ChallengestoQueerLiberation:LLEGÓandthePressurestoConformintheFaceofAIDS
Often,thepossibilityofimprovementbymeansofinclusionisenoughtoabandonoppositionto thesystemthatsubjugatesallofusinsome(thoughgreatlyvarying)capacity.Understoodas
assimilationism,thisphenomenonoperatesonanarrowframeworkthat“strivesfor respectability,acceptance,prestige,andmonetarysuccessoncapitalism’sterms”1byadvocating forincorporationinto–ratherthananimprovementof–systemsthatgovern.Incontrast,those whoremaincommittedtoaliberatedfuturelaboragainstallformsofoppression–ratherthan thatwhichdirectlyaffectsthem–seektransformativechangedisentangledfromcapitalistnorms.
Inacommunityself-definedasqueer,2awordthatmarksadivergencefromthatwhichis conceivedas“normal,”howmightwemakesenseofthequeerMovement’s3strayfrom liberationistideals,oncethoughtofasingrainedinqueeridentity,towardsassimilationistaims thatendatrightstomarriage,adoption,andmilitaryservice?Ratherthanmobilizingtodisrupt systemsofoppression,theMovement,throughoutthe80sanduptothepresentday,haslargely embraced“equalitymeasuresthathidebehindassimilation…inthenameofinclusion, commodifyingqueerness,andotherwisereproducingthecapitaliststatusquo.”4Queertheorists holdthistransformationtohavebeen“aidedbyasingle-issuearticulationofqueerpolitics"5in whichhomophobiaissituatedasthesolesourceofoppressionqueerpeoplemustuniteand
1CameronMcKenzie,“QueerLiberationTheory:AGenealogy,” Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics,2020, https://doiorg/101093/acrefore/97801902286370131193,1
2Theword“queer”throughoutthisessayreferstoanyoneidentifyingasLGBTQ+
3Movement,asopposedtomovement(s),referstothenational,mainstreamqueerMovement
4McKenzie,“QueerLiberation,”12
5RoderickA.Ferguson, One-Dimensional Queer (Medford,MA:PolityPress,2019),5. 2 mobilizefor,castingthosewithvariedstrugglesouttoconstructauniform,marketable, Movement.Thus,post-Stonewall,queerpeopleofcolorhavefacedvaststrugglesintheeffortto be(re)includedintheMovement,andtodosoinawaythatcenterstheintersectingidentities theyaredoublyortriplyoppressby.Foundedoutofthe1987MarchonWashingtonforGayand
LesbianRights,theNationalLatina/oLesbianandGayOrganization(LLEGÓ)workedtodisrupt theassimilationistgoalsofanincreasinglyuniformMovement,employingaliberationist frameworktoreassertthebelongingofqueerLatine6peopleandtoorganizeacrossracial,class, andgenderdivides.Eventually,inanefforttocombattheneglectofthequeerLatinecommunity inthefaceoftheHIV/AIDS7crisis,LLEGÓevolvedintoyetanotheragentoftheoppressive systemitoncedetested.TracingLLEGÓ’shistory,onemarkedbyliberatoryactivismthwarted bygovernmentinsufficiencies,theorganization'ssuccesses–andfailures–canbeunderstoodas representativeofchallengesfacedbyqueerorganizationsinfightingforaliberatedfuture.
Additionally,LLEGÓ’sreorientationtowardsAIDSprogramminganditssubsequentfailure illuminatestheramificationsofAmericanneoliberalismandcomplicatestheMovement’s trajectoryasasimplerefusaltorejectnormativity.
Ratherthanoperatingindependentlyofthevariousanti-oppressioncampaignsofthe60s and70s,thequeerliberationmovementthatemergedfromtheStonewallRebellionaimedto carryoutamissionof“connectingthatstruggletothenetworkofinsurrections[developing]all overtheUS,anetworkmadeupoffeminist,anti-capitalist,anti-racist,andanti-war movements.”8Thequeerliberationmovementlaboredtowardsa“totalconceptionofhuman emancipation,”9aliberatoryaimthatwouldfadeascorporateAmericaidentifiedqueeridentity
6Latineisagender-neutralwordusedtorefertopeopleorcommunitiesofLatinAmericandescent.7 HIV/AIDSisshorthandforHumanImmunodeficiencyVirusInfectionandAcquiredImmuneDeficiency Syndrome
8Ferguson, One-Dimensional, 19
9Ibid,21
asanuntappedmarket.Withtheprogressionofthe80sand90s,thepressuretoappealto standardsofrespectabilityandcapitalistnormsgrew;itwasinthemidstoftheseexclusionary politicsthatLLEGÓwasfounded.Asqueeractivistsandorganizationsmadethemselvesknown,
hostingthreenationalmarchesacrossthe70s,80s,and90s,anddeclaringOctober11asNational ComingOutDay,10corporateAmericacametorealizethattheMovementwasnotgoing anywhere.Theremainderofthetwentiethcenturywouldbemarkedbyaneffortto“[transform] homosexualityintoamarket-worthyentity[as]awayofproducingandcapturingawhitegay nichemarket.”11Duetotheanti-capitalistvaluesthatliecentraltoliberation,theformationofa singular,unifiedMovementdidnotincludethoseinterestedinracialorclassjustice.Theroleof themediaandeffortstoincreasevisibilityexacerbatedtensionsbetweenthosewithdifferent visionsfortheMovement,assome“pushedforasharperfocusontheireconomics, professionalism,andrelationtothemedia,”12whilemanyqueerpeopleofcolorfoundthis alienatingandantitheticaltotheMovement’sonceliberatorygoals.AstheMovementgained momentum,activistsandorganizationscametoarticulatea“one-dimensionalnotionofgay communitygroundedinwhitenessandinwhiteconsumption,”13toselltosponsors,donors,and themassmedia.Theefforttobeseentransformedintoanefforttoappeal,anendeavorthat“was notonlyaboutmakingqueernessintosomethingmorerespectableandpalatableformainstream audiences,”but“alsoaboutseparatinggaypoliticsfromanti-racistandanti-capitalist radicalism.”14
Inresponsetothisexclusionaryeffort,LLEGÓ,translatingfromSpanishto“we’ve arrived,”emergedtoserveasthefirstorganizationtoadvocateforqueerLatinepeopleona
10 The March onWashingtonforGayandLesbianRightstookplacein1979,1987and1993;VickiLynnEaklor, Queer America: A People's GLBT History of the United States (New York, NY: New Press, 2011), 173, 187, 203 11Ferguson, One-Dimensional, 64
12Eaklor, Queer America, 187
13Ferguson, One-Dimensional,73
14Ibid,64
nationalstage.Thegroupworked“tobuildasupportnetworkthat[facilitated]sharingof informationandresourcesforandaboutlesbianLatinasandgayLatinosonlocal,regionaland
nationallevels.”15Creatingaforumforawarenessandanunderstandingofrelationships,legal rights,and“roleinnuestracomunidad,”16LLEGÓdivergedfromtheincreasinglyuniform Movementthatfashionedasingularconceptionofqueerstrugglespredicatedonthe abandonmentofcoalitionalpolitics.17TheorganizationworkedtoadvocateforqueerLatines,the broaderLatinecommunity,andthosewhosestruggleswererejectedfromtheincreasinglywhite, normativeMovement:thosewhosestrugglesincludedU.S.imperialisminLatinAmerica, immigrationpolicy,racism,education,andeconomicinequality,amongothers.LLEGÓandits liberatoryaimscanbeunderstoodasareturntotheintersectionalorganizingthatgavebirthto themodernMovement,anactofresistanceexemplifyingabraverefusaltoadheretonormative politics.
LLEGÓemployedaliberatoryapproachtorejectthehierarchiesimposedbythewhite co-optingofqueerliberationandtoassertthebelongingofLatinepeoplewithinthecommunity. Working“tocarveoutaspacetocreateanidentity,”inwhich“youcouldbegay,lesbian,and Latina/ointhesamesentence,”18LLEGÓ’seventsserved,formany,asthefirstplacetheywere abletocelebratetheiridentitiesfreefromguiltorshame.InanoralhistorygivenbyDennis Medina,oneofLLEGÓ’sfoundingmembers,hereflectsonthebailes19heldandsupportedby LLEGÓ:
Thebailesweresuccessfulbecausetheywereanalternativetothebarscene. Also,itwasthatspecialspaceforgayLatinosandlesbianLatinas.Wedidnot
15LATINO(A)LESBIAN&GAYORGANIZATION(LLEGO)FactSheet
16Ibid.
17Ferguson, One-Dimensional, 44
18UrielQuesada,LetitiaGomez,andSalvadorVidal-Ortiz, Queer Brown Voices Personal Narratives of Latina/o LGBT Activism (Austin,TX:UniversityofTexasPress,2015),77
19BailetranslatesfromSpanishto“dance”.
play only disco music. We played Mexican music— polkas, and cumbias too. It was our music, and you would get that nowhere else. There was nothing or
nobody in the gay and lesbian community whowasofferingthat.Wegavepeople whattheywereyearningfor,inasense.20
LLEGÓ’sbaileshelpedfacilitatethemergingofqueerandLatineculture,firsthostingevents thengivingothersthetoolstodothesame.Bailes,alongwithLLEGÓ’sotherculturally-oriented programming,21originatedfromthebeliefthateffectiveworkrequiredorganizersto“rootoutthe self-hatredandself-defeatingbehaviorsthatresultfrommultipleoppressions.”22Inaneffortto counterthe“feltracismnotjustfrompeoplebutalsowithinorganizationsandcommunity groups,”23LLEGÓpushedthelimitsofqueercultureasimposedbythelargelywhite, middle-classMovement.Theirgoverningbeliefthatculturalprideenablespeopletodo meaningfulworkchallengedthenotionthatimprovedconditionsrequireassimilationto heteronormativeideals,situatingLLEGÓinoppositiontotheMovement’sappealsto respectabilityandinclusion.
Buildinganationalnetworkofresources,LLEGÓutilizedtheintersectionaland coalition-buildingtacticstheMovementonceembracedtomobilizeagainstallformsof oppression.Withafoundinggoal“toeducateandsensitizeourselvesaswellasourLatina/oand non-Latina/ocommunitiesonsexism,racism,homophobia,discrimination,andotherissues,”24 LLEGÓworkedtoaddressglobalinequalitiesthroughcoalitionbuilding:anorganizingstrategy thatunitesactivistsofvariouscausestoabolishoppressioninallforms.LLEGÓ’sEncuentro Nacionalwasanembodimentofthismission:anannualconferencethatbroughttogether
20Quesada, Queer Brown,76
21OtherprogrammingincludedCulturaesVida(CEV)and“NoticiasdeLLEGO.”CEVwasaprogramthatworked toaddress“internalizedoppression”oneexperiencedasaqueerLatine LLEGÓ’s“NoticiasdeLLEGO”wasa bilingualmonthlynewsletterthatdeliverednews,AIDSserviceinformation,organizationupdatesandupcoming programmingtomembers;Quesada, Queer Brown, 63
22Ferguson, One-Dimensional, 64.
23Quesada, Queer Brown, 245
24Ibid., 158.
activistsfromaroundthecountryto“provideparticipantswithawiderangeofskillsindiverse areasincludingleadershipandpublicpolicy,theartsandhumanities,healthissues,resource developmentandfundraising.”25InhostingEncuentroNacional,LLEGÓbroughttogethera diverse“Latinocommunityworkingtochallengeracism,sexism,homophobiaandclass.”26The conference,alongwithLLEGÓ’sotherefforts,27servedinstarkcontrasttotheMovement’swork thatexclusivelyaimedtoaddresshomophobia.NotonlydidLLEGÓprovideawidevarietyof programming,butitdidsoincollaborationwithorganizationsfromacrosstheU.S.andPuerto Rico,28utilizingcoalitionstostrengthenthecommunity In“anattempttotranscendtothe divisivenessofsingle-issuepoliticswithoutsacrificingintersectionality,”29oneofthekeytenets ofliberationistwork,LLEGÓremainedsteadfastinitscommitmenttofightinjusticeonall frontsandtoensurethatqueerLatineactivism“notbelimitedto[the]participationinLGBT organizationsandcampaignsforLGBTrights.”30AstheMovementbecameincreasingly preoccupiedwithempoweringafeworganizationsappointedtospeakforallofthequeer community,LLEGÓ’sfocuswasonempoweringthepeopleofamovement,givingactiviststhe toolstofurtherliberatoryprojectsintheirowncommunities. AsLLEGÓworkedtoaddressissuesofimmigration,economicinequality,education,andpolicy, itseffortswerederailedbytheAIDSepidemic–bythedevastatingimpactofthedisease,but moresobythegovernment’sfailuretorespond.Notuntilthepassingofsixyearsandover4,000 lives31didPresidentRonaldReaganaddressthehealthcrisisfacingthenation;thisdidnot,
25Medina,Dennis.“NoticiasDeLLEGO,”May1991.https://www.houstonlgbthistory.org/misc-hispanic.html, 5.26Ibid.,13.
27By1992LLEGÓhadcollaboratedonvariousprojectswiththeNationalMinorityAIDSCouncil(NMAC)andthe BlackGay/LesbianLeadershipForum(BGLLF),amongothers Italsoworkedtocreateawomenofcolorcaucus withintheNationalOrganizationforWomen;Ibid,6
28LLEGÓworkedwiththeInternationalLesbian&GayAssociationandtheInternationalLesbianandGayPeople ofColor,hostingconferencesacrosstheUS andMexico;Medina,“Noticias,”4
29Ferguson, One-Dimensional, 3.
30Quesada, Queer Brown, 67.
31MarcStein, Rethinking the Gay and Lesbian Movement (NewYork,NY:Routledge,2023),174.
however,leadtoadequateredress.Instead,Reaganattackedsocialwelfare,pushing“asetof economicandsocialpolicieschampioningfiscalausterity,deregulation,privatization,and‘free trade”32thatwouldmarkthebeginningofAmericanneoliberalism.Concurrently,politicians coupledtheirattackonstatewelfarewiththeadvancementofanationalistnarrativecenteredon volunteerismandcommunitytocenternonprofitandcommunityorganizationsaspractical providersofsocialservices.33Thepromotionofcharityandcommunity-basedapproachesas solutionstotheinequalitiesderivedfromadvancingcapitalismcanbeunderstoodasaneffortto absolvethestateofresponsibilitytoitscitizens.34Forqueerandunderprivilegedcommunities, theemergenceofneoliberalismmarkedanincreaseddemandforhealthandsocialservice organizationstomeettheneedsthegovernmentchosenottoprovide.
AsthehealthcrisisworsenedandthenumberofidentifiedcasesintheUnitedStates surpassed100,000in1993alone,35theLatinecommunity’sneedsremainedlargelyunmet, forcingLLEGÓtore-formulateitsgoals.Thus,theorganizationbegantofocusonAIDS servicesandprogramming;organizerscreatedtheTechnicalAssistanceandTrainingonAIDS Project(TATA)tofacilitatepreventionprograms,targetingtheLatinecommunityandshifting
LLEGÓ’sEncuentroNacionaltohaveaprimaryfocusonthedisease.36Partneringwithlocal organizationstoimplementprogrammingintheirrespectivecommunities,LLEGÓworkedto developandequipqueerorganizationsacrossthecountry.Throughtheuseofworkinggroups,
32FundingcutsforCommunityDevelopmentBlockGrants(CDBG)andtheComprehensiveEmploymentand TrainingAct(CETA)wereafewwaystheReaganadministrationincreasedscarcityofsocialwelfareprograms; MyrlBeam, Gay, Inc : The Nonprofitization of Queer Politics (Minneapolis,MN:UniversityofMinnesotaPress, 2018),22,38
33Ibid.,24.
34Ibid,23
35“AidsamongRacial/EthnicMinorities--UnitedStates,1993.”CentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention.
36Quesada, Queer Brown, 165
conferences,andworkshops(LLEGÓ’sfrequentedcommunityorganizingstrategies)the organizationadoptedthreemaingoalsinregardtotheAIDSepidemic:
To provide a comprehensive bilingual, culturally competent forum for the discussion and examination of the impact of HIV/AIDS on the lesbian and gay Latina/o community. To strengthen the leadership skills of lesbian and gay Latinas/os in the field of Health and HIV/AIDS. To work towards a coordinated HIV/AIDS prevention and education strategy for the Latina/o lesbian and gay community.37
WithLatinesaccountingfor32%ofAIDScasesin199338andonlyfiveorganizationsacrossthe countryreceivingfundingtoservicethedisproportionatelyaffectedpopulation,39LLEGÓfelt obligedtostepup.AIDSServiceOrganizations(ASO)workedtoprovideeducationalprograms andchallengeAIDS-relateddiscrimination,however,manyassumedthatthoseinneedoftheir serviceswouldbereachedbytargeting“predominantlywhitegayinstitutionsandterritoriesand reliedonconcepts,terms,andimagesthatresonatedwithwhitegaymen.”40Atoddswiththe narrowframeworkemployedbymanyASOsand“[fighting]withwhiteorganizationsthat workedinHIVbecausetheywerenotcoveringtheneedsoftheLatina/ocommunity,”41 LLEGÓ’smembersembracedadefensivestrategy,organizingresponsestothehealthcrisisthe federalgovernmentandbroaderMovementneglected.
WhileLLEGÓwasabletoprovideAIDSservicestotheLatinecommunity,disproportionately affectedandfrequentlylow-income,itsreorientationtowardsaddressingthehealthcrisisforced memberstoabandonthepoliticalgoalsthegroupwasfoundedon.Theprecariousnatureof fundingforqueerorganizations–letalonequeerorganizationsofcolor–forcedthegrouptoturn tooneoftheonlysourcesofsupportitcouldsecure:CDC-grantedAIDS 37Medina,“Noticias,”6.
40Stein, Rethinking,187.
41Quesada, Queer Brown, 225.
programfunding.42OrracaParedes,alongtimeLLEGÓmember,recountsthechangesthat followed:“theorganizationlostcontactwithitsbasewhenitstartedtorespondtoitsfunders’ prioritiesinsteadofitscommunitymembers’andclients’needs.”43AsMedinadescribes, “everythingjustsortofvanished….wedidnothavetheluxuryanymoretoworryabout‘political stuff.”44Consequently,thepoliticalissuesthatoncedrovetheorganization’smissionhaddrifted fromLLEGÓ’swork;whileimpactful,AIDSprogrammingwasnevertheworkorganizers preparedtodo,leavingtheorganizationill-equippedtofilltheneedsleftunmetbytheMovement andfederalgovernment.By1995,justtwoyearsafterLLEGÓbeganreceivingCDC-granted funds,theorganizationhadoverspentby$50,000.45Itwasabletocontinueoperatingthroughthe supportofavarietyofdonors,46buthadtoterminateitsoperationsin2004,citinginsurmountable debt.Uponconcludingitsinvestigation,theU.S.DepartmentofHealthandHumanServices declaredthat“LLEGÓincurred$703,181inunallowablecosts:$379,022inunallowable expensesand$324,159inexpensesthatoccurredinapriorcooperativeagreementperiod.”47 ConsideringthemagnitudeofLLEGÓ’sfinancialcrisis,onecaninferthattheorganizationdid nothavetheinfrastructurerequiredtoexecutetheuseanddispersaloffederalfunds.
Thoughdisheartening,thistransformationwasnotuniquetoLLEGÓ,withorganizations (bothPOCandwhite-led)forcedtosupplementthefederalgovernment’sfailurestofund research,createeducationalefforts,andprovidehealthservicestoqueercommunities.48
42Quesada, Queer Brown,165
43Quesada, Queer Brown,263
44Ibid,83
45Ibid,166
46Whileinformationontheorganization’ssourcesoffunding(otherthantheCDC)isnotavailableinthearchive, QuesadarevealedthatLLEGÓreliedonamixofgovernmentandnon-governmentsourcedfunding;Ibid.,121. 47 “‘ReviewofGrantsIssuedtotheNationalLatina/oLesbian,Gay,BisexualandTransgenderOrganization,"
(A-03-05-00351),”HHS/OIG,audit-"reviewofgrantsissuedtotheNationalLatina/olesbian,gay,bisexualand transgenderorganization,"(a-03-05-00351),June29,2006,https://oighhsgov/oas/reports/region3/30500351htm 48“LLEGOInformacion,”July1993.
OrganizationalAIDSgrantsrequiredthatthedispersedfundsbeusedinspecificmanners, forcingmanytosimultaneouslyadapttothedemandsoftheircommunitiesandoftheir benefactors;whilesomewereabletosuccessfullymakethischange,manywerenot.LLEGÓ’s “evolutiontowardacorporate-likestructure”thatcontradictedthe“foundationalideasofservice andcommunityparticipation”49wasafatesharedbymanyothers.50Atthewillofagovernment divestingfromsocialwelfare,organizationsfoughteachotherforthelimitedresources,finding themselvesinternalizingandreplicatingthestructuresofdominationtheyoncesoughtto abolish.51AsFergusonexplains,“whenpeoplearestrugglingwithprecarity,theyarenot strugglingwiththestate,theydonothavethetimeortheenergytomakerevolutionary demands.”52Consequently,manyqueerorganizationscametoresemblesocialserviceproviders ratherthanactivistsastheydevotedalloftheirresourcestoaidthesurvivaloftheircommunities viathenonprofitstructure,bureaucratizingtomeetthestipulationsoffederalgrants.The depoliticizationandrelianceonfederalfundingpositionedonceliberatoryorganizations,like LLEGÓ,asanotherdependentofthestateitonceorganizedagainst.Outofnecessity,organizers assimilatedandneutralized,workingtofitthegovernment’svisionofqueeractivism: characterizedbycapital-drivengoalsandlimitedstateaccountabilityforthecountry’sgrowing inequality
LLEGÓanditshistoryareillustrativeofavarietyofchallengesfacedbyqueerorganizations thatbecame“beholdentofoundationfunders,corporatewealth,andindividualdonors.”53
WhileLLEGÓcertainlysucceededinadoptingandemployingliberatorypracticesthat soughtfreedomfromentangledcapitalist,racist,andhomophobicsystems,iteventually 49Quesada, Queer Brown, 263.
50OrganizationsthatunderwentsimilartransformationsincludetheBroadwayYouthCenter,GayActivists Alliance,GayLiberationFront,andtheGayCommunityServiceCenter;Beam, Gay Inc , 36,72 51 Quesada, Queer Brown,28.
52Ferguson, One-Dimensional,192
53Beam, Gay Inc , 194.
cametoresemblethecapital-orientedstructuresofpoweritworkedtodismantle.The organization’stransformationillustratesthedangersthatcomewhentheshiftismadetoan “overinvestmentin,andoverrelianceon,particularorganizations,ratherthananinvestmentand relianceonthe movement.”54 “Thebureaucratization,corporatization,andlossofpolitical mission”became“oneoftheearliestandmostimportantcommunityremknbsponsesto HIV/AIDS,”55asqueercommunitieswereforcedtofocusonanewtask:survival.Withthe responsibilityfallingonnonprofitsentangledinneoliberalistvalues,theworkbecame “fundamentallyantitheticaltoamulti-issue,anticapitalistpolitics—designed,asitis,tosustain andbuttresscapitalism.”56Asqueerorganizingofthe80sand90sadoptedtacticstoworkwithin thesystem,ratherthantransformingit,wecansituateLLEGÓ–initsfinalform–asacomplicit actor I,alongwithmanyoftheorganization’smembers,commendtheworkLLEGÓwasable toaccomplish;incritiquingitssurrendertoassimilationism,Iaimtocomplicatethenotionthat theMovement’sshiftfromliberationtoassimilationcanbeattributedtoanysingleactor To essentializeallpost-Stonewallqueeractivismasassimilationistwouldbetoneglectthe significantcontributionsmadebyorganizationsledbyqueerpeopleofcolor,whiletoclaimthat divergingfromtheMovementfreedthemofpressurestoconformwouldbenaive.Remaining cognizantofthevarietyofpressurestoconformallowsustoupholdourcommitmenttoabetter world–aworldinwhichweseekliberationfromthecruelforcesthatintersectwithandgo beyondqueerbeing.
54Beam, Gay Inc , 191
55Ibid.,41.
56Ibid,199
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