials (n=37) (n=89) 3.73 3.26

3.43

3.37

3.97

3.39

4.16

3.66

4.14

3.56

3.89

3.45

Table 3 shows that the mean score of the administrative officers is higher but less dispersed than those of the academic officials.

Table 5: Test of Difference – Assessment of the Administrative Officers and Academic Officials as to the Effectiveness of the UST Budget System

Table 3 : Test of Difference in the Assessments of Administrative and Academic Officials as to the Adequacy of their Skills Group of Respondents

N

Mean

Administrative Officials

37

3.887

Academic Officials 89 3.449 Computed value of t 3.47304** Critical value of t at a = 0.05, ± 1.98282 df = 105 Significance (p-value) 0.0007

identified functions of the budget, with grand means ranging from 3.71 to 4.02 (Table 4 on the next page). However, both sets of officers did not see the budget as a process working with people and a strong enhancer for establishing good relationship with people. Instead, the UST budget system is most effective in linking program activities and budget allocation. It is not fully successful in developing synergy among the different units in the organization, which means that the departmental plans may not have been fully integrated through institutional planning in the budget process. The reportorial function of the budget also needs significant improvement because both groups of respondents reported below expectation performance in terms of providing timely periodic and continuous feedback on actual costs incurred and performance. Only in the aspect of enhancing managerial skills as assessed by the administrative officers that a weighted mean of at least 4.0 is obtained. All other areas considered in this study placed the UST budget system at a status where more improvements should be done in its implementation for UST to realize the full benefits of a sound budget system.

Respondents

Standard Deviation

Mean Std. Dev. t-score

pvalue

(A) Enhancement of Managerial Skills Administrative 4.02 0.486 1.727 0.0438* Officers Academic Officials 3.84 0.645 (B) Coordination and Monitoring of Activities Administrative 3.99 0.575 1.1938 0.2348 Officers Academic Officials 3.84 0.634 (C) Controlling Costs and Utilization of Resources Administrative 3.896 0.749 1.3483 0.18 Officers Academic Officials 3.706 0.711 (D) Observance of Performance Standards Administrative 3.779 0.664 0.2376 0.8126 Officers Academic Officials 3.747 0.701 (E) Formulation and Implementation of Strategic Plans Administrative 3.932 0.605 1.0054 0.3167 Officers Academic Officials 3.802 0.689 *significant at p=0.0438, right-tailed

0.5303 0.8560

**significant at p-value < 0.001, right and two tailed

The difference is significant at probability value less than 0.001, both for right and two-tailed tests. There is sufficient evidence that the mean adequacy of budgeting skill scores of the administrative and academic officials differ significantly. The mean adequacy of budgeting skills scores of the administrative officers are significantly higher than those of the academic officials.

The tests of difference in the respondents’ assessment of the UST Budget System’s effectiveness, as shown on Table 5, revealed a significant difference between the assessments by

Furthermore, the administrative officers and academic officials consistently agreed that the UST budget system is effective in all the foregoing 47

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: The Level of Implementation of the Line Item Budget System of the University of Santo Tomas: Basis for Budget Development Plan Table 4: The Effectiveness of the UST Line Item Budget System Administrative Academic Officers Officials

Indicator (A) In enhancing managerial skills helps me to improve my relationship with my subordinates, superiors and other (1) members of the organization.

(2) enhances my technical skills.

(3) helps me to rationalize, think logically and apply sound judgment.

(4) enhances my ability to persuade my superior and subordinates.

(5) enables me to focus on or anticipate problem areas of the Department.

(6) serves as gateway to improved decision-making and organizational effectiveness.

Grand Mean (B) in coordination and monitoring organizational activities (1) ensures availability of information necessary to develop the budget. requires the top level management to communicate approved organizational plans (2) and programs to all organizational units. encourages coordination and collaboration of organizational activities among the (3) operating units of the University. requires explanation for any deviation between actual outcome and the established (4) objective. provides integration of school/department level assessment results into the (5) institutional planning. encourages participation of all levels of management and key employees/ faculty (6) members.

(7) links program activities and budget allocation.

Grand Mean (C) in controlling costs and utilization of resources provides timely periodic and continuous feedback on actual costs incurred and (1) performance. compares and analyzes the difference between the budgeted costs and actual (2) costs incurred. requires review of previous years’ budgets and actual figures before the (3) development of the new budget. enables the college / department to compare costs incurred with achievements of (4) key performance indicators.

(5) requires justification of programs not previously reported in the budget.

(6) tracks expenditures against accomplishments.

Grand Mean (D) in observance of performance standards (1) enables review of performance indicators.

(2) enables comparison of performance standards with actual performance.

(3) requires corrective actions if achievements are below intended outcomes. provides a basis of comparison between actual costs incurred and performance (4) indicators. aids to identify tactical initiatives to close the gap between current performance and (5) the desired level of performance.

(6) provides basis for measurement of the success of programmed activities.

Grand Mean (E) in formulation and implementation of strategic plans. requires a review or establishment of organizational goals for the next three to five (1) years.

(2) expresses the policies and objectives of the University in quantitative form. requires identification of strategies that are aligned with the University’s mission and (3) vision. requires comparison between total actual costs incurred and strategic objectives (4) previously set.

(5) helps in the formulation of decision on capital expenditures. provides feedback as basis for decision whether or not to continue or change (6) program component of strategic plans.

Grand Mean

the administrative officers and academic officials with regard to the effectiveness of the UST budget system in enhancing the officers’ and officials’ managerial skills.

The administrative officers

3.78

3.67

3.97 4.08 3.92 4.22 4.16 4.02

3.87 3.97 3.78 3.96 3.81 3.84

4.05

3.82

3.97

3.91

4.05

3.92

3.78

3.75

3.76

3.61

4.08

3.90

4.22 3.99

4.00 3.84

3.49

3.35

3.95

3.54

3.92

3.82

4.00

3.79

4.00 4.03 3.90

3.93 3.81 3.71

3.86 3.84 3.59

3.89 3.82 3.64

3.78

3.74

3.59

3.63

4.00 3.78

3.76 3.75

3.81

3.80

4.08

3.81

3.97

3.87

3.86

3.74

4.14

3.93

3.73

3.66

3.93

3.80

gave significantly higher ratings than did the academic officials. The coefficient of variation of the assessment of the academic officials is higher than that of the administrative officers, which 48

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: The Level of Implementation of the Line Item Budget System of the University of Santo Tomas: Basis for Budget Development Plan means that the responses of the academic officials are more spread than those of the administrative officers.

highly significant moderate positive correlation was found between assessed adequacy of skills and assessed effectiveness of the budget system in terms of coordination and monitoring of organizational activities.

However, the administrative officers’ assessed effectiveness in terms of observance of performance standards was not significantly correlated with their adequacy of skill.

In contrast, no significant differences were found between the administrative officers and academic officials’ assessment of the UST budget system’s effectiveness in terms of coordination and monitoring of organizational activities, control of costs and utilization of resources, performance standards, and formulation and implementation of strategic plans.

Table 7: Test of Relationship Between the Academic Officials’ Adequacy of Skills and their Assessment of the Effectiveness of the UST Budget System

In all aspects of the functions of the budget system, the assessments of the administrative officers are always higher than the assessments of the academic officials. This is due to the cohesiveness of the functions of the administrative officers, who all belong to the same level of management. The academic officials belong to the three different levels of management, the level of the deans and regents, the level of the college/faculty/school secretary and the level of the department chairs. In addition, it was observed that the responses of the academic officials is partly dependent on the college or school to which they belong. This suggests that each college or academic unit adopts varying practices in implementing the UST Budget System.

Variables

rcomputed

Sig (pvalue)

Adequacy of skills Performance of Budget System in Terms of (A) Enhancement of 0.7136** 0.000 managerial skills (B) Coordination and 0.6799** monitoring of 0.000 organizational activities (C) Controlling costs and 0.5278** 0.000 utilization of resources (D) Observance of 0.5273** 0.000 performance standards (E) Formulation and 0.5081** implementation of 0.000 strategic plans **correlation is significant at p-value < 0.01, two tailed

Table 6: Test of Relationship Between the Administrative Officers’ Adequacy of Skills and their Assessment of the Effectiveness of the UST Budget System Variables

rcomputed

Table 7 shows that the test of relationship between the assessment of adequacy of budgeting skills and performance of the budget system of the 89 academic officials revealed a highly significant strong positive correlation between assessed adequacy of budgeting skills and assessed effectiveness of the budget system in terms of enhancement of managerial skills; coordination and monitoring of organization activities; control of costs and utilization of resources; observance of the performance standards; and formulation and implementation of strategic plans.

Sig (p-value)

Adequacy of skills Performance of Budget System in Terms of (A) Enhancement of 0.542* 0.003 managerial skills (B) Coordination and 0.613** 0.001 monitoring of organizational activities (C) Controlling costs and 0.508** 0.005 utilization of resources (D) Observance of 0.287 0.099 performance standards (E) Formulation and 0.411* 0.021 implementation of strategic plans **correlation is significant at p-value < 0.01, two tailed *correlation is significant at p-value < 0.05, two tailed

In addition to the assessed occurrence of irregularities in the implementation of the UST budget system, the respondents identified the problems they have encountered that need to be addressed to improve the effectiveness of the existing budget system.

Table 6 shows a significant moderate positive correlation between adequacy of skill and assessed effectiveness of the budget system in terms of enhancement of managerial skills; control of cost and utilization of resource; and formulation and implementation of strategic plans. Further, a

Results revealed that improvements in the budget implementation require focus on the reportorial function of the budget. On the top spot is the failure of the Budget Committee or Finance Department to provide each unit frequent periodic 49

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: The Level of Implementation of the Line Item Budget System of the University of Santo Tomas: Basis for Budget Development Plan report on the expenditures so far incurred. This is followed by another reportorial function: the Budget Committee does not provide formal report as to the variance between the budgeted figures and actual figures. Variance analysis is a vital aspect in management function, because the variance may indicate that some objectives have not been achieved as planned, or favorably, the objectives have been achieved at a cost lower than the budgeted cost.

In either case, the variance analysis will help the school or department to formulate better plans, make revisions to these plans or take corrective actions, when necessary, or revise future budget figures.

Because no report of variances is communicated to the different schools or departments, the administrators and academic officials are also not given the opportunity to analyze and explain these variances.

enough statistical or accounting data from which budgets are formulated. In trying to verify this issue, the researcher interviewed a former academic official and found out that accounting data are supplied upon request from the accounting department of the University. Thus, it is on the initiative of the officers or officials to obtain data from which budget figures may be based.

Forty-five respondents or 36% of the total respondents indicated that the budget system does not include some line items representing probable expenditures of a department, thus, making the budget list incomplete. It is very probable that the officers may not be fully aware that a line item for “contingencies” is included in the budget system. This line item is for incurrence of expenditures not listed on any other line items in the budget.

Sixty-six respondents or 52% of the total respondents perceived that there is no sufficient training for administrative officers and academic officials for the implementation of the budget. The University, upon the initial installation of the software Budget Forecaster already conducted a training seminar for the operation of the budget.

Materials expected to develop the budgeting skills of the administrative officers and academic officials were distributed during the training.

However, the training is not conducted periodically, so as to give sufficient training for these officials who may have been affected by turnover in managerial positions. Because of expiration of terms and appointment of new officials, those who are presently occupying managerial positions in the University may have not been given opportunity to participate in the most recent budget training.

A total of 22% of the respondents expressed that the budgeted costs are based on unrealistic rates prevailing at the present time. Also, 22% of the respondents expressed that the software “Budget Forecaster” being currently used by the University is too complicated to operate. This is most probably linked to the issue of insufficiency of training of the administrative officers and academic officials on the budget system.

Other problem areas were also supplied by the respondents.

The budgeted figures may be known through the Dean’s office but not communicated completely to the Department level. The budget system stops at the Dean’s level, with much restrictions. Further, there is difficulty in identifying specific seminars / conferences that should be included in the “Budget Forecaster” resulting to rejected invitations or requests because no previous budget was allocated. Also, some administrative officials have the perception that if budget is not spent, then it is savings; hence, indicating good management. Lastly, unavoidable or sudden changes due to unforeseen circumstances (local, global events, man-made or natural) requiring budget changes should be considered or accommodated.

Sixty-five respondents view the budget process as interrupting the flow of operational activities. They perceive the budget process as non-essential activity. This situation implies that the officials did not believe that budget is essential for an efficient performance of organizational objectives.

The psychological hurdles of the budgeting process may have been tempered by the presence of a well-explained and illustrated budget manual. Although there are budget guidelines circulated among top managers, these do not reach the level of the department chairs, thus reducing the effectiveness of the budget system.

In the light of the significant findings, mainly that the Budget System needs improvement, enhancing the adequacy of budgeting skills of the administrative officers and most especially the academic officials must be addressed. A training on the implementation of a sound budget system

Forty six respondents or a total of 37% of the total respondents expressed that there are not 50

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: The Level of Implementation of the Line Item Budget System of the University of Santo Tomas: Basis for Budget Development Plan and the UST line item budget system has to be conducted at least every two years and the turnover of the academic officials has to be considered when deciding on the frequency of the training. All committees, departments, and offices involved must collaborate for a holistic approach in improving the implementation of the system. After a thorough review and modifications of line items uploaded in the budget system, the Budget Committee, in alliance with the Quality Management Office, must develop a budget manual for distribution to the administrative officers and academic officials. The budget manual must include among others, the description of the mechanics for communicating approved budgets and other periodic budget reports and information necessary to develop the budget. The budget manual has to be reviewed at least every three years, to ensure that the guidelines still fit any changes in organizational activities. A newly appointed administrative officer or academic official has to be provided a budget manual at the date of his / her initial appointment.

And to ensure the continuous effectiveness of the budget system, the Finance Department and the Budget Committee in coordination with the Santo Tomas E-service providers (STEPs), must formulate evaluation criteria to periodically monitor the effectiveness of the budget system and require all university officers and officials to conduct online evaluation of the budget process adopted by the University. This will give the Budget Committee and the Office of the Vice Rector for Finance a privilege to periodically review and evaluate the effectiveness of the budget system and take necessary actions in enhancing the usefulness of the UST line item budget system.

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Managerial accounting: tools for business Decision Making. Illinois.

UST student handbook 2011. UST Publishing House 2008

Implementing the foregoing recommendations will involve coordinated efforts of all levels of management, and additional financial resources; but the rewards shall be received for a long period of time.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The researcher would like to thank Dr. Felipe Iledan (Manuel L. Quezon University) for his effective guidance and support as research adviser.

REFERENCES Barsky, N. P. and Catanach, A. Jr. (2005).

Management accounting: A business planning approach. Boston, New York, U.S.A: Houghton Mifflin Company.

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DIFFERENTIAL ITEM FUNCTIONING DETECTION IN READING COMPREHENSION TEST USING MANTEL HAENSZEL, ITEM RESPONSE THEORY, AND LOGICAL DATA ANALYSIS Teodora M. Salubayba, PhD, FRI(Rs) regarded as causing DIF particularly in reading comprehension test as far as certain groups of a given population are concerned.

ABSTRACT The Mantel-Haenszel (MH) and Item Response Theory One-Parameter Logistic (IRT1PL) model were investigated for their sensitivity in detecting (differential item functioning) DIF in Reading Comprehension test administered to 1925 Grade Six pupils. The pupils were from six mixed-gender and three all-girl schools run by religious congregation in the Philippines. The two DIF procedures revealed that the focal group (boys in gender-based DIF, girls in mixed-gender schools in school type-based DIF) was disadvantaged in most of the items. Large and consistent differences between the performances on the test items of the focal group and the reference group were evident under IRT-1PL as also depicted in the item characteristic curves (ICC). MH detected fewer DIF items that resulted to more DIF-free items. On the contrary, IRT-1PL detected more DIF items that produced brief test instrument.

Items flagged as DIF were subjected to qualitative logical data analysis (LDA), a review process done by the test users, practitioners, and the examinees themselves.

LDA involved focus group discussions (FGD) and interviews. Responses from the FGD and interviews confirmed biased items and revealed causes of DIF items like words and phrases in the items, options that favoured one group, familiarity with the reading selections, among other things. Recommendations include reviewing the reading selections in the test, item writing procedures, considering response patterns and choice of distracter in DIF procedures, and creating better test evaluation practices to ensure fair tests and assessments.

There is a need for a more sophisticated way of evaluating test instruments particularly those that attempt to detect DIF items. In the study, the Mantel-Haenszel (MH) chi-square under the classical test theory (CTT) and the Item Response Theory (IRT) one-parameter logistic model were considered as DIF procedures for critical evaluation of test items, for detecting the presence of DIF in the items. These two DIF procedures found to be effective and sensitive in detecting DIF in the items. Several studies (MJ Navas-Ara, 2002; Nijenhuis, 2004; Sheppard, Han, Colarell, Dai, & King, 2006; Stoneberg, 2004; Wolfe & Phyllis, 1990; et al) made use of Mantel-Haenszel in detecting DIF. The procedure has been found simple as it does not require highly specialized software. On the other hand, IRT-1PL procedures have been found to be more sensitive in detecting DIF and can produce precise, valid, and relatively shorter instrument (Baker, 2004; Edelen & Reeve, 2007; Embretson, 2000;Hambleton, 1991; et al).

In such cases, the choice of better DIF procedure is left to the informed judgment of the test users and policy makers.

Qualitative Logical Data Analysis Items flagged as DIF are considered potentially biased items against either the focal group or the reference group. A DIF item can be confirmed bias after the qualitative logical data analysis because according to Camili & Sheppard (1994), empirical evidence of differential test performance is necessary, but not sufficient to enable any researcher to draw conclusion about the presence of bias; the condition that the item is biased requires a logical data analysis. Logical data analysis (LDA) is meant to discover detectable patterns of DIF or common characteristics of individual items and the causes of DIF in the items. Causes of DIF in the items according to Reynolds (2006) could be the familiarity of one group with the topic or clues in the items compared to other group, and student’s experience in terms of school curriculum that contributed to test item performance.

INTRODUCTION The process in developing test instruments that is ‘fair’ for all test takers requires the removal or revision of items that are displaying or showing differential item functioning (DIF). In an achievement test, items are said to be showing DIF when equally able examinees in terms of ability and drawn from the same population but belonging to different subgroups such as male or female, do not have the same chances of correctly responding to an item. Test developers should strive therefore to identify and remove symbols, words, phrases, and contents that are generally 52

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Differential Item Functioning Detection in Reading Comprehension Test Using Mantel-Haenszel, Item Response Theory, and Logical Data Analysis In this study, LDA was performed after obtaining significant DIF statistics to conclude that items really are biased and to determine the causes or origins of DIF for the subgroups under study. Causes of DIF in the item were discovered and emerged through interviews and discussion with the examinees and the people involved with them. The use of LDA had enriched the analysis of DIF and added a qualitative dimension to the study, in contrast to the highly quantitative procedures that are normally involved in detecting the presence of DIF in reading comprehension test.

METHODOLOGY This study provided a comparative analysis of the two DIF procedures, the MantelHaenszel and IRT1PL in their effectiveness and sensitivity to detect DIF in test items in the context of the English Reading Comprehension test administered to Grade six pupils. Besides the two aforementioned highly technical statistical procedures, the study also employed a qualitative logical data analysis to confirm biased items and explore the causes of DIF. The comparison focused on the performance on the test items of the focal group (boys in in gender-based DIF; girls in the mixed-gender schools in school type-based DIF) and the reference group (girls in gender-based DIF; girls in the all-girl schools in school type-based DIF).

DIF Analysis Comparison Groups in the Study DIF procedures involve subgroups referring to the focal group and the reference group. Several studies that made use of DIF procedures considered gender – male vs. female (Sheppard, et al, 2006; Stoneberg, 2004), racial vs. ethnic (Meiring, 2006; Nijenhuis, 2004), and public vs. private schools (Pedrajita, 2007); but not singlesex schooling which is one of the subgroups of interest in the present study in comparison to mixed-gender schooling in an achievement test.

In addition to gender (between girls and boys), this study also intended to investigate how DIF affects the test performances of girls in all-girl schools and girls in mixedgender schools in reading comprehension.

The study utilized the results of the reading comprehension test administered to 1925 Grade 6 pupils in School Year 2010-2011 in three all-girl schools and six mixed-gender private schools run by a religious congregation in the Philippines. The schools were similar in terms of certain characteristics such as school orientation, mission-vision, class size, pupil-teacher ratio, professional development opportunities for teachers, adequacy of facilities, and school curriculum. The 1925 Grade Six pupils consisted of 1395 girls (72%) and 530 boys (28%). Out of 1395 girls, 571 (41%) were from the all-girl schools and 824 (59%) from the mixed-gender schools. Of the 1354 students in the mixed-gender schools, 824 (61%) were girls and 530 (39%) were boys.

DIF analysis was not only applied in achievement tests, aptitude tests, and ability tests, but also in survey questions about disabilities (Koretz, 2005), in personality inventory (Sheppard et al, 2006), in test of citizenship skills (Baghi & Ferrara, 1990). The DIF analysis in the present study examined the items in English Reading Comprehension Test. The said test was used as a vehicle in comparing the performances of MantelHaenszel and IRT One-parameter logistic model.

The Reading Comprehension test was an existing instrument administered yearly since 1997 to approximately 2000 Grade 6 pupils in the nine schools. It has undergone pilot testing but no serious study was carried out to establish its psychometric properties. The 60-item test consisted of dichotomously scored multiple-choice items and contained thirteen passages or reading selections that were typical of the kind of materials found in the grade six textbooks. The reliability scale analysis of the test yielded Cronbach’s coefficient alpha of .878 which indicates that 87.8% of the observed variance is true variance.

The quantitative factor analysis and qualitative review of test items by English teachers resulted to two subskills namely, literal recognition (40 items) and inferential comprehension (20 items).

Literal recognition items measured pupil’s ability to locate and identify ideas or information explicitly stated in the reading selection. The answers to the items measuring literal recognition were not always the exact words or phrases in the reading

The results of the quantitative and qualitative DIF procedures in this study aim to represent a substantial new body of knowledge to help explain the causes of the gender-based and school typebased DIF in reading comprehension test. The findings of this study are hoped to contribute to research and practice in schools’ and institution’s testing program, the formulation and implementation of educational policies and decisions related to test development, and help test developers and test users to make informed decisions regarding the selection of test item evaluation procedures, particularly in the area of differential item functioning.

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RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Differential Item Functioning Detection in Reading Comprehension Test Using Mantel-Haenszel, Item Response Theory, and Logical Data Analysis selection but some were paraphrased in the answer choices. Inferential comprehension items measured pupil’s ability to use ideas and information explicitly stated in the reading selection; his intuition and experiences in arriving at a conclusions and making conjectures about the passage.

DIF procedures, while LDA employed qualitative approaches. The separate results of MH and IRT1PL in terms of DIF-loaded items were compared.

The resulting DIF items were subjected to logical data analysis meant to discover the causes of DIF and confirmed biased items.

Figure 1. Procedural Flowchart

The Mantel-Haenszel (MH) was one of the two DIF procedures used in this study to identify the presence of DIF in a given item. It used the MHchi-square statistics and MHDvalues to determine the presence of DIF in the test item and the group that is disadvantaged on the item. In the study, the computed MH chi-square value was compared to the critical value using alpha of .05 to determine its significance. A significant M-H statistics (p<.05) suggested the presence of DIF in the item.

Item Response Theory One-parameter Logistic Model (IRT 1PL) was one of the IRT models used to test the presence of DIF in the item. The R software was used in determining item parameters, group variance-covariance, and also provided the item characteristic curves (ICC) for the comparison groups. The formula 2 = b2diff / v (b1) + v (b2) (Hambleton, 1991) was used to compute for the IRT chi-square. An item was flagged as DIF when the 2 value is significant at .05 (p<.05).

RESULTS

The Focus Group Discussion (FGD) Guide, Interview Guide, and the DIF Checklist were administered in preparation for the conduct of the LDA that was conducted to determine why certain items seemed to be relatively more difficult to a particular group, the focal group under genderbased and school type-based DIF analysis.

The two DIF procedures resulted to a number of gender-based and school type-based DIF items in the reading comprehension test. On each item the hypothesis was tested that an item does not display DIF. Table 1 reveals that IRT detected more DIF items compared to MH. Thus, IRT resulted in a shorter test with fewer DIF-free items. This finding supports the literature that IRT is sensitive in detecting DIF in the test items and produced relatively brief instrument (Edelen and Reeve, 2009). On the other hand, MH detected fewer items loaded with DIF in the two tests across subgroups compared thus leaving the test with a large number of “DIF-free” items.

The FGD asked questions relating to the test performance of pupils in reading comprehension.

It employed a number of different interview approaches based on the progress of the focus group discussion but included unstructured, hierarchically focused, narrative and critical incident approaches. An open-ended guide was used to facilitate the discussion.

The group of psychometricians and test practitioners were the item reviewers. They accomplished a checklist containing the list of DIF items in the test. They also deliberated and concluded that the DIF items are really biased against a particular group, and determined the possible causes of DIF in the items, such that group membership influenced pupils’ performance on the test.

Table 1. Comparisons of MH and IRT-1PL Across Subgroups in DIF analysis Gender-Based School Type-Based DIF DIF IRT MH IRT MH DIF Items 46 (77%) 9 (15%) 36 (60%) 25 (42%) DIF-free 14 (23%) 51 (85%) 24 (40%) 35 (58%) items TOTAL 60 60 60 60

Figure 1 illustrates a procedural flowchart that guided the study in carrying out the DIF procedures and in determining the causes of DIF in the test items. MH and IRT-1PL were statistical

Moreover, findings show that the focal group considered as the primary interest in DIF analysis was disadvantaged compared to the reference 54

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Differential Item Functioning Detection in Reading Comprehension Test Using Mantel-Haenszel, Item Response Theory, and Logical Data Analysis group in the study. In Table 2, there were more items that potentially biased the focal group than the reference group.

IRT-1PL DIF procedure provides the item characteristic curves (ICC) of the focal and reference group that illustrate the disparity between the performances on the items of these comparison groups. Results of the gender-based DIF showing the DIF items with greater 2 value are presented in Figure 2. It shows that in the first five DIF items based on the size of 2 values, the reference group leads on the items; the ICCs for the reference group lie above the ICCs for the focal group. Similar findings are found between school types (all-girl and mixed-gender schools) as depicted in Figure 3. The ICCs of the reference group lie above the ICCs of the focal group.

Table 2. Set of DIF Items that Potentially Biased the Focal Group/Reference Group Comparison Group Potentially biased the Focal Group Potentially biased the Reference Group Total DIF Items Note: Focal Group :

Gender-Based School TypeDIF Based DIF IRT IRT MH MH 44 5 34 11 (96%) (56%) (94%) (44%)

2 (4%)

60

4 (44%)

60

2 (6%)

60

14 (56%)

Figure 3. Item Characteristic Curves of the Five DIF Items in Reading Comprehension by School Type for the Focal Group (MIX-Girls in Mized-Gender Schools) and the Reference Group (ALL-Girls in All-Girl Schools)

60

Boys in Gender-based DIF; Girls in MixedGender Schools in School type-based DIF

Reference Group :Girls in Gender-Based DIF; Girls in All-Girl Schools in School type-based DIF

Table 2 shows that in almost all the analysis, out of the total DIF items, there are more items that disadvantage the focal group than the reference group under IRT-1PL in gender-based and schooltype based DIF. Under MH, the proportion of DIF items that disadvantage the focal and the reference group are almost the same.

Figure 2. Item Characteristic Curves of the Five DIF Items in Reading Comprehension by Gender for the Focal Group (Boys) and the Reference Group (Girls)

Furthermore, agreements and disagreements between the results of MH and IRT-1PL were sought. There were a number of DIF items that were detected and common under MH and IRT across comparison groups in gender-based and school type-based DIF. By gender, there were five common DIF items and by school type, there were 14 common DIF items. However, disagreements were observed between the results of IRT and MH. There were a large number of DIF items in IRT but 55

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Differential Item Functioning Detection in Reading Comprehension Test Using Mantel-Haenszel, Item Response Theory, and Logical Data Analysis were considered DIF-free in MH, and vice versa as presented in Tables 3 and 4.

comprehension were to the disadvantage of the focal group; only a single item put the reference group at a disadvantage.

Table 3. Intersecting and Disjoint Sets of DIF Items between MH and IRT: Reading Comprehension by Gender Intersecting DIF Items in IRT and MH

7, 10, 13, 17, 44

Total = 5

Table 6. Set of DIF Items in Reading Comprehension Subskills Under MH and IRT

by School Type

Disjoint Set of DIF Items DIF Items DIF Items Detected in IRT Detected in Only MH Only 2, 3, 6, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 33, 34, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 43, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 56, 57, 59, 60, 30, 35 Total = 41

Reading Comprehension by School Type Potentially Biased Against the Focal Group (MixedGender) Potentially Biased Against the Reference Group (All-Girl) Total Item with DIF Total Item without DIF

55, 5, 29, 32

Total = 4

Table 4 Intersecting and Disjoint Sets of DIF Items between MH and IRT: Reading Comprehension by School Type

IRT LR (40 Items)

MH IC (20 Items)

LR (40 Items)

IC (20 Items)

22

13

8

3

1

0

9

5

23 (58%) 13 (65%) 17 (43%) 8 (40%) 17 (42%)7 (35%) 23 (58%) 12 (60%)

Note: LR (Literal Recognition); IC (Inferential Comprehension)

Disjoint Set of DIF Items DIF Items DIF Items Detected Detected in in IRT only MH only 6, 8, 12, 18, 20, 23, 24, 30, 5, 48, 49, 1, 2, 4, 9, 11, 15, 19, 27, 29, 33, 34, 36, 37, 50, 52, 54, 22, 25, 26, 28, 32, 40, 38, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 55, 56, 57, 58 46, 51, 60 59 Total = 14 Total = 22 Total = 11

Characteristics of the DIF items were also explored with regard to their difficulty level. Table 7 shows that not only difficult items were prone to DIF but items with moderate and easy difficulty level as well. This observation was apparent in all the subskills across comparison group under gender-based and school type-based DIF.

In gender-based DIF, items identified under the subskills of reading comprehension showed that there were more DIF items under the literal recognition that disadvantaged the focal group than the reference group. Similarly, in inferential comprehension, almost all the DIF items were to the disadvantage of the focal group and these items were referring to long reading selections.

Table 7. Distribution of DIF Items According to Difficulty Level Gender-Based and School Type-Based DIF in Reading Comprehension

Intersecting DIF Items in IRT and MH

DIFFICULTY LEVEL

Table 5. Set of DIF Items in Reading Comprehension Subskills Under MH and IRT

by Gender

Items)

31

13

1

Gender-Based School Type-Based DIF DIF LR IC LR IC IRT MH IRT MH IRT MH IRT MH

Very Difficult / 0 Very Hard Difficult / Hard 1 Desirable / 29 Medium Easy 1 Very Easy 1 TOTAL DIF 32 Items

IRT MH Reading IC Comprehension LR IC LR (20

by Gender (40 Items) (20 Items) (40 Items) Potentially Biased Against the Focal Group (Boys) Potentially Biased Against the Reference Group (Girls) Total Item with DIF Total Item without DIF

Moreover, correlation between the difficulty level of the DIF items and DIF values was also examined.

4

1

1

0

0

1

1

1

2

0

0

0

6

1

1

0

12

3

22

7

10

5

0 1

1 0

2 0

1 0

3 0

1 0

1 0

4

14

5

23

17

13

8

Note: LR (Literal Recognition); IC (Inferential Comprehension) 1

1

3

1

As shown on Table 7, in gender-based DIF, MH results showed significant correlations between the inferential comprehension itemsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; difficulty level and the corresponding DIF values; a moderate positive correlation coefficient (r = .598) was obtained. In IRT, there was moderate negative correlation (r = -.588) between the difficulty level of the inferential comprehension items and the DIF values. The correlation

32 (80%) 14 (70%) 4 (10%) 5 (25%) 8 (20%)

6 (30%) 36 (90%)15 (75%)

Note: LR (Literal Recognition); IC (Inferential Comprehension)

With regard to school type, almost all the DIF items in literal recognition and in inferential 56

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Differential Item Functioning Detection in Reading Comprehension Test Using Mantel-Haenszel, Item Response Theory, and Logical Data Analysis coefficients were significant at alpha level of .05.

Negative and positive correlations as found in IRT and MH meant that the easier the item, the higher the DIF values. The findings implicate that easier inferential comprehension items under IRT and MH were likely to be affected by DIF than other items of different levels of difficulty. No significant correlation was found in other analysis, in school type-based DIF.

at a disadvantage in answering the items compared to the reference group.

Overall, the causes of DIF in the reading comprehension items were: (1) paraphrasing the correct options from the reading selection that the pupils especially the focal group seemed to be weak at, (2) unfamiliar words and phrases in the stem of the item that seemed to be more apparent among the members of the focal group both by gender and school type, (3) unfamiliar words and phrases in the reading selection that hampered the pupils to perform better in the test especially the members of the focal group across comparison groups, (4) familiarity with the scenario of the reading selections that favored the reference group, and (5) the length of the reading selection that put the focal group at a disadvantage in gender-based DIF because the boys seemed to be impatient in reading longer passages.

The possible causes of DIF were determined through qualitative logical data analysis (LDA).

The DIF items were reviewed by the test practitioners and psychometricians who were directly involved with the Grade six pupils. Results of the LDA shed light on why the items were loaded with DIF. LDA was also done with regard to the responses of the pupils in focus group discussion (FGD) about DIF items.

Table 8. Correlation Coefficient between Item Difficulty and DIF Value GENDER Test Literal Recognition Inferential Comprehension Overall Reading Comprehension

SCHOOL TYPE

MH

IRT

MH

IRT

-0.206

-0.475

-0.179

-0.049

0.598

-0.588

-0.206

0.220

0.137

-0.489

-0.191

0.053

DISCUSSION The results of the present study that IRT identified more items displaying DIF than MH may be attributed to the nature and assumptions of the two DIF procedures besides what Edelen & Reeve (2007) have underscored regarding IRT that produce brief instrument. IRT and MH have different assumptions and variance of measurement errors (Gruijter and Kamp, 2008).

They also have different focus. MH focuses on the test and is sample dependent (Hambleton, 1991).

IRT focuses on the item by modeling the response of an examinee of given ability to each item in the test (Baker, 2004; Demars, 2010; Embretson, 2000). Among other things, IRT and CTT are different in score interpretations and measure of ability (Embretson, 2000). However, these two procedures have the advantages compared to the other DIF procedures as reported in the studies.

The Mantel Haenszel has the greatest advantages as a DIF detection technique because it provides the best results (MJ Navas-Ara, 2002), an adequate substitute for the one-parameter IRT if the sample size is at least 750 (Baghi & Ferrara, 1990), it is conceptually uncomplicated, and it doesn’t require highly specialized software (Camili & Shepard, 1994), and found to have its strengths in detecting DIF over other methods (Nijenhuis, 2004; Stoneberg, 2004). On the other hand, IRTDIF approach was shown to be flexible and powerful method for differential item functioning (DIF) detection but computationally-intensive, requiring many model-refittings. (http://thepsychometricscentre.com/dif-detection)

For instance, logical data analysis showed that the distinctive cause of gender-based and school type-based DIF in the test was paraphrasing the correct answer in the literal recognition items. The item reviewers also mentioned that some of the answer choices were problematic, thus option analysis was recommended as among the possible areas for future study.

The observations of the item reviewers and the responses of the pupils during the FGD found that most of the reading selections catered to the interest of the reference group more than the focal group. In gender-based DIF, the pupils from the focal group mentioned that most of the reading passages were more “girlish” and they found them long, thus, the length of the reading selection influenced the performance of the focal group. The pupils in the focal group also mentioned that the time allotted to answer all the items was not enough. They also found some of the questions confusing. In items that measured literal recognition, the focal group exhibited weakness in paraphrased correct option compared to the reference group. With regard to school type-based DIF, in literal recognition and inferential comprehension, the focal group was found to be 57

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Differential Item Functioning Detection in Reading Comprehension Test Using Mantel-Haenszel, Item Response Theory, and Logical Data Analysis Comparisons between the use of MH and IRT DIF procedures in detecting DIF have been examined (Embretson, 2000; Amarnani, 2009; Dorans & Kulick in Wolfe & Phyllis, 1990; Baghi & Ferrara, 1990; MJ Navas-Ara; 2002; Koretz, 2008) in several contexts and in different academic subjects and areas.

at a conclusions and making conjectures about the passage. The findings that literal recognition items are more prone to DIF may be attributed to the fact that stored knowledge may influence more the performance on the items. Thus, examinees of similar ability may perform differentially as influenced by group membership that inadvertently provides exposure to the information and ideas in the reading selections.

IRT-1PL and MH produced different test lengths. MH that detected less DIF items resulted to longer test with more DIF-free or acceptable items. IRT that detected more DIF items generated brief test instrument with a few DIF-free or acceptable items. The test practitioners therefore may decide on what to consider given the results of the two DIF procedures.

Agreements and disagreements between the results of the two DIF procedures are apparent in gender-based and school type-based DIF. There are a number of intersecting DIF items as well as disjoint set of DIF items in the two tests across comparison groups. It is therefore upon the informed judgment of the test practitioners to ascertain the properties of the items that potentially biased the comparison groups; to investigate the components of the item that require further content review.

Performances of the comparison groups are also different under the two DIF procedures. In MH there is almost equal set of items favoring either the focal group or the reference group. IRT-1PL results are more forthright showing that one group is disadvantaged on the item. There are marked differences between the items disadvantaging either group. Results show that there were passages regarded as potentially biased for the focal group in gender-based DIF like “two girls sharing a room to study and trying to reach a compromise” and “a passage on good storytelling.” In these passages, all the items were found as potentially biased against the focal group. Moreover, the reference group seemed to relate easily to the item that asked to classify the books about “Make Your Own Greeting Cards, Prayers, and Pet Care”. Classifying the aforementioned books may be easier for the pupils in the reference group and they appear to have more library skills than focal group. On the other hand, the passage “Spiders and Moon” was found to be easier for the focal group to capture the ideas and visualize the story. The same holds true in school type-based DIF, the focal group is disadvantaged on the items compared to the reference group. The IRT-1PL therefore is more capable of detecting DIF items that distinctively favoring one group than the other.

Exploring the causes of DIF is an important task towards developing fair assessments; they are the key to decisions about item revisions and/or removal. Several causes of DIF in the test items as identified by the item reviewers revealed that focal group is weak in detecting the correct answer to literal recognition items because of paraphrased options in the answer choices.

Difficulty in answering inferential comprehension items is influenced by unfamiliarity with the words and phrases in the stem of the item as well as drawing conclusions from the reading selections.

This is evident when the items are examined between the focal and reference group in genderbased and school type-based DIF analysis.

The comments of the item reviewers in the study show concordance that because of time allotted to finish the test, the pupils seemed to be anxious to answer all the items. They tend to make blind guess to the items referring to lengthy reading selections. This was apparent in genderbased DIF among the pupils in the focal group who preferred to read first the question before the passage, thus resulted in guessing the correct answer to the item. The causes of DIF therefore are the paraphrased correct options, words and phrases in the stem of the item, length of the reading selection, and the scenarios of some reading selections that the item reviewers considered as catering to the interest of the reference group. Furthermore, the attitude of the boys (focal group in gender-based DIF) toward reading long passages is also evident as causing DIF in the items.

With regard to subskills in the test, it is apparent that literal recognition items are more susceptible to DIF compared to inferential comprehension. As mentioned literal recognition items measured pupil’s ability to locate and identify ideas or information explicitly stated in the reading selection. Inferential comprehension items measured pupil’s ability to use ideas and information explicitly stated in the reading selection; his intuition and experiences in arriving 58

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Differential Item Functioning Detection in Reading Comprehension Test Using Mantel-Haenszel, Item Response Theory, and Logical Data Analysis Gender-based DIF can be brought about by gender stereotype and different exposures and experiences of the girls and boys. Wolfe & Phyllis (1990) have stated that test items may have contents that influence performance in the test such that when questions are set in experiences more familiar to one sex than the other, one may have the advantage in answering the item than the others given the same ability.

girls academically (Spielhofer, 2004; Daly & Deffy, 2004; Flowers, 2005; Debare, 2004) The reading selections or the passages considered in the test may have contexts that were related to the experiences and exposures of the girls in the school where they were in. With regard to the items, how the stem of the items were formulated, the options provided after each item, may have also contributed to the performance differences on the test of these girls. Since the girls in the mixed-gender school show a slight weakness in dealing with the items that were spread out from different passages, the nature of the weakness seemed to be on the comprehension of the question and choosing the correct option.

Societal expectations such as girls have to be exposed to particular interests and boys to the interests and habits presumably masculine may have impact on the language they learned and ideas they imbibed and internalized during their growing up years. Societal expectations are those expectations from family members especially parents, and the surrounding environment including school teachers. One way in which the social environment influences the learning of languages differently along gender lines are through adults’ discrimination between the sexes after the infant’s birth (Santrock, 1998 as mentioned in Madu, 2010).

Studies have explicated how orientations, experiences, and exposures of a particular group can influence performance on the test; that may either put them at the advantage or at a disadvantage in responding to set of test items.

These factors may have direct impact on test performance. Gender and school type as two grouping variables in the study were deemed to influence pupils’ performance on the test items.

Moreover, several studies have already mentioned gender differences in test performance.

Li, (2010) has reported that females are more serious and careful in taking reading tests while the males are more impatient and easily get bored.

Li also noted that the readers’ metacognitive awareness of reading strategies is closely linked to their language proficiency.

In addition to the aforementioned differences in the performances across comparisons groups and their implications to research in education, the item reviewers in the study also mentioned the manner by which some of the items are written, the stem and the answer choices that contributed to DIF in the items. These are the following:

Items that put the girls in the all-girl school (reference group in the school type-based DIF) at a disadvantage were pointing to the same passage. This implicates that the girls were affected by the passages not necessarily the items, This may also mean that the passages may not be within the interests, experiences, and exposure of the girls; that they might have a different schema compared to the girls in the mixed-gender schools.

Experiences and exposures of these two groups of girls may have influenced their responses on the reading comprehension test items. The school type, that is, being in the mixed-gender or in the all-girl school may be a factor that contributed to the differences in test performance between girls of the same reading comprehension ability. Studies shows that girls in single-sex schools are more exposed in reading, devote much time in reading (Nidoy, 2011), and learn better in single-sex environment (Herr & Arms, 2004; Hoffman & Badgett (2008); Riordan, 2007). Single-sex schools are seen as benefitting and advantaging

a. The manner by which the multiple choice items were formulated may have violated some rules in writing multiple-choice items and options. The item reviewers noted some of the seemingly problematic options that contributed to DIF in the items like “neither a or b, either b or c, both c and d, and none of the above.” b. The fill-in-the-blank in the stem of the item is also a potential cause of DIF according to the item reviewers. c. There are items that are prone to guessing because of problematic options according to the item reviewers. The pupils also expressed that a few items can be answered without reading the passage in the reading comprehension test.

Other significant findings of the study concern the difficulty level of the items. Items displaying DIF are representative of very hard to very easy 59

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Differential Item Functioning Detection in Reading Comprehension Test Using Mantel-Haenszel, Item Response Theory, and Logical Data Analysis items. There is almost equal number of DIF items from very easy to very hard under the literal recognition and inferential comprehension skills.

This means that not only difficult or very difficult items are susceptible to DIF but the easy and very easy items as well.

REFERENCES Baghi, H. & Ferrara, S. F. (1990). Detecting Differential Item Functioning Using IRT

Moreover, significant correlations found between DIF values in gender-based DIF and the level of difficulty of the inferential comprehension items implicates that information about the difficulty level of the items can be the basis of predicting DIF in the items. This indicates apparent relationships between the difficulty level of the items and their susceptibility to DIF. This conclusion is only true in inferential comprehension items between the two groups in gender-based DIF.

and Mantel-Haenszel Techniques: Implementing Procedures and Comparing Results. Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Eastern Educational Research Association, Clearwater, FL, February 14-17, 1990.

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Baker, F. & , Kim, S. H. (2004). Item Response Theory Parameters Estimation Techniques. New York: Marcel Dekker Inc. 2nd edition.

As this study makes clear the advantages and disadvantages of the two DIF procedures that resulted in very different conclusions regarding the DIF items in the tests, each can provide unique information about evaluating test items that could be useful in both research and testing practices decision making. Under ideal conditions, it would be desirable to consider both approaches when examining achievement test items.

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and Shepard (1994). Methods for Identifying Biased Test Items. London: SAGE Publications.

Demars, C. (2010). Item Response Theory. Ney York: Oxford University Press Inc. Daly, P, & Deffy, N., (2004) Extension of Singlesex Public School Provision:

This study is limited in scope like other studies.

There are many different possible areas by which researchers and test practitioners may consider in detecting DIF in achievement test items.

Recommendations for future research using the two DIF procedures include improving the process of test evaluation to ensure fair tests and assessments. Other grouping variables may be considered in future DIF analysis besides gender and school type like socioeconomic status, school location, and other possible grouping variables that are deemed to influence performance in the test holding ability constant.

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I. (2004) Reviving Girlsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; EBSCOHOSST Journals.

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Edelen, M. O. & Reeve, B. (2007). Applying Item Response Theory (IRT) Modeling to Questionnaire Development, Evaluation, and Refinement. Quality Life Research.

16: 518.

Embretson, S. E. & Reise, S. P. (2000). Item Response Theory for Psychologists.

London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.

Future studies may consider options in the analysis of DIF in the test items. Besides a correct answer, other concerns regarding the responses to a multiple-choice item include: (1) omitting the item, (2) not reaching the item, and (3) choosing a distractor. Response pattern of the pupils on each item can be considered in the investigation of DIF that may help define the nature of DIF associated with a particular item.

Flowers, C. (2005). With No Boys to Ogle, We Had Time to Learn. Newsweek, Vol. 146, Issue 17, pp. 26. Retrieved September 12, 2006 from EBSCO Host Research Databases.

Gruijter, D. M. & Kamp, L. J. (2008). Statistical Test Theory for the Behavioral Sciences.

New York: Taylor & Francis Group.

Hambleton, R.K., Swaminathan, H., & Rogers, J.H. (1991). Fundamentals of Item 60

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Differential Item Functioning Detection in Reading Comprehension Test Using Mantel-Haenszel, Item Response Theory, and Logical Data Analysis Response Theory (IRT). London: Sage Publications.

Nijenhuis, J.T., Tolboom, E., Resing, W., & Bleichrodt, N. (2004). Does Cultural Background Influence the Intellectual Performance of Children from Immigrant Groups? The RAKIT Intelligence Test for Immigrant Children. European Journal of Psychological Assessment. Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 10-26.

Herr, K. & Arms, E. (2004). Accountability and Single-Sex Schooling: A Collision of Reform Agendas. American Educational Research Journal. Vol. 41, No. 3, pp. 527-555.

Hoffman, B. H., & Badgett, B. A. (2008). The Effect of Single-Sex Instruction in a Large, Urban, At-Risk High School. The Journal of Educational Educational Research. Vol. 102, No. 1.

Koretz, D. (2008). Measuring Up: What Educational Testing Really Tells Us. USA: Harvard University Press.

Pedrajita, J. (2009). Identifying Biased Test Items

by Differential Item

Li, F. (2010). A Study of English Reading Strategies Used by Senior Middle

Riordan, C. (2007). The Effects of Single Sex Schools: What Do We Know?

School Students. Asian Social Science. Vol. 6, No. 10. Retrieved November 2011 from www.ccsenet.org/ass.

Paper Presented at the Congress on Single-Sex Schools, European Association for SingleSex Education (EASSE): Barcelona, Spain.

Sheppard, R., Han, K., Colarelll, S. M., Dai, G., & King, D. W. (2006). Differential Item Functioning by Sex and Race in the Hogan Personality Inventory. SAGE Publications. Retrieved June 1, 2010 from ProQuest Educational Journals

Madu,

Functioning Analysis Using Contingency Table Approaches: A Comparative Study.

Education Quarterly. Vol. 67, No. 1 Reynolds R.C., Livingston, R.B., & Willson, V. (2006). Measurement and Assessment in Education. Boston: Pearson.

B. N. (2010). Perceived Societal Expectations of Boys and Girls on the

Learning of English as a Second Language and How They Affect Their Performance.

Gender and Behavior. Vol. 8, Issue 1. Retrieved September 26, 2011 from Proquest Journals.

Spielhofer, T., Benton, T., & Schagen, S., (2004) A Study of the Effects of School

Meiring, D., Van de Vijver, F.J., & Rothmann, S. (2006). Bias in an Adapted

Size and Single-sex Education in English Schools.

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2.

Version of the 15Q+ in South Africa. South Africa Journal of Psychology. 36(2), pp. 340356.

Stoneberg, B.D. (2004). A Study of Gender-Based Differential Item Functioning

Navas-Ara, M.J., & Gomez-Benito, J. (2002).

Effects of Ability Scale Purification on the Identification of Differential Item Functioning.

European Journal of Psychological Assessment. Vol. 18, No. 1, pp. 9-15.

(DIF) in the Spring 2003 Idaho Standards Achievement Tests Applying the Simultaneous Bias Test (SIBTEST) and the Mantel-Haenzel Chi Square Test. The University of Maryland Measurement, Statistics, and Evaluation Department and the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) Assessment Division.

Wolf, L. R. & Phyllis, R. (1990). The SAT Gender Gap. Women and Languge.

Nidoy, R. (2011). Advantages of Single-Sex Schooling: Explanation of Teachers Who Taught in Both Coed and Single-sex Schools.

Parents for Education Foundation. Paper presented during the Third International Congress on Single-Sex Schools. Poland: European Association for Single-Sex Education (EASSE).

Vol. 13, Issue 2. Retrieved September 26, 2011 from ProQuest Journals.

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CORRELATION ON MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF STUDENTS WITH VISUAL AND HEARING IMPAIRMENTS Cheryl D. Taclawan, EdD, FRI(Rs) ABSTRACT

of students, and in many cases these scores are used to advise students about their career choices.

Gardner’s theory argues that intelligence, as it is traditionally defined, does not sufficiently encompass the wide variety of abilities humans display. In his conception, a student who masters multiplication easily is not necessarily more intelligent overall than a student who struggles to do so. The second student may be stronger in another kind of intelligence, and therefore may best learn the given material through a different approach, may excel in a field outside of mathematics, or may even be looking through the multiplication process at a fundamentally deeper level that hides a potentially higher mathematical intelligence than in the one who memorizes the concept easily (Beachner and Pickett, 2001).

The respondents of this study were the medically diagnosed and recognized students with visual and hearing impairments in the College of Education, Saint Louis University, who, like any other man, manifest multiple intelligences. The gathering of data in the study was made possible through the use of a multiple intelligence checklist obtained from an electronic source, and informal interviews with the respondents. Results showed that students with visual impairment manifest musical, logical-mathematical and linguistic intelligences. On the other hand, students with hearing impairment showed strengths on bodily— kinesthetic, logical—mathematical, interpersonal and visual-spatial intelligences. Both the students with visual and hearing impairments obtained average academic performance.

Also, no significant difference was found in the academic performance of the students with visual and hearing impairments. Individually, the multiple intelligences manifested by the students with visual impairment affect their academic performance. On the other hand, the specific multiple intelligences manifested by the students with hearing impairment have no effect on their academic performance. Lastly, no significant relationship was found between the multiple intelligence and academic performance of the students with visual and hearing impairments.

For Gardner (as cited in Beachner and Pickett, 2001), people possess a set of intelligences not just one type and level of intelligence. Intelligence is a mixture of several abilities that are all of great value in life. But nobody is good at them all. A well-balanced world, and well-balanced organizations and teams are necessarily comprised of people who possess different mixtures of intelligences. For example, many think sports stars are less intelligent. Not so, if one is using Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence Theory.

English footballer David Beckham is a genius, due to his exceptional ability to compute and execute the exact angles and forces required to score a goal from a free-kick. Mere mortal cannot do this.

INTRODUCTION

For a clearer presentation of ideas in this study, visual and hearing impairments are defined and described. According to Kurz (2000), the term hearing-impaired refers to any person who is hard of hearing to some degree—mild, moderate, severe or profound. In Special Education, they are also referred to as the deaf or the hard-of-hearing students.

In modern times (Marschark & Spencer, 2003), normalization efforts in various countries have particularly emphasized the integration of visually impaired and hearing impaired students with vision and hearing peers in schools. In most instances, however, students with visual and hearing impairments have been placed in inclusive environments without adequate assessment.

Reportedly, such inadequacy of assessment has led to some difficulties in the teaching-learning process.

Visual impairment means impairment in vision that, even with correction, adversely affects a student’s educational performance. It is the consequence of a functional loss of vision, rather than the eye disorder itself (Knoblauch and Sorenson, 1998).

One part of the assessment process is identifying the multiple intelligences of the students. The Theory of Multiple Intelligence was proposed by Howard Gardner in 1983, to more accurately define the concept of intelligence and address whether methods which claim to measure intelligence or aspects thereof are truly scientific.

It questioned the accepted use of IQ testing today to assess students. Schools too often use IQ scores to determine the educational shortcomings

On the one hand, students with visual and hearing impairments are those who meet the academic and technical standards requisite to admission or participation in the educational program or activity (Knoblauch and Sorenson, 1998).

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RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Correlation on Multiple Intelligence and Academic Performance of Students with Visual and Hearing Impairments Another part of the assessment process is the evaluation of academic performance which may be done in various ways. The most common strategies for evaluating a student’s scholastic accomplishments include testing in one or more content areas at a specified level of difficulty, grading by teachers responsible for particular classes or subjects, and granting of credential (certificates or diplomas) by schools. Additional indicators of academic performance include grade-to-grade advancement and the successful completion or mastery of curricular units for which grades and credentials are not awarded. The academic performance of visually impaired and hearing impaired students is, however, substantially limited to the analysis of commercially available, norm-referenced and standardized tests (Marschark, Lang and Albertini, 2002).

involves sensitivity to spoken and written language, the ability to learn languages, and the capacity to use language to accomplish certain goals. Lawyers, speakers, writers, poets are among the people with high linguistic intelligence.

Logical-mathematical intelligence involves the capacity to analyze problems logically, carry out mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically.

Mathematicians, logicians, and scientists exploit logical-mathematical intelligence (Gardner, 1999).

The next three intelligences are particularly notable in the arts, though each can be put to many other uses. Musical intelligence entails skill in the performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence entails the potential of using one’s whole body or parts of the body (like the hand or the mouth) to solve problems or fashion products. Obviously, dancers, actors and athletes foreground bodilykinesthetic intelligence. However, this form of intelligence is also important for crafts persons, surgeons, bench-top scientists, mechanics, and many other technically oriented professionals.

Spatial intelligence features the potential to recognize and manipulate the patterns of wide space (those used for instance by navigators and pilots) as well as the patterns of more confined areas (such as those of importance to sculptors, surgeons, chess players, graphic artists, or architects) (Gardner, 1999).

Inclusive education indeed poses a lot of challenges to school administrators, but most especially to teachers. Inclusive education means that all children have the right to receive a kind of education that does not discriminate, segregate or exclude. The major strength of this educational innovation is the belief that all students are potential learners and all must be accorded equal opportunities. It assumes that there are no disabled learners (Balmeo, 2006).

In the case of the students with visual and hearing impairments in the College of Education, Saint Louis University, they admit that they experience learning difficulties in their subjects.

Their grades are transparent indications of their learning difficulties. Studies and observations reveal that students with visual and hearing impairments in the regular classroom setting experience learning difficulties which may not necessarily be very different from the learning difficulties of the regular students. These learning difficulties also range from mild to severe and are manifested in different types and forms (Clerk, 2005).

In the original list, the next two intelligences, which Gardner called the personal intelligences, raised the most eyebrows.

Interpersonal intelligence denotes a person’s capacity to understand the intentions, motivations, and desires of other people and, consequently, to work effectively with others. Salespeople, teachers, clinicians, religious leaders, political leaders, and actors all need acute interpersonal intelligence.

Intrapersonal intelligence involves the capacity to understand oneself, to have an effective working model of oneself-including one’s own desires, fears, and capacities – and to use such information effectively in regulating one’s own life. And finally, naturalist intelligence involves the ability to recognize and categorize plants, animals and other objects in nature (Gardner, 1999).

These viewpoints reflect the significance of determining the relationship of multiple intelligence and academic performance of students with visual and hearing impairments in the College of Education, Saint Louis University.

The result of the study will be utilized to enhance the academic instruction in the University.

The major purpose of this study was to determine the correlation of multiple intelligence and academic performance of students with visual and hearing impairments. The researcher wanted to find out the specific intelligence manifested by the students with visual and hearing impairments, the over-all academic performance of the students with visual and hearing impairments along their combined general, major and professional education subjects and if there were significant

The Multiple Intelligence Theory is based on the belief that all possess at least eight unique intelligences through which they are able to learn/teach new information. Although each has all eight, no two individuals have the same exact amounts. The first two-linguistic and logicalmathematical are the ones that have typically been valued in school. Linguistic intelligence 63

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Correlation on Multiple Intelligence and Academic Performance of Students with Visual and Hearing Impairments differences on the academic performance of the students with visual and hearing impairments and the relationship between the multiple intelligence and academic performance of the students with visual and hearing impairments.

follow up and verify the answers of the respondents and to supplement the different data that were obtained through the checklists.

She also obtained permission to download the multiple intelligence checklist from an electronic source, by emailing Niall Douglas (webmaster2@nedprod.com).

The researcher herself conducted the quiz to her respondents during their vacant periods. She explained the items the respondents cannot understand. The students with visual impairments were accompanied by their interpreter. After conducting the multiple intelligence quiz, the researcher tallied the results. The items for each of the intelligences in the checklist were rated over a ten (10) -point score.

METHODOLOGY This study employed the descriptive method of research presenting the relationship of multiple intelligence and academic performance of the respondents of this study who were medically diagnosed and recognized students with visual and hearing impairments in the College of Education, Saint Louis University. An exemption included those students with visual and hearing impairments who were enrolled for the first time in the College of Education and did not have academic records yet in the University at the time of the study.

For the academic performance of students with visual and hearing impairments, consent of the respondents in getting copies of their grades from the Registrarâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Office was obtained. The researcher asked permission from the Dean of the College of Education, the Vice President for Academic Affairs, and the Registrar for the release of their grades in all the subjects that they already finished. The respondents were assured that all data gathered from them were treated with utmost confidentiality.

As of first semester of school year 2009-2010, there were three (3) students with visual impairment and five (5) students with hearing impairment enrolled in the College of Education.

Among the three (3) students with visual impairment, one (1) was a fourth year student enrolled in her observation; and the remaining two (2) were on their third year. These three (3) students with visual impairment qualified as respondents of the study. The five (5) students with hearing impairment were on their third year and all qualified as respondents. These eight (8) exceptional students were the respondents of this study.

The answers that were elicited from the respondents were tabulated and analyzed using some statistical tools like frequency count, T-Test and Pearson Product Moment Correlation.

RESULTS & DISCUSSION

Of the three (3) students with visual impairment, 1 (one) was a low vision while the remaining two (2) were blind. On the other hand, all the five (5) students with hearing impairment are classified as hard-of-hearing.

People have a wide range of capacities. A studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s strength in one area of performance simply does not predict any comparable strength in other areas.

The academic performance of the students taken into consideration in this study encompasses all their grades in their general, major and professional subjects they already finished. Therefore, it did not cover the subjects they enrolled in the first semester of school year 2009-2010 while data gathering was going on.

Their overall academic performance was identified through their grade point average (GPA) in the subjects they had taken in school year 2008-2009.

Multiple Intelligence of Students with Visual Impairment The students with visual impairment, like the other regular students, also have multiple intelligences that describe them, such as linguistic, logical-mathematical, visual-spatial, bodilykinesthetic, and musical and the like. These are what students with visual impairment characteristically manifest in different situations.

This study was made possible through the collection and analysis of data that were provided by the Registrarâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Office, the results of the multiple intelligence quiz based on the multiple intelligence checklist designed by Gardner and converted into electronic format by Niall Douglas, and informal interviews with the respondents. Informal interviews were conducted by the researcher to

The specific multiple intelligences manifested by the students with visual impairment is presented on Table 1.

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RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Correlation on Multiple Intelligence and Academic Performance of Students with Visual and Hearing Impairments Table 1. Summary of the Multiple Intelligences test Result of Students with Visual Impairment Indicators Mean Scores Overall Rank Linguistic 7.67 3 Logical-Mathematical 8.33 2 Visual-Spatial 3.33 8 Musical 8.67 1 Bodily-Kinesthetic 5.67 5.5 Interpersonal 5.67 5.5 Intrapersonal 6.33 4 Naturalist 5.00 7

Generally, the three (3) students with visual impairment scored the highest on musical, logicalmathematical and linguistic intelligences. The three (3) students manifested musical, logicalmathematical and linguistic intelligences, may be because linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligences have long shared the spotlight in education (Sfabio, 2005).

Understanding the learning styles of these students may lead to a better understanding of the multiple intelligences that they already possess.

More often than not, students with visual impairments are said to be auditory learners. This means that they prefer using sound and music and they learn through listening. They learn best through verbal lectures, discussions, talking things through, and listening to what others have to say.

They interpret the underlying meanings of speech through listening to tone of voice, pitch, speed and other nuances. Because of their condition, written information may have little meaning to them until it is heard. These learners often benefit from text read aloud and by using a tape recorder. Gardner (1999) also mentioned that mathematicallytalented people often show interest in music because mathematicians are interested in patterns and music is a compositional pattern.

One student said that music interests her the most because she only had to listen to it.

because Gardner believes that blind children develop spatial intelligence.

Multiple Intelligence of Students with Hearing Impairment On the other hand, Table 2 presents the specific multiple intelligences of students with hearing impairment.

Table 2. Summary of the Multiple Intelligences Test Result of Students with Hearing Impairment Overall Indicators Mean Scores Rank Linguistic 5.6 7 Logical-Mathematical 6.8 2.5 Visual-Spatial 6.8 2.5 Musical 2.0 8 Bodily-Kinesthetic 8.2 1 Interpersonal 6.6 4.5 Intrapersonal 6.6 4.5 Naturalist 6.2 6

Generally, the five students with hearing impairment had the highest score of 8.2 in bodilykinesthetic intelligence. This indicates that the students with hearing impairment manifested bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. Students with hearing impairment tend to have keen sense of body awareness. They like physical movement such as dancing, making and inventing things with their hands, and role-playing. They learn best through a hands-on approach, actively exploring the physical world around them. Because they have listening difficulty or hearing loss, and thus unable to enhance their communication skills, they communicate well through body language and other physical gestures.

On the other hand, musical intelligence scored the lowest among the five students with hearing impairment. This means that said students did not manifest musical intelligence basically because music is an art form whose medium is sound and needs the sense of hearing for it to be comprehended and appreciated. This is not to say that musical intelligence cannot be developed among students with hearing impairment. This can be developed if these students are interested and do something about it, and if they receive enough support from people concerned.

Visual-spatial intelligence ranked the least for the three (3) students with visual impairment. This indicates a low visual-spatial intelligence on their part caused by their physical condition. The limited sight or the absence of it impedes them to learn through seeing words written down, using pictures when describing things, drawing time lines for events in history, writing assignments on the board, using overhead transparencies and handouts, appreciating arts and the beauty of creation and the like (Lovelace, 2005).

To sum it up, the students with visual impairment manifested musical intelligence.

However, their weakness was on visual-spatial intelligence. On the other hand, the students with hearing impairment showed potential on bodilykinesthetic intelligence, while they did not manifest musical intelligence.

The result showed

However, Gardner (2006) says that visual and spatial intelligence is also the ability to think in pictures and visualize outcomes. Therefore, this skill should not be thought of only in visual terms 65

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Correlation on Multiple Intelligence and Academic Performance of Students with Visual and Hearing Impairments consistency in the relationship of their impairment with their multiple intelligences.

would likely manifest better academic performance. They perform well because they were motivated to learn. This could be attributed to many factors like subjects are within their line of interest, and subjects are less complicated compared with their major and professional subjects as elucidated earlier.

Academic Performance of Students with Visual and Hearing Impairment Both the students with visual and hearing impairments manifested good academic performance. It is understood that many factors contributed to this. However, the students with visual impairment performed better in academics than the students with hearing impairment.

Though both students have their own impairments, students who cannot hear at all lag behind their peers in terms of academic achievement because their literacy skills are affected. These skills are very important in everyday living. They are, likewise, necessary in achieving good academic performance.

Both students with visual and hearing impairments may have average academic performance, but looking at their grade point averages (GPA), the researcher noticed a higher grade point average for the students with visual impairment compared with the students with hearing impairment. Likewise, students with visual impairment did not appear to have difficulty in language unlike the students with hearing impairment.

It is worth noting that these students cannot hear, thus, their communication and comprehension skills become limited.

Undoubtedly, these skills are extremely important to academic learning, and their inability to use those results to low academic performance.

Although the students with visual impairment cannot see, they can, however, hear. This is why they have better communication skills than the students with hearing impairment.

Another probable contributory factor to the lower academic performance of hearing-impaired students is the teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; difficulty in expressing themselves through sign language. These reasons would explain why students with visual impairment performed better in school than the students with hearing impairment.

The academic performance of students with visual and hearing impairments are compared and presented in Table 3. This table shows that the students with visual impairment obtained a weighted mean of 84.88%, interpreted as average.

On the other hand, the over-all academic performance of the students with hearing impairment was 80.50%, interpreted as average.

Factors affecting the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; performance may be associated with their profile consisting of their academic background, attitude toward the subjects, and time allocation for studies.

Table 3. Comparison of the Academic Performance of Students with Visual and Hearing Impairments Subjects

Students with VI

Students with HI

Table 4 shows the summary of the correlation of multiple intelligence and academic performance of students with visual and hearing impairments.

Mean Interpretation Mean Interpretation

Major Subjects 84.62 Professional 86.57 Education Subjects General 84.57 Education Subjects Over-all 84.88 Mean

Average Average

80.36 78.56

Average Fair

Average

80.94

Average

Average

80.50

Average

Table 4. Summary of the Correlation of Multiple Intelligence and Academic Performance of Students with Visual and Hearing Impairments Multiple Students Students Intelligence with VI with HI Inverse high Linguistic No correlation correlation LogicalInverse low Inverse slight Mathematical correlation correlation Visual-Spatial Moderate Inverse slight correlation correlation Musical Moderate Inverse low correlation correlation BodilyInverse high Inverse slight Kinesthetic correlation correlation Inverse Interpersonal Inverse low moderate correlation correlation Intrapersonal Inverse low Inverse slight correlation correlation Naturalist Very high Inverse high correlation correlation

Group Descriptive statistics

Students with VI

Students with HI

Number of cases (N=8)

3

5

Mean

83.95

80.43

Standard Deviation

4.13

1.96

Computed t value= 1.68

Decision= Reject Ha

T (0.05)= 2.45

The students with hearing impairment who showed positive attitude towards their subjects 66

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Correlation on Multiple Intelligence and Academic Performance of Students with Visual and Hearing Impairments As gleaned from the table, a substantial correlation between the musical intelligence manifested by the students with visual impairment and their academic performance was found. This is because visually-impaired students consider music as their best friend. For them they cannot imagine life without music. More often than not, students with visual impairment are auditory learners, that is, they learn better through listening or through the use of audio materials. Music, likewise, is seen to stimulate the mind to think creatively, and retain information better.

Table 5. T-test analysis on the Comparison of Multiple Intelligences and Academic Performance of Students with Visual and Hearing Impairment Co-efficient r : t0.05 =

-0.054 2.45

Computed t Decision:

-0.013 Reject Ha

*For Complete Table , see next page

The computed t-test value which is -0.13, is lesser than the tabled t-value which is 2.45 at 0.05 level of significance. Therefore, there is no significant relationship between the multiple intelligence and academic performance of the students with visual and hearing impairments.

On the other hand, the students with hearing impairment manifested bodilyâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;kinesthetic intelligence. Table 4 shows an almost negligible correlation between the bodilyâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;kinesthetic intelligence manifested by the students with hearing impairment with their academic performance.

This meant that being active learners who prefer to learn through hands-on activities, to think through problems while engaging in a physical activity and anything related to bodily-kinesthetic is not an assurance of a very good academic performance.

The absence of a significant relationship may be attributed to the fact that both types of students had physical impairments of different categories as well as different multiple intelligences manifested. In as much as both types of students have their own physical impairments, there are certain things they cannot do, or there are certain limitations to what they can do.

Generally, students with visual and hearing impairments have difficulties in all areas of academic tasks, especially reading and mathematical concepts (Hallahan & Kauffman, 1997). The sense of vision gives students the ability to organize and make connections between different experiences, connections that help the student make the most of these experiences. That is why an impaired or an absent vision makes it difficult for the student to see the connections between experiences. On the other hand, most students with hearing impairment have extreme deficits in academic achievement because of their insufficient literacy skills brought about by their impairment.

Literacy skills are important components of everyday learning, that is why an insufficient or a lack of it may result to poor comprehension which is detrimental to their academic performance.

The table also shows that some of the intelligences manifested by the students with visual and hearing impairment do not have much effect on their academic performance. Good academic performance would still largely depend on the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; motivation and the influences coming from their environment such as their family, friends, physical environment they live in, and the like. Like any regular students, these students may manifest potential in different areas.

Their impairments, however, hamper them to succeed further in school, like the case of the students with visual impairment who lack visualspatial because they lack mental imagery and do not have perceptions of the visual world. The students with hearing impairment manifested having poor communication skills brought about by their inability to hear. Fluency of the written and oral language is very important in academic life.

Without these skills, students will definitely suffer from low academic performance.

The multiple intelligences manifested by the students with visual and hearing impairments are good potentials for development in relation to the different learning areas, especially when these are honed. Results showed a varied correlation on their academic performance. Nonetheless, the satisfactory academic performance of the students with visual and hearing impairments proved that there is a chance for them to improve and to achieve higher academic performance when sufficient support services are rendered.

Moreover, the relationship of multiple intelligence and academic performance of students with visual and hearing impairments are compared.

Table 5 shows the t-test analysis on the comparison of multiple intelligence and academic performance of students with visual and hearing impairments.

Relevant programs and activities such as encouragement of the students with visual and hearing impairments to actively join clubs and organizations such as Music Club and the like as well as competitions like cheering competitions need to be looked into particularly those related to developing the multiple intelligences and the 67

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RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Correlation on Multiple Intelligence and Academic Performance of Students with Visual and Hearing Impairments specific needs of the students with visual and hearing impairments. These programs and activities can include also seminar-workshops for teachers handling students with visual and hearing impairments. Other than orienting the teachers on the basic know-hows of special education, these activities should be so devised to further enrich the knowledge of the teachers on the different teaching strategies or activities to suit the learning styles of the students with visual and hearing impairments, and eventually helping them augment their academic performance. Other examples would include making available more educational resources in braille, musical instruments for studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; use, and at the same time, involving these students in school activities which are not selective. Curriculum differentiation should likewise be implemented because these students have special needs different from the regular students. This is to help them achieve better academic performance.

education, major or general education subjects.

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Course syllabi should be revised to include objectives, methods and activities that will enhance the multiple intelligences of the students with visual and hearing impairments and help them improve their academic performance. An assessment and evaluation of existing school programs should also be made if the students with visual and hearing impairments are prepared for the rigors of college life. An example would be a college entrance examination specially-designed for students with visual and hearing impairments to assess their preparedness for college life.

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THE LEVEL OF AWARENESS AND IMPLEMENTATION OF THE GENERIC LAW IN THE DRUGSTORES BUSINESS IN THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION Danilo A. Valenzuela, DBA, FRI(Rs), FRIBA market that generic product were the best substitute to expensive medicine.

ABSTRACT With the remarkable increase in the manufacturing and use of generic products, this research aimed to determine the awareness, implementation and practices of drugstores in the National Capital Region (NCR) in compliance with the Generic Law. It focused on the current understanding of the drugstore customers on the Generic Law and how they respond to it. The researcher would like to give credit to this law and further introduce generic drugs as a known alternative medicine to benefit the masses. Using a researcher-made questionnaire, a survey was conducted in 79 drugstores in NCR where 584 customers and 185 employees participated. Majority of the customer and employee respondents were aware of the Generic Law and reported partial implementation of the provision on Cheaper and Quality Medicine for Price Regulation while full implementation was reported in terms of the provisions of Food and Drug Administration.

A solution was formulated to address the high cost of medicine, then the problem of many Filipinos, through the Generic Law. Stipulated on Section 2 of The Republic Act No. 6675 or Universally Accessible Cheaper and Quality Medicines Act of 2008 Statement of Policy: To protect public health and, when the public interest or circumstances of extreme urgency so require, it shall adopt appropriate measures to promote and ensure access to affordable quality drugs and medicines for all.

Pursuant to the attainment of this general policy, an effective competition policy in the supply and demand of quality affordable drugs and medicines is recognized by the State as a primary instrument. In the event that full competition is not effective, the State recognizes as a reserve instrument the regulation of prices of drugs and medicines, with clear accountability by the implementing authority as mandated in this Act, as one of the means to also promote and ensure access to quality affordable medicines.

INTRODUCTION In our present civilization, we find different gadgets, live in high rise condominium buildings, play in modern golf courses and visit beautiful places brought about by technology. Everything is accessible and available to be purchased if you have the resources. Despite these changes, we tend to overlook one of the most important aspect of one’s life, health. Many of our countrymen cannot afford the ones available in the market and they find it hard to buy cheaper medicine. Some cannot sustain their medication, worse, they do not receive any medical attention.

Most patients can now choose to buy medicine with the same generic names on drugstores with the assurance that they get the same quality as that of branded products produced by the multinational companies. As stated by the law, the supply of genuine and affordable medicines can be bought with enough supply by the bigger percentage of the Filipinos in compliance with their prescription. The said program is fully supported by the government to assure the buying public that the products they purchased were under government regulations and follow the standards of the Food and Drug Administration at the same time approved by the Department of Health. To assure the availability of these alternatives, we can now find different kinds of generic medicines in all drugstores nationwide with a much lower price compared to their branded counterparts.

Generic drugstores gained popularity in the early nineties and it became accessible to the different parts of the country.

According to Massie et al (2012), the Philippines’ pharmaceutical market were valued at $960 million in 2001 – approximately 69% of which were controlled by multinational companies and 31% shared by the generic pharmaceutical companies. These showed that the generic pharmaceutical companies need to exert extra effort to persuade and influence the medical practices of the buying public and establish the efficacy and safety of the generic pharmaceutical products. They also need to promote generic medicine and explain that their benefits are at par with their branded counter parts. At the same time, generic medicine needs to develop their packaging and representation to encourage the 74

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: The Level of Awareness and Implementation of the Generic Law in the Drugstores Business in the National Capital Region At present, generic products can now be bought not just in generic drugstores but also in major drugstores nationwide such as Mercury Drug, Watson Drug, and Rose Pharmacy. The drugstore retail industry now spends millions for advertising on prime time television. Its strategy is focused on selling mainly generic medicines, although it can also carry branded products. For some small or medium scale entrepreneurs, a generic drugstore is far more attractive than the normal drugstore. The capital needed for generic drugstores were not as big compared to a full line drugstore. This is mainly because generic medicines are much cheaper than branded products.

increased availability of affordable generic drugs.

How about the industries which play the major role, the drugstores, are they aware of the laws stipulated in the Generic Act and implement such?

Are they implementing those practices in their respective drugstores? The generic drug industry covers the marketing and sale of medication containing the same active ingredients and dosages as brand-name drugs manufactured by the pharmaceutical industry. Drugs can be prescribed under their chemical name without specifying a particular pharmaceutical brand or company.

Medicines are usually bought where it is most convenient. Although a generic drugstore can survive on lesser sales because of the higher margins, we must not forget that branded medicines are far more popular. The only way to promote generic drugs is to curb illicit medical practices. Though the Generic Law mandates doctors to prescribe generic medicines as far as possible, very few private practitioners actually do it. A great deal of the drugstores’ profits will come from how well they do the pricing. They must maintain a high profit margin on their generic items while maintaining an image of reasonable prices.

The well-known branded items must be priced competitively. Operating generic drugstores is no simple task. People may opt to buy a franchise or can start a generic drugstore from scratch.

Franchising is a business strategy for getting and keeping customers. It offers a thoughtful system for reshaping and executing a delivery system designed to extract maximum value from the opportunity. It is a marketing system for creating an image in the minds of current and future customers about how the company's products and services can help them. It is a method for distributing products and services that satisfy customer needs. Franchising is the practice of using another firm's successful business model as what Generika Drugstore, Citidrug 2 in 1 and The Generic Pharmacy are doing now. Franchising can give knowledge to the franchisee a proven system training, support and encouragement, semi-monopoly environment to conduct business in a particular area, were an informed ready-made customer base that can instantly recognize the brand, product or service expectations and the reputation of good service it can give. If an investor wants to save on capital or simply wants more profit, he may start his own drugstore from scratch.

The need for such study arises to focus on the readiness of the drugstores in their awareness and implementation of Generic Law and how their

Stated in the Global Generic Drugs Industry (2012), generic drugs are under the same governance as brand-name drugs and must adhere to the same standards. When brand-name drugs come off patent, the market is open to generic versions. Patent protection generally protects a drug’s intellectual property rights for about 20 years, but as the patent were effective from the clinical trial stage, the actual time the drug were on the market can be far less, often between 10 and 14 years. After a patent expires, pharmaceutical companies come under fierce pricing pressure due to competition from their lessexpensive generic counterparts.

As a result, different drugstores have been selling generic products as early as the year 2000 and become more popular now. The Generic Drug Act of 1988 or Generic Law gained its popular support. The Generic Law promulgated an answer to the increasing cost of medicines to save lives under the President Corazon C. Aquino’s administration. The generic pharmaceutical industry played a vital role in this program because they supply genuine generic medicines with the same quality of products produced by multinational companies. The projects were fully accepted by the government which also supported the needs of its other health projects. The readiness of the industry to act on the project is measured by the lowering percentages of Filipinos who are complaining on high cost of medicines.

The Filipinos can now buy, with full compliance, their needed medicines especially for illnesses that need prolonged medication, because it is under price regulation as indicated in Section 23 of the Revised Cheaper Quality Medicines Acts. The latest clamour of the government is that man’s fatal sickness has become manageable and treatable because of the 75

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: The Level of Awareness and Implementation of the Generic Law in the Drugstores Business in the National Capital Region the government seeks to achieve universal healthcare.

employees perform their day to day activities.

As reported by Picazo (2012), 5 to 6 out of 10 Filipinos now purchase generic drugs. There is an increasing proportion of Filipinos buying cheaper generic drugs due to the Department of Health’s mandate that all government health workers, like doctors and health center workers, use only generic names in prescribing and dispensing medicine.

The Board of Investment reports says the Philippine Pharmaceutical Industry were US$2.51 Billion in value in 2008 and forecasted to reach US$ 3.91 in 2013. The local market includes ethical (prescription) or over the counter (OTC) product. The bulk of prescriptions come from ethical products which is about 70% and over the counter products of 24%, the remaining 6% belongs to nutritional products. Drugstores were following what were indicated in Section 25 of Republic Act No. 5921 Sale of Medicine, Pharmaceuticals, Drugs and Devices.

When a generic drug product is approved, it meets rigorous standards established by the Food and Drug Administration with respect to identity, strength, quality, purity, and potency stated in Section 40. Of the Amended Generic Law.

The law meant to increase the access to medicine for the poor in a country where the price of pharmaceutical products are among the highest in Asia and 60% of the population has no access even to basic drugs. Local players are getting ready for increase competition while historically, multinationals controlled 80% of the market. In recent years though, local companies have steadily increased their share and locals now represent 27% of pharmaceutical business in the country. The case of United Laboratories, now recognized as the number one company in the Philippine pharmaceutical industry and a local Philippine brand, is an example of such increase.

Other local players including Pascual Laboratories, GX International and Natrapharm are now starting to create a name in the industry.

They have gained some patronage and are began challenging the multinational companies.

However, some variability can and does occur during manufacturing, for both brand name and generic drugs. The generic drug manufacturers prove that generic drug is the same as the brand name drug. If the levels of the drug in the bloodstream were the same as the levels found when the brand name products were used, the generic drug will work the same.

The manufacturer and origin of many generic drugs in the Philippines are not necessarily reassuring. Usually, it’s just about impossible to determine where the drug was manufactured. Few pharmaceutical products are actually produced in the Philippines. China and India has the largest number of pharmaceutical brands in Asia. Raw materials or finished product may be imported into the Philippines, processed and packed for sale.

In China, although governments are trying to control the growth of medical fees, the pharmaceutical market continues to grow faster than the economy itself (Li, 2011). This situation mainly resulted from the development of new drugs, the change of demography and the improvement of people’s health expectations.

Moreover, as the developing pace of the traditional medicine market were slowing down and the multinational pharmaceutical enterprises have increasingly recognized the promising prospect of China’s emerging markets, many new medicines appear in the Chinese market.

According to the Prescription Medication Philippines (2013), one of the major pharmaceutical companies, Pfizer, has a discount program for many of their prescription drugs. One may get a Pfizer “Sulit” (value) card from your physician and be entitled to a significant discount on the drug purchase that ranges from 25% to 50% and sometimes more.

Reduced medicine prices due to the MDRP scheme and the increased use of generics are contributing to the improved accessibility and availability of medicines. However, to truly achieve greater access to medicine, more cooperation between the stakeholders is needed. Several pharmaceutical companies have already shown their commitment to this cause. Following the MDRP, a number of multinational companies have declared 50% voluntary price reductions on key drugs. The MDRP transformed the competitive dynamics, and further changes will soon follow as

The study is anchored on the manner of performance and evaluation of the awareness and implication of the Generic Law to the drugstores who sold generic products and how it affects their business operations. The study would also measure the awareness and implementation of the respondents on the Generic Law as practiced on their day to day activities.

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RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: The Level of Awareness and Implementation of the Generic Law in the Drugstores Business in the National Capital Region Good health is vital to all of us and we are continuously finding sustainable solutions to the most pressing health care challenges of our world.

The pharmaceutical industries were committed to apply science, resources through research and development to improve health and well-being at every stage of life. The industry strives to provide access to safe, effective and affordable medicines to the people who needed them. To ensure the continuing delivery of commitments to the patients, customers and shareholders, they focused on improving the way to do business; on operating with transparency of every practice they do; and on listening to the views of all of the people involving health care decisions. Through working partnership of health workers with everyone and the implementation of Generic Law, health care providers can now ensure that people everywhere have an access to low cost but high quality medicine.

same rigid standards as the innovator drug. All generic drugs approved by of Food and Drug Administration of different countries has the same high quality, strength, purity and stability as branded one.

At present, many medical practitioners recommend using generic drugs as an alternative to branded medicines as it also provides the same outcome in a much affordable price. Companies that make generic drugs often obtain their active ingredients from the same suppliers where branded companies acquire them.

Generic drugs have an important role in the prescription drug marketplace. A vibrant generic market with price competition at the end of the innovation life cycle is economically efficient and best serves public health. This role of generics is premised upon the existence of proper regulatory safeguards for bioequivalence and manufacturing to ensure therapeutic efficacy and safety. Such a role also recognizes the importance of ensuring that patent protection has truly expired, as well as protecting patients by requiring the physicianâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s approval of the substitution.

The Philippine Generics Medicine industry has been perceived as lacking in support from private hospitals and doctors. The Philippines is a prescription market where patients put utmost trust in their physicians. The doctorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; nonendorsement of generics, derived from a limited promotional effort by the generics players, hampered the sectorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s development. However, since 2001, the generics market has been on the rise, fuelled by the opening of The Generics Pharmacy and Generika Drugstore that follows the generics industry recorded impressive growth.

The retail prices of branded medicines dropped in the Philippines because of the move made by generics retail drugstores.

With prominence in all medical practices and specialties, generic drugs have become a staple of the Filipinos healthcare system. Philippine health is designed to allow greater access to generic drugs, while pharmacies are also incentivized with drug formularies favouring generics. In addition, most drugstores allow their pharmacists to substitute prescriptions written for brand-name drugs with generic counterparts.

The Food and Drugs Administration should promote and protect competitive markets across the Generic Medicine Industry. The Bureau is not only responsible for enforcing the civil and criminal provisions of the law, it is also responsible for advocating greater reliance on market forces to deliver the benefits of competition to the people.

The Department health is an area with lesser competition. The reality is that competitive markets are responsible for delivering many of the products and services where our health system rely on. Given their importance to the welfare of the citizen and because this is a large market health related markets have been a key enforcement and advocacy priority for the Bureau for several years.

The increasing importance of the generics segment was confirmed by the number of new players that are entered in the market. Sandoz, the generics arm of Swiss multinational Novartis, the Pakistani Getz Pharmaceutical, and the Taiwanese corporation OEP are amongst the fastest growing companies in the Philippines.

Several Indian generics players have also started operations in the country and captured bigger share in generic drugs industry.

Generic drugs are important options that allow greater access to health care for all people. They are copies of brand-name drugs and are the same as those brand name drugs in dosage form, safety, strength, route of administration, quality, performance characteristics and intended use.

Health care professionals and consumers can be assured that Food and Drug Administration approved generic drug products have met the

The Government has specifically focused its attention on prescribed generic medicine.

Generics play an important role in keeping health costs down by providing competition for branded drugs when they lose patent protection. Several studies have found prescription generics to be relatively more competitive in the Philippines than in other countries. The studies prompted the 77

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: The Level of Awareness and Implementation of the Generic Law in the Drugstores Business in the National Capital Region Bureau to conduct the generic drug sector study to examine the generic drug market and identify areas where changes in the market framework may secure greater benefits through competition.

Table 2. Distribution of Customer Respondents based on Drugstore Location City Drugstores Customers Las Pinas 18 138 Muntinlupa 18 145 Paranaque 24 136 Taguig 19 165 Total 79 584

The study aimed to determine the level of awareness of the customers and drugstore employees which include the drugstore managers, license pharmacists and pharmacy assistants of the generic law and how they ensure customer satisfaction. The study also determined the level of implementation of the drugstore industry’s activities in selected drugstores in Metro Manila as stipulated in the Generic Law. The researcher also aimed to identify the effect of Generic Law on the lives of its stakeholders, particularly those who were under strict medication.

At least 2 or 3 employees in every drugstore outlet including the manager, licensed pharmacist and pharmacy assistant were asked to participate in the study. Table 3 shows 119 out of the 185 drugstore employee respondents are pharmacy assistant or clerk, 50 were licensed pharmacists, and 16 were managers.

METHODOLOGY Table 3. Distribution of Employee Respondents based on Position

Using the Descriptive method of research, the researcher considered drugstores in the National Capital Region as basis of this study. There are 98 registered drugstores which include The Generic Pharmacy, Generika Drugstore, Citidrugs 2 in 1 and Rose Pharmacy in the whole cities of Las Piñas, Parañaque, Muntinlupa, and Taguig.

Employee

The questionnaire created by the researcher, which included the content and practices of the Generic Law are used as the main data gathering instrument for this study. The survey was administered to five to seven customers of the selected drugstores shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Distribution of Respondents based on Drugstore Drugstore Frequency Citydrugs 2+1 (Parañaque City) 5 Generica Drugstore 25 Rose Pharmacy (Muntinlupa City) 2 The Generic Pharmacy 46 TOTAL 79

The sample techniques used in this study are the cluster and random sample, specifically for the purposive and deliberative sampling. The cluster area sampling were used in selected samples in cluster and frequently applied on a geographical basis in the selected Cities in Metro Manila.

Frequency

Manager

16

Licensed pharmacist

50

Pharmacy assistant/Clerk

119

Total

185

A self made questionnaire was used in the survey. It contained sections which identified the respondent’s awareness and implementation of generic law and how this affects the business’ daily activities. The questions were structured using Likert scale. In this survey, eight choices were provided for every question and statement.

The level of awareness and the level of implementation were measured and interpreted as shown in Table 4.

Table 4.

Level of Awareness and Implementation Scores Interpretation Awareness Score Range Interpretation 96%-100% 75%-95% 50%-74% 26%-49% Below 25%

Fully aware Partially aware Somewhat aware Aware Unaware

Implementation Score Range Interpretation 96%-100%

The groups of respondents’ outlet included in the study were among the branches of drugstores found in their company website. Such branches are located in Muntinlupa City, Paranaque City, Las Pinas City and Taguig City and their customers in the area.

75%-95% 50%-74% 26%-49% Below 25%

78

Fully Implemented Partially Implemented Somewhat Implemented Implemented Not Implemented

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: The Level of Awareness and Implementation of the Generic Law in the Drugstores Business in the National Capital Region The research used primary and secondary data to conduct the study. Primary data were collected through survey questionnaires in the drugstores in Metro Manila through its store managers, pharmacists, pharmacy assistants and their customers. Secondary data were taken from related studies published in book and recent journals in aid of analysis of the primary data gathered statistically analyzed using the frequency and percentage distribution, weighted mean and ttest.

BFAD approved LTO permit. These are necessary on securing a drugstore permit in order for the drugstore to start its operation.

While the drugstore employee respondents were fully aware of the provisions of drugstore practice of having a sign board bearing the registered name of the drugstore; well-ventilated area of not less than 15sq.m; proper place for the adequate storage of drugs and biological products; adequate water supply and complete books and references, they reported partial awareness of the provisions pertaining to proper place, suitable compounding prescription medicine and for washing sterilizing bottle; a suitable cabinet for keeping poisons and danger products; and contain utensils, apparatus and refrigerator for biological products needing refrigeration. Similarly, the customer respondents were partially aware on all those provision.

RESULTS In the level of awareness on who shall use a generic terminology and indicate generic names on their product, both the employee and customer were partially aware of the variables asked. Such variables are: the company involved in the manufacturing of medicines or drugs; company involved in importation or repacking medicines or drugs; marketing or distribution of drugs and medicines. The employee respondents were fully aware while customer respondents were partially aware of variables. This is an indicator that drugstores and customers were familiar with some major provision of generic law.

The drugstore employee respondents were fully aware of the provisions of the senior citizens act because the senior citizens always asked for this discount privilege to the store by showing their ID. The respondent customers were partially aware on the provision because only a few respondents surveyed belonged to senior citizens category.

Results showed that the customer and employee respondentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; level of awareness on Generic Law differed significantly with p-value of 0.000. The employee respondents were more aware about the Law with a weighted mean of 4.48 as shown on Table 5.

The respondent employees were fully aware on the practices on no sales of drugs or medicines except for non-prescription or over the counter product considering that it is a part of their service to customers. Meanwhile, the customers were only partially aware on the said provision because it is not a well used practice.

Table 5 Significant Difference in Level of Awareness Drugstore Employee and Customer

The respondent employees and customers reported being partially aware of the practices on Cheaper Medicines Act that price of drugs or medicines which are subject to price regulation for medicines used as treatment of chronic illness and treatment for life threatening condition diseases.

Weighted Mean Employee

4.48

Customer

3.95

t

Pâ&#x20AC;&#x201C; Decision Remarks value

11.945 .000 Reject H0 Significant

In terms of the drugstoreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s level of implementation, as perceived by the respondents, employees reported partial implementation of the Generic Law provision that the company involved in the manufacturing of medicines or drugs; company involved in importation or repacking of medicines or drugs; marketing or distribution of drugs and medicines shall use a generic terminology and indicate the generic name on their product. The respondents reported the said provision was not usually practiced. The drugstore employees fully implemented the provision that generic terminology should be used in drugstores or pharmacy outlet because this is always part of their day to day activity. The customer respondents were partially aware of those

The employees and customers respondents were both partially aware of the practices of giving protection on Intellectual Property right of patented product. This practice can give assurance to the manufacturers of patented products that their products will not be subjected to counter fit and the customers can be assured that they are purchasing a genuine product.

Both employee and drugstore respondents were found to be partially aware of the provisions pertaining to the practice of proper display of necessary document properly introduce the business. Such documents are SEC/DTI registration, having a licensed Pharmacist; BFAD sponsored accredited Seminar on licensing and 79

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: The Level of Awareness and Implementation of the Generic Law in the Drugstores Business in the National Capital Region provisions because it is not commonly used in their practice of buying medicines.

especially in dealing with senior citizens.

Customer respondents, on the other hand, reported partiall implementation of the said provision because most does not belong to that age category.

Both employee and customer respondents reported partial implementation of the provisions on Cheaper Medicines Act that no sale of medicines or drugs except for those medicines which are non-prescription or over the counter product. The said practice is usually done by the prescription drugstore making sure that most of their products are prescription products. Similar results were reported on the implementation of the Cheaper Medicines Act, that drugs and medicines are subjected to price regulation especially on the following situation to product as treatment of chronic illness or product treatment for life threatening condition diseases.

Table 6. Significant Difference in Level of Implementation as Assessed by Drugstore Employees and Customers Weighted Mean Employee

4.55

Customer

3.98

t

Pâ&#x20AC;&#x201C; Decision Remarks value

12.635 .000 Reject H0 Significant

Moreover, a significant difference was found (p-value=0.000) between the employee and customer respondentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; assessment of the level of implementation of the Generic Law. The employee respondents perceived a higher level of implementation with a weighted mean of 4.55 as shown in Table 6.

The drugstore employee respondents said that the provision on Intellectual Property right which protect the patent of patented products to assure the only genuine medicines are made available on their drugstore was fully implemented. The respondent customers believed it was partially implemented.

DISCUSSION

The provisions on proper display and available of license pharmacist; Food and Drug Administration sponsored seminars conducted for licensing; Food and Drug Administration approved License To Operate permits were fully implemented by the drugstore, as reported by the employee respondents while the customer respondents reported partial implementation of the said provisions.

The majority of the respondents were aware of the Generic Law. The employee and customers have enough knowledge on the provisions of the law and reported strict implementation of the provisions to the best of their capacity. It is also evident on the data that drugstore management followed the rules mandated by the law in terms of employment and imparted this knowledge to their employees as well.

The provisions on pharmacy practices having signboard bearing the registered name of the registered name of the drugstore; having a wellventilated area not less than 15 sq.m; adequate water supply and have complete reference books and materials were fully implemented by drugstores as reported by the employee respondents because these are the basic practices that the drugstore must have to begin the business operation. As per the provisions on a place suitable for compounding of prescription, washing and sterilizing bottle; a proper place for the adequate storage of drugs and biological products as specified; have a suitable cabinet for keeping poisons danger product and contains utensils, apparatus and refrigerator for biological products that needs refrigeration, partial implementation was reported by the drugstore employees because some of the provisions are not available on their drugstore outlet. Similarly, customer respondent said the provisions were partially implemented.

There is an increase in the number of Filipinos buying generic drugs and a decrease in those saying the cost of medicine are very expensive the same way is an increasing proportion of Filipinos buying generic drugs and claimed that generic medicines are the same quality as their expensive branded counterparts. Nowadays, as a result, big drugstores are selling generic drugs; and physicians and professionals are complying with the guidelines of the Generics Law. The employee respondents reported full implementation of the provision of Food and Drug Administration that a licensed Pharmacist must be assigned in a drugstore. They also practiced having signboard bearing the name of the drugstore and is placed in the drugstore premises for proper identify of the business. It was also reported that provision on cheaper and Quality medicines Act on products that are subject for price regulation such as drugs for treatment of chronic illness and product medicines for treatment for life threatening condition diseases were partially implemented.

The provisions on Senior Citizens Act were fully implemented as reported by the respondent employees. The said practices were often used 80

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: The Level of Awareness and Implementation of the Generic Law in the Drugstores Business in the National Capital Region In the said survey, it showed that there are an increased proportion of Filipinos who bought cheaper generic drugs. It increased from 47% (2003) to 55% (2008). This claimed that six out of ten Filipinos opt for generic medicines over the more expensive branded counterparts. That figure can also indicate that there is less mortality rate due to expensive medicines conducted by Social Weather Station as written in the article of Charlene Cayabyab entitled DOH hosts Generic Expo in Sun Star Pampanga September 28, 2010.

attention. Significantly, the law also allows the government to get responses from people on where to focus particularly in the field of medicine.

Through public reactions, the department in charge of the development of new drugs would know the demands of the public and consequently allocate ample budget for further studies.

On the side of the industry, having a law like the Generics Law also gives them protection against unauthorized manufacturing and distribution of drugs. It also allows pharmaceutical industries to explore on the possibilities of the medical field by finding alternative means of providing quality medicine at a low cost. It is also a way of assuring the public that the drugs that are available in the market are of high quality since the government is monitoring the industry that produces them.

The awareness and implementation of these laws should be treated as a partnership between consumers, providers and government where everyone must contribute, be it big or small. It should not only be dependent on one sector but to many. We should be responsive to the needs of everyone and take responsibility in imparting the information to those who need them.

The government should act to ensure the realization of every citizen’s right to health.

Generic drugs are always less expensive, it cost about thirty percent to eighty percent less than the brand name drug. Generic drugs mean more costsavings to the consumers.

The Generic Law becomes a measurement for the industry to further expand. The demand that the generic medicines have created can be a result of the implementation of Generic Law, which primarily focuses on the sustainability of needy Filipinos. The government’s action on proper information through the Department of Health and controlling function of Food and Drugs Administration will additionally help in properly disseminating information on the benefits that the people can get from the generic medicines and Generic Law as a whole.

REFERENCES Books M. Levy, B. A. Weitz, Retailing Management 6th Edition (2007), McGraw-Hill/Irwin Co. USA .

P.Kotler, Marketing Management The Millennium Edition (2000) Prentice-Hall, Inc.USA R.Daft Management Fifth Edition (2000) US, Dryden Press, Hard Court College, USA Timmons J.A. & S. Spinelli (2007) New Venture Creation 7th Edition McGraHill/Irwin, USA Generic Medicines: Essential Contribution to the long term health of society. Allan Sheppard, Principal, Global Generics through leadership, IMS Health Module on Guidelines for the Establishment and Operation of Botica ng Barangay(BnB) and Pharmaceutical Distribution Network (PDNs), Philippines Philippine National Drug Formulary Essential Medicines List Volume I, 7th Edition (2008) Salvador,.Mejia & E. F. Geronimo, Principles of Marketing, Allen Adrian Books Inc., (2009) Philippines

The drugstore industry should take responsible practices in their operations and in accordance with the Laws implemented by the government. Through this move it will help the entrepreneur address the industry’s ultimate goal – to provide better service to all its customers.

The healthcare costs continue to increase; there is a pressing need of cheaper medicines.

The use of generic products is a worldwide trend.

More and more health care providers around the world turn to generics to counter the rising medical costs and still provide quality and adequate health service.

The law gives protection to the people as well as assurance that the generic medicines they patronize are genuine and with the quality of branded product. Also, more Filipinos have access to medicines prescribed for chronic illnesses because of the provisions of the law which gives discounts to certain drugs.

The government’s contribution in assuring that the law is rightfully implemented rightfully is a major factor for the success of the law. The dissemination of information amongst the people is the main reason the law is getting more 81

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: The Level of Awareness and Implementation of the Generic Law in the Drugstores Business in the National Capital Region Online Sources Aleck P. Pabico, Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism; September 2006 DOH celebrates the Generics Awareness Month through Republic Act 6675 or the “Generics Act of 1988”. Date of Retrieval March 2013 Allan

Ding

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Sheppard, Principal, Global Generics through leadership, IMS Health Generic Medicines: Essential Contribution to the long term health of society. Date of Retrieval Feb. 2013 http/www.imsheallt.com/imshealth/Global /Content/DocumentMarketMeasurement TLGenericMedecine

Date of Retrieval Feb. 2013 Cervantes; News Punto.Com.ph/news/printage Five out of every six Filipinos now patronize generics drugs. Date of Retrieval Feb.2013 Administrative Order No. 56, s.

1989: Revised Regulations for the Licensing of Drug Establishments and Outlet

Ethan A. Huff, Natural New June 27 2012 www.naturalnews.com/index Date of Retrieval Feb.2013 FDA Critical Path Initiatives: Opportunities for Generic Drug Development; Date of Retrieval May 2011; http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ PMC2751455/ Generic Drug Industry: Market Research Reports, Statistics and Analysis Date of Retrieval Dec., 2012 http://www.reportlinker.com/ci02261/Gen eric-Drug.html: Generic Drug Sector Study, Date of Retrieval Dec., 2012 http://www.competitionbureau.gc.ca/eic/si te/cb-bc.nsf/eng/02495.html Generic Drugs – what you need to know; Date of Retrieval Dec., 2012 http://health.india.com/diseasesconditions/generic-drugs-what-you-needto know/ Generics and Biosimilars; Posted 24/08/12 Attitude of general practitioners towards Generics in Pakistan; Date of Retrieval March, 2013

Aarti Patel, Robin Gauld, et al, MC Health Services Research Quality of generic medicines in South Africa: Perceptions versus Reality – A qualitative,http:/www.biomedcentral.com /1472-6963/12/297 Date Retrieval Feb. 2013 A Profile of the Pharmaceutical Sector, Celia M Reyes et al; Date of Retrieval Feb. 2013 http://publication.pids.gov.ph/details.php? pid=4978 Board of Investment Industry Studies Department Philippines Pharmaceutical Industry, Date of Retrieval Feb.2013 Carandang; Despite Generic Law, Why Are Drugs Still Expensive Date of Retrieval March, 2011.

Charlene Cayabyab; Sun Star Pampanga; 9/28/10; DOH hosts Generic Expo; Date of Retrieval March 2013 at http://www.sunstar.com.ph/pampanga/loc al-news/doh-hosts-generic-expo

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Canada report, October 2007 Generic Drug Sector Study/ Competition Date of retrieval Dec, 2012.

Generic Drugs in Canada: A Policy Paper. Date of Retrieval Feb. 2013 www.ctac.ca/uploads/Position20papers/ 2007%20EN_PP%20Generic_Drugs_in_ Canada_April_2007_FINAL

Competitionbureau.gc.ca Retrieval March 2013 China Daily News Chinese, Doris Li, 3-06-11; Chinese Pharmaceutical Market is booming; Date of Retrieval March, 2011.

Hanne HERBORG, et al, Germany Developing a generic, individualized adherence Programmed for chronic medication user.

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Connecting Asia, April 24, 2007 Parallel Imports and Generic Drugs in the Philippines 82

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: The Level of Awareness and Implementation of the Generic Law in the Drugstores Business in the National Capital Region Danish College of Pharmacy Date of Retrieval July 2013.

Practice.

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Linda A. Johnson, Health India.com, August 2, 2012 Generic Drugs Saved $193 Billion In 2011 Generic Drugs – What You Need to Know published by health.india.com. Date of Retrieval Feb. 2013.

Philippines Pharmaceutical Country Profile, Publish by the Ministry of Health in collaboration with the World Health Organization. Date of Retrieval March, 2013 http://www.who.int/medicines/areas/coord ination/Philippines_PSCPBNarrativeQues tionnaireEndorsement_13062012.

Manual, Republic Act No. 9502, Amendments June 6, 2008, Republic Act 8293 or the Intellectual Property Code, Philippines

Picazo, O. Daily Inquirer on July 2012; Today, it is claimed that 5 to 6 out of 10 Filipinos now purchase generic drugs. Date of Retrieval Feb. 2013.

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Perception and attitude of general practitioners regarding generic medicines in Karachi, Pakistan: A questionnaire based study; Date of Retrieval March 2013; http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/en/m/ab stract/Js19561en/ Prescription Medication, Philippines journal My Life in the Philippines, one of the major pharmaceutical companies. Date of Retrieval Feb. 2013.

Medicines still beyond reach of many; Date of Retrieval May, 2011. http://opinion.inquirer.net/33107/medicine s-still-beyond-reach-of-many Mike Palmedo; Posted InfoJustice.org In China Revises Law to Facilitate Compulsory Licenses for Generic Medicines ; June 11, 2012.Date of Retrieval Feb., 2013 Philippines Pharmaceutical Country ProfilePublish by the Ministry of Health in collaboration with the World Health Organization. Date of Retrieval March, 2013 www.who.int/medicine/Philippines_PSPB Narrative

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Philippine Star dated October 22, 2009; Choose quality, bio-equivalent Generic drugs; Date Retrieved March 2011.

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RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: The Level of Awareness and Implementation of the Generic Law in the Drugstores Business in the National Capital Region State of Penang, Malaysia.Date Retrieval Feb.2012 Simmenroth-Nayda A. Prescription of generic drugs in general practice results of a survey of general practitioners Article in Germany Date of Retrieval July2012 The Philippines: Once Silent, an Emerging Market Raises Its Voice.Nov 23, 2010 Date of Retrieval March, 2013 Vicente W. Villavert; Philippines Information Agency, Sept.2012; Physicians, professionals comply with Generics Law; Date of Retrieval March, 2013 http://www.pia.gov.ph/news/index.php?ar ticle=921346982210 Zaheer-Ud-Din Babar, Malaysia by Journal of Generic Medicines, Evaluating Community Pharmacists â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Perceptions and Practices on Generic Medicines: A Pilot Study from Peninsular Malaysia, Date of Retrieval Feb. 2013

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FIRST GENERATION ENTRANTS: PERSONALITY TRAITS, RESILIENCY AND ACHIEVEMENT INDICATORS Christine V. Yambao, RGC, PhD, FRI(Rs) necessarily biological parents) have not had any opportunity at any time in their lives to experience university education (Thomas and Quinn, 2007).

When the first generation entrants decided to pursue dreams for higher education, they are engaging in an act which is the “first” in their family.

In this situation, they confront the conflict of reconciling the demands of their daily lives, their family relationships and their academic work (Parrent, 2007).

ABSTRACT Applying the descriptive research design using quantitative and qualitative approaches, the study investigated the personality traits, resiliency and academic indicators of first generation entrants with parents who did not have the opportunity for college education. The respondents of the study were 128 first generation entrants enrolled in nine rural state colleges in Zamboanga Sibugay.

Majority were 20 years old and above, females and belonged to low-income families. The study utilized researcher-formulated survey questionnaires, interview questions and standardized tests – 16 Personality Factor Fifth edition and the Ego Strength Q-Sort Test. Total enumeration was applied in the study and stratified sampling determined the participants for the interview. The global factors of the respondents differed significantly, as they are grouped according to sex – males were more active in their social participation than the females.

A significant difference was also found in the resiliency area of ego status and mother’s educational attainment suggesting that for first generation entrants, the educational attainment of the mother influences the development of their ego. A slight and an almost negligible relationship correlation was determined for Mental Health and Independence and Physical Health and Extraversion. Overall, difficulty in life allowed the respondents to draw out from within an untapped strength of human character and determination that allowed them to endure and overcome adversity. The findings of the study were used in the design of a five-year intervention program to ensure the access and success of first generation entrants in college.

In the small State College where the researcher has been a full-time instructor for almost a decade, an observation was made on the common traits of the student achievers and graduates. A few of these students were from lowincome families, past 16 years old when they entered college, had part-time jobs, and have had children and other dependents. A number of them were later on identified as first generation entrants.

Despite the challenging task of balancing their obligations to their family and their academic responsibilities brought by their attendance in college, some of them were still able to graduate and a few earned high honors. These first generation entrants displayed a high level of commitment to finish their degree. Observing this phenomenon has led to queries on the students’ personality traits and resiliency level allowing them to overcome the adversity they are in. Its alignment to the continuing Nature vs Nurture debate motivated the researcher to pursue the study.

With the dearth of local literature on first generation entrants and in line with the country’s objective for higher education to play a part in the national development goal of alleviating poverty, this study is undertaken. The researcher, as an instructor and as a licensed guidance counsellor, believes that amidst the adverse conditions of first generation entrants is the strength of character and determination to succeed.

Anchored on four theories – Social Cognitive Theory, Individual Psychology, Role Theory, and Social Capital Theory. Figure 1 shows the framework of this study.

INTRODUCTION Education is the key for the intergenerational transmission of human capital. Participation in higher education is equated with enhanced life opportunities that include social and economic mobility, employment and earnings, cultural engagement and civic involvement (Thomas and Quinn, 2007). For parents who did not have any opportunity to attend a higher level of education, their educational aspirations are carried out by their children. In this case, their children, upon stepping into tertiary level, are considered first generation entrants – defined as college students whose responsible older generation (not

The theory on Individual Psychology emphasizes that every person strives for superiority or the urge towards completion that motivates every individual (Schultz and Schultz, 2005). Adler suggests that the individual is forward oriented and that past experiences do not influence expectations for the future. With this view, the researcher believes that first generation entrants strive for superiority thus draw out resources and capabilities such as resiliency.

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RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: First Generation Entrants: Personality Traits, Resiliency and Achievement Indicators These college students develop a style of life and attitudes that allow them to overcome life’s adversities.

reactive organisms who are shaped by their environment. Bandura conceives of the person’s agency as the ability to act and make things happen and that people have cognitive, selfregulative and self-reflective capabilities that influence behaviour and provide some measure of control over it. Further, human agency allows an individual to manage fortuity as they exercise some measure of control over self-development and life circumstances (Engler, 2006). The first generation entrants as agents in their environment have the ability to act and make things happen in society. Applying their self-development efforts combined with their personal resources, they can exploit unfortunate circumstances and use it to their advantage. In turn they can achieve more in their stay in the university and may overcome more adversities in life.

Figure 1. Theoretical Framework *INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY First generation entrants strive for superiority and it accounts for their personality traits, resiliency and achievement potential

STATE UNIVERSITY RESILIENCY

PERSONALITY

FIRST GENERATION **ROLE THEORY First generation entrants use their roles as resources that facilitates action that allow them to rich their goals ACHIEVEMENT INDICATORS

ENTRANTS

***SOCIAL CAPITAL THEORY Families of first generation entrants invest on Education as a cultural and symbolic status INTERVENTION

****SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY First generation entrants exercise control over advertises as they develop positive traits like resiliency which allow them to

PROGRAMS

Original Proponents: *Adler (modified from Schultz and Schultz, 2006) **Mead (modified from Collier, 2007)

Meanwhile, the Role theory focuses on the role that individuals assume while interacting in his environment and this may shed light on the achievement level of first generation entrants.

Roles can serve as a ‘resource’ that helps people achieve goals (Collier, 2007). It is perceived that roles are best understood as cultural objects that are real, objective, meaningful features of the social world that people recognize, accept, and use to carry out their goals through interaction.

The first generation entrants who persist in college carry out their roles in school and in family life with the knowledge of different standards of their roles as student and as family member.

This study is anchored on these theories but mainly on the Social Cognitive Theory which emphasizes that an individual’s cognitive factors (such as beliefs, expectations and values) along with personal factors (such as emotional make up and genetic endowments) influence the personality by affecting how one thinks, feel, act and behave in his environment. In line with this concept, first generation entrants are perceived with cognitive and personal factors that lead towards a drive to become successful. It is believed that the personality traits and the resiliency of first generation entrants affect their academic achievement. If they have a strong level of resiliency and positive character traits, they will have a better transition into tertiary education, in their persistence and in achieving their goals. In this connection, the first generation entrants should be recognized as a group of students who requires a strong support from the institutions of learning. School administrators and teachers should identify these students upon entry into college. The challenges that confront the first generation entrants have to be anticipated as factors that affect their academic achievement such as grades and retention of scholarships.

Hence, a study on the personality traits, resiliency and achievement of the first generation entrants in state colleges is imperative. This is vital in addressing their special needs and this would serve as a basis for formulating an intervention program that promote the welfare and development of them.

Moreover, Bourdieu proposed the Social Capital Theory which identifies on education as a cultural and symbolic status for the family. This perspective offers an explanation on the motivation for achievement of first generation entrants. The theory is influenced by the cultural and symbolic status valued by the family such as on education (Thomas and Quinn, 2007). Filipino families invest on education with the notion that the completion of degree can land their children into a high paying job that leads to a better future and allow them to move up the social ladder. Entry of the first generation entrants into college is a manifestation of the cultural and social capital that the family places upon the benefits of earning a degree.

As for the Social Cognitive Theory, Bandura (2001) suggests that the essence of humanness is the capacity to control over the nature and quality of life. This perspective of Bandura offers a sociocognitive view of personality where he contends that causal influences on behaviour move in more than one direction as people are

METHODOLOGY Using questionnaire forms and standardized tests, a survey was conducted in nine (9) External 86

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: First Generation Entrants: Personality Traits, Resiliency and Achievement Indicators Studies Units of the Western Mindanao State University (WMSU ESUs) in Zamboanga Sibugay municipalities namely Alicia, Diplahan, Imelda, Ipil, Mabuhay, Malangas, Olutanga, Siay, and Tungawan. From the total of 301 Third Year students enrolled in WMSU ESUs in the Academic Year 2008 – 2009, 242 participated in the survey and 128 First Generation Entrants were identified.

Using stratified sampling based on the overall test scores in the Ego-Strength Q-Sort Test and consultation with a statistician, 15 respondents were determined for in – depth interview. The respective six (6) class advisers of the respondents acted as Key Informants.

extreme. The more extreme a score is toward a given factor pole, the more likely that the descriptors for the scale's pole will apply for that score and that the trait will be apparent to individual's behaviour. 16PF stens of 1-3 in the "low" range or the minus pole; stens of 4-7 are considered within the "average" range; and stens of 8-10 in the "high" range or in the plus pole. A sten of 4 is described as "low average" and a sten of 7 is "high average" (16 PF Fifth Edition Administrator’s Manual, 1993).

Table. 1. Western Mindanao State University Undergraduate Level Grading System Grade 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 5.0

The study utilized a researcher-formulated questionnaire, standardized tests, and interview guide questions. The survey questionnaire form for students consisted of questions on socio – demographic profile of the respondents (age, sex, religion, parents’ educational attainment, family monthly income, and scholarships availed). The respondents’ parents’ educational attainment identified the First Generation Entrants. The questionnaire for teachers included questions that determine their age, work experience, and educational attainment.

1.25 1.75 2.25 2.75

Remarks Excellent Very Good Good Fair Passing Failure

Table 1 shows the basis of interpretation of the 16 PF Fifth Edition global factors. The cumulative grade point average of the students were taken from the Office of the Registrar of the respective college units. The grading system adapted by the college is based on the prescribed University standard as presented in Table 1.

In measuring the First Generation Entrants’ personality traits and areas of resiliency, standard tests such as 16 Personality Factor (PF) Fifth Edition and Ego – Strength Q-Sort Test were employed, respectively.

The 16PF Fifth Edition (Cronbach’s Alpha=0.74) (16 PF Fifth Edition Administrator’s Manual, 1993) was validated using test-retest method with two-week and two-month intervals.

Reliability coefficients for the primary factors ranged from 0.69 – 0.86 while the test-retest coefficients for the global factors were notably higher at 0.84 – 0.91.

The 16PF is a self-report assessment instrument measuring the normal personality dimensions discovered by Dr. Raymond Cattell. It includes : Warmth (A), Reasoning (B), Emotional Stability (C), Dominance (E), Liveliness (F), RuleConscious (G), Social Boldness (H), Sensitivity (I), Vigilance (L), Abstractedness (M), Privateness (N), Apprehension (O), Openness to Change (Q1), Self-Reliance (Q2), Perfectionism (Q3), and Tension (Q4). A combination of some of the primary scales result to the five Global factors of Extraversion, Anxiety, Tough-mindedness, Independence and Self-Control.

The Ego-Strength Q-Sort Test (ESQST) was administered to the respondents to determine the areas of resiliency of the student participants. As far as the researcher’s knowledge and according to the professionals in the field of Guidance Counselling and Testing, to date, there is no standardized test specifically designed to assess an individual’s resiliency in relation to academics.

Resiliency is usually one of the factors measured in personality tests along with other traits and is usually associated with victims of abuse and violence. The researcher sought Tests and Measurement experts from the University and other professional organizations. Determining the Ego Strength Q-Sort Test as the relevant psychological test for the present study as the factors it measures were also predominantly areas related to resiliency.

The 16 PF Fifth Edition consists of 185 items that were designed to comprise the 16 PF primary personality factor scales, each scale with 10 to 15 representative items. The test can be administered to adults, individually or in a group setting is estimated to be completed manually within 25 to 35 minutes. It uses "standardized ten" (sten) score scales. Sten scores range from 1-10, with a mean of 5.5 and a standard deviation of 2.

Scores that fall farther from the mean (either in the high or the low direction) are considered more 87

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: First Generation Entrants: Personality Traits, Resiliency and Achievement Indicators The test makes use of the forced choice technique and was designed to measure five factors: ego status, social status, goal-setting and goal-striving, good mental health and physical status.

the participants, an in-depth interview with selected first-generation entrants was conducted while their respective third year class advisers as key informants.

All the data retrieved, recorded, and interview dialogues were transcribed and translated and the results were organized, encoded, tabulated and was subjected to statistical treatment through SPSS using the following statistical tools:

The Ego-Strength Q-Sort Test may be administered effectively to individuals or groups.

However, the size of the group to which the test may be administered at one sitting may vary depending upon the maturity of the persons involved. The examiner should undergo familiarization with the details before administering the test.

In ascertaining the profile, personality traits, and areas of resiliency of the first generation entrants, frequency distribution, percentages and mean scores were used. Similar analyses were applied in measuring the achievement indicators, such as College Entrance Test (CET) scores, cumulative GPA, and scholarship. Meanwhile, in determining the correlation between CET results and cumulative GPA, the Pearson Product Moment Correlation was utilized. T-test was applied in measuring the difference in the cumulative GPA of respondents with and without scholarship.

The Ego Strength Q-Sort Test as a standardized test has already an established reliability by the test constructor Dr. Russell N. Cassel. The ESQST has high content validity as each of the five part scores were found to be in agreement with the contents of professional literature in the areas of concern (Ego Strength QSort Test Manual).

For the in-depth interviews, separate interview guides for students and teachers were used by the researcher. For the students, 13 questions were asked to gather their experiences as first generation entrants, their view on their resilient traits, if any, and the emotional support system from their family. For the class advisers who served as key informants, eight questions were asked. Prior to the actual interview, a PreInterview Checklist patterned after the Central Queensland University which served as a guideline for the interview was read to the interviewee and each guideline was checked if the student acknowledges his understanding on every provision. The interview guide questions were validated through jury validation by one college level instructor and two guidance counsellors. The jury validators evaluated the Interview questions using the following four-point scale: 4 (Very Good); 3 (Good); 2 (Fair) and 1 (Poor). The instrument was given an over-all Very Good rating (Mean = 3.92) by the three jurors.

In ascertaining the significant difference among the personality traits and areas of resiliency of the first generation entrants in relation to their profile, t-test and Analysis of Variance or ANOVA were utilized. The relationship between personality traits and resiliency of first generation entrants was tested using the Pearson Product Moment Correlation.

The respondentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; experiences in relation to emotional familial support, persistence, and resiliency were measured using frequency distribution and percentages.

The willing participants who took part in the interview were assured that all information gathered therein were to be treated with utmost confidentiality and were to be utilized solely for research purposes.

RESULTS

A preliminary investigation was conducted to identify the history, curricular programs, enrolment records, and the management system of the WMSU ESUs. All research activities had the permission and endorsement of the concerned University Officials.

The profile of the first generation entrants when classified according to age is 54.7% are 20 years old and above. A greater majority of the first generation entrants are females (75 %) and Roman Catholics (69.5 %). As for parental education, a bigger portion of first generation entrantsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; fathers only had elementary level schooling (32%) while the mothers mostly had high school level schooling (33.6%). Based on their family income, 27.34% first generation entrants belong to families earning Php 3,000 to Php 4,999 per month.

After the data from the University was collected, the survey questionnaire forms were given out to the Third Year students, followed by the identification of the first generation entrants in the group based on their responses on their parentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; educational attainment. Once identified, these students were administered the Ego Strength Q-Sort Test and the 16 PF Fifth edition.

To further validate the responses generated from

For the Extraversion factor, the first generation entrants mostly had scores under sten 5 (41.27%).

On its extreme poles, for Introversion 2.38% were 88

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: First Generation Entrants: Personality Traits, Resiliency and Achievement Indicators at sten 2, 6.35% were at sten 3 while there were 1.59% at sten 8 and 0.79% at sten 9. For Anxiety, 38.10 % were at sten 6, 0.79% at sten 3 (Low Anxiety) and 3.97 at sten 8, and 0.79 at sten 9 (High Anxiety). For Tough-mindedness, 33.33% were at sten 5, 0.79 at sten 2 and 2.38 at sten 3 (Receptive) while 4.76 % were at sten 8 (Toughminded). For Independence, 34.13 % were at sten 5, 4.76% were at sten 3 (Accommodating) while 3.17% were at sten 8. For Self-Control, 41.27% were at sten 5, 3.97% at sten 3 (Unrestrained) and 3.17% at sten 8 (Self-controlled). Generally, the mean scores of the personality traits of the respondents fall within the average distribution of the scores.

generation entrants had a higher mean (5.63) than their female counterparts (5.07). The male first generation entrants are more likely to have social participation than the females. On Toughmindedness, the females have a mean of 5.77 while the males have 5.13. The t-test determined significant correlation between the first generation entrants’ tough-mindedness and sex (p=0.01) where female first generation entrants are toughminded, resolute and emphatic while males are more receptive, open-minded and intuitive.

In terms of the respondents’ areas of resiliency, Goal-setting had the highest mean while Ego status ranked last. The respondents’ age, religion, family income, and their father’s educational attainment did not have significant effect on the areas of resiliency. In contrast, it was revealed that when grouped according to sex, the areas of resiliency slightly differed between female and male respondents. For both sexes, Ego status remained the lowest while Goal-setting ranked the highest area. The t-test determined a significant difference between the female and male first generation entrants’ Goal Setting scores (p=0.035, α = 0.05). In terms of the educational attainment of the respondents’ mothers, their Ego status differed significantly with p-value of 0.035.

Among the areas of resiliency of the first generation entrants, the mean for Goal-setting (60.79) is interpreted to be high, followed by Physical status (50.54), which is closely followed

by Mental health (49.27). Meanwhile, Social Status (45.08) and Ego Status (34.69) are interpreted as low scores. The high goal-setting area revealed that the respondents are seeking for an immediate personal need gratification while their low ego status revealed that they have an inactive or unsatisfied ego.

Majority (80.0%) of the respondents are College Entrance Test (CET) qualifiers with a generally average performance as 39% had cumulative Grade Point Average (GPA) within 2.00-2.25. About 17 percent are within the good academic standing having a cumulative GPA within 1.76-1.99. A few (1.6%) of them are very good in their academic performance as they reached the cumulative GPA within 1.26-1.49.

Correlational analysis using PPM revealed a moderate correlation between the students’ CET results and their academic performance (r = -.409, α = 0.05).

Correlation between the personality traits and areas of resiliency were obtained and results showed that Mental Health and Independence (r=.194) and Physical Health and Extraversion (r=0.188) have a slight and an almost negligible relationship.

The first generation entrants reported familial support in their college attendance. Majority of them identified their mother and father as providing emotional and moral support (66.67 %) while other parents are providing financial support (53.33 %). The respondents reported having received support system from their parents (66.67 percent), relatives (26.67 percent), siblings (13.33) and their spouses’ family (6.67 percent). When asked to identify possible hindrances in their studies, 13.33 % cited their family while majority (66.67%) answered none, seeing their family as a positive support which was supported by the class advisers of the first generation entrants. More families of the first generation entrants support their schooling than those whose families do not.

Over half of the first generation entrants were recipients of scholarship and applying the test of difference between scholarship and cumulative GPA using ANOVA, a p-value of 0.765 was obtained at α = 0.05. Students’ cumulative GPA did not differ significantly in relation to scholarship received. This denotes that financial assistance alone is less likely to increase the academic performance of the respondents.

The personality traits of the first generation entrants revealed average results for Extraversion, Anxiety, Tough-mindedness, Independence and Self-Control. Results showed no significant difference in the respondents’ personality traits when grouped according to their age, religion, parents’ – both father and mother – educational attainment, and family income.

However, t-test revealed a significant correlation between the respondents’ sex and their Extraversion (p=0.04, α = 0.05). The male first

In terms of resiliency, 80 % of the first generation entrants claimed having a certain level of resiliency. They persevere in their studies because they are the first in their family to have a post-secondary education. When asked to identify their traits that allowed them to cope with the difficulties of college life, 53 percent cited determination, diligence in their studies (46.67%), perseverance (33.33%) and positive thinking (20%).

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RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: First Generation Entrants: Personality Traits, Resiliency and Achievement Indicators There are unlimited possibilities for everyone.

Regardless of one’s home life, family or peer support, personality traits and intelligence level, one can exercise control over any unfavourable situation. Every person possesses the power to transform fortuity into an opportunity to strengthen one’s character and to navigate into life successfully.

DISCUSSION This study is mainly anchored on the Social Cognitive Theory which emphasizes that an individual’s cognitive factors (such as beliefs, expectations and values) along with personal factors (such as emotional make up and genetic endowments) influence the personality by affecting how one thinks, feel, act and behave in his environment. First generation entrants are perceived with cognitive and personal factors that lead towards a drive to become successful.

Alongside the students’ efforts in pursuing higher education to succeed in life, educational institutions and parental involvement in their academic life play a significant role in addressing their concerns and needs.

Information dissemination, student assistance programs, and intervention programs must be implemented by the university or college. An awareness program or orientation can be designed targeting the parents and families of the first generation entrants.

The first generation entrants have concerns on physical well-being that influences their level of social integration as determined on the relationship of physical status and extraversion in the study. Family background and upbringing may have shaped their personality make-up, dynamics of group relationship and intellectual capacity but these do not have control over their attempts to satisfy their eagerness to succeed. Life’s difficulties allow individuals to draw out untapped strength of character and determination that endures them to surpass the adversity. The challenging situations of the respondents have compelled them to look into their inner power that makes them face and overcome obstacles.

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Female respondents have established selfdevelopment efforts that free them from the stereotyping of society as exhibited in their high level of tough-mindedness. They assert their rightful claim to be recognized as an equal contributor alongside their male counterparts in the economic and social progress of the community. Sex differences in the respondents’ personality traits and goal-setting suggest that the male and female first generation students define success differently. Females may be more active in seeking measures towards the immediate gratification of their needs than the males. The complex interdependence of sex, goal-striving, personality traits and resiliency influence the persistence of the respondents in pursuing their college degree.

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PREDICTORS OF CPA BOARD PERFORMANCE : A FIVEYEAR RETORSPECTIVE STUDY Antonio O. Yu, DBA, DBM, CPA, FRI(Rs) competencies of an accountancy graduate who is believed to have acquired the necessary knowledge, skills and attitude from the college they graduated.

ABSTRACT This study determined the predictors of Certified Public Accountant (CPA) Board performance among Bachelor of Science in Accountancy (BSA) graduates of the University of Perpetual Help System Laguna. The study sample were 70 graduates who took the CPA Licensure Examinations from 2008 to 2012. The study utilized the descriptive correlational research design. The researcher used documentary analysis in data gathering for this retrospective study. Specifically, the study determined the participants’ types of high school attended, their grades in High School, general education courses such as Math, English and Science, in Major and Professional courses, college grade point average (GPA) as well as on-the-job training (OJT) and the correlations of these variables with the participants’ performance in the CPA Licensure Examination.

The results showed that all variables were moderately correlated with the CPA Board performance. However, only the grades in High School, Math and in Professional courses significantly predicted the CPA licensure performance. The study concludes that the High School General Weighted Average, grades in Math and Professional courses are significant bases in determining the success and failure of graduates on the CPA Licensure Examination.

Under Phil Accountancy Act of 2004 (RA 9298) Sec.2, the state shall develop and nurture competent, virtuous professional accountants through inviolable, honest, effective and credible licensure examination.

The Professional Regulatory Board of Accountancy is empowered to supervise the registration, licensure and practice of accountancy in the Philippines.

The CPA Licensure Examination is perceived to be a difficult examination to hurdle, more difficult than any other licensure examinations. In a study conducted by Howell and Belk (2005), the CPA Examination is found to be slightly more difficult than the Bar Examination. Thus, the low passing rate in the CPA Board examination can be ascribed, partially, to the difficulty of the examination. However, the varying passing rates of individual higher educational institutions (HEIs) ranging from zero to 100% has ruled out this difficulty as the only cause of poor CPA Board performance; other factors could be involved.

Various factors have some influence on the CPA Board performance and should be examined.

The preparation for CPA Licensure examination involves considerable investment of time and money for the students and their families.

Passing the CPA Board is also an achievement of sorts not only for the students but also for their school. Studies of students’ background reduced into admission data and collegiate academic performance are important to enable evidencebased selection and support services in the university.

INTRODUCTION The accountancy education in the Philippines is regulated and supervised by Commission on Higher Education (CHED).

CHED issued Memorandum Order No. 3 (CMO NO. 3), Series of 2007 which prescribed the degree program called Bachelor of Science in Accountancy (BSA). The primary goal of BSA program is to produce competent professional accountants capable of making a positive contribution to the profession and society in which they work. The accounting graduate should be qualified to take and pass the CPA Licensure Examination (sec 14). The legally recognized professionals in the field of accounting are those who are registered with Professional Regulation Commission (PRC) and Board of Accountancy (BOA) as Certified Public Accountant (CPA) (sec 6).

A study by Lindsay, et al (2002) indicated that the quality of incoming freshmen is a powerful predictor of students’ ultimate success on the CPA exam. In the study, college scores of incoming freshmen in the College Admission Test (CAT) were found to be a strong predictor of passing rates in licensure exams.

In several studies conducted, the intellectual competency and the individual characteristics are hypothesized as predictors of success in the licensure examination.

Carpenter (2010) concluded that those who passed the licensure exams have higher grades in all the major courses in college. Students who have grades of below

The CPA Licensure Examination serves as a means to maintain the quality of professional accountants. Such examination measures the 94

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Predictors of CPA Board Performance : A Five-Year Retrospective Study 85% are likely to fail the licensure examination.

Neal (2002) found that students who have college Grade Point Average (GPA) of 85% and above is a great determinant of future success on the licensure examination.

This is further supported by a study by Boone, et al (2006) claiming that candidates with higher academic qualifications are likely to perform better in a professional accounting examination.

A Singapore study by Koh & Koh (1999) indicates that students with work experience performed better in a university accounting degree.

It is also pointed out that in predicting future success in the Board examination, the intellectual competency works together with the individual character (Del Rosario & Estrada, 2010). They stress that the individual character related to taking the licensure examination includes, but not limited to, self-efficacy, motivation, time management and stress management. Neal (2002) mentions that an individual who has selfefficacy maybe regarded as outstanding.

Students who have higher GPA also have higher self-efficacy.

The MCAT (Medical college admission test) scores supplement the power of undergraduate point averages to predict success in medical school (Julian, 2005). The study concluded that MCAT scores are better predictors of United States Medical Licensure Examination (USMLE) than undergraduate grade point averages (UGPAs).

Muecke, et al (2008) on his study about determining nursing course grades find out that those graduates who passed the NCLEX-RN on the first attempt have higher nursing course grades than those who failed.

There are other personal factors that may influence the probability to pass the board examination. Students who have poor reading comprehension are likely to fail the licensure examination (Mandernach, Donnelli, & DaileyHerbert, 2006).

Motivation also affects the performance of the test takers (Denizli, 2004).

Students who have a goal of passing the licensure examination and visualizing steps to achieve are more likely to pass on the first take (Carpenter, 2010). Those who have effective management of time is a predictor of success in passing the licensure examination (Mandernach, et al, 2006).

And students who have accepted the responsibility of studying to pass the licensure exam and are able to exercise stress management are successful.

Most of the studies revealed that high school grades and academic performance in college are predictors of performance on the licensure examination. However, in an article written by Kimelman, 2008, he argues on the rationale of using grades as predictors of success on the licensure examination pointing out problems on grade inflation, subjective measurements and subject difficulty.

From 2008-2012, the CPA Board performance of UPHSL accountancy graduates is seen to be unstable and on the declining pattern. First-time takers in the CPA licensure examination perform less than satisfactory and the College’s CPA passing rate is way below the national passing rates.

Exhibit 1 shows the CPA Board performance of UPHSL graduates during the fiveyear period (in percentages).

On-the-job-training, which provides an experiential learning, is one of the factors that may affect performance in the CPA examination.

Students undergoing on-the –job training are provided with hands-on exposure by auditing firms to have a feel of the actual industry scenario (Bernados, 1997). In 1988, the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants membership has approved a bylaw revision to require 150 hours of additional education requirement to allow examinees to have a greater chance of passing the CPA exam.

Table 1. CPA Board Pass Rates of UPHSL Graduates 2008-2012 Date 2012 May Oct 2011 May Oct

In a study conducted by the National Association of State Boards of Accountancy (NASBA), those candidates who took the 150-hour education level significantly outperformed those who did not in the CPA examination with a ratio of 35% to 23%. This NASBA data confirmed that the l50-hour requirement is a better predictor of CPA Board performance than extensive coursework in accounting (Read & Raghunadan, 2009).

2010 May Oct 2009 May Oct 2008 May Oct

First

Repeater Overall

Nat’l Passing

0

12.5

10

37.5

16.3

10.0

15.1

47.8

0

25

11.11

40.51

5.26

60

16.67

47.7

0

50

37.5

39.52

35.29 33.33

34.78

48.36

0

21.33

28.88

42.86 25

36.36

41.68

50

50

50

27.26

25

20

22.22

36.65

Source: PRC Reports

95

33.33

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Predictors of CPA Board Performance : A Five-Year Retrospective Study There is no study conducted on the factors affecting the performance of CPA examination takers such as CPA examinees’ high school weighted average, type of secondary schools attended combined with their undergraduate grades in general education, professional and major courses, on the job training and college GPA and their relationships with actual CPA Board performance.

Bachelor of Science in Accountancy graduates of UPHL who took the CPA Licensure Examination from 2008 – 2012.

The actual number of examinees are 124 but only 70 are included as sample because of incomplete records, retrieval difficulty of the data and time constraint.

The data of the admission qualifications of the participants, their academic performance in selected general education courses, in major and professional courses in the college, as well as their ratings in their CPA Licensure Examination are requested from the Professional Regulation Commission reports, Offices of the University Registrar, Student and Personnel Services, Research Center and from the College of Business and Accountancy.

This study is conducted to examine the relationship of these factors and the CPA Board examination, if any; and to serve as a way to predict the CPA Board performance of BSA graduates of University of Perpetual Help System Laguna.

This study aimed to identify predictors of CPA Board performance. Specifically, it aims to determine the participants’ types of high school attended, their grades in high school, general education courses such as Math, Science and English, in major and professional courses , the college general point average and on the job training and the correlations of these variables with the participants’ actual CPA Board performance.

Data gathered are presented using descriptive statistics such as frequency distribution and regression analysis. Multiple regression analysis is used to determine the correlation between the admission and academic performance factors with the ratings obtained in the CPA Licensure Examination. F-test is applied to determine its significance.

RESULTS & DISCUSSION

The study is conducted with the end view of enhancing the CPA Board performance of the BSA graduates and, ultimately, improve the CPA passing rate of the university.

This part of the study presents the results and discussion of the data assembled. Tables are used for analysis and interpretation.

Table 2 and 3 are participant’s profile in terms of admission data.

METHODOLOGY The descriptive correlation is used in this study to determine the relationship between the participants’ admission (high school) and collegiate academic performance variables with their CPA Board Performance.

Academic performance is measured using the grades in general education courses such as Math, English and Science; and in professional courses, OJT, major courses and college GPA. The grades are categorized into: Grade: 95-above – Outstanding; 85-94 - Above Average; 75-84- Low Average; Below 75 – Poor.

Table 2. Admission data in terms of High School grade High School Grade 95-99 90-94 85-89 80-84 75-79 TOTAL

Frequency

Percentage

3 9 40 18 0 70

4.3 12.9 57.1 25.7 0.0 100.0

Table 2 presents the admission data in terms of High School Grades. The general weighted average (GWA) of more than half of the participants (57.1%) is between the range of 8589, followed by 80-84 for a combined percentage total of 83%. There are 17 % of CPA examinees from UPHL obtained High School GWA of 90% and above. It shows that the university is not attracting top notched high school graduates in its area of operation.

Retrospective research is employed and documentary analysis is used in data gathering.

The data gathered are tabulated, tallied and presented using frequency counts and percentages. Multiple Regression analysis is utilised to determine the relationships between the variables of the study; the F-test is used to test the degree of significance of the relationships.

The respondents of the study consist of 70 96

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Predictors of CPA Board Performance : A Five-Year Retrospective Study Table 3. Admission data in terms of Type of Secondary School Type of Secondary Frequency Percentage School Private 42 60 Public 28 40 70 100 Total

Table 5 shows that 95% of the participants are above average (85%- 94%) in their on the Job Training Course. Likewise, majority (77%) have above average in professional courses and major courses (86%). This information suggests that BSA graduates have performed well in their professional education courses.

Table 3 shows the admission data in terms of type of secondary school. It can be seen from the table that 60% of the participants graduated from private high schools while 40% graduated from public school. This implies that the University of Perpetual Help System Laguna is attractive among students who graduated from private high schools.

The academic performance of the graduates who took the licensure examination from 20082012 in terms of their College General Point Average (college GPA) is shown on Table 6.

Table 6. Academic Performance in terms of College GPA College GWA

Shown under Tables 4 and 5 are the academic performance of the UPHSL graduates who took the CPA Licensure Examination for the period 2008-20l2. Their academic performance in General Education courses such as Math, English, and Science is shown under table 3 while performance in major and professional courses is presented under Table 4.

Table 4. Academic Performance in terms of General Education courses Grades 95-99 90-94 85-89 80-84 75-79 TOTAL

MATH

ENGLISH

%

F

%

F

%

2 25 34 9 0 70

2.9 35.7 48.6 12.8 0.00 100

1 20 42 7 0 70

1.4 28.6 60.0 10.0 0 100

25 28 12 4 1 70

35.7 40.0 17.1 5.8 1.4 100

1.45-1.14

7

10.0

1.77-1.46

28

40.0

2.09-1.78

28

40.0

2.42-2.10 TOTAL

7 70

10 100

Table 6 indicates that the 80% of the participants graduated with above average grades of 2.09 to 1.46, 10% obtained very high average while 10% received low average.

Table 7. Academic Performance in terms of CPA Board Performance Rating 75-89 60-74 45-59 30-44 TOTAL

Table 4 reveals that more than 80% of the participants received grades of 85-94 in their Math and English subjects while 57% of students got 8594 in Science. Notably, there are 35.7% of students outstanding in Science than in Math and English. BSA graduates perform satisfactorily in their general Education courses.

Table 5. Academic Performance in Professional courses PROFESSIONAL Grades OJT COURSE F % F % 95-99 3 4.3 0 0 90-94 52 74.3 9 12.9 85-89 15 21.4 45 64.3 80-84 0 0 16 22.8 75-79 0 0 0 0 TOTAL 70 100 70 100

Percentage

Table 7 presents the performance of UPHSL graduates in the CPA Licensure Examination from 2008-2012.

SCIENCE

F

Frequency

terms of MAJOR COURSE F % 1 1.4 7 10.0 53 75.7 9 12.9 0 0 70 100

97

Frequency 15 23 18 14 70

Percentage 21.4 32.9 25.7 20.0 100

It shows that only 21% of the UPHSL graduates who took the actual CPA Board Examination from 2008-2012 passed with a rating of 75%- 89%. Majority of the participants have performed not quite well in the examination. The results suggest that further analysis is needed to determine what specific problems or factors affect the performance of the UPHSL graduates in the CPA Board Examination.

Furthermore, the relationship of the participantsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; high school GWA and Type of School with the CPA Board Performance, the relationship has been determined using Multiple Regression Analysis is shown on Table 8.

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Predictors of CPA Board Performance : A Five-Year Retrospective Study Table 9 shows the relationship between the respondents’ academic performance in general education courses and professional education courses with their CPA Board Performance; the relationship being determined by the Multiple Regression Analysis.

Table 8. Admission Data and Board Exam Results Regression Statistics Multiple R

0.464097

R Square

0.215386

Adjusted R Square

0.191965

Observations ANOVA df

Moderate Correlation

Table 9. Academic Performance and Board Exam Results

70 ss

MS

f

Regression Statistics Multiple R 0.787798 R Square 0.620625 Adjusted R 0.577792 Square Observations 70 ANOVA df ss MS

Sig. F

Regression 2 3080.322 1540.161 9.196159 0.000295785 Residual 67 11221.07 167.4787 Total 69 14301.40 t Stat High School GWA Type of School

p-value

3.629117 0.000551

Significant

1.671326 0.099322

Not Significant

The value of multiple r of 0.464097 indicates that a moderate correlation exists between the admission data and the CPA Board Performance.

When tested for its significance, it has been found out that there is no significant relationship between the type of School and the CPA Board Performance; the significant P value of 0.099322 is greater than 0.05 level of significance, hence the Type of Secondary School is not significant. The High School GWA with p value of 0.000551 is less than 0.05, showing that there is a significant relationship between High School GWA and the CPA Board Performance. Since it is significant, therefore, high school GWA is a predictor of CPA Board Performance of UPHSL graduates. It implies that students with high school GWA of 85% and above have better chances of passing the CPA Licensure Examination than those with high school GWA of below 85%.

Regression 7 8875.805 Residual 62 5425.591 Total

Moderate Correlation

1267.972 87.50954

f

Sig. F

14.48953 5.25106E11

69 14301.40

OJT Grade English Math Science Proj. Subj.

Major Subj.

College GWA

t Stat 0.441776 -0.89599 1.98479 0.94092 3.80336 0.361079 -0.82499

p-value 0.660188 0.373724 0.007156 0.350397 0.000329 0.719268 0.412540

Not Significant Not Significant Significant Not Significant Significant Not Significant Not Significant

The value of Multiple r of 0.787798 indicates that there is moderate correlation between the respondents’ academic performance and their CPA Board Performance but such relationship is not significant when it was tested for significance.

The significance F-values of OJT Grade, English, Science, Major subject and College GPA are greater than 0.05 level of significance; hence the relationship is not significant and therefore not predictors.

Notably, the p-values of Math and Professional subjects are less than 0.05 level of significance; hence the relationship is significant and therefore predictors of the CPA Board Performance. It indicates that students who obtained grades of 85% and above in Math and in accounting and finance related courses have better chances of passing the CPA Licensure Examination than those who obtained lower than 85.

This finding is supported by several studies.

Linsay, et al (2002) indicated in a study that the quality of incoming freshmen is a powerful predictor of students’ ultimate success in the CPA exam. In a study done by Besinque, et al (2000) on the predictors of success rate in a licensure examination, they have correlated grade point average, among others, as important factor in predicting success in licensure examination. But Kimelman (2008) argues on how to measure the validity of grades. He comments on the rationale of using grades as predictors of success in the licensure examination. He reasons that a grade of A from a poor quality school maybe worth less than that coming from a high quality one. He points out problems on grade inflation, subjective measurements and subject difficulty.

This significant relationship between the academic performances in professional courses is consistent with the findings of Carpenter (2010) who established that those who passed the licensure examinations received good grades in all their major courses in the undergraduate program.

Graduates with grades below 85% in their professional courses are likely to fail the licensure examination. Neil (2002) studied that students 98

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Predictors of CPA Board Performance : A Five-Year Retrospective Study who have college Grade Point Average (GPA) of 85% and above is a great determinant of future success with the licensure examination. In this study, though moderately correlated, GPA has been found to have no significant relationship with the CPA Board Performance. It means that high GPA is no assurance that a graduate could pass the CPA Board examination. There are also honor graduates who failed in their first attempt while average ones passed the CPA Board examination on their first take. This is supported by Kimelman (2008) who questioned the rationale of using grades as predictors of success in the licensure examination.

He notes problems on grade inflation and subjective measurements.

requirement of 85% (2.00) in all accounting courses for BSA students before being promoted to the next year level; require senior BSA students to take and pass a mock CPA Board as an additional requirement for graduation and upgrade recordkeeping at the Registrar’s Office to allow close monitoring of BSA students’ academic performance.

REFERENCES Books Besinque, K; W. Wong, W. Louie, and J.Rho (2000) Predictors of Success Rate in the California State Board of Pharmacy Licensure Examination. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education. Vol. 64

Based on the findings of the study, it can be concluded that majority of the BSA graduates from UPHSL who took the CPA Board Examination from 2008-2012 have above average grades in high schools, general education and professional education courses and in their college GPA. However majority of the participants have not perform well in their CPA Board Examination.

Julian, E. (2005) Validity of the medical college admission test to predicting Medical School Performance Kimelman, P. (2008) Do good grades predict success

The admission data of the respondents in terms of high school grades and type of school are moderately correlated with the respondents’ performance in the CPA Licensure Examination.

The relationship between the type of schools and the board performance are tested to be not significant and therefore, not a predictor.

However, there is a significant relationship between High school grades and the Board performance, hence, it is considered predictor of the CPA Board Performance.

Muecke, & Conzett (2008) UMI Microform 3307369 Bernados, H. A Continuing Evaluation of the Performance of De La Salle University Examinees in the CPA Licensure Examination for the Period May 1994 to October 1995. DLSU Business & Economics Review, 8. Retrieved October 2013 from http://www.ejournals.ph.lib 1000.dlsu.du.ph/index.php?journal=BER &pagearticle&opview&path%5B%5D=27 9&path%5B %5D=2974.

The academic performance of the participants in terms of grades in OJT, general education and professional education courses and college GPA are moderately correlated with the performance in the CPA Licensure Examination. There is no significant relationship among OJT, English, Science and college GPA with the CPA Board Performance, hence, are not qualify as predictors.

Grades in Math and professional courses are significant in relations with the CPA Board performance and can be considered predictors.

Carpenter.J. (2010). Locus of control & Motivation Strategies for Learning Questionnaire:Predictors of Student Success on the ATI Comprehensive Predictor Exam & NCLEX-RN Examination. Retrieved October, 2013 from http://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/dspace/istre am/1808/ 7819/1/Carpenter_ku_099D_ 11302_DATA_1.

To enhance the chances of passing the CPA Board examination by UPHL BSA graduates, the following interventions are recommended: upgrade admission standards such as 85% minimum high school grade requirement for incoming BSA freshmen; implement a retention program requiring BSA students in all year levels to take and pass comprehensive accountancy retention exams to determine students’ continued stay in the BSA program; institute minimum grade

Denizlli, S. (2004). The Real Hope and Study Skills in Predicting test Anxiety Levels of University Students. Retrieved October, 2013 from http://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/1260758/i ndex.pdf Del 99

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B.,

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Estrada,

R.

(2010).

RI RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 1 December 2014: Predictors of CPA Board Performance : A Five-Year Retrospective Study Predictors of Success in the Philippine Nursing Licensure Examination (PNLE) Among DDC Nursing Graduates (2004-2006). College of Nursing Faculty Research Journal, 1.

Retrieved October, 2013 from http://ejournals.ph/index.php?journal=CNF RJ&page=article&op=view&path%5B%5D =1254 Mandernach, J., Donnelly, E., & Dailey-Hebert,A. (2006). Learner Attribute Research Juxtaposed with Online Instructor Experience: Predictors of Success in the Accelerated, Online Classroom. Retrieved October, 2013 from http://www.thejeo.com/Volume3Number2/ MandernachFinal.pdf Neal, P. (2005), Extra-Curricular Activities as Predictors of College Success. Retrieved October, 2013 from http://www.csubak.edu/~cmckay/spring2 002port/pamneal/CDEV410.htm Government Publication Accountancy Act of 2004 (RA 9298) CHED MEMO ORDER NO. 3 SERIES OF 2007

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS Dr. Valentino G. Baac is the author of “Correcting the Patterns of Discrimination in Public Employment: The Philippine Experience”. The Vice-President for Academic Affairs, Emilio Aguinaldo College, Ermita, Manila – Philippines. Obtained his Ph.D. in Public Administration (Magna Cum Laude) and M.A. in Public Administration (Summa Cum Laude) from the Graduate School, Pontifical and Royal University of Santo Tomas, España, Manila, Philippines; Bachelor of Laws (LlB), University of the East, Recto, Manila - Philippines; Bachelor of Theology, Seminario Mayor de San Carlos, Cebu City - Philippines; and AB Classical major in Philosophy (Cum Laude), Sacred Heart Seminary, Palo, Leyte – Philippines. Worked in the Development Academy of the Philippines (DAP), Court of Appeals (CA), Cultural Center of the Philippines (CCP), and the Commission on Human Rights (CHR) in various capacities.

He is also a Research Fellow of Royal Institution and Fellow of the Royal Institute of Public Administrators, Singapore.

Dr. Julio O. Castillo, Jr. is the author of “An Assessment on Consumer Satisfaction Re: Technology Innovation on Mobile Phones”. He is a Professor of Department of Business Management and Entrepreneurship, College of Arts and Sciences, San Beda College-Manila. He finsihed his Doctore in Business Administration at the Politechnic University of the Philippines. He is also a Research Fellow of the Royal Institution and Fellow of the Royal Institute of Business Administration, Singapore.

Dr. Angeles A. De Guzman is the author of “Index of Readiness of College of Business Education (CBE) Graduating Students for Business Leadership”. A Certified Public Accountant with MBA/DBA Degree and a Professional Teacher after passing the Licensure Examination for Teacher. He is currently the Dean of College of Business Education at Technological Institute of the Philippines – Quezon City.

Before joining the academe, he is the Comptroller of Radio Communication of the Philippines, a Bayantel Company. He has accomplished various research works and presented it locally and abroad. He is also a Research Fellow of the Royal Institution, Singapore.

Rommel Mar C. De Guzman is the author of “Quality Assessment of Public Secondary Schools in National Capital Region: Basis for Proposed Secondary School Improvement Plan”. He is a Teacher at the North Fairview High School, a Part-time Instructor at Southeast Asian College, Inc. and a Part-time Professor at the Out Lady of Fatima University, Graduate School. He is a licensed teacher with a Master in Business Education and a Doctor in Educational Management. He is also a Research Fellow of Royal Institution, Singapore and a Fellow of Royal Institute of Educators, Singapore.

Patricia M. Empleo is the author of “The Level of Implementation of the Line Item Budget System of the University of Santo Tomas: Basis for Budget Development Plan”. She is currently an Associate Professor and the Acting Dean of the University of Santo Tomas – Alfredo M. Velayo College of Accountancy. She finished her Ph.D. in Business Management from the Manuel L. Quezon University in 2012, and obtained her MBA from the University of the East in 1998. She has co-authored three volumes of books in Intermediate Financial Accounting and Fundamentals of Accounting (Accounting for Partnership and Corporation) since 2005. She is an active member of the Philippine Institute of Certified Public Accountants and National Association of CPAs in Education. She has served as resource speakers by PICPA on International Financial Reporting Standards. She is a Research Fellow of the Royal Institution, Singapore.

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS Dr. Teodora M Salubayba is the author of the “Differential Item Functioning Detection in Reading Comprehension Test Using Mantel-Haenszel, Item Response Theory, and Logical Data Analysis”. She is the Director of the Institutional Statistics and Evaluation Center (ISEC) of St. Scholastica’s CollegeManila, Philippines. She is also teaching Behavioral Statistics to undergraduate and graduate students in the Department of Psychology, and used to teach Psychological Research and Testing at the same institution. She finished her PhD in Research and Evaluation at the University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City. She is also a Research Fellow of the Royal Institution, Singapore.

Dr. Cheryl D. Taclawan is the author of “Correlation on Multiple Intelligence and Academic Performance of Students with Visual and hearing Impairments”. She is a graduate of Bachelor of Secondary Education, major in History, Summa Cum Laude at Saint Louis University, Baguio City, Philippines in 1997. She earned her Master of Arts in Education, major in Educational Management, Cum Laude and her Doctor of Education, major in Educational Management, Magna Cum Laude in 2000 and 2003 respectively from the University of Baguio while serving as a full-time faculty member of its Social Science Department. She also took up her Master of Arts in Education, major in Special Education, Magna Cum Laude at Saint Louis University in 2010 and her Master of Arts in Education major in Inclusive Education, Magna Cum Laude at the same school in April 2014. During her years of teaching and schooling, Dr. Taclawan distinguished herself through her excellent academic performance: in 1997. She was conferred as a Research Fellow by the Royal Institution, Singapore.

Dr. Danilo A. Valenzuela is the author of “The Level of Awareness and Implementation of the Generic Law in the Drugstores Business in the National Capital Region”. He is a graduate of Bachelor of Science in Business Administration Major in Accounting and Master in Business Administration at Philippine Christian University. He completed his Doctorate degree in Business Administration at the Polytechnic University of the Philippines. He worked in a pharmaceutical company for more than two decades, an Entrepreneur and the same time a Professor of Marketing and Management at the Polytechnic University of the Philippines Taguig Branch. He is a Research Fellow of the Royal Institution and Fellow of the Royal Institute of Business Administration, Singapore.

Dr. Christine V. Yambao is the author of “First Generation Entrants : Personality Traits, Resiliency and Achievement Indicators.” She is a Registered Guidance Counselor with Master of Arts in Education and Doctor of Philosophy in Educational Management. She is the Campus Administrator of Western Mindanao State University – Malangas Campus. Dr. Yambao is also a Research Fellow of Royal Institution, Singapore.

Dr. Antonio O. Yu is the author of “Predictors of CPA Board Performance: A FiveYear Retrospective Study”. He is a Certified Public Accountant, obtained his Doctorate Degree in Business Management (DBM) from the Philippine Women’s University in Manila. He was accredited Diplomate in Business Education (DBE) by the Philippine Academy of Professionals in Business Education (PAPBE) and awarded Research Fellow by the Royal Institution, Singapore. He served in the academe as in the industry in various positions ranging from professorial lecturer, resource speaker, college dean, managerial and supervisory positions in accounting and finance. He also taught in the post and graduate programs of several prestigious universities and colleges in Metro Manila.

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