Palestinelookedlikeontheground1 Thisimage,whichenhancestheOrientalistperceptionofan empty,desertedlandactsaspreludetotheupcomingviolencethatwillbeenacted.Importantly, despitetheperceivedemptinessintheareathereisalsoanestablishedcontinuousness.The borderestablishedonthislandwastobereshapedrepeatedlyduetoBritishandOttoman tensionsuntil1906,whereitformedintotheseparationthatisknowntoday.Yet,becauseof familialconnections,anti-colonialregimes,andlargepopularsupportforPalestineinEgypt,the borderhasneverbeenunderstoodtofullyfunctionasaborderandhas,instead,onlybeen referredtoasa“crossing”.Thissimplechangeinphrasinghasallowedfortheideationofa 1 LibraryofCongress,Washington,D.C.20540USA.“AncientBoundaryLineatRaffah,between EgyptandPalestine.”Image.AccessedNovember19,2023. https://www.loc.gov/item/2019698681/.
muchmorepermeableandporousentitythantheonecurrentlyinexistencebetweenEgypt, Palestine,andthecolonialregimesthatcontinuetoplayaroleintheregion.Thispaperwilllook athistoricrelationshipsbetweenEgypt,Palestine,andimperialismalongsideananalysisofthe useofeither“border”or“crossing”rhetoricduringvitalmomentsin“post”colonialEgyptian history.Particularly,thispaperwillstartbydistinguishingbetweenthewaysRafahisreferredto today,movethroughtoananalysisofEgyptianpoliticsincolonialEgyptduring1948andprior towardsPalestine,andthendiveintohowthemediahasportrayedthepoliticsbetweenEgypt, Rafah,andIsraelsincethetreatyof1979.
First,thereisanimportantdistinctiontobemadebetweentheEnglishandArabic perceptionsoftheapparatusseparatingRafah.InEnglish,Egyptendsattheborder, ḥadd, with Gaza.InArabic,Egyptendsatthecrossing,the ma’bar, withGaza.Thisparticulardistinction servesanideologicalpurpose:itsoftenstheroleoftheEgyptiangovernmentinthedevelopments ofviolenceinGaza,anditplacestheborder/zone/crossingbetweenEgyptandPalestineasone thatisunderstoodtobeporous,onethatisperpetuallyfluid.Theterm“ma’bar”itselfstemsfrom theroot‘abar,whichmeans“crossed”,withtheadded“m”servingtoperpetuateapermanent abilitytocross.Thenomenclatureentailsandalludestoafluidityandabreathabilityofthe apparatus2,evenwheninreality,thecrossingitselfoftenfunctionsasa ḥadd,which,inArabic, cantranslatetolimit,point,border,orsharpness–thelastlinetobecrossedbeforeyouexit EgyptandmoveintoPalestine.Thereisapermanenceintheword“ḥadd”,abreakabilitythatis notascribedtothefluidityoftheotherterm.Itisherethatthedissonancebetweennomenclature andrealitybegins.WhileEgyptianscontinuetoperceiveRafahasanunshaped,openplotofland fromwhichentryandexitrunssmoothunlessotherwiseplannedfor,this ma’bar includeslittle
2 Theterm“apparatus”,here,isusedinlineofGiorgioAgamben’s2009essay–theapparatusisatoolthathasa concrete,strategicfunctionandcanonlybeutilizedandunderstoodwithincertainpoliticalrelations
tono ‘abereen,crossers.Infact,inreality,Rafahservesasmorethanasimple border/crossing/zone–Rafah,asithasbeenused,servesasaweapon.Ithasbeenacentralpoint ofcontentioninEgyptianpoliticsandrelationshipstotheimperialcoreevenpriortothe conceptionoftheZioniststate.
HistoriesoftheBorder3
ModernEgyptianborderswereestablishedwithOttomanRule.Whatisbelievedtobethe firstmapofModernEgyptistracedbackto1841andshowstheareaoflandgivento MohammadAli,4 whohadacomplicatedrelationshipwiththeOttomanEmpireandassuch requestedhisownplotofland,intheearlynineteenthcentury.Inthismap,itisinterestingto notethreepointsofconvergence:first,theentireareaofSinaiisgiventotheHijaz,thesecondis thatthereisastrongborderwithSudanthatalludestoSudannotbeingunderAli’srule5,andthe finalisthatRafahremainsdividedbetweenEgyptandPalestine.Accordingly,evenwhenmuch ofEgypt’sterritorywasunderquestion,RafahremainedthedividingpointforwhereEgypt ended,andPalestinebegan.AftertheBritishOccupationofEgyptbeganin1882,tensionsarose abouttheOttoman-drawnboundaries.In1906,theBritishofficiallyrefusedtheOttoman boundarieswestoftheAqaba-Rafahline,ensuringBritishcontroloverSinai6.Duringthistime, theOttomanssuggestedapartitionofSinaiorothermeansofkeepingcontrolofthe South-EasternboundariesaspartoftheHijazregion–however,allofthesepossibilitieswere deniedbytheBritish“becauseanyoneofthemmighthaveendangeredthedefenseoftheSuez
3 SeeAppendix,Map1
4 Biger,Gideon “TheFirstMapofModernEgyptMohammedAli’sFirmanandtheMapof1841” Middle Eastern Studies 14,no 3(1978):323–25
5 WhichwouldfurtherupsettheBritish,whomaintainedruleoverSudanfordecadesaftertheendoftheOttoman Empire
6 Gil-Har,Yitzhak.“Egypt’sNorth-EasternBoundaryinSinai.” Middle Eastern Studies 29,no.1(1993):135–48.
Canal”7 inSinai’sNorth-West.Thus,“theRafa-Akabalinewasnotarbitrarilychosen,butrather alinerootedinthehistoryoftheregionwhichbestservedtheBritishpolicymakers.”8 Fromthis understandingofBritish-EgyptianrelationscomestheunderstandingofBritish-Egyptian alliances.
BeforethecompleteindependenceofEgyptfromtheBritish,thesubjectofthe settler colonizationofPalestinebeganbeingraisedinArabLeagueandindependentgovernment meetings.Thiscolonization,discussedsincethenineteenthcentury,gainedincreasingattention andconcern.Notably,theArabLeaguebecameanimportantforumforwhichthese conversationswerefacilitated.By1945,SaudiandIraqiofficialsbeganpressuringArabstatesto sendtheirarmiesintoPalestinelestaninvasionoccur9.Meanwhile,Egyptianleaderswere sympathetictotheZionistcase,holdingmeetingswithofficials.Importantly,in1945then-Prime MinisterIsmailSidqideclaredthathewasforneitherZionistnorArabcause,insteada “businessman”workingforEgyptalone.10 Egypt’spoliticalline,however,wasthattheseare “extrememeasures”accordingtoSidqi.11 Thislineofdiscussioncontinuedin1947,where MahmoudElNuqrashi,Egypt’sheadofdelegationtotheUNSecurityCouncil,statedthat“the EgyptianarmywouldnotinterveneinPalestinebecauseitwasneededtodefendEgyptfrom possibleBritishaggression,andbecausetheEgyptianquestionwasstilltechnicallyontheUN agenda”butEgyptcouldsendaidtothosewhovolunteertofightinPalestine.12 Nuqrashiwas forcedtoresignin1946asanti-Britishdemonstrationscontinuedtogrow,butthenregainedhis positionlaterthatyear Indeed,Egyptwasworkingtowardsitsownnationaldemandsincluding
7 Ibid:142
8 Ibid:144
9 Mayer,Thomas “Egypt’s1948InvasionofPalestine” Middle Eastern Studies 22,no 1(1986):20–36
10 Ibid:24
11 Ibid:21.
12 Ibid:22
theremovaloftheBritishmilitaryfromEgyptandtheevacuationofforeignforcesfromthe SuezCanal13.Despitethis,EgyptianpoliticianskeptoutwardlyopposingZionismwhile,in internalmeetings,welcomingZionismandthepartitionofPalestine.Fascinatingly,similar rhetorictoNuqrashi’sstatementscontinuestodaywithintheEgyptianrulingclass,despite Egyptianindependence,withminorchanges.
Itis,assuch,compellingtonoteachangeinEgypt’srhetoricandactionstakenin1948. Infact,Egypt’sinvasionofPalestineonMay15,1948,NakbaDay,wasashocktopoliticians, diplomates,andhigh-rankingmilitarycommandersalike14 Tothisday,manydisagreeonthe reasoningbehindthischangeinrhetoric,withsomearguingthatitwasledbyrisinganger amongstEgyptiansupportforPalestinewhileotherscontendwiththeideathattheBritishmay havepushedtheEgyptianprimeministertoact.Particularly,theWafdparty,theYoungEgypt movement,andtheMuslimBrotherhoodweretheleadingsourcesofpublicpressure,giventhat theFreeOfficersMovement–whichwouldeventuallytopplethemonarchy–waspushedto operatesecretlyduringthatperiod15 Itisclearwhatthepopularopinionwasduringthatperiod. In1952PresidentGamalAbdelNasser’smemoirs,herecallshisexcitementtobesenttofightin Palestineonthe16th ofMayin1948,alongsidetheanticipationofhisfriendsinother battalions16.Duringthistime,Egyptgainedanarrowcoastalstripthatbecamehomefor200,000
13 Eppel,Michael.“TheArabStatesandthe1948WarinPalestine:TheSocio-PoliticalStruggles,theCompelling NationalistDiscourseandtheRegionalContextofInvolvement” Middle Eastern Studies 48,no 1(2012):1–31
14 Mayer,Thomas “Egypt’s1948InvasionofPalestine” Middle Eastern Studies 22,no 1(1986):20–36
15 Eppel,Michael “TheArabStatesandthe1948WarinPalestine:TheSocio-PoliticalStruggles,theCompelling NationalistDiscourseandtheRegionalContextofInvolvement” Middle Eastern Studies 48,no 1(2012):1–31
16 Nasser,GamalAbdul,andWalidKhalidi “Nasser’sMemoirsoftheFirstPalestineWar” Journal of Palestine Studies 2, no.2(1973):3–32.https://doi.org/10.2307/2535478.
refugeesfromotherpartsofPalestine–theGazaStrip,whichitheldfortwodecades17.Within thesetwodecades,Egyptwitnessedindependenceandamassiveshiftinitsnationalpolitical rhetoric.However,upontheadventofthe1967and1973wars,andthedeathofGamalAbdel Nasser,thePan-Arabist,anti-colonialEgyptianmissiondied.Evenin1971AnwarelSadat, Nasser’ssuccessor,refusednormalization–witheithertheUnitedStatesorIsrael,statingthatin theUS’schoicetosupportIsraeldefinesitspositionashostileagainsttheentireArabnation18 . However,withtheoccupationofSinaiandthewaragainstIsrael,statepoliticsbegantochange asEgyptslowlyacceptedmoreaidfromtheUSinabidtoregaincontroloverSinaiand Egyptianborders.After1973,Egyptwasinsteadtowelcomethesoftencroachmentof neoliberalism,imperialism,andnormalization–officialstatepoliciesalongsidethenewpolitics oftheEgyptianIsraelitreatyof1979.
ZoningRafah:Egyptian-IsraeliTreaty19
Itisafterthistreatythatnationalisticpoliticssurroundingtheborderbegantosquander BecauseofcontinuedloyaltyamongstthepublictothePalestiniancause,noEgyptianpresident couldcomeoutanddeclareapositiveandpeacefuloutlookonnormalization.Yet,becauseof re-establishedinternalpoliticalandeconomicdependenceonWesternforces,normalization becamethe de facto position.Thiswastohappenthroughimperialboundaries,economic models,andthemanufacturingofEgyptianconsenttowardstheborderingandclosingoffof Rafah.Despitetheofficialsiegebeginningin2007,theestablishmentofRafahasa zone started
17 Reuters “ABriefHistoryofGaza’sCenturiesofWar”October13,2023,sec MiddleEast https://wwwreuterscom/world/middle-east/brief-history-gazas-centuries-war-2023-10-13/
18 ElSadat,Anwar “StatementtotheNationbyPresidentAnwarElSadatPdf,”June1971 https://sadatumdedu/sites/sadatumdedu/files/Statement%20to%20the%20Nation%20by%20President%20Anwar %20El%20SadatPDF
19 SeeAppendix,Map2
withthetreatyof197920.Inthistreaty,theentireeasternpartofSinaiwasmappedtobecome partofZoneC.ThisZonewillincludetheUnitedNationsForcewithin20kmofthe MediterraneanSea(whichincludesRafah)andwithinSharmelSheikh(attheEasternedgeof theRedSea).Importantly,noaerialnornavalmilitaryforcescanoccupyZoneC,whilethe directcounterpartinZoneDcanbeequippedasnormal21 . Thisbecomesthemainaxisthrough whichtheestablishmentofamilitaryzonebecomesanecessityforeventualEgyptian governments,astheEgyptiansideinRafahnolongerbecomessimplyacityneartheborderbut insteadaperpetualmilitaryliability.
ItisduringthistimethatEgyptiandependenceonimportsandtheglobaleconomy increased.While,in1974,AnwarelSadatstatesthat“democracyispoliticalfreedom,and socialismissocialfreedom,”healsodeclaresthat“weshouldco-ordinate[sic]betweenthe nationalactionmovement[1952socialistrevolution]and the new circumstances inwhichwe–andtheworldaroundus-arelivingin.[emphasisadded]”22 Inthis,elSadatweavestheway forwardtowardsaslowacceptanceoftheincomingneoliberalchanges,the infitah23 Fromthis, ElSadatdeclarestheturntowardsmodernismandthesettingupofinstitutions,systems,and relationsthatcanusemoderncommoditiesandproductstocastthe“necessarystageof developmentwhichwillmakeuscapableofinventionandcreativeness,andconsequentlyof a true contribution to human civilization.[emphasisadded]”24 Withthis,heconcludesbysumming
20 UN 1979Egypt-IsraelTreaty AccessedOctober26,2023 https://treaties.un.org/doc/publication/unts/volume%201136/volume-1136-i-17813-english.pdf.
21 Ibid.
22 ElSadat,Anwar “MilestonesAlongtheRoadPdf”In October Working Papers,1974 https://sadatumdedu/sites/sadatumdedu/files/Milestones%20Along%20the%20RoadPDF
23 Translatedto“theopening”,thisperiodoftimesignaledthe“opening”oftheEgyptianeconomyintotheglobal one,coincidingalongsideaninternationalturntowardstrade,neoliberalism,anddependence
24 ElSadat,Anwar “TheEgyptianManPdf,”April1974 https://sadat.umd.edu/sites/sadat.umd.edu/files/The%20Egyptian%20Man.PDF.
themaintasksofthenationaftertheOctoberwar,declaringthisatimefor“economic developmentatratesthatexceedallwehaveachieveduptillnow,”“outward-lookingeconomic policyathomeandabroad,”and“civilizationalprogress,”amongstothergoals.25 Justthreeyears afterthesepapers,EgyptborroweditslargestloanfromtheIMFyet,summingat125,000SDR, andthenanotherloanjusttheyearafterat600,000SDR–jumpingfromatotalof82,000SDR between1962and196526.Thus,Egyptbeginsitsneoliberalspiral.Bythe1980s,Egypt“had becomeoneoftheworld’smosteconomicallydependentcountries,”whileonlytwodecades priorEgyptimportedlessthantenpercentofitsfood27.Yet,throughthe80s,only“anirongate andtwoironpicketfencesseparatedurbanRafahfromtheEgyptiansideofthecity,”allowing familiesoneithersidetomassthroughtheothersideofthegate28 AfterthefirstIntifada,and undertheguidanceofPresidentMubarak,EgyptianpoliticstowardsRafahandGazabeganto fallmorecloselyinlinewithimperialvalues.Particularly,withtheadventofglobalizedcounter terrorismpolitics,theEgyptiangovernmentbegantoaffirmconsentsurroundingthesealingof GazafromEgyptasnecessaryforthesecurityofthenation.29
(re)CrossingRafah
Foryears,USandIsraelipressurecalledonMubaraktocompletelysealtheborderwith Gaza.TheseborderpoliticsplayanincreasingroleduringandafterthesecondIntifadaof2005.
25 Ibid.
26 “HistoryofLendingCommitments:Egypt”AccessedNovember25,2023 https://www.imf.org/external/np/fin/tad/extarr2.aspx?memberKey1=275&date1key=2018-02-28.
27 Weinbaum,MarvinG.“Egypt’s‘Infitah’andthePoliticsofUSEconomicAssistance.” Middle Eastern Studies 21,no.2 (1985):206–22
28 Dienst,Bill “RafahRevisited”Text TheElectronicIntifada,December23,2006 https://electronicintifadanet/content/rafah-revisited/6634
29 Importantly,the“border”withIsraelhasactedasacrossingthroughoutmuchofbothSadatandMubarak’sruling eras.WhatthisentailsisthatIsraelismaycrossthroughZoneCandintoSinaiwithoutavisa,whilePalestiniansare atthemercyofacompletelydifferentapparatus
ManyPalestiniansfromGazabrokethroughtheborderwithEgypt,unitingfamilieswhohave nothadthechancetocrosspathsfordecades30:
ForsevendaysPalestiniansinGazaexperiencedlifewithoutborders,andborderswithoutfear: thatis,withoutIsrael.Thousandsstreamedbackandforththroughthepuncturedwalls, earthworksandfencesthatseparateEgyptfromGazaor"RafahSinai"from"Rafahsumud,"the mostlethalfront-lineoftheIntifada.
InanotherinterviewwithAlAhram31 in2005,aPalestiniandeclareshisthoughtsonthesealing oftheborder32:
It'salousydecision.Before1967thiswasalloneland.Before1981Rafahwasonecity Itwas IsraelwhichseparatedRafahtocutthetiesbetweenthetwopeoples.Weneedanopenborder. Weareonepeopleandonenation.AnopenborderwouldhurtIsrael'seconomyandweakenits security It'sakindofvictoryforus.SowhydivideRafahagain?
Importantly,whiletheborderturnedbackintoacrossingforthatoneweek,peopleexperienced mobilitytotravelbackandforth.OneEgyptianvendor,whohasPalestinianfamilyinRafah, declaredthathisbusinesshadneverboomedsomuch,hopingtheborderneverclosesagain. Withinthisoneweek,over100,000PalestinianscrossedintoEgypt,withmanyEgyptiansalso crossingthrough.
Soonafter,AlAhram’sDinaEzzatdiscussesEgyptianconcernover“pressurefromthe USandIsraeltoimposestrictsecuritymeasureontheRafah-Gazabordertopreventarepeatof thechaoticsceneswitnessedinthefirstdaysfollowingtheIsraeliwithdrawalfromGaza33”
30 “Al-AhramWeekly|Region|CinderellainRafah,”October22,2005. https://webarchiveorg/web/20051022004151/http://weeklyahramorgeg/2005/761/re1htm
31 AlAhramisoneofEgypt’sleadingandlongestlastingnewspapers,andassuchisoneofthemainarchives consultedforthisresearch
32 “Al-AhramWeekly|Region|CinderellainRafah,”October22,2005 https://webarchiveorg/web/20051022004151/http://weeklyahramorgeg/2005/761/re1htm
33 “Al-AhramWeekly|Egypt|HotundertheCollar,”October22,2005 https://web.archive.org/web/20051022003824/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/761/eg1.htm.
[emphasisadded].Almostinstantly,theEgyptianregimebeganconstructingtheblockadethat wouldeventuallyassistthesiegeonGazain2007.Infact,asearlyasSeptember2005,“an EgyptiansecurityofficialatthebordersaidthatIsraelhasalreadystartedconstructinganew checkpointafewhundredmetersawayfromtheexistinggatewayintoGaza,”highlighting EgyptianawarenessofplansofincreasingtheviolenceofoccupationinGaza34.Additionally,in anefforttomanufactureEgyptianconsenttotheviolentoccupationofPalestine,Al-Azhar’s grandImamapprovednormalization“withothercountries,especiallyIsrael”35 [emphasisadded]. Inreturn,theformerheadofresearchandtranslationattheIslamicResearchAcademydeclared theImam’s fatwa invalid,statingthat“Thosewhodon'tcareabouttheaffairsoftheirMuslim brothersdonotactuallybelongtothem”,arguingthatthiswasinsteadaproductofpolitical,and notreligious,conversations36
Yet,despiteMubarak’ssealingofRafahandclearentanglementwithAmericanvalues andeconomics,Egyptianscontinuedtoviewtheirliberationfromoppressiveregimesastiedto theliberationofthePalestinianpeople.Thisismostdirectlycommunicatedintheseriesof anti-Zionistresistancesduringtherevolutionof2011.Thiscameafternewsofanattackonabus carryingIsraelisoldiersneartheborderwithEgypt,followingwhichmortarsweresaidtohave beenfiredbytheEgyptianside;37 IsraelitroopsthenkilledthreeEgyptians,allegingthatit
34 “Al-AhramWeekly|FrontPage|OntheOtherSide,”October22,2005 https://web.archive.org/web/20051022004049/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/761/fr1.htm.
35 “Al-AhramWeekly|Egypt|NotNormal,”October22,2005 https://webarchiveorg/web/20051022003902/http://weeklyahramorgeg/2005/761/eg9htm
36 Ibid
37Staff “IsraelisKilledinAttacksnearEgyptBorder” The Guardian,August18,2011,sec Worldnews https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/aug/18/israeli-bus-attacked-border-egypt.
occurredbyaccident.3839 Severalothereventsfollowed,notablytheburningandattackingofthe IsraeliembassyinCairoasprotestorsmarchedfromTahrirSquaretotheembassy40.Collectively, theseeventsaddedtotherisingfeelingsofuncertaintytowardsRafah–nowreimaginedasnot onlyaplacethroughwhichPalestiniansmayvisittheirEgyptianfamilies,butalsoaplacethat hostsinsurgentefforts.After2011,noneoftheseinsurgenteffortsweretobetolerated–andthe newmilitarygovernment,clearonwhereitstands,aligneditselfagainstallactsofrebellion.
BorderingRafah
EversincethesiegeonGazain2007,theEgyptianauthoritieshavebeenawaitinga chancetoclearthelandneartheGazastrip,butprotestsinandagainsttheMubarakregime deterredtheplans.AftertheoustingoftheMuslimBrotherhoodgovernmentin2013,aseriesof terrorattacksoccurredacrossSinai,mostlybyonegroupknownasAnsarBeitalMaqdis,who disagreedsevereuseofviolencedonebythenewmilitarygovernment.41 Meanwhile,theMuslim Brotherhoodbecameanideologicalandpoliticalthreattotherulingmilitaryinstitution.Because ofHamas’sideologicaltieswiththeMuslimBrotherhood,distancingEgyptasfaraspossible fromGazabecamenecessaryintheupcomingsecuritizationprojectofthestate.Facedwithlittle threat,theSisiregimecommencedthemassdisplacementswiftly,andwithlittlemediacoverage.
38 Diab,Khaled “Egypt,IsraelandPalestine:AnAwkwardThree-WayDance” The Guardian,August26,2011,sec Opinion.https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/aug/26/egypt-israel-palestine-peace.
39 Notably,whenIsraelbombedtheEgyptiansideofRafahin2023,itagainclaimedthatthisbombingoccurredby accident “ArmyTankAccidentallyFiresonEgyptianPostnearGaza,CausingMinorInjuries|TheTimesof Israel.”AccessedDecember3,2023. https://wwwtimesofisraelcom/army-tank-accidentally-fires-on-egyptian-post-near-gaza-causing-minor-injuries/
40 Sherwood,Harriet “CairoIsraeliEmbassyAttack:‘StaffFearedforTheirLives’” The Observer,September10,2011, sec Worldnews https://wwwtheguardiancom/world/2011/sep/10/cairo-israeli-embassy-attack
41 “‘LookforAnotherHomeland’” Human Rights Watch,September22,2015 https://www.hrw.org/report/2015/09/22/look-another-homeland/forced-evictions-egypts-rafah.
Thecreationofa“bufferarea”wasexpeditedstartingJuly2013-themonththeEgyptian militarygainedpower.Interestingly,inAugust2013,theUSDefenseDepartmentawarded Raytheon$9.9million“tocontinueresearchanddevelopmentinEgypt”onaformoftechnology knownasalaserradarvibrationsensor42 In2014,EgyptdeclaredastateofemergencyinNorth Sinai.Onceagain,counterinsurgencyplaysanotableroleinthedevelopmentordestructionof landinEgyptianbordersbecauseofWesternvalues.
InJuly2014,IsraelcommencedyetanotherwaronGaza.Bytheendofit,halfamillion Palestinianswereinternallydisplaced,andthousandsweremurdered.InOctober2014,Al AhrampublishedanarticlethatdeclaredthatsomePalestiniansbrokeintotheNorthofSinai alongsideHezbollahinJanuaryofthatyear,commencinginthe“viciousattacksagainst buildingsandplacecenters”inthearea43.Thearticlealsoclaimscollaborationbetweenthese attacksandtheMuslimBrotherhood,whothenattemptedtofreeprisonersinAlMaragandAbo Zaabalprisons.Thearticlecontinuesbyaddingthatsomeofthoseinvolvedheadedtowards CairotoparticipateinprotestsinTahrirSquare.Justacoupleofdayslater,thegovernment“kills 12terroristsandarrests68othersin4governorates”,includingNorthSinai44 Apageorsoafter, thereisahalf-pagearticlededicatedtowardshonoringtheEgyptianmartyrsoftheOctoberwar in1973. Almostintandemwithallofthis,mostofthearticlesinthisissuefocusonEgypt’s
42 “‘LookforAnotherHomeland.’” Human Rights Watch,September22,2015. https://wwwhrworg/report/2015/09/22/look-another-homeland/forced-evictions-egypts-rafah
43 “Al-Ahram( (ماﺮھﻻا20141002 Al-AhramDigitalArchive,”October2014 https://gpa-eastview-comezproxyculcolumbiaedu/alahram/?a=d&d=aar20141002-01123&e=-------en-25--1--img -txIN-%d8%b1%d9%81%d8%ad---------
44 “Al-Ahram( (ماﺮھﻻا20141004 Al-AhramDigitalArchive”AccessedNovember26,2023 https://gpa-eastview-comezproxyculcolumbiaedu/alahram/?a=d&d=aar20141004-0113&e=-------en-25--1--img-t xIN-%d8%b1%d9%81%d8%ad---------.
pushfordevelopment–thatitwillsoonbe“thecenterofglobaltrade”45 . Thus,thetiesbetween securitizingSinaiandmodernizingEgyptareestablished–withoutamilitarizedSinai,a borderedRafah,Egyptiandevelopmentwillalwaysbeunderthreat.Ofcourse,Octoberisthe monthofremembranceofthewarandcelebrationovertheretakingofSinaifromIsraeli occupation.Assuch,SinaimakesacompellingreturnonthesixthofOctoberonthefrontpage, onwhichtheMinisterofDefensedeclaresthatthegovernmentwillnot“goeasyonanenemy,” butdoesn’tspecifywhothisenemyis46.ItisassumedtobeZionistoccupyingforces,giventhe dateofthearticle,buttherestofthestatementcontinuestoclaimthat“[we]areabletostop terrorismandextremism.”Intherestofthejournal,Egyptcelebrateshostingaconferenceto rebuildGazaalongsidetheNorwegiangovernmentandthePalestinianAuthority[note:the PalestinianAuthorityhasn’tgovernedGazainyears].Here,AlAgroudistatesthatEgyptis workingtowardskeepingRafahopenforcrossingpermanentlytoallowpeopleandaidtopass throughtoGaza,andtoallowinjuredGazanstobetreatedinEgypt47.Thishasallowed7500 peopletopassthrough.Inthefollowingarticle,AlQamhawydecriesinternationalpressure towardEgypt,specificallyfromQatarandTurkey,thatclaimsthatthecountryisnotdoing enoughtopassaidtoRafah48 SiegingRafah
45 “Al-Ahram( (ماﺮھﻻا2014.10.04 Al-AhramDigitalArchive.”AccessedNovember26,2023. https://gpa-eastview-comezproxyculcolumbiaedu/alahram/?a=d&d=aar20141004-0115&e=-------en-25--1--img-t xIN-%d8%b1%d9%81%d8%ad---------.
46 “Al-Ahram( (ماﺮھﻻا2014.10.06 Al-AhramDigitalArchive.”AccessedNovember26,2023. https://gpa-eastview-comezproxyculcolumbiaedu/alahram/?a=d&d=aar20141006-01&e=-------en-25--1--img-txIN -%d8%b1%d9%81%d8%ad---------
47 “Al-Ahram( (ماﺮھﻻا20141006 Al-AhramDigitalArchive”AccessedNovember26,2023 https://gpa-eastview-comezproxyculcolumbiaedu/alahram/?a=d&d=aar20141006-0116&e=-------en-25--1--img-t xIN-%d8%b1%d9%81%d8%ad---------
48 Ibid
52
Withrisingtensions,clashesintheNorth,andpressurefromWesterngovernments,the governmentrapidlybeganrazingRafah.Theestablishmentofabufferzone“encompassedallof Rafah,atownofsome78,000peoplethatliesdirectlyontheborder,aswellassignificant agriculturallandaroundthetown,”49 alongsideatleastsixschools,inadditiontouptoseven kilometerswithinSinaiitself.In2014,itwasdeclaredasawaytocreateasiegeonterroristsand terroristactivityintheregion,yetoutcryfromfamiliesintheareaaccusedthegovernmentof colludingwiththeIsraeligovernmentandcapitulatingtoanIsraelidealunderMubarakin 200450.Thezone’scostofthefirstphasealoneamountedto$70million.Originally,theEgyptian governmentonlygavepeoplea48-hournoticetofleetheirhomes,but,uponrebellion,extended thedeadline51 In2014,ElSisiprovidedanapologyforthefamiliesinSinaiandstatedthatmany willbeappropriatelymonetarilycompensated52 Thisdisplacementwasofficiallyencouragedby theEgyptianparliamentonOctober15,2015–yet,themainnewsregardingRafahduringthat daysurroundedthediscoveryoftelecommunicationdevicesandamilitaryuniforminatunnel belowahome53.Ina2017interviewwithAlQudsAlArabi,anofficialrepresentativeforthe PopularCommitteefortheProtectionofCivilianRightsinNorthSinaistatedthat,upon completionofthebufferzone,theentiretyofRafahwilldisappearfromthemap–infull
49 ibid
”AccessedNovember26,2023
https://www.aljazeera.net/news/2014/10/29/%D8%B1%D9%81%D8%AD-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B5 %D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%86-%D8%B9%D8%B2%D9%84-%D8%BA%D8%B2% D8%A9-%D9%88%D8%AD%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A5%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8 %A6%D9%8A%D9%84
51 “EgypttoClearResidentsfromGazaBorder.”AccessedOctober25,2023.
https://wwwaljazeeracom/news/2014/10/29/egypt-to-clear-residents-from-gaza-border
.”AccessedNovember26,2023. https://wwwaljazeeranet/news/2014/11/3/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%8A-%D9%8A% D8%B9%D8%AF-%D8%A8%D8%A5%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%A8% D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A1-%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%87%D8%AF%D9%85
53 “Al-Ahram( (ماﺮھﻻا20151015 Al-AhramDigitalArchive”AccessedNovember26,2023 https://gpa-eastview-comezproxyculcolumbiaedu/alahram/?a=d&d=aar20151015-0113&e=-------en-25--1--img-t xIN-%d8%b1%d9%81%d8%ad---------.
54
commitmenttotheCampDavidtreaty,aspartofthecountry’scommitmenttofightterrorismon itsborders54.Thebufferzonepolicywasinsteadnicknamedthe“policyforthepersecutionof citizens”55 Meanwhile,manyEgyptianmediaoutlets“calledforthearmedforcestotakeharsh measure[s]inNorthSinai.”56 Thus,Egyptpursueditspoliciesofdisplacementunabated,having spentdecadesbuildingtowardsthemanufacturingofEgyptianconsenttowardstheremovalof EgyptfromRafah57 .
The2013developments,inwhichEgyptactivelydisplacedEgyptianfamiliesfrom Rafah,presenttheextentofEgyptianallyshipwithWesterndesiresandtheextenttowhich imperialisthandshavespreadinthecountry Byclearingtheland,Egyptacknowledgedthe temporalityoftheborderandmadeatacticaldecisiontorazeitinfavorofcolonialandimperial demands.Today,thesedemandscontinuetolayclaimoverSinai,wherethispurposefully desertedlandisbeingdiscussedtorehabilitatethePalestinianswhohavebeencorneredintothe SouthofGazabyarampagingregime.Inreturn,theIMFisconsideringbecomingmorelenient onEgypt’sloansbecauseoftherecentdevelopmentsinGaza58 Theborder/buffer/zone/crossing, assuch,unravels.
(blog),November19,2017 https://wwwalqudscouk/ﺪﻣ-ﺔﻟزﺎﻌﻟا-ﺔﻘﻄﻨﻤﻟا-ﺔﯿﺤﺿ-ﺔﯾﺮﺼﻤﻟا-ﺢﻓر/
55 ibid
56 “‘LookforAnotherHomeland’” Human Rights Watch,September22,2015
https://www.hrw.org/report/2015/09/22/look-another-homeland/forced-evictions-egypts-rafah.
58 AlJazeera.“IMFCouldAugmentEgypt’sLoanProgrammeoverEffectsofGazaWar.”Accessed December3,2023. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/11/18/imf-could-augment-egypts-loan-programme-over-ef fects-of-gaza-war. 57 SeeAppendixFigures3-6.
ThispaperconcludesthatRafahhasonlyactedasa“crossing”duringtimeswhereitwas politicallyandeconomicallyviableforitto,ineveryotherperiodsincethetreaty,theareaandits peoplehavemerelyplayedaroleofpoliticalpawnsinEgyptianpoliticsanditslexicon.Both priorand“after”colonialism,Rafahhasactedasauniquetypeofborder–onewhosetemporal positionebbsanddoesnotflow,wherethegovernmentsofEgyptandIsraelcandecideatwhich pointstheywillallowthespouttopourandatwhichpointswillthewaterbecutoffindefinitely. Thisindefinabilityoftheborder/crossing/zoneisnotaccidentalnorisitinfavoroftheEgyptians andPalestinianswholiveandareseparatedin/byRafah.Theunpredictabilityoftheborderis preciselyaweaponofcolonialism,theborderismeanttobe unstable, unpermanent,for whenevertheneedarisesforittobe unborderedandthenused.InRafah,Egyptactsnotasan apparatusofgovernancebutinsteadasanotherapparatusofcolonialism,anextensionofthe imperialistregime.Assuch,thisplacatestheEgyptiangovernmentinadecadeslongbattleto projectnormalcyin,andreapthebenefitsof,IsraelisettlercolonialismandgenocideinPalestine -aprojectionthat,inspiteofthisorganizedeffort,continuestobecontestedamongstEgyptians today.Despiteallofthis,EgyptstillreferstoRafahasa“crossing”.
