GenderDissidence:PerceptionsinApartheidSouthAfrica
YimoChong
December2023
Abstract:In1974,theSouthAfricanApartheidParliamentpassedthe“Births, MarriagesandDeathsRegistrationAmendmentAct51of1974,”whichstipulatesthat peoplewhohaveundergonesexchangeoperationsmayalterthegendermarkerintheir birthregistration.Scholarshavesituatedthepolicyinthecontextofthestate’s increasingattemptsatracializeddocumentationtocontroltherestlesspopulationand medicalauthorities’increasingprestigeandwideravailabilityofsurgeries,often practicedunethicallyonblack,rural,andmarginalizedpopulations.Inthisarticle,I comparethemainstreammedia’sportrayofgenderdissidentsasdepoliticized,white, andmiddle-class,occasionallygrotesque,butneverorganizedorthreateningtothe genderdissidents’self-portrayals,inwhichtheyengageinpolitics,embraceracial diversity,debateaboutidentities,anddenouncesocialinequalitiesanddiscriminations. Theseactivitiesshowavibrant,horizontalcommunitythatdefiesofficial characterization.Genderdissidentsrefertoallwhofitundertheumbrellaoftrans peopleandcrossdressers,whomayhavediversesexualities.Transpeoplereferto transgender,transsexual,andgenderfluidpeoplewithvaryingdegreesofsurgical interventionsbutnottocrossdresserswhoidentifywiththeirbirthgender
Acknowledgement:IwouldliketothankProfessorThomasZuberforsource suggestionsandextensivefeedbackduringtheresearchprocess.
1. Introduction
Terminologymustbeaddressed.Iusegenderdissidentstomeanallwhofitunder theumbrellaoftranspeopleandcrossdressers,whomayhavediversesexualities.Trans peoplerefertotransgender,transsexual,andgenderfluidpeoplewithvaryingdegreesof surgicalinterventionsbutnottocrossdresserswhoidentifywiththeirbirthgender.
a. State
In1974,theSouthAfricanParliamentpassedthe“Births,MarriagesandDeaths RegistrationAmendmentAct51of1974,”whichstipulatesthatSecretaryforCivic Affairsmay“ontherecommendationoftheSecretaryforHealthalter,inthebirth registerofanypersonwhohasundergoneachangeofsex,thedescriptionofthesexof suchpersonandmayforthispurposecallforsuchmedicalreportsandinstitutesuch investigationsashemaydeemnecessary.”1 ScholarshavesituatedAct51,onewhose meaningmightappearprogressivetoqueeractivists,inthecontextofracialized registrationandseparation,medicaladvancements,andgenderdiscipline.
Act51demonstratesthestate’sdesiretobringgenderconstructionunderthe commandofthestateandmedicalauthorities,strictlydefiningitinsurgicaltermsof bodypartsanddelegatingeachwithseparateroles.Theauthoritytoverifyand documentgenderrestsinboththeSecretaryforCivicAffairsandtheSecretaryfor Health,simultaneouslyplacingthepowertodecidewhatgendersignifiessociallyand entailsbiologicallyonmedicalandstateauthorities.TheApartheidgovernmentdefined genderasstate-examined,sanctioned,andmedical(moreprecisely,surgical).Surgeries, thoughoriginatingintheEuropeanbeliefofthebi-sexualnature(partlymaleandpartly
1 SouthAfrica,DepartmentofthePrimeMinister, Births, Marriages and Deaths Registration Amendment Act,ActNo 1869,adopted1974,amendmentact51, https://commonslawsafrica/akn/na/act/1974/51/media/publication/na-act-1974-51-publication-document pdf
female)ofeverybody,2 reinforcedthebinarythroughthestate’sdocumentationthat eliminatedthirdgenders,fluididentifications,“partial”completionofsexchange,and delegitimizationofpreoperativeornon-operativegenderdissidents.
Scholarssituatethestate’sinterestindocumentinggenderinthecontextofracial control.AsChimere-Danpointsout,between1946to1990,thepercentageofBlack populationincreasedfrom68.6%to76%,whilethewhitepopulationdeclinedfrom 20%to13%.3 TherapidincreaseinBlackpopulationandtheconsolidationofaseries ofsegregationandpopulationregistrationlawsinthe50ssetthebackgroundofracial anxietyandthedesireforfurtherdocumentationandcontrolofthecitizenry’s bio-information.Breckenridgeprovidescontextonracialregistration,suggestingthe Apartheidgovernment’sclassificationofracechangedfromthe“criterionof communityacceptanceintheearly1950stoapurelyadministrativeandbureaucratic matterofdescentderivedfromthepaperworkinthelate1960s,4 mirroringthechangein genderregistrationlaws.TheProhibitionofDisguisesAct16of1969made cross-dressingwith“criminalintent”5 illegalunderapartheid.AstheApartheid governmentcategorizedanddocumentedraceforthepurposeofsegregatingeconomic andpoliticalaccessandcriminalizedBlackpeoplewhocouldnotproduce identification,thepolicefrequentlyclaimedcriminalintentofBlackgenderdissident peopleandarrestedthem.6 Blackgenderdissidentswhodidnotconformtothe state-mandatedgenderandblacksexworkersinheavilypolicedareas,morelikelytobe conceivedascriminals,werefrequenttargetsofthearrests.
2 AmandaLockSwarr, Sex in transition: Remaking gender and race in South Africa,(Albany,NY:SUNY Press,2012),45
3 OriejiChimere-Dan,“ApartheidandDemographyinSouthAfrica,” African Population Studies 7,no.0 (2013):28,https://doiorg/1011564/7-0-419
4 KeithBreckenridge,“TheBookofLife:TheSouthAfricanpopulationregisterandtheinventionof racialdescent,1950-1980,” Kronos 1 no 40(2014):225,http://refscieloorg/2gc6jw
5 Swarr, Sex in Transition,12
6 Swarr,58
Theactsymbolizestheincreasinganxietyanddesiresurroundingracialand genderdocumentationinthelatterhalfofthetwentiethcentury.Theapartheidstate associatesgenderandracewithbiologyandhopestousedocumentationandsurgeries todistinguishandcontrolwhiteandblackpopulations.
b. Healthcare
Medicalauthoritiesgainedtremendoussocialinfluencewiththegrowing demandforsurgicaltransitions.Swarrdiscussesthemedicalcommunity’sinitial hesitationanddistrustofsurgeriesforgenderdissidentsinthe40s.Doctorstriedto separatetransandcrossdressingpeopleandbetweenidentitiesandsexualities,arguing somewere“true”7 transexualswhileotherswerenot.Thecriteriafordeterminingthe authenticityofgenderidentitiesinthe1960sand1970slargelycenteredaround homosexualitypost-operation.Beingmarried,havingchildren,orhavingdesirestoward peopleofthesamegenderweredisqualifying,sincetheseweresupposedlyproofthat thegenderdissident’snatalbodyfunctionedwithoutissue.Homosexualsoldiersinthe SouthAfricanDefenseForcewereforcedintomedicaltransition,8 demonstratingthe binary,heteronormative,andmedicalizedgenderunderstandingatthetime.Thus, medicalauthoritiescreatedandrecreatedunderstandingsofgenderandtheirconnection tosexualitythroughcontrollingaccesstosurgeries.
Doctorsalsoenjoyedpoliticalinfluence.Theriseofgenderreassignment surgeriesinthe1960scorrespondedtothe“Births,Marriages,andDeathsRegistrations Act81of1963,”whichallowedSouthAfricanstoapplytocorrect“anyomission, defect,orinaccuracy”inthebirthcertificate.9 AstheDisguisesActwentintoeffect, manyarguedthattransitioncouldhelpgenderdissidentsavoidthearrests.Swarr
7 Swarr,36
8 Swarr,39
9 Swarr,59
proposedthe1974Amendmentwastheresultofa“closeandmutuallysubstantiating relationship”10 betweenstateandmedicalauthorities.
Finally,medicaltransitionsrevealedthedisregardandfearwithwhichthewhite, professionalmedicalpractitionersviewedblackgenderdissidents.Swarrrecountshow poorandruralBlackgenderdissidentsreceivedfreebutlow-qualitymedicaltransitions thatcausedmanymentalandphysicaldistress.11 Asthesciencearoundtransition advancedatthecostoftheirlivesandwellbeing,medicaltransitionbecameawaytofit those“betweengendercategories”intothedesiredbinary.12
Aspersonalaccountsofblackandruralresidentsarescarce,sowastheir medicalaccess.Anumberofhistorianshavestudiedthehealthdisparitybetweenwhite andblackcommunitiesinSouthAfrica.13 Pricearguesthatdifferentiatedfinanceand healthcareservicesforthetwoare“instruments”forcapitalistaccumulationand maintainingwhitesupremacy 14 AnderssonandMarksprovidedataonthegapbetween childmortalityratesinblackandwhitepopulationsinSouthAfricaandtheinefficiency oftheproposedreforms.15 FassinandPillayetal.complicateracialdisparityby introducingqueeraccesstohealthcareduringtheAIDSepidemicandthe pathologizationofqueernessthroughpsychology.1617 Aswhitegenderdissidentsin urbanareassoughtmedicaltransitionasitbecamemoreavailable,theirexperiencesand
10 Swarr,60
11 Swar,46
12 Swarr,56-57.
13 SeeCedricDeBeer, The South African Disease: Apartheid Health and Health Services (Trenton,NJ: AfricaWorldPress,1986);GraceDavie, Poverty knowledge in South Africa: A social history of human science, 1855-2005 (NewYork,NY:CambridgeUniversityPress,2015).;andMervynSusserandViolet PadayachiCherry,“HealthandHealthCareunderApartheid,” Journal of Public Health Policy 3,no 4 (1982):455 https://doiorg/102307/3342009
14 MaxPrice,“HealthCareasanInstrumentofApartheidPolicyinSouthAfrica,” Health Policy and Planning 1,no 2(1986):158–70,https://doiorg/101093/heapol/12158
15 NeilAnderssonandShulaMarks,“ApartheidandHealthinthe1980s,” Social Science & Medicine 27,no.7(1988):667–81,https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(87)90327-3.
16 DidierFassin, When bodies remember: Experiences and politics of AIDS in South Africa,(Berkeley, CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2008)
17S R Pillay,etal,“QueeringthehistoryofSouthAfricanpsychology:FromapartheidtoLGBTI+ affirmativepractices,” American Psychologist, 74(8),(2019): 954–966,https://doiorg/101037/amp0000557
voicesinfluencedmedicalpractitioners’understandingofgenderdissidentidentities, anddoctorsandstatesgraduallyformalizedcriteriaforsurgeryandframeworksof genderunderstanding.However,structuraldeprivationtohealthcareimpededthe participationofblackandruralgenderdissidentsintheconversationtoshapepolicies andpractices.Healthcarewasinaccessibleandaninstrumentthatreproduces inequalitiesandbiasedunderstandingsofgenderandexpressions.Thedeliberate deprivationofblackSouthAfricansfrommedicaltransitionallowedthestateand medicalauthoritiestoshapethegendernarrativesaimedatwhite,urbanpopulations.
c. HistoricalBackground
Contrarytoprevailingmodernnotionsofmedicalized,scientificgender,the pre-colonialperiodsawvariedformulationsofgenderthroughspiritual,familial,and politicallenses.Pre-colonialAfricantraditionssometimesexhibitedaspiritual understandingofgender,wheresexcouldbebypassedbyspiritualentities.Zabusand KumarDasarguethatinZuluculturesintoday’sSouthAfrica,malewomenor sangomas oftenclaimancestralorspiritualpossessionandserveasherbalistsor spiritualmediators.18 Sangomas sometimesparticipatedinlesbianrelationshipswith women,complicatingtheheteronormativegenderbinaryinthecolonialand post-colonialimaginary DuringcolonialandApartheidperiods,theinstallationof ChristianityasthedominantreligionandDutchandEnglishasthelanguageofpower ledtothevilificationandconcealmentfromthepublicofancestralworships,isiZulu, and sangomas. 19 Thescholarshiprevealsthatgenderunderstandingsarespecifictotheir societies,times,andsocialconstructionsthatcouldbeanalyzedandchanged.TheSouth Africanapartheidgovernment,therefore,wascompetingwithtraditionalformulations ofgenderandthesocial,religious,andpoliticalapparatusesthatconstructedgenders.
18 ChantalZabusandSamirKumarDas,“Hijras,Sangomas,andTheirTranslects,” Interventions 23,no 6 (2020):815,https://doiorg/101080/1369801x20201784026
19 ZabusandKumarDas,“Hijras,”814
2. Argument
HowdidpopularmediainSouthAfricabetweenthe1950sand1980srationalize genderdissidentidentitiesandwhy?Howdoestheirportrayalofgenderdissidents reflectorfurtherexistingsocialnotionsofgender,race,andfamily?Idiscusspopular mediaportrayalofgenderdissidents,comparingthemtogenderdissidentgroups’ self-mademediatogleanthesocialforcesthatshapedunderstandingofgender,family, race,andpolitics.Iproposethattheextensionofthe“right”ofgenderdissidentsto medicalcareandgendermarkerchangeisaformofgenderdisciplinethataugmentsthe binarynuclearfamilyandanestablishmentofstateandmedicalauthorityingender conceptualizations.Theapartheidstate,medicalauthorities,andmediarespondtothe white,upper/middleclass’concernofgenderdissidentidentitiesanddenytheblackand ruralcitizensaccesstotheveneratednuclearfamilythroughthepromotionofawhite, medicalized,andstate-examinedgenderparadigmthatovershadowsgenderdissidents’ genderimaginaries.
3. Methodology
Iusearchivalsourcesofnewspapers,interviews,photographs,writings,and magazinesfeaturingorproducedbygenderdissidentsfromDailyRandand TransgenderDigitalArchivefromthe1950stothe1980sinSouthAfrica.Iwill comparethenotionofgendermediatedbystateandmedicalauthorities,situatedinthe variedaccesstomedicaltransitionsversusgenderdissident’sself-conceptualization.
Discussion
a. Media
SympatheticTVprogramsandnewspapersshowgenderdissidentsinbinary, apoliticaltermstocementtheimageofwhite,acceptablegenderdissidents.Themedia strategyofportrayingmedicalized,well-behaved,andwhitegenderdissidentswhose
onlywishistointegrateintothesocietyandleadamiddle-class,respectablelife distinguishedthemfromtheblackpopulation,perhapsinresponsetoambivalent popularopinions.Lesssympatheticmediausesgenderdissidencetosignifygrotesque victimhoodthatdehumanizesboththeperpetratorsandthedissidentpopulations.
TheinterviewwithMelanieandRobinAshley,titled“SouthAfrica:womanwho hadsexchangeisnowhappilymarried;interviewwithMr.andMrs.Ashley”in Johannesburgin1965(seeImage1)revealstheconceptualizationofgenderasapolitical andmedicalized.20 WhilementioningthatMelaniewasaman,theinterviewdoesnot portrayMelanieasgrotesqueorquestionherpastexperiences.Instead,sheis undeniablyfemininefromherattireandvoicetoherdomesticrole.Melanieandher sisterweardresses,gloves,makeup,andwell-madehair.ThescenecutstoMelanieand Robineatinganddrinkingwine.Finally,asthewomencookanddolaundry,the interviewerasksMelanie,“asabrideofaweek,youseemtobeveryhappyinyour kitchen.”Melanierespondsthatshewantstobea“verygoodwifetoRobin.”AsRobin writesabookaboutthesisters’lives,takingawaytheirvoice,Melanieismadetypical andappealingasahousewifetothegeneralpopulation.Transidentities,therefore,were farfromaradicalcryagainstestablishedgendernormsorevenasociallyorganizable identity Myuseof“trans”mightindicatethatthegroupcarriesthepotentialtounite andfindmutualinterest,acontemporarycivilrightsgroups’practicethatMelaniedoes notengagein.Rather,shestaysinsidethefamily,withnoambitionforsocialor politicallife.Herwomanhoodnotasasocial“identity”buttheresultofamedical transitionsuggeststhattheultimatejudgeofgenderlies,atthetime,inmedical authorities.Medicaltransitionsrealizetheperson’sinnatedesiretoswitchteamsinthe binarygenderlandscapeandassumethesocialrolesassociatedwiththeirnewgender.
20 “SouthAfrica:WomanWhoHadSexChangeIsNowHappilyMarried;InterviewWithMrAndMrs Ashley,”MotionPicture,1965, Digital Transgender Archive, https://wwwdigitaltransgenderarchivenet/files/2v23vt63z(accessedDecember07,2023)
Perhapstheprogramalsohopedtoclearthemanofchargesofhomosexuality,thena criminaloffense.
Whiletheprogramreceivedthewhite,middle-class,andyoungtranswomanin anencouraginglight,solongasshestayswithinthepatriarchalroles,thehusband’s mentionofthemmarryingsecretlytoavoid“unduepublicattention”stillatteststothe ambivalenceofpublicattitude.Perhapsasanitizedimageofgenderdissidents,fittednot insocialorganizationsorpoliticalenvironmentsbutperformingthemodelwhite Europeanwomanhoodinacisgenderfamily,wasanattempttoencouragemorepublic acceptancewhengendermarkerchangewasstilllegallyambiguous.
Apieceofnews,from1978,titled“Heartacheofsex-opbride,”tellsthestoryof atranswomanPaulawhomarriedaBritishman(seeImage2).
21 Hersurgerypavedthe wayforhertoobtainthedesiredgendermarkeronherdocuments,echoingdiscussions onthepassageofAct51anditsmedicalizationofgender Themanranawayafteran altercationwithhissupposedpreviouswife,andshecouldnotfindhiminLondonto annulthemarriage.Whilethenewsremainsde-politicized,withoutarguingfora feministornationalistview,andtheaccompanyingphotoshowshernexttoherhusband insplendidmakeupanddressbefittingatypicalurban,whitemiddle-classwoman,thus givingherrespectabilityandcredibilitytotheaudience,italsoalludestopublic ambivalencetowardgenderdissidents.Paulasays,“Iknowpeopledon’thavemuch sympathywithpeoplelikeme,butourheartscanbreakjustlikeanyoneelse’s.”Her statementspeakstoboththepossiblesocialconservatismandthenewspaper’sfriendlier portrayal.However,asthestoryinvolvesissueslikeabandonment,genderdissidence, andinfidelity,thenewscouldalsohaveintendedtousebizarreandtragicstoriesto profitoffthemorbidcuriosityoftheaudienceoftheperceivedundersideofmodernity.
21 TrevorAspinall,“HeartacheofSex-OpBride,”Clipping,1978, Digital Transgender Archive, https://wwwdigitaltransgenderarchivenet/files/m039k501d(accessedDecember07,2023)
AnotherinsightfulevidenceisthesatiricalopinionpiecewrittenbyDonald Woodsin1976forRandDailyMail.22 “TheRockyHorrorPictureShow”wasahorror filmwithstageproductionsaboutacouplediscoveringatransvestitealiendoctorwho createsalivingcreature(Rocky)inacountrysidemansion.WoodssatirizedtheSouth Africangovernment’sdecisiontobanthefilmbywritinganotherscriptwhererowdy, violent“Super-Patriotic”attendeescrownthethree-armed,inarticulatecreatureDr.
AlbertFrankensteenkampasthe“idealSouthAfrican.”BothDonaldWoodsandthe RandDailyMailwereanti-apartheidandusedthesketchtoridiculethewhitepatriots.
Woodsimaginesone“hairy”“bisexual”attendeecryingina“shrillfalsetto:‘I’ma sweettransvestitefromtransexualTransvaal’andbeingbeatenupbythecrowd.The incidentshowstheaggressivenessandvolatilityofthecrowdandaddstothe bizarrenessofthegathering,withoutdemonstratingsympathyforthegenderdissidents oreffeminatemen.Indeed,thementionofbodyhairandtheexaggeratedcaricatureare meanttoinducedisgustandridicule.Furthermore,theleaderisaproselytizing demagogue,notatransvestite,thustakingtheoriginalfilm’scrucialandmonumental discussionofgenderandsexualityoutoftheequationforthepurposeofpolitical commentary.Theopinionpiecereveals,therefore,thatpopularmediacouldbe indifferenttowardqueerviolenceandincludesuchinformationtounsettlethereaders andaddtotheabsurdismofthenationalistcrowd.
TheprimarysourcesshowthattheNationalistParty’snominalacceptanceof genderdissidentswasbotharesponsetoexistingopennessinmajornewsandcultural circlestowardgenderdissidentsasamedicallycontrolledentitythataugmentsthe genderbinary Socialissues,suchasabandonment,polygamy,orviolencetoward
22 Rand Daily Mail (Johannesburg,SouthAfrica),October8,1976:12, Readex: Rand Daily Mail, https://infoweb-newsbank-comiezproxynyplorg/apps/readex/doc?p=HN-SARDM&docref=image/v2% 3A135DEF57238F5FC5%40EANX-15BD50FC381F9D60%402443060-15BCF75B02DF90B0%4011-15 BCF75B02DF90B0%40
genderdissidents,remainunaddressedbythelegislation.Giventheprominentrole WoodsandRandDailyMailplayedintheoppositiontoApartheid,andtheopinion’s clearpoliticalmessageofsatirizingthenationalistcrowd,onecouldgleanthatthe mainstreamleft’sattitudeappearstomocktheApartheidgovernmentfortheir acceptanceofthe“respectable”andwhitegenderdissidents.Thesubversionofthe state-sanctionedimagewiththeunappetizingimitationreflectsthedesiretoexposeand ridiculethemonstrosityunderneaththefacade.Perhapssuchanotionofgender dissidenceaswhiterespectabilitypoliticsaidedthereversalofgendermarkerchange policyatthebeginningofthepost-apartheidgovernment.
Whilereportsoftransmenarerare,thenews“FormerWomanGetsaPayRaise asaMan”in1969providesinsightintohowtheacceptanceofthespecificversionof genderdissidencefurthersthepatriarchalgenderbinary.23 Andre,theshortclipping states,hasgonethrough“aseriesofsexchangeoperations”and“beenmedically certifiedasamale.”Noticeably,thenewspaperpushesforamedicalized conceptualizationofgender.Unlikethetranswomen,Andre’sfamilyorrelationship statusisabsentfromthedescription.Hisjobandwageformtheentiretyofthenews. Andre’sraisecomesfromthePublicServiceCommission,hisworkplace,havinga “higherpayscaleformalesthanfemales.”Genderdissidentpeoplewhocouldconform tothestate-mandatedmedicalrequirementsareintegratedintothepatriarchalsystem wheremen,taskedwithprovidingforthefamily,receivedahigherpaythanwomen, who,aspreviousexamplesshow,shouldoccupythedomesticsphereandperform white,middle-classbeauty
Finally,ina1985newsarticletitled“SecrecyIsStilltheKeyWord,”Peter SchirmerinterviewedMarlene,thechairmanofPhoenixSociety,SouthAfrica’s
23 TheAssociatedPress,“FormerWomanGetsPayRaiseasaMan,”Clipping,1969, Digital Transgender Archive,https://wwwdigitaltransgenderarchivenet/files/2v23vt558(accessedDecember07,2023)
organizationfortransvestites(TVs).24 Hehighlightstheissueoftheurban-ruraland linguisticdivide.SchirmerstatesthatwhileurbanTVsare“fairlyeasilyabletoshare theircompulsionwithkindredspirits,”onesintheruralareas,or“platteland,”speaking Afrikaans,“havetosatisfytheirurgesinsecret.”Marleneattributesthedifferencetothe “small-townmentalitywithitsveneerofstrait-lacedmorality”makingthingsdifficult forTVs.RuralresidentslikeRosannewouldhavetotraveltothecitytobuydressesto avoidthe“wholedorp”fromfindingout.Theyalsohavetokeeptheirdesiresasecretto theirchildrennotoutofshamebutbecause“itmightembarrassthem.”Nevertheless, theauthorkeepsthetopiclighthearted,includingananecdoteofaTVcouplewho exchangesclotheswitheachotherandanotherTV’stestimonythathiswifehasno problemwithit.Allinterviewees,otherthantheruralresident,arebusinessmen. Instead,thearticlewritesatlengthabouttheoriginofthe“compulsion”portrayed sympatheticallyasharmlessandheterosexual,statingthattheTVsoftenfindtheir desires“diminish”or“disappear”whentheybecomeattractedtowomen.TheTVs, PhoenixSociety,andthenewsarticlemighthavebeenstressingheterosexualityeither outofthefearofrepressionorrepulsiontowardhomosexuals.Thepotentialconflicts betweenqueergroupsreflecttheofficialattitudesthatdifferentiatedthem.Themedia’s choiceoffocusontheoriginofTVandtheamusinganecdotesmakeslightofthe discrimination,isolation,andlackofunderstandingfromfamilymembersandsociety
Whilefriendlyandaimingtodissuadestereotypes,itconfinesgenderdissidencetoa de-politicized,privatesphere,wheremenwhootherwiseparticipateinandupholdthe binarynuclearfamilydo“somethingnaughtyandnice.”
Takentogether,themediasourcesrevealagenerallysympathetictone,though occasionalsatirestillusesviolencetowardgenderdissidentstoconveyasenseof
24 JennyOram “MyHusbandisaTransvestite,”Clipping,1985, Digital Transgender Archive, https://wwwdigitaltransgenderarchivenet/files/j9602072c(accessedDecember07,2023)
grotesquenessandbizarreness,andmostsourcesassigngenderdissidentmentothe workplaceandwomentothefamilyandprivatelife,bothde-politicized.Gender dissidentswerewhite,middle-class,respectable,andupholdingthebinary, heteronormativemodel.
b. Self-Portrayal
Genderdissidents’magazinesandphotographsrevealvariedconceptionsand genderandraceimaginaries.Genderdissidentcommunitiesdemonstrateracial diversity,politicalactivism,activedebatesandredefinitionsofgenderlabelsandterms, adynamiccommunity,andfluidgenderandbodyconceptualizationsthatstraddleand breakthewhite,binarymodel.
CammingadetailstheproliferationofPhoenixSociety’smembersandthe establishmentofFanFaremagazineinthe1970s,followingincreasingmediacoverage andwideravailabilityofmedicalcareamongwhitecircles.
25 The“Moffies,”agroupof crossdressingandgenderdissidentpeoplelivinginDistrictSix,wereamongthemost reportedgroupsofgenderdissidents.Kewpieusedfemininepronounsbutconsidered hergenderfluid.Shedonatedpersonalphotographs,alongwithadescription,toGALA attheendofherlife.Cammingapointsoutthatthemediarepresentationofthegroupat thetimecastedthemas“socialpariahs,wallowinginself-pityandprayingforasex changeoperation,”26
TheMuffies’photographs,takenbytheleadingfigureKewpie,counterthe press’narrativesandshowavibranturbancommunityofdiversesexualpracticesand racialcompositionthatdefiedthewhite,respectable,andbinarymoldthedominant mediaportrayed.Brian,forexample,wasKewpie’spartnerformanyyears,andphotos
25 B Camminga,“TheEmergenceofaDiscourseofTransgenderinSouthAfrica,”Essay,in Transgender Refugees and the Imagined South Africa: Bodies over Borders and Borders over Bodies,(Cham, Switzerland:PalgraveMacmillan,2019):57
26 Camminga,“Discourse,”49
showedtheinterracialcoupleinvariousflamboyantandcarefreeposes,kissing,being withfriends,anddancing(SeeImages3and4).2728 KayKendall,ablackgender dissidentfriendofKewpie,kissesBrianinonephotographamongtheircrossdressing friends(SeeImage5).29 Thecollectionshowsseveraldivergencesfromthemedia reportsdiscussedintheprevioussection:racialdiversity,genderdiversity,the breakdownoftheheteronormativenuclearfamily,andaself-sustainingcommunityof queerandtranspeople.Whilethenewsreportstendtocastgenderdissidentsaseither unfortunatevictimsorgrotesqueoutliers,theyarealwaysalone.Isolationimplies vulnerabilityandmalleability,easilyfitted(andeagertofit)intothebinarynuclear familyorcutoutofthesociety,dependingontheopinionsoftheviewers.Theapartheid stateandthemedicalauthorities,furthermore,meticulouslyseparatedwhiteandblack populationsanddeviantand“true”genderdissidents.However,thephotograph collectionshowstheurbanqueercommunitybeyondartificialconstraints,revealinga vast,dynamic,andfluidnetworkofindividualsofmultipleracesandgenders,with diversesexualpracticesandirreverent,modernclothes.
FanFareMagazine,acreationofthePhoenixSociety,issuedpublicationswritten byandforgenderdissidents.Onearticletitled“PoliticalJoy”writtenbyJoy,atrans woman,waspublishedinJulyof1987.30 Joydetailshowshe,asanelectionassistant stafffortheoppositionpartyProgressiveFederalParty,votedafterhersexchange beforeshecouldchangeherofficialID.Forthespecialday,shechoosestowearthered skirt,blueblouseandwhitehigh-heels,”inthepartycolors,“Muchnicerthanadull
27 “KewpieandBrianKiss,”photograph,1960, Digital Transgender Archive,https://wwwdigitaltransgenderarchivenet/files/nc580m65k(accessedMarch23,2024)
28 “Kewpie,Brigitte,Margaret,andtheSeapointGirlsOutsideaDemolishedBuilding,”photograph, 1950, Digital Transgender Archive,https://www.digitaltransgenderarchive.net/files/ft848q63g (accessed March23,2024)
29 “BrianandKayKendallKissinaGroupPicture,”Photograph,1950, Digital Transgender Archive, https://wwwdigitaltransgenderarchivenet/files/bz60cw28v(accessedDecember07,2023)
30 ThePhoenixSociety,“FanfareMagazineNo 29(July1987),”Periodical,1987, Digital Transgender Archive,https://wwwdigitaltransgenderarchivenet/files/n296wz12m(accessedDecember07,2023)
greysuit!”Shereportsnothavinganyproblemwiththeregisteringofficialswhenshe voted,butherpartylosttheofficialopposition.Nevertheless,itincreaseditsseatsinthe Parliament,so“therewerealotofhappyandsadfacesaround,butnothingwillever robmeoftheJoyofthosethreedays.”Acleverpunonhernameandastatement throughherclothesconnectheridentitytopoliticalloyalty Theintentionallypoliticized genderidentity,whilenotdrawingpowerfromtheidentitylikecontemporaryactivism, neverthelessgivespoliticalmeaningtotransexpressions.Therefore,thearticleofactive transpoliticalparticipationstandsincontrasttothede-politicizedtranshousewivesin themedia.
AnotherofJoy’sarticles,titled“Joy’sSagaStillContinues!,”31 writtenon February25th,1987,detailsfirstherbeliefinthecategorizationof“transvestites(TV),” “transgenderists(TG),”and“transsexuals(TS)”andherbottomsurgeryprocess.She believesthedifferenceintheformerliesin“bodymodification,”whiletranssexuals havesex-changeoperation(orbottomsurgery).Joybemoansthatmanydoctorsconfuse genderdissidentswithhomosexualpeople,thusleadingtomanyunfortunatesurgeries. Shealsowritesthatsheisatransgenderist,soshewouldnotperformthesurgeryto removehergenitals,butshedidasmallprocedurethatleaveshersterile.Shetherefore occupiesa“no-persons-land”betweenthesexes,unabletoconformtothe“pressure”of societyorchangeherlegalgender Thediscussionrevealsinterrelatedtrendsinthe broadergenderdissidentexperience.First,whateachlabelentailsaredebatableand beingdebated,definedandredefinedbyeachperson’sexperiencesandopinions. Therefore,thestateandmedicalauthorities’impositionofacleardifferencecreateda modelmanywereunableorunwillingtofitinto.Thegapbetweentheautonomous discussionsanddivergenceswithinthegenderqueercommunityandtheofficial
31 ThePhoenixSociety,“FanfareMagazineNo 21(March1986),”Periodical,1986, Digital Transgender Archive,https://wwwdigitaltransgenderarchivenet/files/4b29b598d(accessedDecember07,2023)
declarationofgenderandsexisfurtherconfoundedwithhomosexuality,asdoctors aimedtousetransitiontoeliminatehomosexualmen.Joyalsobringsupseveralsocial andfinancialissuesrelatedtoherstatusoutsideofficialrecognition.Sheisunableto findajob,andsocialservicesandherex-wifehopetouseher“deviantbehavior”to denyhertherighttoseeherchild.Clearly,existingtransphobia,exacerbatedbythe rigidstandardsofthestateandmedicalfields,leftherbothingenderandinsocial spheres,ina“no-persons-land.”Thesourcedemonstratesbothautonomous,bottom-up, andexperience-basedunderstandingofgenderandrevealsthedailyconcernsofgender dissidentcommunities,whichoftencomeintoconflictwithdemandtoconformtothe binarygendermodelandthenuclearfamily
4. Conclusion
Theopportunityforgenderdissidentstochangetheirgendermarkersin apartheidSouthAfrica,insteadofanindividualrightwithdecisionscomingfrom below,cementsthestateandmedicalauthorities’powertomedicalizegender constructionsandplacetheminbinaryandwhite-centeredterms.Mediaportrayaland newspaperreportsofwhite,middle-class,anddepoliticizedgenderdissidentsadhering toconservativegenderrolesfurtherpushthenarrativeofbinary,nuclearfamily. Unsympatheticportrayalscontinuetosituatetransgenderandcrossdressingpeoplein thecontextofbizarreandderision,somewhatdeservingoftheattacksplacedonthem forbeingoutofplace.Genderdissidents’magazinesandthestarkcontrastinBlackand whiteaccesstomedicalcare,however,paintadifferentstoryofvariedgender imaginariesandlackofsocialacceptanceoftransgenderandcrossdressingpeople.The paperdemonstrateshowtheestablishmentandextensionofrightsservethepolitical purposesoftheapartheidstatetodisciplinegenderandraceandcreatesreverberating
socialconstructionsofgenderunderstandingsandroles,whilethoseunabletofitinto themodeldevelopdifferentmodelsofgenderimaginaries.
Today’sSouthAfricacontainssomeofAfrica’smostprogressivelawsregarding genderdissidents,althoughreportsofthelackofhealthcareaccessandsocial acceptanceonthegroundcontinuetoquestiontheextentoflegalguarantees.Myarticle shedslightonthehistoryofgenderdissidenceandtransidentities,notasalinear “repressiontoacceptance”modelbutasoneofofficialracializedcooptationand bottom-upresistancetodefinitions.Howwhite,upper/middle-class,anddepoliticized respectabilitystandardsshapedtheportrayalofacceptabletransness,howgender dissidentsredefinedandembodiedadiverse,politicallyactivetransness,andhowthe anti-apartheidleftusedtransnesstodiscredittheNationalistsasgrotesqueshapedthe sentimentsandimaginariesofgenderdissidence.Fromthesehistoriesarisethe landscapeofcultureandsocialpoliciesaboutgenderdissidence,race,andrespectability politicsintoday’sSouthAfrica.Movingforward,humanrightsandqueerliberation advocatesmustconsidertheportrayalofqueernesswithattentiontorace,class,andthe potentialforbottom-upresistance.
Image1
Screenshotfromtheinterview“SouthAfrica:WomanWhoHadSexChangeIsNow HappilyMarried;InterviewWithMrAndMrsAshley,”1965,showingMelanie(left) andhersisterdoinglaundry
Image2
Screenshotfrom“HeartacheofSex-OpBride,”1978
Image3
“Kewpie(right)andBrianKiss,”1960
Image4
“Kewpie,Brigitte,Margaret,andtheSeapointGirlsOutsideaDemolishedBuilding,” 1950
Image5
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