Human Trafficking and Forced Prostitution

Human Trafficking and forced prostitution: Western Europe WHY LEGALIZATION OF PROSTITUTION DOES NOT ELIMINATE TRAFFICKING FOR SEXUAL EXPLOITATION

Webster University INTL 5700/18, Human Trafficking José Miguel Roncero Martín

INDEX I. Human Trafficking and forced prostitution in and into Western Europe.

II. Corruption, inequality and wealth.

III. Possible explanations.

III.1 An easy business.

III.1.a Big profits, low risk.

III.1.b The Schengen Agreement.

III.1.c Vulnerable victims.

III.2 A big demand.

IV Conclusion.

V Bibliography.

I. HUMAN TRAFFICKING AND FORCED PROSTITUTION IN AND INTO WESTERN EUROPE Between 1999 and 2002 four European countries legalized and regulated prostitution. Austria and Switzerland have even longer relation with legal prostitution (notorious is the Austrian case), but Greece (1999), Hungary (1999), the Netherlands (2000) and Germany (2002) took the necessary steps to regulate and control prostitution about ten years ago. The arguments for such regulations were, among others1, to fight sexual exploitation, pimping and human trafficking; and to provide a safe, clean and healthy activity environment for both prostitutes and clients.

Each year, thousands of women are trafficked throughout the world into Western Europe: Germany, the Netherlands, Austria and Switzerland are main destinations for those trafficked women, who are force to work as unregistered, non-legal prostitutes. The passed laws regulate prostitution, turning it into self-employment, establishing taxes, safe work conditions, mandatory health controls... The humanitarian aim is turning the inevitable prostitution into a regulated, controlled activity.

Although the number of illegal prostitutes has been reduced in some cases, for instance the city of Vienna2, the problem of trafficked women for the purpose of sexual exploitation remains as the most common form of Trafficking in Persons (TiP) in Europe. In 2000, the European Parliament estimated the number of trafficked people into Western Europe in 500,000 per year. 3 According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), “sexual exploitation is by far the most commonly identified form of human trafficking (79%).�4 The same report stipulates national and regional trafficking as the most common one.5 In Western Europe trafficked women are either national ones (Germans in Germany, Dutch in the Netherlands) or Eastern Europeans, as the two major groups. So, why legalization of prostitution does not put and end to sexual trafficking?

Another major and determinant factor which favors TiP is corruption, which covers several levels, from the custom officer which accepts a bribe to allow and illegal entrance into a country, to political/legal/lobbies influence. The Western European countries mentioned above have really low levels of corruption, thereby trafficking and sexual exploitation should disappear, or be considerably reduced at least. Unfortunately, reality is not such: In one hand we have Western European countries with the world lowest levels of corruption; high human, social and economic development; laws legalizing and regulating prostitution; and strong laws against human trafficking. In the other hand, we have the persistent problem of women trafficked for sexual exploitation on those high1 2 3 4 5

As taxing, for example.

Unfortunately, that's just an estimation and not a proven fact.

European Parliament, Trafficking on Women, (2000), 5 UNODC, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons, (February 2009), 6.

UNODC, Global Report, 7.

developed, low corruption-level countries.

This paper will focus in TiP of those West European countries which legalized prostitution and the main origin countries of the trafficked women: East European countries. Studying the corruption, GDP levels, and the specific, unique characteristics of the European Union, the paper will try to answer why sexual trafficking and the consequent forced prostitution remain both as a considerable portion of the Western European sex markets even after legalization of prostitution.

II. CORRUPTION, INEQUALITY AND WEALTH The relation between corruption and human trafficking has been established by both scholars and international organizations. Kevin Bales shows how levels of slavery, poverty and corruption are closely interlinked: LEVEL OF SLAVERY IN COUNTRY (%) Level pove No rty Extre me

LEVEL OF SLAVERY IN COUNTRY (%)

Presence of slavery

Level Rare Persist. Regular Import. of No corru ption 3,2

48,4

32,3

16,1 Low

Huge 13,8 17,2

24,1

17,2

27,6

High 21,2 33,3

39,4

1,5

Midd le Low

0

30

55

10

5

20,2

30

30,1

10,9

Presence of slavery Rare Persist. Regular Import.

48,3 53,7

0

0

0

4,5 Medi 32,8 34,4 0 um

21,9

6,3

4,7

44

19

14,3

8,8 High

3,6

10

Source: Bales 2007:244-245 & Bales 2009:59-60

The UNODC, through the UN.GIFT, had clearly identified the connection between corruption and human trafficking: “Corruption is one of the major contributing factors to the crime of trafficking in persons. It is both an underlying root cause and a facilitating tool to carry out and sustain this illicit trade […] linkages between corruption and human trafficking are [...] more complicated and multifaceted […] Corruption can emerge before, during and after the actual trafficking crime, which means that corruption is not limited to countries of origin and transit countries, but also facilitates the continued exploitation of trafficking victims once at their destination […] Corruption can establish close ties between traffickers and those who are actually charged with bringing them to justice […] corruption is used to facilitate the recruitment, transport and exploitation of victims of trafficking, prevent justice and ensure that the vast profits made through this inhumane criminal activity remain in the hands of the traffickers […] Corruption ensures that trafficking in persons remains a low-risk, high-profit crime. The prevalence and existing levels of corruption can well influence which routes the traffickers take, their modus

operandi, and other trafficking patterns. Corruption may also result in less alertness towards the risks of trafficking.�6 Within both Europe and the European Union it is possible to find big economic and social differences among neighboring countries. For the purpose of this paper, West Europe will be considered always as the old EU-15, while East Europe will refer to the other European States (Russia included). EU will refer always to EU-27. The next map shows European countries as origin, crossing and destination countries of human trafficking:

Source: UNODC

The old soviet line divides Europe in destination and origin countries. The same line also divides Europe in two economic realities:

European GDP (PPP) per capita. Source: Wikicommons

6 UN.GIFT B.P.020, Corruption and Human Trafficking; the grease that facilitates the crime, (Vienna, 2008), 2-5.

Yearly, Transparency International publishes a Global Corruption Report/Index in which is

Source: Transparency International, Global Corruption Report 2009

observable the correlation between main TiP origin countries and high levels of corruption. The Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 20097 presents the main nationalities of Easter Europeans trafficked into selected Western European countries for sexual exploitation:

Source: Global Report on Human Trafficking 2009

7 UNODC, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons.

The unexpected victims in both The Netherlands and Germany are actually German and Holland nationals. The biggest group of victims as a block are Eastern Europeans, follow by the national trafficked victims.

The number of domestic trafficking victims, that is nationals trafficked inside their own territory, has being increasing in Germany and The Netherlands in the last years8:

8 UNODC, Report on human trafficking in Western and Central Europe, (Vienna 2009), 13 and UNODC, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons, 59.

Ironically, the efforts to fight international human trafficking may have forced the traffickers to look for victims inside their own, well-developed countries. Moreover, the legalization of prostitution has created sexual tourism inside Europe, so increasing the demand9.

The UNODC-UN.GIFT report on Europe accounts the number of European victims: “in Germany, victims from the Russian Federation, Belarus and Ukraine comprised a large share of the victims of trafficking detected in 2003-2004. The presence of these victims has drastically reduced in the last few years, as has the share of Lithuanian victims. In the Netherlands, the identification of Russian and Ukrainian victims registered a peak at the beginning of this decade, to decrease basically to zero in recent years. The share of Bulgarian and Romanian victims increased at the beginning of this decade to peak in the Netherlands in 2003, and in Germany in 2004-05. Although still significant,trafficking from these two countries has been slightly decreasing in recent years […]

Germany and the Netherlands registered a peak in the identification of Hungarian victims in 2007 and 2008, respectively. Both countries also reported a constant increase in domestic trafficking during the entire period with peaks in 2007/08.”10 Countries such as Germany, The Netherlands, Austria or Switzerland are major receivers of TiP for sexual exploitation purposes. Germany and the Netherlands have experienced a considerable increment of domestic trafficking. However, all those countries enjoy high levels of wealth and social equality11, as well as really low corruption levels12. Moreover, “trafficked persons and other migrants are estimated to comprise 80% of the prostitutes in Vienna, Austria, 75% of the prostitutes in Germany and 80% of prostitutes in Amsterdam, Netherlands.”13 In Vienna there are currently about 3,000 legal prostitutes from an estimated total of five to six thousands.14 Finally, all these countries have passed or reinforced their national laws against human trafficking within the period 2004-2006.

Despite of institutional, administrative and international efforts, the number of trafficked women for purposes of sexual exploitation does not reduce in Europe. After the fall of Soviet Communism in 1991, a wave of Eastern European trafficked victims sprang in the Western European sex market. Nevertheless, the higher level of development the closer countries to Western Europe achieved, the more Eastwards moved the origin of trafficked victims: “trafficking [has been] expanded more and more east and southeastwards over the time, with several countries, for instance Poland and Hungary, shifting their status from countries of origin, to countries of origin

9 10 11 12 13

Amsterdam, for instance, is well known for two factors: legal drugs and legal prostitution.

UNODC, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons, 13-14.

Using the GINI coefficient, for instance.

If compare worldwide, of course.

UNESCO Trafficking Statistics Project <http://www3.unescobkk.org/culture/WebTraffickingV2/ShowStatistic.aspx?MainID=308> 14 In words of Col. Gerald Tatzgern.

and transit, and countries of transit.”15 “Since 1990, the central and eastern European countries have become the major suppliers of prostitutes. For example, in Belgium the number of trafficked women from eastern European countries has more than doubled, while in the Netherlands it has tripled. A Dutch NGO reported that 69% of the 168 cases registered in the Netherlands in 1994 involved women from eastern Europe. This percentage was found to have doubled in one year while, in the same period, the proportion of Polish and Czech women rose from 7% to 40%.”16 The question still is, why the number of women trafficked for sexual exploitation purposes remains high in countries were prostitution is legal and regulated?

III. POSSIBLE EXPLANATIONS III.1 An easy business Nowadays trafficking in persons represents one of the biggest and most profitable illegal activities.

To start trafficking people is not necessary neither a big amount of capital nor an extensive business network. In fact, family and relatives, friends, neighbors or community members, (fake) boyfriends, travel agents, accommodation stuff, corrupt police or officers, previously trafficked people... are all in contact with the victims, taking part of the trafficking process and making profits whatsoever.

Selling a daughter or a sister; recruiting vulnerable, desperate women; housing victims or transporting them... There are many actors that take part of the trafficking process, at very different levels. Furthermore, most of the traffickers are dealing with people from their own origin countries.

Finally, women are very present into the business, accounting about 25% of traffickers in Western European countries17. Nonetheless, we must not forget that there are international, well-organized trafficking networks. Even if the trafficker is a small entrepreneur, there are big traffickers and so big trafficking cartels.

Last but not least, trafficking humans is easier than other illegal activities. The only disadvantage that TiP presents is the human necessity of feeding and housing.

III.1.a Big profits, low risk It is estimated that TiP currently represents the second or third biggest illegal activity worldwide18.

A trafficker in Europe can buy a woman for a few thousand of euros, and exploit her indefinitely, selling her again after the initial investment has been recovered, etcetera. The common process (modus operandi) is based on recruitment, moving-transporting of the victim, holding of passports and legal documents, raping, beating, and forced prostitution over and over.

15 Ewa Morawska, Trafficking into and from Easter Europe, (Willian Publishing, 2009), 97.

16 European Parliament, Trafficking on Women, 5.

17 For more information about the role and profile of traffickers, read UN.GIFT, 2008, Profiling the Traffickers. See bibliography.

18 <http://unicef.org.nz/article/1312/Humantraffickingisworldsthirdlargestcriminalactivity.html>

Although all the EU countries have enforced laws to fight TiP, developed strategies to combat trafficking and assisting victims, the number of prosecuted offenders remains relatively low, excepting Germany:

Source of tables: UNODC, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons.

Even thought the significant European effort to reinforce laws against human trafficking, cooperation and coordination at European level is fundamental to fight human trafficking. All those legal efforts also need to be backed with economic support and appropriate staff and tools, specially in the origin countries. High, medium and low level corruption, much higher in Eastern European States, must be considered as a determinant variable to assure the fail or success of any anti TiP policy. The 3P's (prevention, protection and prosecution) are the basic framework, but the failure of

those is linked with corruption; “Police officers, labour inspectors and others working in the field of administrative controls, health workers, NGO staff, and other actors. may be prepared to turn a blind eye to trafficking situations that come to their attention for a ‘small fee’. Corrupt practices may also play a role after the actual identification and rescue of a trafficked victim, e.g. before, during and after possible criminal proceedings. Such practices are applied by the traffickers to avoid conviction and otherwise obstruct the actions of those who should assist and protect the trafficked victims and investigate, prosecute and convict the traffickers. Traffickers often have the means and feel no inhibitions against bribing their way through the criminal justice system and investigators assigned to the case all too often fail to overcome the temptation. Corruption can establish close ties between traffickers and those who are actually charged with bringing them to justice.”19 The number of convictions for human trafficking seems very low: “As of 2007, about 40% of the world had not recorded a single conviction for trafficking in persons. Not only are traffickers not convicted in many countries, but when convictions are recorded, the numbers seem low compared to the estimated number of victims. The bulk of convictions were recorded in a few regions,mainly Western and Central Europe, Eastern Europe and Central Asia, and South Asia. A relatively large number of convictions were also recorded in East Asia. Nevertheless, the conviction rate recorded in these areas was rarely above 1.5 per 100,000 people. Most countries’ conviction rates have remained far below this rate. In comparison, 1.5 convictions per 100,000 people is the level normally recorded for rare crimes, such as kidnapping in Western European countries.”20 To strengthen cooperation and collaboration at regional, national and European level and to strengthen prosecution are key aspects to make trafficking a higher risk activity.

III.1.b The Schengen Agreement In 2004 ten Easter European countries joint the EU21, and by the end of 2007 those ten new countries eliminated their national border controls with other EU members. This means that one can drive from Spain to Estonia without stopping, or just doing it to refuel.

Polish, Hungarian, Czech and Slovakian victims account as representative, medium size groups of trafficked victims into Western Europe. Trafficking Schengen-countries people is much easier than other nationalities, due to the fact that traffickers do not need to stop at any border control, and victims do not need any visa to travel within Schengen space, just their passports.

Furthermore, trafficking Western European women within their own countries means that any 19 UN.GIFT B.P.020, Corruption and Human Trafficking, 3.

20 UNODC, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons, 44.

21 The Amsterdam Treaty included the Schengen Agreement into the institutional body of the EU. The Treaty was signed in 1997, but entered into force in 1999. The Schengen Agreement (1985) basically eliminates border controls within the EU members (except for the UK and Ireland), allowing the free movement of capitals, goods and people.

Romania, Bulgaria and Cyprus still have border controls.

passport is needed.

Nonetheless, Schengen may facilitate the movement of trafficked victims within the EU, but not other European victims. Most of Easter European trafficked persons come for countries in which either Schengen is not apply yet or not apply at all. The major trafficking routes are the Strait of Gibraltar (from Africa into Spain), the Balkans22 (from East and Southeast Europe into Italy -by sea- and Austria) and Poland (from Russia and other North Slavic countries into Germany): “East European women from Russia, Lithuania and Ukraine represent 70-80 percent and 30-35 per cent of all trafficked prostitutes in, respectively, Germany and the Netherlands, those from the Balkans, Romania and Bulgaria predominate (70-80 per cent) or make up a large proportion (45 per cent of all trafficked women) in Austria and Italy.”23 All these women need to pass at least one controlled border. Those who come from Russia, Ukraine or Belarus even need a visa. Unfortunately, the strength of border control is not homogeneous within the Schengen members. Levels of corruption 24 in bordering Schengen countries do not help.

Major trafficking routes into Western Europe.

Source: <http://www.pbs.org/wnet/wideangle/episodes/dying-to-leave/business-of-human-trafficking/trafficking-routes/1428/>

Schengen Agreement by itself is not a cause of trafficking: the 25% of German victims within Germany or the 40% of Hollands within the Netherlands show how this idea is simply wrong. Nevertheless, it indeed facilitates the movement of trafficked people within the EU. Closer 22 It is possible to read eye-witnesses accounts about trafficking from East Europe though the Balkans in Louisa Waugh's “Selling Olga”.

23 Ewa Morawska, Trafficking into and from Easter Europe, 98.

24 Customs or border officers, for example.

cooperation between State members; a reinforced, common European-based out-borders controls; and an enter/exit control of non-Europeans may help to avoid the criminal use of the many Schengen benefits and advantages.

III.1.c Vulnerable victims “Women (including underage girls) constitute over 90 per cent of East and South-East European persons trafficked into Western parts of the Continent […] Most trafficked women have secondary education […] 15 to 20 per cent have some post-secondary schooling […] The majority, more than 70 per cent [...] come from middle-to-large urban centers.”25 Therefore, victims are not naïve, ignorant women. In East Europe the social and economic situation of women is subordinated to their male counterparts.26 Moreover, labor and economic market for women both offer a strong lack of opportunities. Thus, frustration, desperation and failed expectations are main motivation factors to leave and migrate, and thus, to fall as a victim into a trafficking network.

The line between West and East Europe is a division line of deep economic inequality: for people in East Europe, migrating into West Europe is to follow the promise of success and wealth.

As an important part of the recruitment process, attractive job offers are made throughout all East Europe to attract women tired of their subordinate situation. Reducing economic differences between East and West Europe, as well as developing Eastern European countries is a major tool to reduce, among other factors, TiP. Another relevant issue that increases vulnerability of victims are numbers, quantification of victims; we don not know exactly how many victims there are. Trafficked women forced to work as prostitutes are hidden population, therefore the real number, the quantification of the problem is not clear. Police force are working always with estimations, so do politicians and scholars. Moreover, some offenses may overlap each other, making-up statistics: “the number of victims of domestic trafficking is not always clear, so it is not always possible to estimate the proportion of domestic victims. While domestic trafficking appears to be more limited than international trafficking, it is likely that this form of trafficking is reported most of the time under other offences, such as pandering or slavery.”27 UN.GIFT listed the main problems to quantify exact figures on TiP28, limitations that concerns both weakness in criminal justice data and limitations related to victims, such as non-reporting to the authorities and different criteria for registering victims of TiP.29 “Given all these constraints, it is not surprising that it is difficult to supply reliable official data on enforcement activities against human trafficking.”30 So, a further, deeper and standardized data25 26 27 28 29 30

Ewa Morawska, Trafficking into and from Easter Europe, 98-99.

Ewa Morawska, Trafficking into and from Easter Europe, 99.

UNODC, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons, 59.

UN.GIFT B.P.024, Quantifying Human trafficking, its impact and the responses to it, (Vienna, 2008) UN.GIFT B.P.024, Quantifying Human trafficking, 14-15.

UN.GIFT B.P.024, Quantifying Human trafficking, 17.

collection criteria is a field which needs to be improved.

III.2 A big demand A trafficked woman sexually exploited is forced to have sex 10, 15 or 20 times per day31, in order to pay her debt. Just in Vienna, the number of illegal prostitutes is estimated in two to three thousands.

That would make 20,000 to 60,000 illegal daily intercourses just in Vienna. It also means 20,000 to 60,000 men contributing to the situation of the victims and creating demand. Most important, those men spend money and maintain the business, making it profitable.

“A key issue which arises in respect of exploitation is the question of who should be included and who should be excluded from the category of ‘exploiters’. The European Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings (CETS No. 197) was adopted by the Committee of Ministers of 3 May 2005 and opened for signature in Warsaw on the 16th of May 2005. Article 19 of that Convention concerns ‘Criminalisation of the use of services of a victim’. That article criminalizes ‘the use of services which are the object of exploitation’ where the user has knowledge that the person is a victim of trafficking.”32 Nordic countries such as Sweden, Norway or Iceland consider the payment for sex illegal, so the client commits a prosecutable crime.

Clients, mostly men, create a strong sex demand that traffickers are pleased to cover. In other illegal activities, for instance drugs consumption, the client knows that what he or she is doing is illegal. Being prostitution legal in our study-case countries, the client may know or not33 about the real situation of the prostitute. It is possible to assert that as long as there is demand for prostitutes, there will be trafficked women for the purpose of sexual exploitation. Awareness campaigns, better information, a clearer position towards prostitution in countries where the activity is neither legal nor illegal, and strong prosecution in cases in which “the use of services which are the object of exploitation”34 is proved may all help to reduce the demand of trafficked women for forced sexual exploitation. If we are able to cut the demand, we will cut the traffickers profits, thereby trafficking women will not be neither profitable nor interesting anymore.

Anyhow, the question of the demand opens new and interesting lines for investigation: who are the clients; do they know if the woman who they are having sex with is forced to do that or not; do they even care about these issues; why the demand is so high, even in countries in which prostitution is legal, that women are trafficked to cover that demand trough forced prostitution.

V. CONCLUSION In spite of both law enforcement against TiP and legalization of prostitution, still there is a 31 32 33 34

See Selling Olga, several testimonies.

UN.GIFT B.P.016, Profiling the Traffickers, (Vienna, 2008), 14.

Or may think or not.

Ibid.

considerable number of women trafficked from Eastern Europe into Western Europe for sexual exploitation. Although the low corruption-perception levels, the core Germany, Switzerland, the Netherlands and Austria account the biggest number of trafficked women as main destinations.

The old line between West and East Europe divides the EU in two economic and social realities; for East European women West Europe is a promised land of wealth which is literally right at the next corner. The Schengen agreement opened borders, which can be easily use by traffickers.

Victims, once trafficked into Western countries, become part of a hidden population. They are hidden not only from statistics, but also from any kind of public welfare or assistance. Forced into prostitution, the victims become even more vulnerable if they don not speak the local language, get sick35, etcetera.

As a new, unexpected aspect of trafficking, the incoming phenomena of local-nationals trafficking in Western European countries demands deeper studies. Those new victims are less vulnerable than their Eastern counterparts, they speak the local language, know and trust the police and are in countries with low levels of corruption. Why this group represents the majority in Germany or the Netherlands is a very relevant question.

Law enforcement has been carried out in all those countries, Germany, Austria, the Netherlands and Switzerland. Nevertheless, as the UNODC data shows, the number of prosecuted offenders seems to be low, with ratios similar to uncommon crimes.

Finally, the clients/demand are an essential factor to explain the persistence of illegal prostitution in the studied countries. To choose an illegal prostitute over a legal one means not only a probably lower price, but also a probably higher risk to catch sexual diseases, as long as illegal prostitutes do not likely take the medical controls that legal ones have to do. It also means to be part of a enslavement, sexual exploitation chain, and moreover, to technically rape women. Those clients are in direct contact with the victims, and take advantage of them (or their situation), becoming part of the problem. They are the demand force of the sex market and most likely, common and ordinary people as well: fathers, brothers and boyfriends. They are the key to reduce trafficking for sexual exploitation.

Besides corruption throughout all the origin, transit and destination countries, the facilities that Schengen provides for trafficking East European and East EU women, and the low risk of this illegal activity, those three reasons do not explain by themselves why the German, Austrian, Dutch and Swiss demand for paid sex cannot be cover by legal supply, and why the demand requires to use an illegal market that represents, at least in Vienna, half of the total. Or in other words, two to three thousand of trafficked women forced into prostitution.

35 Which is very likely, specially with sexual diseases.

V. BIBLIOGRAPHY On-line sources: •

International Labour Organization; Forced Labour <http://www.ilo.org/global/Themes/Forced_Labour/lang--en/index.htm >

•

General overview of prostitution in the EU-15, by States. European Commission <http://www.europarl.europa.eu/hearings/20040119/femm/document1_en.pdf>

•

European action against trafficking in human beings <http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/fsj/crime/trafficking/fsj_crime_human_trafficking_en.htm #>

•

EU legislation being adopted against trafficking in human beings and the sexual exploitation of children <http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/doc_centre/crime/trafficking/doc_crime_human_trafficki ng_en.htm > and <http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/employment_and_social_policy/equality_between_ men_and_women/l33095_en.htm>

•

Trafficking of women into prostitution (in Germany) <http://www.kok-buero.de/index.php? idcatart=2&lang=1&clang=3>

•

European Parliament, Trafficking on Women, 2000 <http://www.europarl.europa.eu/workingpapers/libe/pdf/109_en.pdf>

•

UNODC Global Report on Trafficking in Persons, February 2009 <http://www.unodc.org/documents/Global_Report_on_TIP.pdf>

•

UNODC report on human trafficking in Western and Central Europe <http://www.unodc.org/documents/humantrafficking/Country_profiles/Western_Central_Europe.pdf>

•

Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women (GAATW) <http://www.gaatw.org/>

•

Coalition Against Trafficking in Women (CATW) <http://www.catwinternational.org/>

•

US Department of State, “2008 Country reports on Human Rights practices” <http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/index.htm>

•

UN.GIFT B.P.020, “Corruption and Human Trafficking; the grease that facilitates the crime”, 2008, Vienna. <http://www.ungift.org/docs/ungift/pdf/vf/backgroundpapers/BP020CorruptionandHumanTr afficking.pdf>

•

UN.GIFT B.P.007, “From Protection to Prosecution – A Strategic Approach”, 2008, Vienna.

<http://www.ungift.org/docs/ungift/pdf/vf/backgroundpapers/BP007FromProtectionToProse cution.pdf> •

UN.GIFT B.P.023, “The Effectiveness of Legal Frameworks and Anti-Trafficking Legislation”, 2008, Vienna. <http://www.ungift.org/docs/ungift/pdf/vf/backgroundpapers/BP023TheEffectivenessofLega lFrameworks.pdf>

•

UN.GIFT B.P.016, “Profiling the Traffickers”, 2008, Vienna. <http://www.ungift.org/docs/ungift/pdf/vf/backgroundpapers/BP016ProfilingtheTraffickers. pdf >

•

UN.GIFT B.P.024, “Quantifying Human trafficking, its impact and the responses to it”, 2008, Vienna. <http://www.unodc.org/documents/human-trafficking/MarikaMisc/BP024QuantifyingHumanTrafficking.pdf>

•

UN.GIFT B.P.027, “Transnational Organized Crime- Impact from Source to Destination”, 2008, Vienna. <http://www.unodc.org/documents/human-trafficking/MarikaMisc/BP027TransnationalOrganizedCrimeandHumanTrafficking.pdf >

On-line articles/books (via Passports): •

Siddharth Kara, “Sex trafficking: Inside the Business of Modern Slavery”, Columbia University Press, New York, 2009 <https://www-ciaonetorg.library3.webster.edu/book/cup/0015649/f_0015649_13651.pdf >

•

Global Issues, Volume 8, Number 2, June 2003: “Responses to Human Trafficking” <https://www-ciaonet-org.library3.webster.edu/olj/gli/gli_jun2003.pdf>

•

Jyothi Kanics, Foreign Policy in Focus: Trafficking in Women, Volume 3, Number 30, October 2008 <https://www-ciaonet-org.library3.webster.edu/pbei/fpif/kaj01/>

Printed books: •

Morawska, Ewa, “Trafficking into and from Easter Europe”, in Maggy Lee, “Human Trafficking”, Willian Publishing, 2009[2007].

•

Waugh, Louise, “Selling Olga, stories of Human Trafficking and resistance”, Orion Books, 2006.

1. Frederic P. Miller, Agnes F. Vandome and John McBrewster (Editors), “Prostitution in Europe”, Alphascript Publishing, 2009.