Etextbook 978 1305960602 literacy helping students construct meaning

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2

Frameworks for Effective Standards-Based Literacy Lessons 25

2-1 Describe the Parts of a Standards-Based Literacy Lesson 26

2-4d Shared Writing

INCREASING SUCCESS FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS 27

2-4f Combinations of Writing Modes 39

2-4e Write-Aloud

2-1a Introducing the Text 27 28

2-2 List the Steps in a Standards-Based Minilesson 29 2-2a Parts of a Minilesson

29

INCREASING SUCCESS FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS

29

EDUCATORS SPEAK Advantages of Small-Group

Minilessons for Teacher and Students

30

31

2-3b Cooperative Reading

31

EDUCATORS SPEAK “Bread and Books”: Exposing

Students to Many Authors through Read-Alouds 40 2-5a Sample Guided Listening Lesson 42 INCREASING SUCCESS FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS

2-6a Basal Series or Systems and a Comprehensive Balanced Literacy Program 45 2-6b Types of Texts

45

2-3c Guided Reading

31

Professional Resource Download Figure 2.5 A Story Map

2-3d Shared Reading

35

2-6c Selecting Authentic Literature 49

2-3e Read-Aloud

36

2-6d Leveling Books for Instruction 50

2-3f Combinations of Reading Modes 36

Summary

2-4 Explain and Describe Modes of Writing as Forms of Instruction 37

How Do I Teach?

53

Thinking It Over

53

2-4a Independent Writing 37

For Additional Reading

2-4b Collaborative/Cooperative Writing 2-4c Guided Writing

3

37

53

53

Poetry by Shel Silverstein and Jack Prelutsky

37

54

Anthologies of Poetry 54

Assessment and Evaluation that Informs Instruction 57

3-1 Summarize the Current View of Assessment 58 3-1a Assessment and Evaluation 3-1b The Role of Standards

59

3-1c A Framework for Assessment 60

3-5 List and Define Effective Assessment Techniques 67

3-2 List and Define Principles to Guide Effective Assessment 63 3-3 Summarize the Ways Standards Are Used to Guide Assessment 66

3-4 Describe How to Organize Assessment Information for Instructional Use 66 3-4a Four Options for Organizing Assessment Information 67

59

INCREASING SUCCESS FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS

44

2-6 Describe Which Texts Are Needed for a Comprehensive Balanced Literacy Program and How They Should Be Selected 44

2-3 Explain and Describe Modes of Reading as Forms of Instruction 30 2-3a Independent Reading

39

2-5 Summarize the Importance and Use of Reading Aloud in a Comprehensive Balanced Literacy Program 40

2-1b Reading and Responding to the Text 27 2-1c Extending the Text

38

65

3-5a Observation 67 3-5b Checklists

69

Professional Resource Download Figure 3.2 Checklist for Meaning Construction 69

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48

3-5c Records of Independent Reading and Writing 70 3-5d Retellings

Professional Resource Download Figure 3.13 Completion Statements for an Interest Inventory 81

70

3-5m Miscue Analysis 82

Professional Resource Download Figure 3.3 Independent Reading Record 70

3-5n Informal Reading Inventories 83

Professional Resource Download Figure 3.6 Retelling Summary Sheet for Informational Text 73

3-5e Responses to Literature

73

INCREASING SUCCESS FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS

74

Professional Resource Download Figure 3.8 Form for Evaluating Responses to Literature 75

3-5f Student Self-Evaluations

75

3-5g Process Interviews 75 Professional Resource Download Figure 3.9 Form for Self-Evaluation of Reading 76 Professional Resource Download Figure 3.10 Student Self-Monitoring Checklist 76

3-5o Running Records

83

3-5p Performance Assessments 85 3-5q Assessment Procedures Accompanying Published Materials 85

3-6 Compare the Different Ways to Make Decisions Based on Assessment Data 85 3-7 Summarize the Purpose of School-Wide Assessment and Evaluation 87 Professional Resource Download Figure 3.15 Achievement Card Samples 88

3-5i Fluency Checks and Application of Decoding Skills 77

3-8 Explain the Relationship between Assessment and Grading 89

3-5j Literature Groups 78

EDUCATORS SPEAK Use an Assessment Wall to Accelerate

Professional Resource Download Figure 3.12 Grid for Observing Construction of Meaning during a Literature Discussion Group 80

Summary

3-5h Teacher-Selected Reading Samples

77

3-5k Interest Inventories 81 3-5l Scoring Writing Using Rubrics

4

81

All Students 90 90

How Do I Teach? 91 Thinking It Over 91 For Additional Reading 91

Prior Knowledge: Activating and Developing Concepts and Vocabulary 93

4-1 Explain Why Prior Knowledge, Concept Development, and Vocabulary Are Essential for Literacy Learning 94

4-3 List and Define Strategies for Helping Students Achieve Independence in Activating and Developing Prior Knowledge 103

EDUCATORS SPEAK Talking Big: Rich Language Makes

4-3a Three Student Strategies Leading to Independence 103

Rich Readers

95

4-1a Schema Theory

96

4-1b Misconceptions in Prior Knowledge 96

4-3b Twelve Teaching Strategies Leading to Student Independence 108

4-1c Prior Knowledge of English Language Learners 97

INCREASING SUCCESS FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS

INCREASING SUCCESS FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS 97

4-3d Overcoming Inadequate Prior Knowledge 126

4-1d Components of Prior Knowledge 98

113

4-3c Deciding Which Strategies to Use 124

4-4 Describe in Detail a Standards-Based Literacy Lesson Using The Pirate Captain’s Daughter 127

4-1e Standards, Prior Knowledge, Vocabulary, and Concept Development 101

Summary 138

4-2 Define the Role of the Teacher 102

Thinking It Over 138

How Do I Teach? 138 For Additional Reading 139 vii

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5

How to Teach Strategies for Constructing Meaning 141

5-1 Explain How Strategies and Standards Fit Together 142

5-3d Integrating All Strategies: Helping Students Apply Strategies to Reading More Complex Texts 160

5-2 List and Define the Strategies for Constructing Meaning 143

5-3e Teaching Strategies in Upper Elementary and Middle School 160

EDUCATORS SPEAK Comprehension Strategies:

5-3f Reciprocal Teaching 162

Keys for the Twenty-First Century 144

5-4 Name and Explain the Parts of the Minilesson 163

5-2a Inferencing

145

5-4a Introduction 163

5-2b Monitoring/Clarifying 146 5-2c Identifying Important Information

5-2d Generating and Answering Questions 5-2e Summarizing and Synthesizing 5-2f Visualizing

5-4b Teacher Modeling 164

147

5-4c Student Modeling and Guided Practice 164

148

5-4d Summarizing and Reflecting 164

150

5-4e Parts of the Follow-Up to the Minilesson 165

153

5-2g Making Connections

153

5-2h Evaluating 154

5-5 Describe and Explain Each of the Sample Strategy Lessons: The Minilessons 166

5-3 Explain What Must Be Done in the Process for Planning Effective Strategy Instruction 156

5-6 Summarize the Most Important Elements of Strategy Instruction 175

5-3a Modeling

156

Summary 175

5-3b Guidelines

158

How Do I Teach? 176 159

INCREASING SUCCESS FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS

5-3c Using Different Types of Texts

6

Thinking It Over 176 For Additional Reading 176

159

Beginning Literacy 179

6-1 State What You Need to Know about Beginning Reading Instruction 181

6-2b Routines for High-Frequency Words 199

6-1a Big Jobs in Learning to Read 181 EDUCATORS SPEAK The Role of Parents in Beginning

INCREASING SUCCESS FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS 204

Literacy Instruction 182

6-2d Routine for Comprehension 208

6-1b Elements Leading to Successful, Independent Decoding 183 INCREASING SUCCESS FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS

184

INCREASING SUCCESS FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS

186

6-2c Routines for Reading

201

6-3 Explain How to Plan Daily Instruction Using Routines 209 6-3a As You Read Ms. Barbizon’s Plan 211

Professional Resource Download Figure 6.2 A Way to Think about Words 188

6-4 Describe the Standards-Based Lesson: Memoirs of a Goldfish 212

6-1c Standards and Beginning Literacy Instruction

Summary

189

233

6-2 List and Describe the Instructional Routines for Comprehensive Balanced Literacy Instruction 189

How Do I Teach? 233

6-2a Routines for Decoding Unfamiliar Words and Learning High-Frequency Words 190

For Additional Reading

Thinking It Over

233 233

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7

Intermediate Grades and Middle School: Decoding, Vocabulary, and Meaning 237 239

INCREASING SUCCESS FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS

7-1 List and Define Standards at the Upper Elementary and Middle School Levels 239

7-4a Selecting Words to Teach 248

7-1a Decoding Needs of Upper Elementary and Middle School Students 239

7-2 Explain the Need for Vocabulary Development at the Upper Elementary and Middle School Levels 239 7-2a What We Know about Meaning Vocabulary and Constructing Meaning 240 7-2b How Learners Acquire Vocabulary Knowledge

7-4 Summarize the Guidelines for Effective Vocabulary Instruction 248 Professional Resource Download Figure 7.1 Decisions to Be Made in Vocabulary Teachings 249

7-4b When to Teach Vocabulary 250 Professional Resource Download Table 7.1 When to Provide Direct Vocabulary Instruction 251

7-4c Strategies for Teaching Vocabulary

251

Professional Resource Download Table 7.2 Overview of Vocabulary Strategies That Promote Student Independence 252

240

INCREASING SUCCESS FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS

253

7-2c Direct Vocabulary Instruction and Constructing Meaning 241

Professional Resource Download Figure 7.2 Intermediate and Middle School Strategy Poster for Inferring Word Meanings 253

7-2d Conditions for Direct Teaching of Vocabulary 243

Professional Resource Download Figure 7.3 Completed Word Map for Ice Cream 254

INCREASING SUCCESS FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS

243

7-3 Describe the Elements of Effective Vocabulary Development 244

Professional Resource Download Figure 7.5 Blank Venn Diagram 258

7-3a Awareness of Words 244

7-5 Describe in Detail a Standards-Based Lesson Using Mercedes and the Chocolate Pilot 267

EDUCATORS SPEAK “Red Hot” . . . A Superhero Battles

Summary

Boring Vocabulary 245

How Do I Teach?

294

7-3b Wide Reading and Extensive Writing 247

Thinking It Over

295

7-3c Instructional Strategies That Lead to Independent Vocabulary Learning 247

For Additional Reading

8

294

295

Responding and the Construction of Meaning 297

8-1 Define Responding and Explain Why It Is Important 298

8-3 List and Explain Procedures That Promote Responding to Literature 306

8-1a The Value of Responding

8-3a Journals

299

306

EDUCATORS SPEAK Responding to Literature: A Key

EDUCATORS SPEAK Running Scared or Responding to

Component to Helping Students Pass the State Test 300

Literature?

8-1b Types of Responses 301

8-3b Response Charts 318

INCREASING SUCCESS FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS

303

307

INCREASING SUCCESS FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS

INCREASING SUCCESS FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS 304

8-3c Literature Discussion 322

8-2 Describe a Classroom Atmosphere That Promotes Responding 305

Summary

INCREASING SUCCESS FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS 306

Thinking It Over 327

321

8-3d Readers Theater 324 326

How Do I Teach?

326

For Additional Reading 327 ix

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9

Writing and the Construction of Meaning 329

9-1 Discuss Why Teaching Writing and Reading Together Is Critical 330

9-6 Describe Process Writing and Tell How It Helps Promote Construction of Meaning 343

9-1a Both Writing and Reading Are Constructive Processes 330

Professional Resource Download Figure 9.6 Poster for Process Writing 343

9-1b Writing and Reading Involve Similar Kinds of Knowledge and Processes 331

9-7 List and Describe the Steps of Process Writing 344

9-1c Writing and Reading Improve Achievement 332 9-1d Writing and Reading Promote Communication

9-7a Selecting the Topic

332

9-7b Drafting

344

347

9-1e Writing and Reading Together Develop Critical Thinking 332

INCREASING SUCCESS FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS 349

9-2 Explain the Progression of the Common Core State Standards for Writing 333

EDUCATORS SPEAK Modeling: The Key to Student

Writing Success 350 9-7c Revising

9-3 Explain the Difference between Writing to Learn and Learning to Write and Explain Why Both Are Important 333 9-3a Writing to Remember

9-7d Proofreading

352

Professional Resource Download Figure 9.12 Proofreading Checklist Developed by a Fourth-Grade Class 353

333

9-3b Writing to Communicate Ideas

350

9-7e Publishing 353

334

9-3c Writing as a Form of Self-Expression 334

9-7f Struggling Writers: “Teacher, I Hate Writing” and Other Student Complaints 355

9-3d Writing to Clarify Thought

EDUCATORS SPEAK Using Digital Booktalks

334

9-4 List and Describe the Phases of Beginning Writing 335

9-8 List and Describe Some Current Views on the Teaching of Writing Conventions 356

9-4a Picture-Writing Phase 335 9-4b Scribble-Writing Phase

9-9 Explain How to Use Technology to Support Writing and Reading 357

336

9-4c Random Letter Phase 337 9-4d Invented Spelling Phase

Professional Resource Download Figure 9.13 Six Steps to Meaningful Teaching of Grammar and Spelling Based on Writing 358

337

9-4e Conventional Writing Phase

338

9-9a Keyboarding and Writing-Related Skills 364

9-5 List and Define the Different Ways to Think about Writing 338

9-9b Resources for Teachers 364 9-9c Software Literacy Programs 364

9-5a Domains 338 INCREASING SUCCESS FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS

9-5b Modes

339

9-5c Traits 342

356

339

Summary

364

How Do I Teach?

365

Thinking It Over 365 For Additional Reading 365

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10

Helping Struggling Readers 367

10-1 Explain What You Need to Know When Working with Struggling Readers and Response to Intervention 368

10-4a Strategies and Skills to Teach 378

EDUCATORS SPEAK RTI: Not Just Another Can of Educator

10-4b Level of Texts to Use 379

Alphabet Soup

370

10-4 Describe Core Instruction for Struggling Readers 377

EDUCATORS SPEAK Working with Really Reluctant Readers

10-2 Describe How the Comprehensive Balanced Literacy Program, Standards, and Struggling Readers Interact 370

and Writers: Language Arts and Reading in an Alternative Classroom 380

10-2a Core Instruction

10-4d Reading in Content Areas 381

371

10-2b Response to Intervention: Three Tiers

371

10-4c Assessing Student Progress 380

10-5 Define Response to Intervention for Struggling Readers 381

10-3 Discuss How to Identify Struggling Readers 372

10-5a When to Provide Intervention 382

Professional Resource Download Figure 10.2 Reading Evaluation Checklist 372

10-5b Characteristics of Effective Intervention Programs 383

10-3a Reading Levels

374

10-3b Oral Language

374

10-6 Describe Different Ways to Find Time to Provide the Appropriate Tier of Intervention for Struggling Readers 384

10-3c Decoding 375 10-3d Comprehension 375

10-6a During Core Instruction 385

10-3e Related Factors

10-6b Intervention 385

375

INCREASING SUCCESS FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS 376

10-3f Previous Instructional Programs

376

10-3g Completing the Information-Gathering Process 376

11

Summary

386

How Do I Teach?

386

Thinking It Over 387 For Additional Reading 387

Developing a Management System for a Comprehensive Balanced Literacy Classroom 389

11-1 List the Important Elements You Need to Consider When Organizing Your Comprehensive Balanced Literacy Classroom 390 11-1a What We Know about Organizing and Managing the Literacy Classroom 390 11-1b Guidelines for Teachers: Organizing and Managing a Comprehensive Balanced Literacy Classroom 391

11-2 Describe What You Need to Include When Organizing the Literacy Classroom 392 11-2a A Literate Environment: Space and Materials 392

INCREASING SUCCESS FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS 395 Professional Resource Download Figure 11.1 Form for Recording Writing Topics 396

11-2b Conferences 398 Professional Resource Download Figure 11.5 A Checklist for Evaluating the Classroom Literate Environment 399 Professional Resource Download Figure 11.6 Record Sheet for Keeping Track of Students’ Writing 401 Professional Resource Download Figure 11.8 Chart Showing Students What to Do While the Teacher Is in Conference 403

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Professional Resource Download Figure 11.9 Chart for Helping Students Prepare for a Conference 403 Professional Resource Download Figure 11.10 Partial Teacher’s Notebook Page for Each Student 404

11-4c Intervention 430 11-4d Multiage Classrooms 430 11-4e Community–Home Connections 430

Professional Resource Download Figure 11.11 Sample Conference Page from Notebook 405

Summary

How Do I Teach?

431

11-2c Records

Thinking It Over

431

408

11-3 Outline the Steps You Need to Follow When Developing a Management System 410 11-3a Step 1: Group Students for Literacy Instruction 410 EDUCATORS SPEAK “Where Is My Sticky Note?”: Taking

Meaningful Notes You Can Use in Guided Reading Groups 418 11-3b Step 2: Identify Types of Independent Activities 426 11-3c Step 3: Implement the Plan

429

11-4 Explain Five Things You Need to Consider to Meet the Needs of All Students 429 11-4a English Language Learners

430

For Additional Reading

431

Good Books and Where to Find Them 432 A HANDBOOK RESOURCE Word Skills: Phonics and Structural Analysis for Teachers 440

Glossary 457 References 464 Author/Source Index 480 Subject Index 485

429

11-4b Children with Exceptionalities

429

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Preface This tenth edition of Literacy: Helping Students Construct Meaning is an important milestone for both the textbook and its authors. For thirty years, this text has helped preservice and in-service teachers become more effective teachers of literacy. The text has weathered fads and pendulum changes in teaching reading, writing, speaking, and listening while maintaining a consistent belief that there is only one thing that helps students learn to read and write effectively, and that is quality classroom instruction. Well-informed and well-trained teachers make all the difference in the world as to how students become literate. This edition is a milestone for the authors because we have also endured the many fads and changes in teaching reading and writing while holding firmly to our belief that it is not materials or programs that teach students to read and write but, rather, well-trained teachers. Nancy D. Kiger and J. David Cooper worked hard to maintain this belief and translate it into a text that has helped thousands of teachers improve their skills. As teachers of literacy, they defied pressures to present “cute ideas”; instead, they have always maintained the belief that their job was to help every teacher teach every student to read and write effectively.

Even though Nancy Kiger could not physically be with us as we developed the tenth edition of Literacy: Helping Students Construct Meaning, her contributions and legacy live on in every chapter and on every page. We are pleased that our new authorship team includes two outstanding teachers and literacy scholars who have worked with teachers and students every day to help them develop the skills they need to achieve success in learning to read and write. Michael D. Robinson, retired supervisor–coordinator of reading/language arts for the Monroe County Schools of Key West, Florida, and Jill Ann Slansky, retired literacy consultant from Portland, Oregon, have provided unbelievable contributions in maintaining and expanding the long-standing goal for this text—ensuring that every teacher helps every student achieve success in literacy.

Focus of This Revision The mission of Cengage Learning’s education list is to provide quality content, technology, and services to ensure that new teachers are prepared for the realities of the classroom—thus bridging the gap from preservice to practice to foster teachers’ lifelong career success. In this revision, as always, we strive to meet the needs of preservice and in-service teachers. Here are some of the changes that we think make this edition more outstanding than ever before: ●

●

●

Every chapter has been rewritten or reorganized to give teachers the most current research-based perspectives needed to develop effective strategies for teaching literacy.

Chapter order has been revised to accommodate the changing needs of instructors and students. The chapter on assessment now appears as Chapter 3 and the title and content have been revised to show how assessment and evaluation are designed to inform instruction.

A new feature to help students learn terminology has been added. A running glossary appears in the margin when a new term for a given chapter is introduced. This is designed to help students learn the important terminology within each chapter. xiii

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●

●

●

●

More emphasis is placed on second-language learners. A new feature, Increasing Success for English Language Learners, highlights the many places throughout the text that show teachers how to adjust instruction to meet needs of the second-language learners in their classrooms.

The Good Books and Where to Find Them feature has been updated with the most recent award winners.

To maintain the strong research base, references and research have been updated where appropriate.

The For Additional Reading section has been updated so that teachers can easily locate helpful information that focuses on the most pertinent and userfriendly sources.

Chapter-by-Chapter Organization The eleven chapters and the Handbook Resource provide complete coverage of the topics needed to help all teachers develop research-based strategies that ensure success for all students.

“To the Student Reading This Text” is a brief introduction that provides guidance to the reader, focusing on what to do before reading, during reading, and after reading each chapter.

CHAPTER 1, WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW TO BE AN EFFECTIVE LITERACY TEACHER, summarizes

the current research on literacy instruction and presents teachers with a clear and simple proven model for creating a balanced literacy program.

CHAPTER 2, FRAMEWORKS FOR EFFECTIVE STANDARDS-BASED LITERACY LESSONS, presents models that teachers need to create the type of lessons that lead to total student success. These include the basic literacy lesson and the minilesson.

CHAPTER 3, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION THAT INFORMS INSTRUCTION, presents an up-

dated perspective on assessment for the classroom teacher. Topics such as the assessment wall are included.

CHAPTER 4, PRIOR KNOWLEDGE: ACTIVATING AND DEVELOPING CONCEPTS AND VOCABULARY, stresses the importance of connecting prior knowledge and vocabulary

development. In addition, it presents strategies that lead students to become independent in developing their own prior knowledge and vocabulary, including the new student strategy “making connections.” The Common Core State Standards–based literacy lesson focusing on prior knowledge is based on the chapter of the book The Pirate Captain’s Daughter.

CHAPTER 5, HOW TO TEACH STRATEGIES FOR CONSTRUCTING MEANING, provides information that is important at all literacy levels. It shows teachers how to model strategies for students systematically and explicitly. Strategies supported by the research are presented: visualizing, making connections, monitoring, inferencing, identifying important information, generating and answering questions, synthesizing and summarizing, and evaluating. Sample lessons are provided. This chapter focuses on the strategies that are most important for students to learn.

CHAPTER 6, BEGINNING LITERACY: DECODING, VOCABULARY, AND MEANING, presents instructional routines for beginning literacy instruction. A standards-based literacy xiv Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203

lesson using the book Memoirs of a Goldfish is provided. The lesson is based on the Common Core State Standards.

CHAPTER 7, INTERMEDIATE GRADES AND MIDDLE SCHOOL: DECODING, VOCABULARY, AND MEANING, has a new title that more accurately reflects the content. It focuses on read-

ing instruction in the upper elementary grades and middle school. A new section address tiers of vocabulary instruction. The Common Core State Standards–based literacy lesson uses a piece of literature, Mercedes and the Chocolate Pilot: A True Story of the Berlin Airlift and the Candy That Dropped from the Sky. CHAPTER 8, RESPONDING AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF MEANING, stresses that responding is the keystone of comprehension, or the construction of meaning. This chapter focuses on how to use responding to help all students improve their construction of meaning.

CHAPTER 9, WRITING AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF MEANING, a rewritten chapter, shows

how writing supports the construction of meaning. It moves beyond what is commonly called learning to write to a stronger emphasis on writing to learn, focusing on the elements of writing at all grade levels that are important to improving comprehension.

CHAPTER 10, HELPING STRUGGLING READERS, provides teachers a framework and guide-

lines for helping struggling readers in the classroom. The primary focus of this chapter is on Response to Intervention (RTI).

CHAPTER 11, DEVELOPING A MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR A COMPREHENSIVE LITERACY CLASSROOM, identifies the steps required for developing a management system for

a comprehensive literacy classroom. An explanation and graphic clarify how to use guided reading with leveled books. Organizing for this instruction is illustrated with a sample guided reading plan for three groups. The chapter presents guidelines for creating a literate environment, organizing the classroom, and keeping needed records. Procedures for developing student routines are included.

GOOD BOOKS AND WHERE TO FIND THEM presents resources that will help you stay

current with children’s and young adult literature and awards. This resource also appears on the website.

THE HANDBOOK RESOURCE, WORD SKILLS: PHONICS AND STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS FOR TEACHERS, is designed to help teachers develop the content of phonics and structural

analysis. It includes information on the scope and sequence of decoding instruction and practice exercises. The Handbook Resource can serve as a useful reference.

Student and Instructor Resources MindTap™: The Personal Learning Experience MindTap for Literacy 10e represents a new approach to teaching and learning.

A highly personalized, fully customizable learning platform with an integrated eportfolio, MindTap helps students to elevate thinking by guiding them to: ● ●

Know, remember, and understand concepts critical to becoming a great teacher Apply concepts, create curriculum and tools, and demonstrate performance and competency in key areas in the course, including national and state education standards xv

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MindT Moves MindTap Students Up Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy

●

Create Evaluate Analyze

Prepare artifacts for the portfolio and eventual state licensure, to launch a successful teaching career ● Develop the habits to become a reflective practitioner

As students move through each chapter’s Learning Path, they engage in a scaf scaffolded learning experience, designed to Understand move them up Bloom’s Taxonomy, from lower- to higher-order thinking skills.

Remember & Know The Learning Path enables preserAnderson, L. W W., & Krathwohl, D. (Eds.). (2001). A tax taxonomy for learning, teaching, and vice students to develop these skills assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. New Y York: Longman. and gain confidence by: Apply

Engaging them with chapter topics and activating their prior knowledge by watching and answering questions about authentic videos of teachers teaching and children learning in real classrooms ● Checking their comprehension and understanding through Did You Get It? assessments, with varied question types that are autograded for instant feedback ● Applying concepts through mini-case scenarios—students analyze typical teaching and learning situations, and then create a reasoned response to the issue(s) presented in the scenario. ● Reflecting about and justifying the choices they made within the teaching scenario problem ●

MindTap helps instructors facilitate better outcomes by evaluating how future teachers plan and teach lessons in ways that make content clear and help diverse students learn, assessing the effectiveness of their teaching practice, and adjusting teaching as needed. MindTap enables instructors to facilitate better outcomes by: ●

●

●

●

Making grades visible in real time through the Student Progress App so students and instructors always have access to current standings in the class Using the Outcome Library to embed national education standards and align them to student learning activities, and also allowing instructors to add their state’s standards or any other desired outcome Allowing instructors to generate reports on students’ performance with the click of a mouse against any standards or outcomes that are in their MindTap course Giving instructors the ability to assess students on state standards or other local outcomes by editing existing or creating their own MindTap activities, and then by aligning those activities to any state or other outcomes that the instructor has added to the MindTap Outcome Library

MindTap for Literacy 10e helps instructors easily set their course since it integrates into the existing Learning Management System and saves instructors time by allowing them to fully customize any aspect of the learning path. Instructors can change the order of the student learning activities, hide activities they don’t want for the course, and—most importantly—create custom assessments and add any standards, outcomes, or content they do want (e.g., YouTube videos, Google docs).

Learn more at www.cengage.com/mindtap. xvi Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203

Online Instructor’s Manual with Test Bank An online instructor’s manual accompanies this book. It contains information to assist the instructor in designing the course, including sample syllabi, discussion questions, teaching and learning activities, field experiences, learning objectives, and additional online resources. For assessment support, the updated test bank includes true/false, multiple-choice, short-answer, and essay questions for each chapter.

PowerPoint Lecture Slides These vibrant Microsoft PowerPoint lecture slides for each chapter assist you with your lecture by providing concept coverage using images, figures, and tables directly from the textbook.

Cognero Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero is a flexible online system that allows you to author, edit, and manage test bank content from multiple Cengage Learning solutions, create multiple test versions in an instant, and deliver tests from your LMS, your classroom, or wherever you want.

Acknowledgments This tenth edition of Literacy: Helping Students Construct Meaning is a reflection of the ideas from many preservice and in-service teachers across the country. We are very appreciative of the suggestions and ideas we received from them. Many individuals have provided support that helped to make this book a reality.

Thanks to Nancy D. Kiger for friendship and support as J. David’s coauthor for more than 25 years.

Thanks to our families and friends for their support and encouragement.

Thanks to: ● ●

Lori Oczkus for her exciting new introduction Our advisory board of reviewers: ● Benita Bruster, Austin Peay State University ● Dawna Lisa Buchanan, University of Central Missouri ● Charlene D. Bustos, Angelo State University ● Chelsea Cave, Ed.D., Lincoln Memorial University ● Beth Clark-Thomas, Ph.D., Malone University ● Mary Jean Tecce DeCarlo, Drexel University ● Francine Del Vecchio, Ed.D., Caldwell University ● Dr. Andrea Dulski-Bucholz, Mayville State University ● Deirdre Englehart, Ed.D., University of Central Florida ● Brenda Fischer, Ed.D., College of St. Scholastica ● Frannie Franc, The College of New Jersey ● Dr. Jennifer Gray, Marymount University xvii

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Dr. Julie M. Green, Heidelberg University ● Cynthia P. Hicks, Ph.D., Troy University ● Daniel Holm, Indiana University South Bend ● Patricia Janicek, University of Alaska Southeast ● Joyce R. Jeewek, Ed.D., Benedictine University ● Lori J. Ladiges, Cardinal Stritch University ● Dina Laskowski, University of Jamestown ● Cheu-jey Lee, Indiana University - Purdue University Fort Wayne ● Sue Ellen McCalley, Ph.D., Avila University ● Dr. Meagan Moreland, Northeastern State University ● M. Eileen Morelli, Westminster College ● Robert J. Nistler, University of St. Thomas ● Scott Popplewell, Ball State University ● Natalie Precise, Ed.D., Drury University ● Sylvia Read, Utah State University ● Donna P. Shockey, Northwestern Oklahoma State University ● Pamela Stockinger, Hope College ● Susan A. Sturm, SUNY Fredonia ● Gail Surwill, Rocky Mountain College ● Ruby Thompson, Clark Atlanta University ● Renarta H. Tompkins, University of South Carolina Beaufort ● Jean Payne Vintinner, University of North Carolina at Charlotte Trudy Brown, Content Development Manager, for her suggestions and guidance on the tenth edition and her unbelievably hard work. She has been greatly appreciated!

The memory of John T. Ridley, friend and former vice president and publisher in the Houghton Mifflin School Division, who was the first person, in 1985, to believe in this book and support its publication. ●

●

●

●

●

Loretta Wolozin, who sponsored the first edition of this text for Houghton Mifflin.

As the sponsoring editor she believed it would have a long life and bright future.

Thirty years and nine editions later, her beliefs have been verified.

Every teacher who has used this book in one or more editions and each student who has been touched by those teachers.

To each of these individuals and groups we extend a very special thank you!

The tenth edition of this text continues to reflect what we know to be true about helping teachers help students while including new viewpoints and thinking. We are thankful that we have been able to provide college instructors and in-service trainers a resource that has consistently improved in its effectiveness over 26 years.

J. David Cooper Michael D. Robinson Jill Ann Slansky xviii Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203

About the Authors J. DAVID COOPER is a retired professor from Ball State University. Prior to teaching

at the college level, he taught at elementary and secondary schools in Louisville, Kentucky. Dr. Cooper has served as a consultant to the Department of Education in Washington, D.C., numerous state departments of education, and school systems throughout the country. Active in the International Reading Association, he has spoken in all fifty states and eight countries. Dr. Cooper has authored or coauthored more than twenty books on the teaching of reading. He has served as an editor of Indiana Reading Quarterly and as a reviewer for such leading journals as The Reading Teacher Journal of Reading Teacher, Reading, and National Reading Conference Yearbook.

MICHAEL D. ROBINSON is a retired curriculum supervisor for K–6 as well as the coor-

dinator and supervisor for English and language arts K–12, coordinator of multitiered systems of support (MTSS), and problem solving/Response to Intervention (PS/RtI) K–12 for the Monroe County School District, Key West, Florida. Formerly, he worked as a curriculum support specialist in the Miami–Dade County Public Schools, where he developed curriculum and served as a master coach in reading and language arts. He taught second, third, and fourth grades and was a Title I coordinator, reading specialist, and federal grants coordinator in Marion, Indiana.

Mr. Robinson, who supervised student teachers while studying at the University of Illinois, is coauthor of Success with RTI: Research-Based Strategies for Managing RTI and Core Reading Instruction in Your Classroom.

JILL ANN SLANSKY is a retired national reading consultant and professor. She has

taught many courses in reading/language arts, assessment, and curriculum. She is active in many educational organizations and has spoken in forty-eight states and three foreign countries. Her strong knowledge of practical classroom techniques comes from her experience as an elementary teacher, a middle-school remedial reading teacher, and a teacher of special education children. Currently, Dr. Slansky serves on the Board of Directors of the Oregon Jewish Museum and Center for Holocaust Education.

NANCY D. KIGER had more than forty years of experience in education. She retired from the College of Education at the University of Central Florida, where for fifteen years she taught courses in reading, language arts, and children’s literature, as well as supervised student teachers. She also taught at universities in Indiana and Missouri.

She began teaching as an elementary classroom teacher; later, she taught reading at the elementary and middle-school levels in Indiana. She was a writer and editor of literacy materials for over twenty-five years.

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Introduction Milestone birthdays and anniversaries usually warrant celebration. So put on your party hats and shake those noisemakers! Please join me in congratulating J. David Cooper, Michael D. Robinson, Jill Ann Slansky, and Nancy Kiger on reaching the thirtieth anniversary as authors of one of the field’s most trusted literacy resources, Literacy: Helping Students Construct Meaning. Just like the best-selling cookbooks of all time, Literacy: Helping Students Construct Meaning continues to provide tens of thousands of educators with the most essential recipes for implementing a successful literacy program. This new tenth edition meets the current needs of teachers striving to provide quality literacy instruction in the age of standards. When planning lessons today’s educators often spend countless hours online immersed in a plethora of teaching ideas and choices. How does one weed through the information overload to deliver the best instruction possible? Once again the authors of Literacy: Helping Students Construct Meaning provide the essential foundations for every aspect of a comprehensive balanced literacy program, including assessment, groupings, strategy instruction, classroom management, and much more. All levels of literacy instruction from beginning to intermediate are carefully outlined. By adding additional strategies for reaching English Language Learners (ELLs) and struggling readers the authors strengthen their proven mix. The authors also fold in super helpful glossary features, classroom video clips, and online supports at just the right times! Newly organized chapters with updated lessons and bibliographies of award-winning children’s books sprinkled throughout make this edition especially inviting.

Read, celebrate, and enjoy this special commemorative thirtieth-anniversary edition of Literacy: Helping Students Construct Meaning! Prospective teachers, like most of you reading this text, and veteran teachers alike will find Literacy: Helping Students Construct Meaning loaded with a wealth of practical and research-based strategies to promote growth for all students. Once again the authors stress the “secret ingredient” to a successful classroom is not materials or programs but a welltrained, highly qualified, caring teacher!

The Absolute Essentials for Great Literacy Teaching Chapter 1 provides a quick tour of every aspect of literacy teaching that you need to know to deliver powerful instruction that meets the needs of all students! The authors cite a clever analogy from Richmond R-XVI School District educators. They suggest that teachers often feel like circus tightrope walkers under the big top as they juggle all the elements of a literacy program. A balanced literacy approach ensures that you the teacher are like a ringmaster always in control providing rich choices and offerings to students. This chapter covers an overview of the stages of literacy development, a definition of comprehensive balanced literacy, and a quick description of the components of balanced literacy.

Step-by-Step Building Blocks for the Most Effective Lessons After studying Chapter 2 the reader will know how to put together engaging and powerful lessons at any grade level in either reading or writing! That is a tall order, but possible because the authors present a simple easy to follow three step reading xx Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203

lesson-introduce the text, read and respond to the text, and extend the text. The chapter also includes a practical method for teaching mini-lessons along with clear explanations of the different modes of reading such as shared reading and guided reading. Essential steps for teaching writing from modeling to independent practice are outlined too.

Assessment and Evaluation Tools That Really Work This chapter lays out exactly how to assess students on a regular basis to inform your short-term daily instruction as well as long-term growth reports for parents and the school. The nine principals of assessment that every teacher should know are outlined. Forms for assessment are included to make evaluating student progress easy!

This is the essential “everything you need to know” chapter on assessment.

Powerful Strategies for Prior Knowledge Teachers often complain that students do not possess the necessary background or experiences to understand texts. Prior knowledge impacts a student’s understanding of a text. Concrete ways to build prior knowledge include discussing vocabulary and concepts that the student will read about. The chapter includes 12 very easy to implement suggestions for building and activating prior knowledge. Some of these include role-playing, analyzing text structures for fiction and nonfiction, anticipation guides, and brainstorming. You will return to this chapter again and again for inspiration and ways to engage students in reading any text.

Comprehension Strategies That Work Chapter 4 gives you the most important research-based comprehension strategies to teach and all the tools you need to teach them! The authors include timely updates for the familiar comprehension strategies included in most reading programs and district standards (connect, predict, question, infer, monitor/clarify, synthesize, visualize, summarize, evaluate). For each critical strategy, the authors include a fabulous student-friendly poster to download and display as well as sample minilessons.

What You Need to Know to Teach Beginning Reading I remember peering into the little glass window of the door to my first classroom and wondering, “How am I going to reach all these first graders with different needs and teach them to read?” Teaching beginning reading really is a science and an art. It is a complex process that requires an understanding of how young children learn and the classroom routines necessary to achieve success. The good news is that Chapter 6 leaves nothing to chance! If you follow the very specific suggestions outlined here, your students will learn to read. xxi Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203

Super Vocabulary/Decoding Strategies for Upper Grades Older students are bombarded with vocabulary in the rigorous complex texts they read. Students need to learn about 3,000 words per year to read the 40,000-word vocabulary required of a high school senior (Nagy & Herman, 1987). Wide reading provides some of the best practice for learning vocabulary. However, the research indicates that we should teach some words directly and also teach students strategies to “fish” and figure out words on their own. Which words should be taught directly or in context, how, and when? In Chapter 7 the authors tackle these questions and provide plans for selecting vocabulary, hands-on lessons, and vocabulary routines.

Promoting Responses to Reading to Deepen Comprehension This chapter is filled with many wonderful, varied, and rich suggestions for teaching students to respond to text with either personal or creative responses. Students learn to back their opinions about texts with evidence from the reading as they respond.

Response modes include discussions, book clubs, art, readers theater, and many dif different forms of journal writing. Students will enjoy all the fun and interesting suggestions in this chapter, and their comprehension will deepen as they eagerly participate!

Writing Essentials and More When students connect reading and writing, critical thinking emerges. Research has long supported the integration of reading and writing as constructive processes (Pearson &Tierney, 1984). Chapter 9 shows you how to naturally connect reading and writing in your literacy instruction. The texts your students read become models for student writing. Everything from the phases of beginning writing, to what to do when students say, “I hate to write,” to six steps to meaningful grammar and spelling lessons are covered in depth. This critical chapter includes the steps to process writing and scaffolding writing with modeled, shared, guided, and independent lessons.

Specifics for Targeting the Needs of the Struggling Reader No two struggling readers’ needs are the same. Some experience problems with decoding, oral language, comprehension, or vocabulary. Chapter 10 outlines researchbased, proven strategies to use to accelerate the progress of the struggling readers in your classroom. Specific ways to use the three tiers of Response to Intervention (RTI) include ideas for helping struggling students in class, in a small group, or individually. Routines for struggling readers are outlined and ways to make time for intervention are covered. Popular intervention programs found in schools today are discussed. xxii Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203

The Management Puzzle: Putting It All Together Creating a daily classroom management plan for reading and writing entails lots of strategic know how. Chapter 10 includes practical guidelines for setting up the physical classroom environment, organizing a classroom library, ways to conference with students, ideas for meeting the needs of struggling readers and ELL students, and training students to function in the various structures. Teachers will appreciate detailed suggestions for the three most common frameworks for grouping used in schools today that include reading with a basal, leveled books in small group guided reading, or Reading Workshop. The down to the minute schedules and schedules for reading and writing workshop are invaluable.

Happy Tenth Edition! Join me in thanking J. David Cooper, Michael D. Robinson, Jill Ann Slansky, and Nancy Kiger for the latest update of their best-selling classic. The gift, however, goes to you the reader and the students you will impact by implementing the proven ideas in this guiding text. This amazing resource continues to successfully prepare teachers for the challenges of today’s classrooms. Timely, research-based, and practical, Literacy: Helping Students Construct Meaning once again is the right book at the right time!

Lori Oczkus Author and Literacy Coach Orinda, California

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To the Student Reading This Text

Literacy: Helping Students Construct Meaning, Tenth Edition, was written for preservice and in-service teachers. How you use this text will depend on your purpose for using it. The following ideas will help you gain the most knowledge and skills possible from each chapter.

Before Reading ●

●

Preview the chapter by reading over the graphic organizer to determine the learning objectives for each chapter.

Review the list of “Terms You Need to Know” found within each graphic organizer. As you read the text, use the Running Glossary that appears in the margin to define terms within each section.

During Reading ● ● ● ●

As you read each section, keep the learning objective in mind.

Highlight key points or make notes as you read.

List questions that you have.

Use the running glossary to be certain you clearly understand each important term.

After Reading ●

● ●

●

Review the “Summary” and “How Do I Teach” features listed at the end of each chapter.

Review the “Terms You Need to Know.”

Seek answers to questions you still have by using some of the sources in the “For Additional Reading.”

Prepare responses for the “For Discussion” questions.

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Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203

[ ESSENTIAL QUESTION ]

What Do You Need to Know to Be an Effective Literacy Teacher?

LE A RN I N G O B J ECT I VE S

CH AP T E R S UB H E A DS

T E R M S YO U NE E D T O KN O W

1-1 Describe How Students

1-1a

How Literacy Develops, p. 6

Become Readers and Writers, p. 5

1-1b

Reading and Writing Acquisition, p. 6

direct instruction/explicit instruction, p. 6

1-1c

Stages of Literacy Development, p. 9

literacy, p. 6 oral language, p. 6 prior knowledge, p. 6 decoding, p. 6 comprehension, p. 7 stages of literacy development, p. 9 standard, p. 10 benchmark, p. 10

1-2 List the Key Elements

1-2a

Phonemic Awareness and Phonics Instruction, p. 11

phonemic awareness, p. 11

That Research Indicates Are Important for Effective Literacy Instruction, p. 10

1-2b

Fluency Instruction, p. 11

1-2c

Vocabulary Instruction, p. 11

fluency, p. 11

1-2d

Comprehension Instruction, p. 11

1-2e

Good Instructional Choices, p. 11

1-2f

Clarity of Purpose and Timing, p. 12

1-2g

Constant Use of Data, p. 12

1-2h

Culturally Responsive Instruction, p. 12

1-2i

Intellectual Challenges for All, p. 13

1-2j

Grouping Practices and Independent Student Activities, p. 13

1-2k

Teacher and Student Actions, p. 13

1-2l

Time Spent on Reading, p. 13

phonics, p. 11 vocabulary, p. 11 English Language Learner (ELL), p. 12 diversity, p. 12 Common Core State Standards, p. 14 diagnosis, p. 16 differentiated (differentiating) instruction, p. 17

1-2m Alignment of Standards, Curriculum, and Instruction, p. 13 1-2n

Common Core State Standards, p. 14

1-2o

Locating Standards for Your State, p. 17

1-3 Describe a Framework

1-3a

for Effective, Balanced Literacy Instruction, p. 17

Comprehensive Balanced Literacy Instruction Defined, p. 17

Comprehensive Balanced Literacy Program/Instruction, p. 17

1-3b

A Model for Comprehensive Balanced Literacy Instruction, p. 18

teacher-directed instruction, p. 17

1-3c

Daily Independent Reading, p. 19

1-3d

Daily Independent Writing, p. 20

1-3e

Reading: Learning Skills and Strategies, p. 20

1-3f

Reading: Application of Skills and Strategies, p. 21

1-3g

Writing: Learning to Write, p. 21

1-3h

Writing: Developmentally Appropriate Writing, p. 21

1-3i

Intervention, p. 21

student-centered instruction, p. 17 core instruction, p. 18 adequate yearly progress, p. 18 basal series, p. 20 decodable text, p. 20 authentic literature, p. 20 high-frequency words, p. 20 intervention, p. 21

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What You Need to Know to Be an Effective Literacy Teacher

1 Visiting Ms. Rosario’s Classroom

T

oday we are visiting Ms. Rosario’s third-grade class of 24 students. There are students from several different language backgrounds—Spanish, Japanese, Italian, and, of course, English. The bulletin board features signs and captions in multiple languages. Ms. Rosario

is conducting a guided reading lesson with a small group of nine students reading Because of Winn-Dixie (DiCamillo, 2000). She reminds students to apply the strategy of summarizing after they have silently read the book. We notice that there is a poster hanging on the wall that explains summarizing of a story. After the students complete their silent reading, Ms. Rosario calls on Jacob to give his summary of the story. Jacob has a little difficulty coming up with a good summary. Ms. Rosario says, “Let me share my summary, and you see how it compares to Jacob’s.” She gives a brief summary describing the characters, setting, and problem from the story. Li Yung raises her hand and asks if she can give her summary. Li’s summary is very similar to Ms. Rosario’s, with very few differences. The group continues their discussion of the story, sharing several more summaries.

As we walk around the room, we can tell that all the students are attempting to apply the strategy of summarizing. It is obvious that Ms. Rosario has taught this strategy to the whole class. Some students are writing summaries in their journals, and others are doing activities at various learning centers where they are practicing summarizing short segments of text. Everyone is actively involved while Ms. Rosario works with one small group. When students complete their assigned work, they go to the library center in the back of the room, where they select books for independent reading.

After Ms. Rosario completes the work with the small group, the students in the group take out their journals and begin to write a response to one of a list of text-dependent questions posted in the room, such as, “What is the main idea of the section you read today? What have you learned from reading this book/chapter/section? Why did the author choose to give his or her book its title?

Does the information you have learned agree with other information you have previously read?” Ms. Rosario then calls another group to come to the table to meet with her. All the students in this class seem to know what their jobs are, and when their work is completed they either spend time reading an independently selected book or working on writing in their journals.

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CHAPTER 1 What You Need to Know to Be an Effective Literacy Teacher

During our brief visit to Ms. Rosario’s classroom, we saw a lot of activity related to literacy learning taking place. We observed that ●

● ●

●

● ●

●

All students were focused on practicing or applying the strategy of summarizing, which the teacher had obviously taught to the entire class.

The students in the class represented a variety of language and cultural backgrounds.

The students in this room spoke several languages, which was clear from the signs in multiple languages on the bulletin boards.

Students were all responding to what they had read in various ways—some were writing in journals, some were having discussions, and some were writing summaries.

Discussions were both student led and teacher directed.

Small-group and individual activities occurred as a follow-up to some whole-class instruction on summarizing. (See Photo 1.1.)

The students had been taught routines to follow while doing their assigned work and upon completion of their assigned work.

Based on our observations and discussions with Ms. Rosario, we could tell that this was a comprehensive, balanced literacy classroom. Ms. Rosario knew what she had to do to be an effective literacy teacher. What we saw in Ms. Rosario’s class demonstrated that an effective literacy teacher must know and understand many things in order to do the job of helping all students learn to read and write. We will revisit Ms. Rosario’s class later in this chapter.

Understanding This Text The tenth edition of Literacy is designed to help you become an effective literacy teacher. Throughout this text, we have incorporated the Standards for Reading Professionals developed by the International Literacy Association (ILA, 2010 – formerly the International Reading Association). These standards are listed in Table 1.1 and are integrated within each chapter as appropriate.

Mary Kate Denny/PhotoEdit

4

PHOTO 1.1

Teacher works with a small group while other students complete independent activities.

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1-1 Describe How Students Become Readers and Writers

TABLE 1.1

5

Standards for Reading Professionals, Revised 2010 International Literacy Association

Standard 1: Foundational Knowledge Candidates understand the theoretical and evidenced-based foundations of reading and writing processes and instruction.

Standard 2: Curriculum and Instruction Candidates use instructional approaches, materials, and an integrated, comprehensive, balanced curriculum to support student learning in reading and writing.

Standard 3: Assessment and Evaluation Candidates use a variety of assessment tools and practices to plan and evaluate effective reading and writing instruction.

Standard 4: Diversity Candidates create and engage their students in literacy practices that develop awareness, understanding, respect, and a valuing of differences in society.

Standard 5: Literate Environment Candidates create a literate environment that fosters reading and writing by integrating foundational knowledge, instructional practices, approaches and methods, curriculum materials, and the appropriate use of assessments.

Standard 6: Professional Learning and Leadership Candidates recognize the importance of, demonstrate, and facilitate professional learning and leadership as a career-long effort and responsibility.

Source: International Literacy Association. (2010). Standard for reading professionals. Newark, DE: Authors.

This edition of Literacy pulls together the best that we have learned from years of research and practice about how to provide literacy instruction that will ensure success for all students. The remainder of this chapter focuses clearly and simply on succinct answers to three important issues: (1) How students become readers and writers; (2) what research indicates about effective literacy instruction; and (3) a framework for effective, balanced literacy instruction. You may want to explore these topics in greater depth using the “For Additional Readings” and the web resources provided for this text by your instructor.

You saw at the very beginning of the chapter that we presented an “Essential Question” for you to think about before you read this chapter and to answer when you have completed reading the chapter. This will enable you to see how much you have enhanced your knowledge as a result of your reading and instruction. Every chapter begins with a graphic organizer that presents the “Learning Objectives” for the chapter, the chapter sub-heads, and a list of “Terms You Need to Know.” By reviewing this organizer before you read, you will develop a framework of what you are likely to learn in this chapter. When each new term is introduced within the text, it will be bold-faced and a “Running Glossary” presented in the margin will define the term. A complete glossary of terms can be found in the back of the text.

1-1

Describe How Students Become Readers and Writers Knowing how children and young adults learn helps you know how to plan instruction. Teachers, reading specialists, and researchers have learned a great deal about how individuals learn to read and write, or become literate. Although there are several theories about learning (Hergenhahn & Olson, 2012), all include the understanding that individuals learn in different ways: ●

Some students learn by having someone model or show them how to do something. For example, the teacher thinks aloud; they verbalize the process they use as they read to help infer the main idea. This is considered

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6

CHAPTER 1 What You Need to Know to Be an Effective Literacy Teacher

direct instruction/explicit instruction Direct, teacher-led instruction. Involves teacher modeling, student practice with teacher guidance and feedback, and student application in a new situation. Term is used interchangeably with direct instruction or direct teaching.

●

●

●

1-1a literacy Ability to listen, speak, read, write, and think.

Viewing is a part of literacy that uses many of the skills and strategies involved in the other aspects of literacy oral language Listening and speaking.

explicit or direct instruction. This is the type of instruction the teacher uses to teach students a strategy, skill, or process.

Some students learn implicitly by participating in different activities or experiences.

For example, your students might read a book that is appropriate to their reading ability and carry out a discussion afterward. This is student-centered instruction.

Most students learn in both ways—some things they learn through explicit instruction, and others learn through more student-centered instruction.

No teacher should rely on only one type of instruction. Effective literacy teachers are aware of how students learn and are able to use both types of instruction.

How Literacy Develops Literacy is the ability of children and young adults to learn to speak, listen, read, write, and think. Literacy develops when individuals participate in a variety of real literacy experiences enhanced with a considerable amount of direct or explicit instruction. They begin by developing oral language (listening and speaking) and then later learn to read and write. All of the elements of literacy—speaking, listening, reading, writing, and thinking—develop continuously (Wilkinson & Silliman, 2000).

Understanding how these components develop helps us create an effective literacy program for our students.

All children come to school with a language base, though this base may or may not match the base on which the school is trying to build. Since a strong connection between oral language and reading has been clearly established for native English speakers and second-language learners (Cazden, 1972; Garcia, 2000; Loban, 1963; Menyuk, 1984; Ruddell, 1963; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998; Wilkinson & Silliman, 2000), it is important that schools build literacy experiences around the language learning a child has developed prior to coming to school. We know that children typically acquire language ● ● ● ●

●

When they have a need that is meaningful and real.

Through interactions with peers and adults.

By making approximations of real language.

At varying rates and in various stages, even though they all go through similar phases of development.

By having language modeled for them both directly and indirectly.

This understanding provides a solid basis on which to develop a literacy program that fosters students’ abilities to read and write successfully.

1-1b

prior knowledge What students already know, through learning and experience, about a topic or about a kind of text. decoding The process of translating written language into verbal speech sounds.

Decoding is one part of reading.

Reading and Writing Acquisition Reading and writing are complex processes that grow from oral language and are built on listening and speaking. For example, the child who develops a good listening and speaking vocabulary has formed many concepts and ideas. This is known as prior knowledge, and it is critical for effective reading and writing (Anderson & Pearson, 1984; Pressley, 2005b).

Reading involves two basic processes—decoding and comprehension. Decoding is the ability of the individual to figure out the pronunciation of printed words and ultimately determine the word’s meaning (Harris & Hodges, 1995). The only way a child knows that a word has been pronounced correctly is by checking it against his or her oral language. For example, suppose Meredith reads the sentence, “We had eggs and bacon for breakfast.” If she does not immediately recognize the word bacon, she tries to sound it out. First, she says băcun, but that does not sound like a real word. Next, she says baaˉˉcun, which sounds like a word she knows. The child mentally

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1-1 Describe How Students Become Readers and Writers

FIGURE 1.1

7

compares the word to his or her oral language to determine if it has been pronounced correctly and makes sense—that is, it is something that goes with eggs.

A child with limited oral language or limited English may not be able to determine the accuracy of the word’s pronunciation. In other words, the word must be in the child’s head before pronunciation can be verified. However, even without the word bacon in the child’s head, thinking can verify that—based on the context of the sentence—the word probably names a food that people eat for breakfast.

Oral language is also critical to comprehension, which is the ability to construct meaning by interacting with a text. Think back to the sentence read above: “We had eggs and bacon for breakfast.” As the child decodes the word bacon, he or she uses the meanings developed in oral language to associate meaning with the written word. A child who does not have these meanings in his or her oral language cannot associate meaning with the word or text. For example, read the following sentence to yourself:

A Gayzorniplatz

The Gayzorniplatz was noving his tonk.

❯❯

Professional Resource Download

comprehension The part of reading that involves constructing meaning by interacting with text.

Comprehension is one part of the reading process.

Because you have good reading skills, you obviously recognize the words the, was, and his. You may recognize the inflected ending -ing ing in the word noving and decide it must be a verb. Because of the noun markers the and his, you also know that Gayzorniplatz and tonk are probably nouns and that Gayzorniplatz is probably a proper noun, since it is capitalized. You are also able to come up with some semblance of pronunciation for the words using analogies from what you know about spelling and pronunciation. However, since these words are not in your oral language, you cannot be absolutely sure of their pronunciation or construct their meaning. If, on the other hand, I show you a picture of a Gayzorniplatz (see Figure 1.1) and give you the meanings of noving and tonk, you begin to be able to construct meaning.

Decoding and comprehension are the two big jobs in the process of learning to read. Take a look at Figure 1.2. Notice that as an individual moves from beginning reading to mature reading, the emphasis in learning shifts from more focus on decoding to more focus on comprehension. Both comprehension and decoding are always a part of the process. However, as students become adept at decoding, they are free to pay more attention to constructing meaning. Shaywitz’s research (2005) on how students approach unknown words shows that the more often children have to stop and think about decoding and oral language, the less able they are to understand what they read. This process is not as smooth and linear as the diagram shows; it is a “jerky continuum” (Cooper & Kiger, 2011).

FIGURE 1.2

Changing Emphasis in Learning to Read

DECODING

COMPREHENSION

Beginning Reading ❯❯

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Mature Reading

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CHAPTER 1 What You Need to Know to Be an Effective Literacy Teacher

Writing is the process of conveying meaning or ideas by using graphic symbols.

For very beginning writers, this may be drawing or scribbling. This type of writing occurs long before the child can form letters. Once the child begins to form letters, he or she uses invented or phonetic spelling (see Figure 1.3).

Writing involves the reverse of decoding, the process that is used in reading; writing involves encoding or spelling—writing symbols to represent words. Using the concepts and ideas you have developed through your own prior knowledge and oral language, you convey your ideas for others to read. You use the knowledge of language you have gained to express your ideas.

Throughout the processes of speaking, listening, reading, and writing, children learn to think. As they learn language, they become more adept at expressing themselves, solving problems, and making judgments. The process of thinking (often referred to as critical thinking or higher-order thinking skills) develops along with all of the other aspects of literacy. Exactly what happens as children develop literacy?

FIGURE 1.3

A Preschool Child Writes about How He Feels about School with His Friend Matthew

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1-1 Describe How Students Become Readers and Writers

1-1c

Stages of Literacy Development There is general agreement among researchers and literacy specialists that children and young adults go through various stages as they develop literacy (Adams, 1990; Chall, 1983; Cooper & Kiger, 2011; Ehri, 1991, 1997; Juel, 1991; Rupley, Wilson, & Nichols, 1998). There are a variety of names for these stages. Although detailed study of these stages is beyond the scope of this text, it is important that we be aware of these stages and know the role that they play in literacy instruction. The names we use here for each stage are the ones that are most commonly used in schools. For more discussions about the stages of literacy development, see Cooper and Kiger (2010), listed in “For Additional Reading.”

A stage is a point in time during the development of an overall process. There are five stages or phases in literacy development: 1. Early Emergent Literacy. This is the stage during which children develop the foundations of literacy. It usually occurs before the child enters school and includes such aspects of literacy as developing oral language, writing by drawing or scribbling, and being curious about print. Second-language learners have usually had these experiences in their first language.

2. Emergent Literacy. During this stage, the child becomes more interested in literacy. He or she uses more standard oral language patterns, and forms and names letters. Concepts about print, such as recognizing a letter or word, also develop during this stage. Most children complete most of this stage by the end of kindergarten or at the beginning of first grade.

3. Beginning Reading and Writing. In this stage, oral language expands, and students begin to actually read and write in conventional ways. They figure out the pronunciation of words and also develop fluency (the ability to recognize words automatically, accurately, and rapidly) in reading (Samuels & Farstrup, 2006).

They understand the meanings of more and more words. This stage continues through first grade for most students and into second or third grade for some.

4. Almost Fluent Reading and Writing. During this stage, the child is growing more sophisticated with all aspects of literacy. He or she reads silently more than in the previous stage, does more writing, and has a larger oral language vocabulary. For most students, this stage may begin toward the end of second grade and may continue into the beginning of fourth or fifth grade. Photo 1.2 shows almost fluent readers working collaboratively.

Tetra images/Getty Images

stages of literacy development Various points in time in the development of the overall literacy process.

There are five stages: early emergent literacy, emergent literacy, beginning reading and writing, almost fluent reading and writing, and fluent reading and writing.

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PHOTO 1.2

Almost fluent readers work collaboratively.

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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller, without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who, as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.

FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER” (Sarcopsylla penetrans)

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley, some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing, but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature, from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,

or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.

Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?

The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both “off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the craving for tobacco in the tropics.

Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to

an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and lemon-juice.

Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment, that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.

Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.

My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari; consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had

bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding, consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us, seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten years to come.

Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch: Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9 × 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.

How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his mutilated finger-tips.

Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.

The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface, however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day such a fire is a grand sight.

Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction, sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.

Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush, and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the

western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.

It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki suits had not escaped scatheless.

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR MAHUTA

I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process

may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe— not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more, between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them— cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes, perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.

This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the secondary bush.

After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact, receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains, where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were accustomed to rule.

But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and

lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible, impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and come back to his starting point.

The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.

According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast, to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however, correct.

The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau, instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks and springs of the low country.

“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.

He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a stillborn child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which

was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In course of time, the couple had many more children, and called themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams, for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest wateringplace; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”

The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?

Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short, woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood, ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia, Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably) would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded

by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.

The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.

Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.

This knowledge is crystallized in the ancestral warning against settling in the valleys and near the great waters, the dwelling-places of disease and death. At the same time, for security against the hostile Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted that every settlement must be not less than a certain distance from the southern edge of the plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the present day. It is not such a bad one, and certainly they are both safer and more comfortable than the Makua, the recent intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain, especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the

most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.

The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.

It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding out how the back door is fastened.

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of “Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have

two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise, come in for a blowing-up.

The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala, shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.

Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde bush:—