The Catalyst Volume 1 Issue 2

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Dear Readers,

Welcome to the latest edition of The Catalyst! We are grateful to all the dedicated writers, artists, and graphic designers who have invested their time and hard work over the past few months to put this together! As we delve into the realms of science and innovation, we invite you to embark on a journey of discovery with us.

In this issue, we explore a wide range of captivating topics. From the ethical implications of designer babies to the depths of the dark matter, each article offers a glimpse into the vast world of science.

At The Catalyst, we strive to ignite curiosity and inspire wonder, pushing the boundaries of knowledge and understanding. We hope this issue sparks your imagination and leaves you eager for more.

Happy reading!

-The RISE Team

THE WONDERS OF NANOANTIBODIES

BY ESHIKA PALLAPOTU ‘26

Antibodies, discovered in 1890, provide us with much information about how the immune system can combat infections, allergens, and toxins. Antibodies can use binding regions to identify and attack a certain cell Because of this, antibodies can bind to foreign substances due to antigens. The immune system will mark a foreign substance with a specific antigen which will then be found by a specific antibody to combat The specificity of an antibody is determined by the tip of a y-shaped region, which is comprised of 110-130 amino acids, formed by light and heavy chains. The different types of antibodies are determined by the heavy chain. In a human, there are 5 main different types of heavy chains, which are then further classified into different groups

Discoveries have been made about a certain antibody called a nano antibody also known as a variable heavy domain of heavy chain (VHH). This nano antibody is produced and found in the Camedelia family which consists of animals such as Alpacas or Camels They are called nano antibodies because

they are the smallest antibodies known, comprising only heavy chains. Their small size allows them to penetrate between membranes far more easily than other antibodies, such as monoclonal antibodies This is important as they can penetrate tumors and the blood-brain barrier, while monoclonal antibodies have a hard time doing so. Nano antibodies were created due to a lack of a CH1 domain on a heavy chain This resulted in light chains being unable to bind to the heavy chains of the antibody, thus producing a nano antibody with supreme abilities. These antibodies are popularly used for their high-binding abilities as well as affinity.

The Paratop is the name for the region in which the nano antibody binds to the antigen This paratope is formed by the folding of three hypervariable complementaritydetermining regions (CDR), as well as 4 framework (FR) regions into two β-sheets A loop in the third CDR is extended in the nano antibody, allowing it to bind to more antigens.

While all the regions of CDR are important, the third region allows the nano antibody to bind with higher affinity when in contact with an antigen. Due to the extension of CRD3, nano antibodies can refold after denaturing and withstand high temperatures as well as PH, making them suitable for many purposes They are even able to be orally transmitted due to their highly polar nature, further proving their use as a suitable tool for medicine. Not only so, encapsulating them in a Liposome for drug delivery is a

popular way to administer this tool; different transport methods should be made to get the drug across the cytoplasm. While nanoantibodies were tested in clinical trials, it was found that the side effects were minimal, and the major side effects were easily mitigated. It was also shown that they could be tracked using fluorescence, meaning that there were binding regions present on the nano antibody to perform such a phenomenon.

non-binding antibodies. These phages help to provide positive binders.

A surface plasmon resonance (SPR) is then deployed into the cell, and along with it the target antigen. The function of SPR is to be used to determine the binding efficiency of the nano antibodies as ineffective ones get washed away. All in all, the popularity of Nano antibodies in pharmaceutical medicine has been on the uprise due to their different usages, for instance, Abraxane which is a drug used to treat cancer, and its low side effects.

While nano antibodies produce impressive results, they too have limitations. Due to their small size, they lack regions and functions commonly found in other antibodies. However, scientists have found their way around these problems and are still able to perform various of different functions with these antibodies. Sadly, the concave shape of the nano antibodies includes using phages where they are transfected with the DNA of the nano antibodies as well as boipanned to get rid of

Exploring the topic of immunology, recent studies on artificial intelligence sprouted probabilities of using such large language models in pathological detection. In a study conducted by MIT, the researcher there were attempting to find compounds to kill a deadly bacterium known as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). They created language models, training them in molecular biology

THE BLUE WHIRL

BY SAANVI DOGRA ‘26

Have you ever seen a tornado of fire? Well, some people consider fire whirls violent, turbulent fire that burns at high temperatures in a confined setting to be exactly that. When performing studies on this phenomenon, scientists ignited liquid fuel floating on water with some air that created created a sweeping vortex and unexpectedly discovered what is now dubbed as the blue whirl. The experiment resulted in a large eruption of yellow flame that then stabilized into a smaller spinning vortex of blue fire. The unique blue color indicates that it burns without soot, meaning such flames could be used to clean up oil spills or for environmentally friendly energy production in order to prevent climate change

However, there are some barriers in the way of using this discovery for practical applications Not only is the initially meter-high burst of flame dangerous to handle, but the blue flame itself is highly unstable and often changes back to its initial yellow color where soot is being produced Also, the structure of the flame was largely unknown Fire is made through a chemical reaction of fuel and oxygen known as combustion. Most flames can fall into one of two categories premixed and diffusion. In a diffusion flame, the fuel and oxidizer are separated, so it has a lower burning velocity. On the other hand, in a premixed flame, the two are mixed together. A premixed flame can be rich, meaning there is an excess of fuel, lean, meaning there is a lack of fuel in relation to the oxidizer, or stoichiometric, meaning there is a perfect ratio of both. Understanding both the structure of the blue whirl is crucial in order to improve its stability and scale it for mass production

Scientists from the University of Maryland set out to solve this problem with a computational approach. They compared computer simulations to their experimental observations and evaluated factors such as heat signatures, fuel mass, combustion diagnostics, introduction of air to the flame, and more The researchers found that the blue whirl is composed of four different types of flames the upside-down conical base of premixed rich flame, the diffusion flame at the top, small wisps of premixed lean flame at the sides, and finally, a triple flame forming a bright blue ring at the center where those three different flames meet.

This research not only guides the future scaling and safety precautions around the blue whirl, but also helps us better understand the importance other flame types have on our society. Through a similar procedure, other scientists could determine the structure of unique flames and bring them a step closer to being used for practical applications. For now, everyone is hoping we can put this unexpected discovery to good use and apply the blue whirl phenomenon towards making cleaner energy for us all.

ADVANCES IN MIRGRAIN TREATMENT

BY NALIN MARWAH ‘26

One of the most annoying day-to-day symptoms is getting a headache. About 17 percent of women and 5 percent of men in the United States report having a migraine, a moderate to high-intensity headache that causes lots of throbbing pain in the forehead, increased light and sound sensitivity, and lack of appetite during an episode. A few percent of people even have chronic migraine, 15 migraine days per month, which are among the most severe cases Headaches are often an indivisible diagnosis, meaning that there are no physical tests to find if someone has a headache or why they may be experiencing one. People with headaches are often blamed for their headaches, with doctors claiming they are dehydrated. Recent advances have created more medicines that help people live more headache-free days.

Back in the 1990s, Triptains revolutionized migraine care. Triptans are a family of tryptaminebased drugs. They can quiet overly reactive pain nerves and lessen the pain of headaches. However, they aren’t a cure or preventive measure, and people with a history of strokes and heart attacks cannot use them safely. Antidepressants, blood pressure medications, anti-seizure drugs, and Botox may relieve symptoms in some patients However, these will not work for everyone

Luckily, the use of Gepants has introduced better migraine medication. Gepants attack CGRP, a molecule from nerve cells that start migraine attacks. Blocking it prevents headaches without constricting the blood vessels or causing rebound headaches. Three medications have been approved in pill, tablet,

and nasal spray forms. The use of Monoclonal Antibodies has become useful as well. Monoclonals are lab-made injectables that can weaken the signaling pathway between CGRP and its receptor. Research has shown that 60 percent of patients with chronic headaches experience a significant decrease in the number of migraines they get from just 12 weeks of Monoclonal treatment Eighty percent of patients experience this reduction within 48 weeks of treatment Four types of monoclonal antibodies have been approved. All of these are either injections or taken through an IV.

With these advances, the number of people suffering from chronic headaches can be reduced as new treatments become available to give them more headache-free days.

DESIGNER BABIES- A SCIENTIFIC AND ETHICAL CONTROVERSY

BY AASHIKA PATEL ‘26

As humanity has advanced, our technology has expanded in realms beyond what an average person spends their time thinking about Recently, the concept of “designer babies” has rendered many confused, especially those concerned with the ethics behind it. The term “designer baby” describes a biologically engineered baby with a set of selected traits that can reduce disease risks and even aid in gender selection A “designer baby” is made possible through the use of in vitro fertilization (IVF) and a gene-editing technology known as Crispr-Cas9

Throughout the world, many infertile couples have used IVF to increase their chances of having viable pregnancies The procedure involves transferring a fertilized embryo to a petri dish containing a woman’s egg and a man’s sperm, then allowing it to become viable in the woman’s uterus. The use of IVF goes hand in hand with preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) where embryos are checked for diseases or harmful traits before implantation in the woman’s uterus In parents with harmful genetic diseases, PGD can prevent their children from facing a lifetime of suffering.

Currently, Crispr-Cas9 has been tested on nonviable embryos in labs to perfect the art of removing specific mutant genes responsible for causing genetic diseases. However, as we continue down the path of using genetically modifying technologies to prevent diseases, we start to create a new path that could advance technologies further into creating babies for aesthetic purposes

The controversy begins with parents choosing “cosmetic” traits for their children beyond any interest in maintaining their health. These traits include desired hair colors, eye colors, height, level of athleticism, and level of intelligence, along with the most consequential question of whether the baby is a boy or a girl With the direction modern genetic engineering is going, parents aren’t going to need to ask that question because they’re going to be choosing the gender of the child before its creation The idea of creating children with “superior” traits brings into question the ethics behind the technology Are we handing children privileges based on whether their parents can afford the treatments and consultations of choosing those traits in the first place? At the end of the process, there would be a division between genetically

engineered children and those with naturally inherited traits. In relation to the parents of the child, should they be responsible for their child’s future based on the traits they chose? They could inadvertently be dictating their child’s life through the chosen traits, especially in the context of athleticism and intelligence.

At the end of the day, scientists have barely tested genetic technologies The idea of choosing a child’s physical and mental traits is a possible future development that many have just begun considering As technology and humanity continue to evolve, “designer babies” might become a development in society. However, there’s a low chance of it succeeding on a large scale due to its expense and controversy.

METHANE'S CONTRUBITON TO GLOBAL WARMING

BY JOON CHOI ‘26

New technology aimed at capturing methane from the air to combat global warming is a critical development with significant implications for students and people worldwide. Methane, a potent greenhouse gas, traps more heat in the atmosphere than carbon dioxide, contributing significantly to global warming. Scientists are exploring various innovative strategies to remove methane directly from the air, such as reengineering bacteria and developing catalytic reactors These technologies, although in

early research stages, show promise in mitigating the impact of methane emissions on climate change.

The urgency of addressing methane emissions is underscored by its substantial warming effect in the near term While carbon dioxide has a longer-lasting impact, methane's rapid pace of warming makes it a crucial target for mitigation efforts. Capturing methane and converting it into less harmful substances like carbon dioxide can significantly reduce its climate impact For

instance, turning excess methane into CO2 could lessen the heating of the atmosphere by a sixth (Chandler).

The implications of this new technology extend beyond environmental benefits. As students and people around the world grapple with the effects of global warming, advancements in methane capture offer hope for a more sustainable future. By actively engaging in research and supporting initiatives focused on methane removal, individuals can contribute to slowing down global warming and mitigating its adverse effects on the planet

In conclusion, new technologies for capturing methane from the air represent a crucial step in combating climate change. These innovations not only hold promise for reducing greenhouse gas emissions but also offer an opportunity for students and people worldwide to actively participate in addressing one of the most pressing challenges of our time.

THE GUT MICROBIOME

BY NITHIKA VIVEK ‘26

Within the intricate ecosystem of the human body lies a vibrant and diverse community of microorganisms known as the gut microbiome. Comprising trillions of bacteria, viruses, fungi, and other microbes, the gut microbiome plays a crucial role in human health and physiology, influencing everything from digestion and metabolism to immune function and mental wellbeing.

Recent advances in microbiology and biotechnology have illuminated the complex interactions between the gut microbiome and its host, shedding light on its profound impact on human health The gut microbiome is now recognized as a dynamic and interconnected network of microorganisms that coexist in symbiosis with the human body, contributing to essential physiological processes and influencing disease susceptibility

One of the primary functions of the gut microbiome is its

involvement in digestion and nutrient metabolism. Certain species of gut bacteria produce enzymes that help break down dietary fibers and complex carbohydrates, releasing nutrients that are otherwise inaccessible to the human digestive system. These metabolites, such as short-chain fatty acids, not only serve as an energy source for the host but also exert regulatory effects on metabolism and immune function.

Moreover, the gut microbiome plays a crucial role in modulating the immune system, influencing the development and function of immune cells and helping to maintain immune homeostasis Imbalances in the gut microbiome, known as dysbiosis, have been linked to various immune-related disorders, including inflammatory bowel disease, allergies, and autoimmune conditions

The composition and diversity of the gut microbiome are

influenced by various factors, including diet, lifestyle, genetics, and environmental exposures Dietary habits, in particular, play a significant role in shaping the gut microbiome, with certain foods promoting the growth of beneficial bacteria while others may disrupt microbial balance

Harnessing the therapeutic potential of the gut microbiome represents a promising frontier in medicine, with ongoing research exploring the use of probiotics, prebiotics, and fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) for the treatment of various health conditions. By targeting the gut microbiome, scientists aim to develop personalized interventions that restore microbial balance and promote health and well-being

DARK MATTER: A UNIVERSAL DEBATE

BY GAHEERA BABBAR ‘25

As far as most know, matter is any cluster of particles that occupies mass and space. Visible matter, or baryonic matter, is measurable and visible It is composed of baryons, or subatomic particles such as protons, neutrons, and electrons with strong interactions, and naturally exists in the four fundamental forms of solid, liquid, gas, or plasma. Yet there is much more in the universe than the matter we encounter daily In 1933, Fritz Zwicky of Bulgaria, after introducing the concepts of supernovas in 1931, explored an unfamiliar energy, one that is possibly responsible for the rotation of galaxies and expansion of the universe He concluded that the luminous mass (measured from light matter) present in the galaxies of the Coma cluster was far too low to sustain the high velocity of the cluster as it rotated, and must have been in addition to an invisible matter that was preventing the galaxies from separating (Caltech Magazine) He classified this foreign matter as “dark matter,” matter that has no measurable mass or interaction with electromagnetic radiation but

can be observed through its gravitational effect on existing matter. Without the presence of this invisible energy, the galaxy clusters seen today would drift apart due to the lack of gravitational attraction amongst the bodies within the cluster. Vera Rubin, Ph.D. in astronomy, used the Doppler effect to explain the shifts in wavelengths produced by stars as they became further and closer to the Earth and their relative speeds differed. Because the orbital speed of stars varies with their distance from the center of a galaxy, Rubin could use this data to observe the distribution of mass throughout the galaxy As per the Inverse Square Law, the orbiting speed of a planet is inversely proportional to the square of its distance from the orbited object due to a decrease in gravitational attraction Like Zwicky, she noticed that further stars were traveling at speeds just as high as those closer to the center of the galaxy, regardless of the weaker gravitational force acting on them from such far distances She concluded the presence of an unseen matter, one that allows the stars to maintain their rapid speed of orbit even in their apoapsis Her findings, too, supported Zwicky’s theory of dark matter, one that many astronomers were reluctant to accept. Countless other discoveries have proven that dark matter is the impetus for the observed structure and behavior of galaxies Gravitational lensing is one of several methods to observe the effects of nonbaryonic matter on cosmic amount of matter intersects the structures When a substantial

path of light of distant galaxies, its strong gravitational field distorts and magnifies the images the distant source produces, imitating a “natural telescope.”. The observed light hints at the amount of total mass that must be present to produce the resulting lensing effect Stellar mass, the mass of stars, was seen to contribute to only a portion of this mass, the remaining being classified as dark matter.

Astronomers evaluate the properties of dark matter upon encountering unexplainable cosmic phenomena. Dark matter is believed to contribute to about 27% of the universe’s total massenergy density (ESA Hubble) Its inability to reflect, absorb, radiate, or refract light bestows it the name “dark matter.” Being one of the few types of particles that fail to interact with normal matter, it is challenging to identify and find For this reason, dark matter can only be observed through its effects on normal matter through gravity. Silvia Pascoli, a physicist at the University of Bologna, and several others have concluded

that light particles would not be sufficient to cause the major structural binding and formation of galaxies It is therefore understood that dark matter particles must have significant mass density and be dynamically cold, with lower kinetic energies and slower movement From the discoveries of high orbiting velocities of planets in outer regions of galaxies, theories have emerged of dark matter being composed in what are known as “dark halos,” a circular formation of dark matter around a galaxy in which there is less dark matter in the center and more in outer layers Lastly, because dark matter in the universe has been constant since the Big Bang, its composition must be entirely stable.

The Debate

Although an overwhelming amount of evidence has proven the existence of dark matter to the astronomical community, its nature is still unidentified Scientists have proposed several theories, each of which considers the known and unknown properties of dark matter These are generic candidates, many of which are theoretical,

for the foundation of dark matter and have each been independently on The most speculated theory is that of “weakly interacting massive particles,” or “WIMPS,” These are hypothetical nonbaryonic particles known to be electromagnetically neutral and slow-moving, with the ability to interact with normal matter with weak forces. These could be composed of other elementary particles, including neutralinos, photinos, higgsinos, neutrinos, or several other weakly interacting particles The presence and role of WIMPS is supported by supersymmetry, an idea that aims to address the gaps in the Standard Model of particle physics Theoretically, each particle has a corresponding supersymmetric particle, with properties that make it compatible to interact with its Standard partner particle including different spin and consistent charge For example, fermions, particles with 1 ⁄ 2 units of spin, and bosons, with 0, 1, or 2 units of spin, both have partner particles whose spin properties differ by ½ unit These supersymmetric particles must be stable and electrically neutral, with the ability to interact weakly with the particles of the Standard Model and potentially much more massive These weak interactions prevent WIMPS from interfering with the cosmic microwave background, making them the Big Bang, they would have been produced in great

abundance, and would therefore be sufficient as dark highly suitable candidates for dark matter The neutralino is a commonly investigated WIMP, because it is often the lightest supersymmetric particle (LSP) with weak electromagnetic interactions Yet the theory of supersymmetry has not been rendered concrete, and the search for WIMPS progresses today. Despite the microscopic levels of energy released from interactions of WIMPs, researchers have studied the vibrations and signals in the lattice structure of a crystal that a WIMP has collided with Several groups have been attempting to construct detectors and particle accelerators that amplify the signals produced by WIMPs as they travel through galaxies in their halos of dark matter to confirm their presence

While WIMPS have been considered a promising but underdeveloped explanation by many cosmologists, others claim that the high mass and weak interactive properties of WIMPS are not sufficient to explain their ability to shape universal structures. They propose axions- particles significantly lighter than WIMPS Axions have no electric charge or spin and interact extremely weakly with strong nuclear forces through gravity. If they were produced during matter. Although their existence has not yet been proven, it would not only solve the mystery of dark matter,

but also that of CP symmetry. It is known that the Standard Model remains underdeveloped One underlying issue is the violation of CP symmetry CP symmetry states that nature is symmetric through charge conjugation (C) and parity (P). Charge conjugation maps matter to antimatter, and parity maps a particle’s movement from one direction to the opposite direction. In other words, particles with CP symmetry to matter are the mirror image of antimatter particles This has only been proven to be true for electromagnetic and strong forces. In 1957, Chien-Shiung Wu discovered that weak interactions violated CP symmetry Axions have been proposed as a solution of this discrepancy between theory and observation, but further research must be done before rendering the question solved.

MACHOs (massive astrophysical compact halo objects) are an outdated candidate for the foundation of dark matter. Black holes, neutron stars, faint stars, and brown dwarfs are all examples of MACHOs Unlike WIMPS, MACHOs are somewhat composed of baryonic material, from the theory that dark matter is simply normal matter that is dim and difficult to see Baryonic matter strongly interacts with itself, while dark matter has been observed to have minimal to no interactions with itself. For this reason, MACHOs are only thought to make little to none

of the universe’s dark matter found in the halos of spiral galaxies (Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Astrophysics) Furthermore, MACHO’s are not weakly interacting bodies, rendering them an invalid candidate for the foreign matter. Gravitational lensing has been found crucial for the discovery of MACHOs When MACHOs pass in front of a star, the magnifying effect it inflicts on the star’s light identifies the baryonic and non-baryonic components of the MACHO (Swinburne University) This allows the determination of the effects of baryonic matter in the halo, as well as the distribution of the remaining invisible matter. The probability of a MACHO passing a star, however, is extremely low - about 5107 (Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Astrophysics)- making microlensing a difficult approach to study the effect of MACHOS There, too, is a possibility that these microlensing effects are not because of halo lenses at all, and are therefore misleading in the study of dark matter. Thus, the existence of baryonic dark matter remains a question, with MACHO’s being the primary focus for finding an answer Sterile neutrinos have been theorized to make up the composition of dark matter because of their lack of interaction with electromagnetic variables Neutrinos are weakly interacting particles and are almost impossible to detect because of their impeccable small mass They are produced

every time atomic nuclei fuse or fission and were therefore extremely abundant in the universe after the Big Bang Sterile neutrinos only can interact through gravity

However, they were quickly proven to be invalid candidates for the unidentified matter because of their fast moving, “hot” nature Because neutrinos are produced from nucleic reactions, they must be traveling at speeds comparable to that of light. Their tendency to restrict the formation of small galaxies and galaxy clusters, as well as their high velocities, classifies them as “hot” particles. A minuscule amount of dark matter is hot. While neutrinos play a role as hot dark matter, they leave the enigma of the remaining dark matter unsolved

It is imperative to understand dark matter’s role in shaping the universe’s structure and evolution The implications of dark matter extend beyond astrophysics, potentially revolutionizing our understanding of cosmology. While it is complex, the journey of exploring dark matter candidates continues through theoretical advancements and observations. Each proposed idea has offered unique insights into the elusive nature of dark matter, and we can anticipate exciting discoveries as scientists continue to refine their theoretical models and experimental techniques

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