EchoesfromaEugenicPast:ForcedSterilizationandtheSearchforReparationsforIncarcerated
PersonsinCalifornia
Introduction
Forcedsterilizationhasbeenalong-standingviolationofhumanrights,withdocumented casesoccurringworldwide.IntheUnitedStates,suchviolationshavebeencommittedagainst incarceratedpersons,withCalifornia(CA)beingoneofmanyoffenders.From2005to2013,up to144incarceratedindividualswereinvoluntarilysterilizedundertheoversightoftheCalifornia DepartmentofCorrectionsandRehabilitation(CDCR)inthestate’sprisons.Whilethe Californiastategovernmenthasestablishedareparationsprogramforvictimsinordertoredress injustices,itseffectivenessisquestionablewithonlyasmallpercentageofapplicantsapproved asof2023.WiththeprogramsettoendinDecemberof2023,theurgencyofthesituation demandsacriticalassessmentofthecurrentreparationspolicy'seffectiveness.
Inordertoaddressthisissueand“transform”corrections,reformists,suchasCalifornia GovernorGavinNewsomandCDCRSecretaryJeffMacomber,havesuggestedthe establishmentofanewmodelforincarcerationdubbedthe“CaliforniaModel.”Focusingon rehabilitationand“safety”asitsprimarygoals,thismodelaimstotransformtheSanQuentin prison,aninstitutionwithanincrediblydarkpastthatincludesthesexualassaultofincarcerated peopleandthesiteofsterilizationofatleast600incarceratedpersonsbetween1909and1964, intoanisolatedcenterthathasbotheducationalandvocationalprogramsforincarcerated persons.Newsonclaimsthatsuchreformiststrategieswill,“disrupttheschool-to-prisonpipeline [and]endjuvenileimprisonment.”1 WhileNewsomexpressesthatthisefforttoredefine incarcerationwillbespearheadedbyanadvisorygroupofcriminaljustice,rehabilitation,and publicsafetyexperts—alongsideanundisclosednumberofformerlyincarceratedpeople—such modelspromptustoquestionwhetherthesestrategiestrulyworktoaddressongoinginjustice
1 StateofCalifornia,GovernorNewsomAnnouncesHistoricTransformationofSanQuentinStatePrison,March 2023,https://wwwgovcagov/2023/03/17/san-quentin-transformation/
andhumanrightsviolationswithinprisons.Forexample,thosehousedatSanQuentincurrently willnotbeengrainedintotherehabilitationprogram,butratheroutsourcedandrehousedatother prisonswithinCalifornia—effectivelyshowingthatthepunitivesystemofincarcerationwillnot changedrastically 2
Withsuchreformistmeasuresbeingtheprimesourceofaddressingabuse,thisprompts ustoquestionwhethersuchstrategiestrulyworktotransformthecriminaljusticesystem,or simplyserveasaretrofittedmeasuretotemporarilyquellviolencewithinprisonwalls.However, toachievetruechangeandthefullprotectionofhumanrightsforincarceratedpersons,we shouldbeginreframinghow"reparations"aredefinedandapproachedinconversationwith carceralsystems/logic.Ratherthanoperatingintheformoflimitedcompensationforvictims, adoptinganabolitionistperspectiveonreparationspolicyanddismantlingsystemsof incarcerationinCaliforniamustbethekeygoalofthestate’seffortstochangepunitivesystems ofabuse.Anabolitionistapproachtoreparationspolicywouldentailworkingtostructurally addresssystemicissuesthatallowforcriminalization,incarceration,andforcedsterilizationto persistwhileprovidingreparationsforvictimsintheformoffullcompensationthatgoesbeyond monetaryredressofmedicalandlegalcosts/damages.Thisnewmodelshouldencompass restitutionandprovidepsychologicalassistanceandsupport,spaceswheresurvivorscan documentsuchatrocitiesthroughoralhistoriesanddismantlecarceralinstitutions.Suchamodel should,thus,envisionchangeforthefutureandcenterprisonabolitiontoensurethatviolations donotoccuragain.
ThroughtheexaminationofCalifornia’songoingreformistmeasuresregarding corrections,thisresearcharguesthatCalifornia'scurrentreparationspolicyfallsshortof
2 StateofCalifornia,GovernorNewsomAnnouncesHistoricTransformationofSanQuentinStatePrison,March 2023,https://wwwgovcagov/2023/03/17/san-quentin-transformation/
adequatelyaddressingtheharmscausedbyinvoluntarysterilizationandexaminestheroleofkey actorssuchasGovernorNewsomandSecretaryMacomberinchangingthediscourse surroundingcorrectionsandwaystomovetowardanabolitionistapproachthatactivist organizationssuchasCriticalResistanceOaklandandJusticeLAutilize.Tosupportthis argument,thisresearchwillexplorethehistoryofinvoluntarysterilizationinprisons,thecurrent reformistmeasuresoftheCaliforniagovernment,andre-shapesuchmeasuresthatdefine reparationsthroughanabolitionistframeworkthatpullsinspirationforUNdocumentationfor thepromotionoftruth,justice,reparationandguaranteesofnon-recurrenceandtheInternational CovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights(ICCPR).
TheHistoryofSterilizationintheU.S.PrisonSystem
Systemsofincarceration,eugenics,andforcedsterilizationhavehistoricallybeen interwovenpracticessincethegenesisoftheeugenicsmovement.Beginninginthelatter1800s, crimeanalysisand“inherentcriminality”servedasprominenttheoriestiedtocreatinga“master race”thatcenteredonwhiteness,heteronormativity,thestrengthof“good”genes,andthe erasureofembodieddifference.SuchtheoriesbouncedacrossAmerica’sintellectualcircles, directlyimpactingpolicies,laws,andproceduresaimedtocontrolreproductionandmonitorthe country’spopulation.AshistorianEdwinBlackmentions,thecriminaljusticesystemwasnot immunetosuchinfluencesas“crimeanalysismovedraceandethnichatredintotherealmof heredity.Throughoutthelatter1800s,crimewasincreasinglyviewedasagroupphenomenon, andindeedaninheritedfamilytrait.Criminologistsandsocialscientistswidelybelievedinthe recentlyidentified“criminaltype.”3 Tofurtherillustratetheinterconnectednatureofeugenics
3 EdwinBlack,“America'sNationalBiology,”in War Against the Weak: Eugenics and America's Campaign to Create a Master Race (Washington,DC:DialogPress,2012),p 23
andincarceration,weturntowardtheworkofRichardDugdale,anexecutiveoftheNewYork PrisonAssociationin1874.
Throughhispseudo-scienceresearch,Dugdaleconsultedgenealogiesfrom42families whosebloodlineswere“heavilycomprisedofcriminalsandpaupers”—disparagingthehuman qualitiesofthesefamiliesbutultimatelyrejectingnotionsofheredityandevencallingone womanknownasMargaretthe“motherofcriminals.”4 ThoughDugdalecautionedagainstthe useofhisstatisticaldatatospurfalseconclusions,hisworkonthestudyofcrimeandheredity wasquicklyhailedacrossthenationandhailedasproofofhereditarydefectthatspawned criminalityandpoverty—despitehimconcludingcriminalitywasnothereditary.Leadingto respectedfigures,atthetime,suchasRobertFletcher,presidentoftheAnthropologicalSociety ofWashington,tocointhephrase“thetaintisintheblood.”Dugdale’sresearchwasthefirst,but ultimatelynotthelastinalonglineofliteraturethattargetedheredityandsocialdegeneration. LeadingsocialprogressivesacrosstheUnitedStatesnowsawcrimeandpovertyasinherited defectsthatneededtobehaltedforsociety’ssake,andcombinedwithwidespreadracism,class prejudice,andethnichatredthatalreadyexisted,itcreatedabreedinggroundforthefieldof eugenicsandneedtocontrolreproductionthroughsterilizationsandforcedinstitutionalization.
FollowingsuchdiscoursesacrossU.S.intellectualcirclescametheemergenceoflaws thatendorsedsterilization,suchastheSupremeCourtdecisionof Buck v Bell in1927.Inavote of8to1,thisdecisionaffirmedtheconstitutionalityofVirginia’slawallowingstate-enforced sterilizationof“inmatesofpublicinstitutions.”5 ThecasefollowedtheBuckfamily,specifically CarrieBuck,awomanwhowascommittedtotheVirginiaStateColonyforEpilepticsandwas
4 EdwinBlack,“America'sNationalBiology,”in War Against the Weak: Eugenics and America's Campaign to Create a Master Race (Washington,DC:DialogPress,2012),p 24
5 Buckv.Bell,274U.S.200(1927),1927, https://supremejustiacom/cases/federal/us/274/200/#tab-opinion-1931809
orderedtobesterilizedfollowingapregnancythatresultedfromsexualassaultandrape.Her mother,beingcommittedtoaninstitutionherself,wasalsodeemed‘defective.’Lawyersinthis casespecificallyutilizedeugenicbeliefsofinheritedfeeblemindednessanddefectiveness evidenceforthejustificationofforcedsterilizationforthe“greatergood”ofpreservingsociety Inaninfamousdecision,JudgeOliverWendelHolmesdeclared,“Threegenerationsofimbeciles isenough.”ThelawitselfwasnotrepealedinVirginiauntil1974,andnoformalapologywas giventovictimsuntil2002.However,tothisday, Buck v. Bell wasneverbeenexpressly overturned,eventhoughstatestatutesthatupheld Buck v. Bell havebeenrepealed.
FromthebeginningofCalifornia’ssterilizationlawenactedin1909,thestatewasthe leaderinthenumberofsterilizedindividuals—averagingabout20,000people.However,such trendscontinuetodayinthe21st century Between1997to2010,“Californiapaiddoctors $147,460toperformforcedsterilizationproceduresoninmates.Medicalstaffattheprison specificallytargetedpregnantinmatesand‘repeat’offenders,andcoercedthemintobeing sterilized.”6 Harkingbacktoeugenicbeliefsofinherentcriminalityandtheneedtocontrolthose whosegenesfostered“repeated”criminalbehaviors,itisclearthentrendsofthepastcontinueto influenceourfuture.EvenasrecentasNovember2020,fifty-sevenpeopleatanICEfacility werepressuredtoundergohysterectomies.Withcontinuedandongoingcasesofforced sterilizationandhysterectomiescontinuinglongaftertherepealingofeugeniclawsatthestate level,thispromptsustoquestionwhysuchatrocitiescontinuetopersistwithininstitutions.
Foundedonthebackboneofeugenicsandracism,carceralsystemsandinstitutionscannot separatetheirpastideologiesfromtheirpresentpractices.Reformistshavelonglookedtorepeal
6 BrennaEvans,TheLongScalpeloftheLaw:HowUnitedStatesPrisonsContinuetoPracticeEugenicsthrough ForcedSterilization,June7,2021, https://lawandinequality.org/2021/06/07/the-long-scalpel-of-the-law-how-united-states-prisons-continue-to-practiceeugenics-through-forced-sterilization/
harmfullawsandestablishnewlawstoprotecttherightsofthosewhoareincarceratedand institutionalized,yetwecontinuetoseeforcedsterilizations,sexualassault,abuse,andratesof incarcerationfailtodecrease.Inordertotrulydeconstructthecycleofviolencewithinthese institutions,anabolitionistapproachmustbetakentoaddresstherootofthiscycleofviolence. Inordertodoso,wemustdiscussrecentconditionswithinCaliforniaprisonsandthelong, exhaustivefightforreparationsfromthevictimsofforcedsterilization.
AttemptingReparationsandBarrierstoChange
Asof2023,upto144incarceratedpeople,amajorityidentifyingaswomen,were sterilizedbytuballigationsurgerybetween2005and2013.Theseprocedureswereboth unethicalandnonconsensualgiventhattheprocedureshadnottakenplaceinasettingconducive toinformedconsent.AsRothandAinsworthmention,“theprocedureswerenotrequiredfor women’shealth:Theprimarypurposeoftuballigationistoeliminatetheabilitytohavechildren, nottotreatanillness.7 Women,likewise,reportedthatdoctorsinthehospitalandprison pressuredthemtoundergosterilization.Inaninterviewwithsurvivor,KelliDillon,sherecalls theeventsthatledtoherforcedsterilizationattheCentralCaliforniaWomen’sFacilityin Chowchilla.At24,Kelliinitiallysoughtmedicalcaretobetreatedforanabnormalpapsmear resultandwastoldshecouldhavesurgicalcancer.Essentially,thiswouldbeasimpleprocedure toremovecancerouscellsthatdoesnottypicallyrequiresurgery.However,shewasfully anesthetizedandlearnedayearlaterthatshehadbeenunknowinglysterilized.
ThoughthesestatisticsandeventswereinvestigatedandconfirmedbytheCalifornia StateAuditorin2014,theCaliforniastategovernmentonlyaddressedtheincidentinDecember 7 RachelRothandSaraAinsworth,“‘IfTheyHandYouaPaper,YouSignIt’:ACalltoEndtheSterilizationof WomeninPrison,” Hastings Women’s Law Journal 26,no.1(2015):7–49, https://doiorg/https://wwwprisonpolicyorg/scans/Roth If They Hand You 1 15 2015pdf
2021throughthecreationofanewlawthatcreatedaForcedorInvoluntarySterilization CompensationProgram.Fortheprogram,GovernorNewsomaimsto“redresshistorical injustices.”
8 StartingJanuary1,2022,survivorsofthestate-sponsoredsterilizationareableto applyforcompensationthroughtheprogramthatiscurrentlyadministeredbytheCalifornia VictimCompensationBoarduntiltheendofDecember2023.ThestateofCaliforniahas providedasumof$4.5milliontobesplitamong“alleligibleindividualswhoapply,”alongwith $2millionforanoutreachprogramand$1millionopestablishmarkers/plaquesatsitesto acknowledgethesterilizationofthousandsofpeoplewhohavebeensterilizedinthestatfrom thebeginningofitseugeniclaws.Itisadditionallymentionedthatatleast600survivorsarestill aliveandeligibleforcompensation.
Establishedasanewlandmarklawthatprovidesreparationsintheamountofatleast $15,000persurvivorofstate-sponsoredforcedsterilization,Californiahasbecomethethirdstate inthenationtocompensatesurvivorsofeugenicsterilization,butitisalsothefirstto compensatesurvivorsofprisonsterilization.However,manysurvivorsfacebarrierstoreceiving thesereparationsduetoalackofaccesstoprisonrecords,“proof”offullsterilization,and extremelylowratesofapproval.AccordingtotheAssociatedPress,“thestatehasapprovedjust 51peopleforpaymentsoutof310applicants…stateofficialshavedenied103people,closed threeincompleteapplications,andareprocessing153others—buttheysayit’sdifficulttoverify applicationsasmanyrecordsweredestroyedorlost.”9 Withashort,one-yeartimelinetosearch
8 StateofCalifornia,GovernorNewsomAnnouncesHistoricTransformationofSanQuentinStatePrison,March 2023, https://wwwgovcagov/2023/03/17/san-quentin-transformation/https://doiorg/https://wwwprisonpolicyorg/scans/ Roth If They Hand You 1 15 2015pdf
9 AdamBeam,“CaliforniaTryingtoFind,CompensateSterilizationVictims,”APNEWS,January6,2023, https://apnews.com/article/politics-health-california-state-government-prisons-b560ec0a0155d8cc13730310e1073d9 d
forsurvivors,apply,andthenreceivereparations—itbegsthequestionastowhysuchashort windowhasbeengivenforallvictimsofforcedsterilization.
Asthelawtouchesonprovidingreparationsfortwogroups:thosesterilizedbythe governmentduringtheeugenicsmovementandthosewhoweresterilizedinstateprisons.With nearly50yearsspanningtheeugenicsmovement(accordingtoCalifornia’sbenchmark)and beingthestatewithoneofthehighestratesofforcedsterilizations,itisinterestingtoseehow suchatightdeadlinecouldworkgiventhatrecordsfromstate-runinstitutionsarenotdigitized andhavebeenlargelydestroyedfollowingthedeinstitutionalizationmovement.Applicantsalso expressedconcernwiththeintricaciesoftheapplication,forexample,twotransmenreported beingdeniedreparationsbecausetheirsterilizationswereonlyconsideredpartialandnot full—despitepregnancycomplications.10 Onceanapplicationisfilledoutforreparations,the applicanthasamaximumof30daystoappealiftheyaredeclined—howevermanyapplicantsdo notreceivetheletterwithin30days.Assurvivorscontinuetoexpresstheirconcernswiththe applicationprocessforreparations,emergingreformiststrategiestoredresstheseinjustices continuetoemergefromCalifornia.However,suchstrategiescontinuetoproveineffectiveand havehistoricallyreliedonthe‘rehabilitativeideal,’showingushowstrategiessuchasthose beingcarriedoutinCaliforniasimplyreframeincarcerationthatcomportswiththeverypunitive facetsofrehabilitativepenology.
ReformistStrategiesforRedressingInjusticesonIncarceratedPeople
The2014reportconductedbytheCaliforniaStateAuditor,suggestedthenecessary steps/recommendationsfortheviolationofthehumanrightsprotectionagainstforced
10 VictoriaLaw,Sterilizationsurvivorswhowonreparationsnowfaceanotherchallenge-gettingit,January4,2023, https://wwwthenationcom/article/society/sterilization-survivors-reparations-california/
sterilizationforincarceratedpeopleinCaliforniaprisons.ThoughthestateofCaliforniawas heavilyresponsibleforthesehumanrightsviolations,theauditor'sreportsuggestsalternative approachestoensuringconsentisfullygiventhroughfurtherpolicingofprisonmedicalstaff ratherthanaddressingthecarceralsystemthatstripsconsent.Examplesofrecommendationsvia theauditorinclude:
(1) ProvidingadditionaltrainingtoprisonmedicalstaffregardingTitle22requirementsfor obtaininginformedconsentforsterilizationprocedures…toensureconsentislawfully obtained.
(2) Developingchecklistsorothertoolsthatprisonmedicalstaffcanusetoensuremedical proceduresarenotscheduleduntilaftertheapplicablewaitingperiodsforsterilization.
(3) Periodicallyreviewing…asampleofcasesinwhichinmatesreceivedtreatmentresulting insterilizationatgeneralacutecarehospitalstoensureinformedconsentrequirements weresatisfied.
(4) Traintheentiremedicalstaffonproperdocumentationininmates’medicalrecords.
(5) Developameansbywhichprisonmedicalstaffs’documentationininmaterecordsis evaluatedandretrainmedicalstaffasnecessary 11
Acommontrendamonggovernmentalorganizationsistheinherentneedtoreformbroken systemsasaresponsetoongoingandpersistenthumanrightsviolations.California’sauditor’s reportisnoexception—eachrecommendationnotonlyrequiresadditionalpolicingand surveillancebutdoeslittletomitigateorstopsterilizationsasawholewithinprisons.Instead,the dictionwithintheauditor’sreportsuggeststhatthemainissueto“solve”issolelythelackof informedconsent,whichisnotthecase.
11 CaliforniaStateAuditor,SterilizationofFemaleInmates:SomeInmatesWereSterilizedUnlawfully,and SafeguardsDesignedtoLimitOccurrencesoftheProcedureFailed,2014, https://wwwauditorcagov/pdfs/reports/2013-120pdf,p 4-5
Theissue,here,cannotsolelybeframedasajudgmentonthecapacityoragencyof incarceratedpeopletomakedecisionsregardingtheirbodies/bodilyautonomy.Animportant elementofreproductivejusticeandtherighttoself-determinationdoinvolvetheimportanceof informedconsent,butitduallyshouldrecognizethatincarceratedpeoplearestructurally vulnerabletocoercioninprisons.Incarceratedpeoplearefullhumansthatcanseebeyond immediatecircumstancesandarecapableofconsentingtomedicalcare,butthecontextinwhich thesterilizationofincarceratedpeopletakesplaceiscoerciveandinvasive.Prisonsareconstant sitesofretraumatizationandharm—routinepatsearches,stripsearches,ongoingsexualassault, andviolencetriggermemoriesoftraumaandabuse.AsRothandAinsworthmention,“Prison rulesandpersonnelcontrolalmosteveryaspectofwomen’slivesanddailyroutines—fromwhat toweartowhatfemininehygieneproductstouse.Prisonsarepunitive,arbitrary,degrading places.Inthisenvironment,trulyvoluntaryandinformedconsenttotheirrevocablelossof procreativecapacityisnotrealistic.”
12 Duetosuchsurveillanceandlackoftrueinformed consentinsuchinstitutions,itpromptsustoquestionwhetherreparationswithoutabolitionare trulyenoughtoredressharm.Asmanysurvivorsofforcedsterilizationmention,monetary redressisnotenoughtoundothedehumanizing,traumatic,andviolentactsinflicteduponthem andcountlessotherswithintheseinstitutions.
Ultimately,thepracticeofsterilizingincarceratedpeople,whetherintentionallycoercive ornot,takesplaceagainstthebackdropsofbothmassincarcerationandinstitutionalizationwith thelonghistoryofforcedsterilizationattheforefront—aeugenichistorythathasalways disproportionatelyimpactedpoorpeopleandwomenofcolorintheUnitedStates.Suchhistories andenvironmentofcoercioninprisonswere,additionally,notaddressedineitherthe2021
12 RachelRothandSaraAinsworth,“‘IfTheyHandYouaPaper,YouSignIt’:ACalltoEndtheSterilizationof WomeninPrison,” Hastings Women’s Law Journal 26,no.1(2015):7–49, https://doiorg/https://wwwprisonpolicyorg/scans/Roth If They Hand You 1 15 2015pdf,p 12
reparationsannouncementorthe“CaliforniaModel”plandevisedbyGovernorNewsomand SecretaryMacomber.Marketedasaplanto“transformcriminaljusticeinCalifornia,”themodel aimstoworkwithpartnersfromCalifornia’scriminaljusticereformcommunitytoringinanew eraofcorrections.13 Withthesemildlydystopiansentiments,theCaliforniaModelaimstoplace ‘rehabilitation’attheforefrontofitswork—transformingtheSanQuentinStatePrisonintothe SanQuentinRehabilitationCenter.Thoughtheactoftransformingasiteofharmandtraumainto aplaceofcareisalreadycontroversial,mainlyduetoitspotentialtore-traumatizeformerly incarceratedpeopleatthesesiteswhichcanleadtodevastatingpsychologicalconsequencesthat donotabidebyamodeloftrulyachievingholisticcareandimprovethewell-beingof incarceratedpeople,this‘rehabilitative’modelisduallyconcerning.
RehabilitativepenologyhaslargelyshapedtheAmericancriminaljusticesystem.Guided bythephilosophythatpunishmentshouldreformandequipincarceratedpersonstolead ‘law-abiding’lives,systemsofmassincarcerationthatarebotholdandnew,suchasthe CaliforniaModel,repackageeugenicideologiesinordertoparsethroughwhichbodymindsare ‘worth’rehabilitationandwhicharenot.AsAnthonyGrassomentions,“manystatesused criminalbehaviorasareferencepointtojustifysterilization,andrehabilitativepenologyhelped facilitateeugenicists’repressionof“incorrigible”criminals.Thiscaseis[an]exampleofhowthe ideasofrehabilitativepenologycanbeusedbycoalitionschampioningexclusionarypoliticsand abusivepolicies.14 Asameansforsegregation,rehabilitativemodelsofreformpositthatonly certainlivesaredeservingofcareandreintegrationoverothers—outrightdevaluingthelivesof individualsdeemedtoo“deviant.”Thisisquiteevidentthroughthere-placementofincarcerated
13 KrissiKhokhobashvili,“CaliforniaModelWillTransformCorrections,”InsideCDCR,April11,2023, https://wwwcdcrcagov/insidecdcr/2023/04/07/the-california-model-will-transform-corrections/
14 Grasso,Anthony.“BrokenBeyondRepair:RehabilitativePenologyandAmericanPoliticalDevelopment.” Political Research Quarterly 70,no 2(2017):p 397
peopleatSanQuentintootherprisonsinorderto‘makespace’forthosedeservingof rehabilitation.Rehabilitativemodels,likewise,placeblameandresponsibilitysolelyonthe individualfortheirbehavioror‘potential’forrehabilitationratherthaninterrogatingthesystemic issuesthatdisadvantageanddiscriminate,whichleadsustoquestionwhatpoliciesand proceduresshouldbeinplacetoachievetrueredressofinjusticesthatincarceratedpeopleface consistentlywithinprisons.
ReimaginingReparationsThroughAbolitionandInternationalHumanRights Mechanisms
AfterexaminingthecurrentbarrierstoreceivingreparationsthroughCalifornia’sreform measuresandattempttoredresspastinjustices,it’sclearthatsuchmodelsforreparationshave failedoncountlessmeasures.AccordingtotheSpecialRapporteurontruth,justice,and reparation,insituationswheretherehavebeengrossviolationsofhumanrights,suchasthatin thecaseofforcedsterilizationinCalifornia,measuresmustbeadoptedtoguaranteetruth, justice,reparation,memory,andguaranteeonnon-recurrence.Suchmeasuresinclude,butare notlimitedto:
(1) Ensureaccountabilityandservejustice;
(2) Promotetruthandmemoryaboutpastviolations;
(3) Provideremediestovictims;
(4) Reformthenationalinstitutionalandlegalframeworkandpromotetheruleoflawin accordancewithinternationalhumanrightslaw,andrestoreconfidenceintheinstitutions oftheState;
(5) Ensuresocialcohesionand…inclusivenessatthenationalandlocallevels,andpromote healingandreconciliation;
(6) Preventtherecurrenceofcrisesandfutureviolations.15
Whenwalkingthroughtherequirementtoachievetruereparation,wenoticethatCalifornia’s reparationspolicyfallsshortincountlessareas.Atthismomentintime,onlyalimitednumberof individualshavebeenapprovedforreparations,bringingintoquestionwhetherjusticehasbeen achieved.Thelimitedscope/timelineforclaimingreparationsadditionallyquestionsifremedies arefullyavailabletoallvictims.Asidefromtheestablishmentofthereparationsprogramandthe ‘CaliforniaModel’ofrehabilitation,concreteactionstowardhighlightingthenarrativesand voicesofsurvivorstopromotetruthandmemoryofthesepastviolationshavenotyetbeen established.
Withsuchlittlepromotionofsurvivors’voices,approvedreparationsapplications,or deepsystemicchangeofthecarceralsystemwithinCalifornia,wecanconfirmthatsocial cohesion,healing,reconciliation,orevenpropersafeguardshavenotbeenestablishedtoprevent suchhumanrightsviolationsfromoccurringonceagain.Thoughonecouldarguethatthe Californiastategovernmentincreating‘landmark’stridesinreformingincarceration,such reformscontinuetoharkbacktoeugenicdiscoursesandideologiessimplybecausethecarceral stateitselfhasbeenbuiltuponpunitivesystemsofsegregationandabuse.Thus,reformthat preventstherecurrenceofcrisisandfutureviolationsisnotpossibleunlessanabolitionist frameworkisadopted,alongsidereparationsthatpromoteoralhistories,narratives,survivor discourses,andinvolvementinchangingsuchsystemsofviolence.Itisonlywhenwestriveto understandtheunderlyingcausesofsuchviolationsthatwecanbegintoaddressinjustice.
15 OHCHR,Specialrapporteurontruth,justiceandreparation,December15,2022, https://wwwohchrorg/en/special-procedures/sr-truth-justice-reparation-and-non-recurrence
Pullingfromactiveabolitionist,grassrootsorganizationsinCalifornia,wemaybegin discussingwayssuchframeworkscanshapeournewpoliciesandproceduresregardingthe carceralstateintheUnitedStates.OrganizationssuchasCriticalResistance(CR)andJusticeLA, aimtodismantletheprisonindustrialcomplex(PIC)thathashistoricallyoppressedcommunities throughtheuseofsurveillance,policing,andimprisonmentassolutionstoeconomic,social,and politicalproblems.AsmentionedbyCR,“abolitionisn’tjustaboutgettingridofbuildingsfull ofcages.It’salsoaboutundoingthesocietyweliveinbecausethePICbothfeedsonand maintainsoppressionandinequalitiesthroughpunishment,violence,andcontrolsmillionsof people.BecausethePICisnotanisolatedsystem,abolitionisabroadstrategy.Anabolitionist visionmeansthatwemustbuildmodelstodaythatcanrepresenthowwewanttoliveinthe future.”16 Suchpracticalstrategiesandtoolsshouldnothavetheultimategoalofreformor “reimaginingcorrections”likeGovernorNewsomandSecretaryMacomberenvision,insteadwe must:
(1) Establishandapplyamethodologytocalculatelocaljailandprobationsavingsfrom currentandprojectedpopulationreductionsandreportonprojectedplanstospendthe anticipatedstate-leveljusticeallocations;
(2) Establishandapplyamethodologytoensureappropriatefundsaredirectedtoward community-based,ownedandoperatedcrime,violenceandrecidivismprevention programs;
(3) Establishandapplyamethodologytoensuretransparencyandcommunity engagementindeterminingprioritiesforspendingallocations,includingcommunity representationondecision-makingbodiesthatensuretheinclusionofindividualswho
16 “CROakland,”CriticalResistance,nd,https://criticalresistanceorg/our-chapters/cr-oakland/
havebeenpersonallyimpactedbydetentionandincarcerationthroughtheirownor familyinvolvement.17
Untilincarcerationends,communitiesimpactedmostbycarceralinstitutionswillnotbetruly safe.Insteadofallocatingfundstowardreformingprisonsinto‘rehabilitation’centers,such fundsshouldbeinvestedintocommunity-basedservicesandprogramsshapedaroundinclusive programsthatprotecttherightsofthosethatutilizesuchservices.Followingthedestructionof prisons,systemsofcareandsupportthatemergepost-destructionofcarceralsystemsmustbe shapedbyvaluesthatguaranteetheprotectionofhumanrights.Tore-imaginesuchpoliciesand inspiretheemergenceofrights-focusedsystems,wemayturntoArticles(7)and(1)ofthe ICCPRwhichprioritizestherightofself-determinationwhichissooftenstrippedfrom incarceratedpersonsandemphasizesthatnooneshallbesubjectedtocruelordegrading treatmentandpunishment.18 UsingthesearticlesfromtheICCPR,theSpecialRapporteuron truth,justice,andreparation’sguidelinesonaddressinghumanrightsviolations,andframeworks fromgrassrootsorganizationsintheU.S.dedicatedtoabolition,wecanbeginformingpolicies andpracticesthatachievetrueredressandpreventfutureviolationsbymovingtowardprison abolition.
Conclusion
TheissueofforcedsterilizationinCalifornia'sprisonsisadeeplyconcerningviolationof humanrightsthathasoccurredthroughouthistory.Despiteeffortstoestablishareparations programforvictims,theeffectivenessofsuchaprogramisquestionable,anditissettoendin Decemberof2023.RecentreformistmeasuresinCalifornia'scriminaljusticesystem
17 JusticeLA,FightingtheL.A.countyjailexpansion,n.d.,https://justicelanow.org/.
18 OHCHR,InternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights,1966, https://wwwohchrorg/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/international-covenant-civil-and-political-rights
spearheadedbyGovernorNewsomandSecretaryMacomber,suchastheproposed"California Model,"haveyettoprovetheireffectivenessinaddressingongoinginjusticeandhumanrights violationsinprisonsthatrevolvearoundabuseandforcedsterilizationswithinthestate.While the2021announcementofreparationsforsurvivorsofforcedsterilizationinCaliforniaprisonsis asteptowardsacknowledgingandredressingpastharm,itisnotenoughtofullyaddressthe systemicissuesofhumanrightsviolationswithintheprisonindustrialcomplex.The recommendationsmadebytheCaliforniaStateAuditorin2014toensureinformedconsentfor sterilizationprocedures,additionally,involvepolicingandsurveillanceofprisonmedicalstaffas theprimarysolutionwithoutaddressingthecoerciveandinvasivecontextofprisons—meaning thelackoftrueinformedconsentinsuchinstitutionsmakesitdifficulttoachievereproductive justiceandtherighttoself-determinationforincarceratedpeople.TheCaliforniaModelplan, marketedasawayto"transformcriminaljusticeinCalifornia"througharehabilitativeapproach, raisesconcernsaboutre-traumatizingformerlyincarceratedpeopleandre-packagingeugenic ideologiesthatdevaluethelivesofcertainindividuals.Trueredressofinjusticesfacedby incarceratedpeoplewithinprisonsrequiresanexaminationofsystemicissuesandpoliciesthat disadvantageanddiscriminateagainstthem.
Totrulytransformthecriminaljusticesystemandprotectthehumanrightsof incarceratedpersons,itisnecessarytoadoptanabolitionistperspectivefromnon-profit grassrootsorganizationssuchasCROaklandandJusticeLA,tore-writereparationspolicyand dismantletheprisonindustrialcomplex.Suchanapproachgoesbeyondmonetarycompensation forvictimsandrequiresthedismantlingofthesystemsofincarcerationthatallowforsystemic issuessuchascriminalization,incarceration,andforcedsterilizationtopersist.Suchreparations shouldprioritizerestitution,psychologicalassistance,andsupportforsurvivors,alongwiththe
promotionoftruth,justice,andguaranteesofnon-recurrence,asproposedbytheUN.An abolitionistapproachtoreparationspolicyrecognizesthattheharmscausedbyinvoluntary sterilizationextendfarbeyondthephysicalandfinancialcostsincurredbyvictims.Redressmust acknowledgethepsychologicaltraumathatsurvivorsfaceandthebroadersocial,political,and historicalcontextandrequiresacommitmenttodismantlingthestructuresandsystemsthat perpetuatetheseinjusticesandbuildingalternativemodelsofjusticethatprioritizethewell-being anddignityofallindividuals.ThoughCalifornia'scurrentreparationspolicyfallsshortof adequatelyaddressingtheharmscausedbyinvoluntarysterilizationinprisons,theadoptionofan abolitionistapproachthatcentersonprisonabolitionandjustreparationsmustbeadoptedto transformthecriminaljusticesystemandprotectthehumanrightsofincarceratedpersons.
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