Natural oral care in dental therapy 1st edition by durgesh nandini chauhan isbn 1119614228 978111961

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Natural Oral Care in Dental Therapy

Scrivener Publishing 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J Beverly, MA 01915-6106 Publishers at Scrivener Martin Scrivener (martin@scrivenerpublishing.com) Phillip Carmical (pcarmical@scrivenerpublishing.com)

Natural Oral Care in Dental Therapy

Edited by

Durgesh Nandini Chauhan, Prabhu Raj Singh, Kamal Shah and Nagendra Singh Chauhan

This edition first published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA © 2020 Scrivener Publishing LLC For more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

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Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no rep­resentations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchant-­ability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representa­tives, written sales materials, or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further informa­tion does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organiza­tion, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Chauhan, Durgesh Nandini, editor. | Singh, Prabhu Raj, editor. | Shah, Kamal, editor. | Chauhan, Nagendra Singh, editor.

Title: Natural oral care in dental therapy / edited by Durgesh Nandini Chauhan, Prabhu Raj Singh, Kamal Shah and Nagendra Singh Chauhan.

Description: Hoboken, New Jersey : Wiley-Scrivener, [2020] | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2019050429 (print) | LCCN 2019050430 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119614227 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119618935 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119618904 (epub) Subjects: MESH: Mouth Diseases--drug therapy | Plants, Medicinal | Mouth Diseases--prevention & control | Dental Care | Medicine, Traditional Classification: LCC RK305 (print) | LCC RK305 (ebook) | NLM WU 166 | DDC 617.6/306--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019050429 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019050430 ISBN 978-1-119-61422-7 Cover image: Pixabay.Com Cover design by Russell Richardson Set in size of 11pt and Minion Pro by Manila Typesetting Company, Makati, Philippines Printed in the USA 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Contents Preface

xix

Foreword

xxiii

Part I: Natural Oral Care

1

1

3

2

Natural Oral Care in Dental Therapy: Current and Future Prospects Durgesh Nandini Chauhan, Prabhu Raj Singh, Kamal Shah and Nagendra Singh Chauhan 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Safety of Natural Oral Care 1.3 Advantage of Natural Oral Care 1.4 Limitations of Natural Oral Care 1.5 Future Prospects of Natural Oral Care References Herbal Products for Oral Hygiene: An Overview of Their Biological Activities Ummuhan Sebnem Harput 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Oral Hygiene and Current Treatments 2.3 Plants Traditionally Used in Oral Hygiene 2.4 Clinically Studied Plant Product for Oral Hygiene 2.5 In Vitro Studied Herbal Product for Oral Hygiene 2.6 Discussion 2.7 Conclusion References

3 Go Green—Periodontal Care in the Natural Way Siddhartha Varma and Sameer Anil Zope 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Plaque Control 3.3 Dant Dhavani (Brushing) 3.4 Jivha Lekhana (Tongue Scrapping) 3.5 Gandusha (Gargling) or Oil Pulling 3.6 Oxidative Stress in Periodontitis 3.7 Green Tea

3 15 15 16 16 17 31 31 33 33 35 37 40 41 41 45 45 46 46 47 48 48 48

v

vi Contents 3.7.1 Components 3.7.2 Beneficial Effects of Various Tea Components 3.7.2.1 Antioxidative Effect 3.7.3 Role in Managing Periodontitis 3.8 Turmeric (Curcumin longa, Haldi) 3.8.1 Applications of Turmeric in Dentistry 3.9 Amala (Emblica officinalis, Amalaki, Phyllanthus emblica, Indian Gooseberry, Dhatriphala) 3.10 Anar/Dalima (Punica granatum) 3.11 Launga/Clove (Syzygium aromaticum) 3.12 Gotu Kola (Centella asiatica) 3.13 Amra/Mango (Magnifera indica) 3.14 Neem (Azadirachta indica) 3.15 Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) 3.16 Nilgiri (Eucalyptus globulus) 3.17 Tila/Sesame (Sesamum indicum) 3.18 Triphala 3.19 Tea Tree Oil (Melaleuca Oil) 3.20 Rumi Mastagi/Mastic Gum (Pistacia lentiscus) 3.21 Wheat Grass 3.22 Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis) 3.23 Licorice Root 3.24 Myrrh (Commiphora glileadenis) 3.25 Psidium guajava 3.26 Ginkbo Biloba 3.27 Honey 3.28 Other Herbs Which Can Be Potentially Used for Treating Periodontitis 3.29 Conclusion References 4 Role of Herbal and Natural Products in the Management of Potentially Malignant Oral Disorders P. Kalyana Chakravarthy, Komal Smriti and Sravan Kumar Yeturu 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Oral Submucous Fibrosis (OSMF) 4.2.1 Background 4.2.2 Beta-Carotene 4.2.3 Lycopene 4.2.4 Aloe Vera 4.2.5 Colchicine 4.2.6 Tea Pigments 4.2.7 Spirulina 4.2.8 Chinese Herbal Medicines 4.2.9 Turmeric and Derivatives, Nigella sativa, Ocimum 4.2.10 Polyherbal Formulations 4.2.11 Ayurvedic Formulations 4.2.12 Conclusion

48 49 49 49 49 49 50 50 50 51 51 51 51 52 52 52 52 53 53 53 53 54 54 54 54 55 55 56 61 61 62 62 63 64 65 66 66 66 67 68 68 69 69

Contents vii 4.3 Oral Leukoplakia (OL) 4.3.1 Background 4.3.2 Green Tea and Extracts 4.3.3 Beta-Carotene (βC) 4.3.4 Lycopene 4.3.5 Curcumin 4.3.6 Miscellaneous 4.3.6.1 Alpha-Tocopherol 4.3.6.2 Chinese Herbs 4.3.6.3 Bowman–Birk Inhibitor Concentrate (BBIC) 4.3.7 Conclusion 4.4 Oral Lichen Planus (OLP) 4.4.1 Conclusion References

Part II: Studies of Plants Used in Dental Disease 5

70 70 70 71 72 72 73 73 73 73 73 74 75 75

81

Studies on the Anticariogenic Potential of Medicinal Plant Seed and Fruit Extracts 83 Disha M. Patel, Jenabhai B. Chauhan and Kalpesh B. Ishnava 5.1 Introduction 83 5.2 Materials and Methods 85 85 5.2.1 Plant Materials 5.2.2 Preparation of Plant Seed and Fruit Extracts 85 5.2.3 Cariogenic Bacterial Strains 85 5.2.4 Preparation of Inoculums 86 5.2.5 Anticariogenic Activity Screening of Plant Extracts 87 87 5.2.5.1 Agar Well Diffusion Assay 5.2.5.2 Determination of Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) 87 5.2.6 Preliminary Phytochemical Analysis 87 5.2.7 Analytical Thin Layer Chromatography 87 5.2.8 TLC—Bioautography 88 88 5.3 Result and Discussion 5.3.1 MIC Value of Effective Plant Extracts 91 5.3.2 Phytochemical Screening and Bioautography 92 5.4 Conclusion 94 Acknowledgments 95 References 95

6 Cytotoxic and Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Turmeric and Aloe Vera in a Gingivitis Model Karen Esperanza Almanza-Aranda, Miguel Aranda-Fonseca, Gabriela Velazquez-Plascencia and Rene Garcia-Contreras 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Gingivitis and Periodontitis 6.3 Aloe Vera 6.3.1 Aloe Vera for Gingivitis and Periodontitis 6.3.2 Aloe Vera: Other Oral Applications

97 97 98 99 100 100

viii Contents 6.4 Turmeric 6.4.1 Turmeric for Gingivitis and Periodontitis 6.4.2 Turmeric: Other Oral Applications 6.5 Methodology 6.5.1 Materials and Methods 6.5.1.1 Authorization 6.5.1.2 Cell Culture 6.5.1.3 Cell Subculture 6.5.1.4 Cytotoxicity Test 6.5.1.5 Anti-Inflammatory Activity in a Gingivitis Model 6.5.1.6 Statistical Analysis 6.5.2 Results 6.5.2.1 Cytotoxicity 6.5.2.2 Anti-Inflammatory Activity in a Gingivitis Model 6.5.3 Discussion 6.5.3.1 Cytotoxicity 6.5.3.2 Anti-Inflammatory Activity 6.6 Perspectives for the Future 6.7 Conclusions References 7

Effects of Bauhinia forficata Link in Reducing Streptococcus mutans Biofilm on Teeth Julio Cesar C. Ferreira-Filho, Mariana Leonel Martins, Andressa Temperini de Oliveira Marre, Juliana Soares de Sá Almeida, Leandro de Araújo Lobo, Adriano Gomes Cruz, Marlon Máximo de Andrade, Thiago Isidro Vieira, Maria Teresa Villela Romanos, Lucianne Cople Maia, Ana Maria Gondim Valença and Andréa Fonseca-Gonçalves 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Materials and Methods 7.2.1 Recognition, Production, and Chemical Characterization of Ethanolic Tincture From B. forficata L. Leaves 7.2.2 Microbial Strains and Preparation of Inoculum 7.2.3 Minimum Inhibitory Concentration and Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC) 7.2.4 Kill-Kinetic Assay 7.2.5 Cytotoxic Potential 7.2.6 Tooth Selection and Preparation for Microbiologic Assay Using an S. mutans Biofilm 7.2.7 Statistical Analysis 7.3 Results and Discussion 7.4 Final Considerations Acknowledgments References

100 101 101 102 102 102 102 102 103 103 104 104 104 105 105 105 106 107 107 107 111

112 112 112 113 113 113 114 114 115 115 118 118 119

Contents 8

9

Antimicrobial Effect of a Cardamom Ethanolic Extract on Oral Biofilm: An Ex Vivo Study Marina Fernandes Binimeliz, Mariana Leonel Martins, Julio Cesar Campos Ferreira Filho, Lucio Mendes Cabral, Adriano Gomes da Cruz, Lucianne Cople Maia and Andréa Fonseca-Gonçalves 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Materials and Methods 8.2.1 Cardamom Extract Production 8.2.2 Physical Analyses 8.2.3 Bacterial Strains and Determination of Minimum Inhibitory Concentration and Minimum Bactericidal Concentration 8.2.4 Salivary Collection for Biofilm Formation (Ex Vivo Experiment) 8.2.5 Biofilm Formation and Treatment 8.2.6 Statistical Analyses 8.3 Results and Discussion 8.4 Final Considerations Acknowledgment References Effect of Punica granatum Peel Extract on Growth of Candida albicans in Oral Mucosa of Diabetic Male Rats Maryam Eidi and Fatemeh Noorbakhsh 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Materials and Methods 9.2.1 Hydro-Methanolic Extract 9.2.2 Candida albicans Inoculation 9.2.3 Animal 9.2.4 Statistical Analysis 9.3 Results and Discussion 9.4 Conclusion Acknowledgment References

ix 121

121 122 122 123 123 124 124 127 127 129 129 129 133 133 134 134 134 134 135 135 136 136 137

Part III: Applications of Natural Products in Oral Care

139

10 Effect of Oil Pulling on Oral Health Sameer Anil Zope and Siddhartha Varma 10.1 Introduction 10.2 What Is Oil Pulling (Snaihik Gandoosh)?

10.3 How Does Oil Pulling Work?

10.4 Composition and Various Activities of Most Commonly Used Oils for Oil Pulling 10.4.1 Sesame Oil 10.4.1.1 Antioxidant Activity 10.4.1.2 Antimicrobial Activity

141 141 142 143 143 143 143 144

x Contents 10.4.2 Coconut Oil 10.4.2.1 Antibacterial, Antifungal, and Antiviral Activity 10.4.2.2 Antinociceptive, Anti-Inflammatory, Antioxidant, and Anti-Ulcer Activity 10.5 Procedure of Oil Pulling 10.6 Effects of Oil Pulling on Oral Health 10.6.1 Dental Caries 10.6.2 Plaque-Induced Gingivitis 10.6.3 Halitosis 10.6.4 Oral Thrush 10.6.5 Xerostomia and Burning Mouth Syndrome 10.7 Drawbacks of Oil Pulling References

145 145

11 Role of Proteolytic Enzymes in Dental Care P. Kalyana Chakravarthy and Sravan Kumar Yeturu 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Role of Proteolytic Enzymes in Oral Surgery 11.2.1 Post-Extraction Management 11.2.2 Post-Surgical Facial Ecchymosis and or Edema 11.2.3 Enhanced the Action of Antibiotics 11.2.4 Effect of Bromelain on Blood Coagulation and Fibrinolysis 11.3 Role of Proteolytic Enzymes in Cancer and Oral Mucositis 11.3.1 Cancer 11.3.2 Management in Oral Mucositis 11.4 Osteoarthritis 11.5 Anti-Microbial Action 11.6 Treatment of Dental Carious Lesions 11.6.1 Laboratory Studies 11.6.2 Clinical Studies 11.7 Improvement in Bonding of Orthodontics Brackets 11.8 Role on Biofilm Control (Plaque, Gingivitis, and Oral Malodor) 11.9 Extrinsic Stain Removal on the Teeth 11.10 Role in Replantation of the Avulsed Tooth 11.11 Effect of Bromelain on Immunogenicity 11.12 Other Possible Applications and Scope for Future Research References

153

12 The Effect of Probiotic on Oral Health Patricia Nadelman, Marcela Baraúna Magno, Mariana Farias da Cruz, Adriano Gomes da Cruz, Matheus Melo Pithon, Andréa Fonseca-Gonçalves and Lucianne Cople Maia 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Overview of Oral Communities and Probiotic-Based Therapy to Oral Dysbiosis 12.3 Probiotics Mechanisms of Action 12.4 Dental Caries

171

145 146 146 146 147 148 149 149 150 150

153 154 154 155 156 156 156 156 157 157 158 159 159 160 161 163 164 165 165 165 165

171 172 175 176

Contents

xi

12.4.1 Definition and Etiopathology 12.4.2 Probiotics and Dental Caries 12.4.3 Probiotic-Contained Dairy Products and Dental Caries 12.4.4 Probiotic Powder and Dental Caries 12.4.5 Probiotic Tablets and Lozenges and Dental Caries 12.4.6 Probiotic Mouthwashes and Dental Caries Periodontal Disease 12.5.1 Definition and Etiopathology 12.5.2 Probiotics and Periodontal Diseases Oral Candidiasis 12.6.1 Definition and Etiopathology 12.6.2 Probiotics and Oral Candidiasis Halitosis 12.7.1 Definition and Etiopathology 12.7.2 Probiotics and Halitosis Conclusion Acknowledgments References

176 179 179 180 180 181 181 181 182 183 183 184 185 185 185 186 186 186

13 Charcoal in Dentistry Abhilasha Thakur, Aditya Ganeshpurkar and Anupam Jaiswal 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Charcoal Production Methods 13.2.1 The Traditional Method 13.2.2 The Modern Methods 13.3 Uses of Charcoal 13.3.1 Medicinal Uses 13.3.2 Non-Medicinal Uses 13.4 Charcoal Containing Oral and Dental Care Products 13.5 Benefits of Using Charcoal Containing Oral and Dental Care Products 13.5.1 Removes Stains and Whitens Teeth 13.5.2 Removes Acidic Plaque 13.5.3 Gives Fresh Breath and Improves Halitosis 13.5.4 Remineralize Teeth 13.5.5 Helps Overall Dental Health 13.5.6 Protects From Infection 13.5.7 Cost Effective for Regular Basis Use 13.6 Precautions to be Taken While Using Charcoal Containing Oral and Dental Care Products 13.7 Conclusion References

197

12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8

197 199 199 199 200 200 201 201 204 204 204 204 205 205 205 205 206 207 207

xii Contents 14 Propolis Benefits in Oral Health Mariana Leonel Martins, Karla Lorene de França Leite, Yuri Wanderley Cavalcanti, Lucianne Cople Maia and Andréa Fonseca-Gonçalves 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Types of Propolis 14.2.1 Brown Propolis 14.2.2 Green Propolis 14.2.3 Red Propolis 14.3 Biological Properties of Propolis 14.3.1 Oral Antibacterial Activity 14.3.2 Oral Antifungal Activity 14.4 Other Biological Properties of Propolis 14.4.1 Anti-Inflammatory Activity 14.4.2 Antioxidant Activity 14.4.3 Anticancer Activity 14.5 Benefits for Oral Health and Applications in Dentistry 14.6 Final Considerations Acknowledgment References

211

15 Grape Seed Extract in Dental Therapy Anusuya V, Ashok Kumar Jena and Jitendra Sharan 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Part I: Basics About Grape Seed Extracts 15.2.1 Components of Grape Seed Extracts 15.2.2 Chemical Structure 15.2.3 Types of GSEs 15.2.4 Methods of Separation 15.2.5 Factors Influencing the Quality and Quantity of Polyphenols in the GSEs 15.2.6 Physical Properties of Polyphenols 15.2.7 Biochemical Properties (Biological and Pharmacological) 15.3 Part II: Biological Applications in Dentistry 15.3.1 GSEs in Dental Caries 15.3.2 Anti-Erosive Agent (Prevention of Enamel erosion) 15.3.3 Antiplaque Effect 15.3.4 Antibacterial Agent 15.3.5 Biomodifier 15.3.6 GSEs as a Remineralizing Agent—Existing Dilemma 15.4 GSEs in Restorative Dentistry 15.4.1 GSE as Cross-Linking Agent 15.4.2 GSE in Bonding 15.5 GSEs in Endodontic Treatment 15.5.1 Endodontic Irrigants 15.5.2 Post Endodontic Restorations 15.6 GSEs in Periodontics

229

211 213 213 214 214 215 216 219 220 220 221 221 221 222 223 223

229 230 230 231 232 232 234 235 236 240 240 242 243 244 245 247 248 248 249 250 250 251 251

Contents xiii 15.6.1 Anti-Inflammatory Action in Periodontitis 15.6.2 Anti-Oxidative Action in Periodontitis 15.6.3 Antibacterial Action Against Periodontal Pathogens 15.6.4 Antimicrobial Activity in Peri-Implantitis 15.7 GSEs in Oral Cancer 15.8 Conclusion References 16 Ocimum Sanctum L: Promising Agent for Oral Health Care Management Trinette Fernandes, Anisha D’souza and Sujata P. Sawarkar 16.1 Introduction 16.2 History of Ocimum sanctum 16.3 Chemical Constituents of Ocimum sanctum 16.4 Therapeutic Significance of Ocimum in Dental Health and Preventive Care Management 16.5 Novel Drug Delivery Formulations and Its Application in Dentistry 16.5.1 Nanofibers 16.5.2 β-Cyclodextrin Complexes 16.5.3 Nanoparticles of Biocompatible Ocimum sanctum-Coated Silver Nanoparticles 16.6 Conclusion References 17 Coconut Palm (Cocos nucifera L.): A Natural Gift to Humans for Dental Ministrations Navneet Kishore and Akhilesh Kumar Verma 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Traditional Usage and Ethnopharmacological Relevance 17.3 Pharmacological Properties of Coconut 17.4 Role of Coconut Tree in Dental Ministrations 17.5 Exemplary Potential of Coconut Water in Dentistry 17.6 Other Significance of Coconut 17.6.1 Economic Value of Coconut Leaves 17.6.2 Use of Coconut Heart 17.6.3 Significance of Spathe and Inflorescence 17.6.4 Potential of Coconut Fruits 17.6.5 Usage of Coconut Milk 17.6.6 Importance of Coconut Shell 17.6.7 Commercial Usage of Husk Fibers 17.6.8 Economic Importance of Coconut Stems 17.6.9 Convention of Coconut Roots 17.7 Active Constituent Identified from Coconut 17.8 Future Prospective 17.9 Conclusions Acknowledgments References

252 252 253 253 254 254 255 259 259 260 260 262 264 264 264 264 265 266 271 271 272 273 274 275 276 276 277 277 277 277 277 278 278 278 278 279 280 280 281

xiv

Contents

18 Salvadora persica L. (Miswak): An Effective Folklore Toothbrush Sujata P. Sawarkar, Anisha D’souza and Trinette Fernandes 18.1 Introduction 18.2 History 18.3 Chemical Constituents 18.4 Extraction, Isolation, Identification of Chemical Constituents 18.5 Pharmacology—Therapeutic Activity of Salvadora persica L. 18.5.1 Theories for Miswak Activities 18.5.2 Antibacterial and Antifungal 18.5.3 Anti-Viral Effect 18.5.4 Anti-Cariogenic Effect 18.5.5 Antiplaque Effect 18.5.6 Antiperiodontitis Effect 18.5.7 Whitening Effect 18.6 Conclusion References

285

19 Triphala and Oral Health Kamal Shigli, Sushma S Nayak, Mrinal Shete, Vasanti Lagali Jirge and Veerendra Nanjwade 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Taxonomical Classification 19.3 Chief Phytoconstituents 19.4 Role of Triphala in Dentistry 19.4.1 Anti-Caries Activity 19.4.2 Triphala as a Root Canal Irrigant 19.4.3 Anti-Microbial and Anti-Oxidant Effect of Triphala 19.4.4 Role of Triphala in Periodontal Diseases 19.4.5 Triphala as a Mouth Rinse 19.4.6 Anti-Candida Activity of Triphala 19.4.7 Anti-Collagenase Activity of Triphala 19.5 Pharmacological Activities of Triphala and Future Research 19.5.1 Anticancer and Antioxidant Activity of Triphala 19.5.2 Wound Healing Properties 19.5.3 Antibacterial Activity of Triphala 19.5.4 Anti-Diabetic Effect 19.5.5 Anti-Inflammatory, Analgesic, and Antipyretic Effect 19.5.6 Immunomodulatory Effect 19.6 Public Health Importance 19.7 Formulation Using Triphala 19.6 Conclusion References

297

285 286 286 287 287 287 288 290 290 290 290 291 292 292

297 298 298 300 300 300 306 306 306 306 306 307 307 307 307 307 307 308 308 308 308 309

Contents xv 20 Azadirachta indica (Neem): An Ancient Indian Boon to the Contemporary World of Dentistry Sri Chandana Tanguturi, Sumanth Gunupati and Sreenivas Nagarakanti 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Vital Bioactive Compounds of Neem 20.2.1 Nimbidin 20.2.2 Azadirachtin 20.2.3 Nimbolide 20.2.4 Gedunin 20.2.5 Mahmoodin 20.2.6 Tannins 20.2.7 Diterpenoids 20.3 How to Distinguish Azadirachta Indica (Neem) from its Common Adulterant Melia Azedarach 20.4 Therapeutic Applications of Neem 20.4.1 Neem as an Anti-Inflammatory, Analgesic Agent 20.4.2 Antioxidant Activity 20.4.3 Anticancerous Activity 20.4.4 Antimicrobial Activity 20.4.4.1 Antibacterial Activity 20.4.4.2 Antiviral Activity 20.4.4.3 Antifungal Activity 20.4.4.4 Antimalarial Activity 20.4.5 Wound Healing Effect 20.5 Applications of Neem in Dentistry 20.5.1 Neem in Treatment of Periodontal Diseases 20.5.2 Role of Neem in Endodontics 20.5.3 Potent Role of Neem in Preventive Dentistry 20.5.3.1 Application in Dental Erosion Therapy 20.5.3.2 Anti-Microbial Activity 20.5.3.3 Anticaries Activity of Neem 20.5.3.4 Anti-Candidiasis Property 20.5.3.5 Anti-Cancer Property 20.6 Literature Supporting the Use of Neem in Dentistry 20.7 Toxicity and Safety 20.8 Contamination and Adulteration 20.9 Drug Interactions 20.10 Neem’s Prospects in Dentistry 20.11 Action Points and Recommendations for Health Care Professionals 20.12 Conclusion References 21 Ginger in Oral Care Aditya Ganeshpurkar, Abhilasha Thakur and Anupam Jaiswal 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Description

313 313 314 314 315 315 315 315 315 315 316 316 317 317 317 318 318 318 318 318 318 318 319 319 320 320 320 320 321 321 321 322 322 322 323 323 323 324 329 329 330

xvi Contents 21.3 21.4 21.5 21.6

Macroscopic Characteristics Pharmacognostic Standards Nutrient Composition Pharmacological and Medicinal Effects 21.6.1 Oral Analgesic Effect 21.6.2 Antimicrobial Effect 21.6.3 Anti-Carries Activity 21.6.4 Anti-Decay Effect 21.6.5 Healing Effect in Root Canal Therapy 21.6.6 Anti-Xerostomia Effect 21.6.7 Anti-Pyorrhea Effect 21.6.8 Anti-Thrush Effect 21.6.9 Anti-Herpes Effect 21.6.10 Tooth Polishing 21.6.11 Mouth Deodorizing Effect 21.6.12 Anticancer Effect 21.6.13 Protection Against Aphthous Stomatitis 21.6.14 Effect on Dentin Hardness 21.7 Pharmacokinetics 21.8 Toxicological Studies 21.9 Conclusion References

22 Effectiveness of Allium sativum on Bacterial Oral Infection Vesna Karic, Anupam Jaiswal, Heidi Abrahamse, Abhilasha Thakur and Aditya Ganeshpurkar 22.1 Introduction 22.1.1 History and Origin of Garlic 22.1.2 Medicinal Values of Garlic 22.2 Types of Allium sativum 22.2.1 Allium sativum Ophisocorodon/Hard-Necked Garlic 22.2.2 Allium sativum Sativum/Soft-Necked Garlic 22.3 Chemical Constituents 22.3.1 Allicin 22.3.2 Ajoenes 22.3.3 Alliin 22.4 Dental Infections and Epidemiology 22.5 Dental Infection and Antibiotic Resistance 22.6 The Antibacterial Application of Garlic in Dentistry 22.6.1 The Use of Garlic to Treat Oral Infections 22.6.1.1 Periodontitis 22.6.1.2 Pediatric Endodontitis 22.6.1.3 Dental Caries 22.6.1.4 Denture Stomatitis 22.6.1.5 Protection Against Fibrosis 22.6.1.6 Garlic Chewing Gum 22.6.1.7 Garlic Used as a Breath-Freshening Agent

330 330 331 331 331 332 333 333 334 334 335 335 336 336 336 338 338 338 339 339 339 340 345 345 347 348 349 349 349 351 351 351 351 352 352 354 354 354 356 357 358 359 359 359

Contents xvii 22.7 Additional Use of Garlic in Dentistry—Oral Cancer 22.7.1 High Blood Pressure 22.7.2 Skin Disorders 22.7.3 Anti-Allergic 22.7.4 Anti-Obesity 22.8 Garlic Mechanism of Action 22.9 Conclusions and Recommendations Acknowledgments References

360 361 362 362 362 362 362 364 364

Part IV: Ethnobotany and Ethanopharmacology

371

23 Curative Plants Worn in the Healing of Mouth Evils P. Shivakumar Singh, Pindi Pavan Kumar and D. Srinivasulu 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Materials and Methods 23.3 Results and Discussion 23.4 Conclusion Acknowledgment References

373

24 Ethnopharmacological Applications of Chewing Sticks on Oral Health Care E. A. Akaji and U. Otakhoigbogie 24.1 Introduction 24.1.1 Background 24.1.2 Historical Perspectives 24.1.3 Sources and Types of Chewing Sticks 24.2 Applications of Chewing Sticks in Oral Health Care 24.2.1 Chewing Sticks for Oral Hygiene 24.2.2 Ethnopharmacological Applications of Chewing Sticks in Oral Health 24.2.2.1 Dental Caries (Tooth Decay) 24.2.2.2 Periodontal Disease 24.2.2.3 Oral Candidiasis 24.2.2.4 Oral Ulcers and Halitosis 24.2.2.5 Other Oral Conditions 24.3 Conclusions References

383

25 Ethnomedicine and Ethnopharmacology for Dental Diseases in Indochina Viroj Wiwanitkit 25.1 Introduction 25.2 Ethnomedicine and Ethnopharmacology in Indochina 25.3 Locally Available Naturally Derived Dental Products in Indochina 25.4 Ethnopharmacology for Dental Diseases in Indochina 25.5 Ethnomedicine for Dental Diseases in Indochina

393

373 374 375 381 381 381

383 383 384 384 384 384 387 387 389 389 390 390 390 391

393 394 396 397 402

xviii Contents 25.6 Future Trend of Ethnomedicine and Ethnopharmacology for Dental Diseases in Indochina 25.7 Conclusion References

403 404 404

26 Traditional Medicinal Plants Used in Anti-Halitosis P. Shivakumar Singh, Pindi Pavan Kumar and D. Srinivasulu 26.1 Introduction 26.2 Materials and Methods 26.3 Results and Discussion 26.4 Conclusion Acknowledgment References

407

Index

415

407 408 409 412 413 413

Preface For hundreds of years now the existence and utility of natural products have bolstered the idea that natural products are still the choice for therapy. Their structural diversity and exclusive pharmacological actions differentiate them from drugs of synthetic origin. Not only are they used in traditional ways but also in modern medicine for treating life-­ threatening diseases. The discovery and design of new drugs from natural products always remain a challenging task. Still, they remain a choice due to their safety profile and negligible side effects. This book focuses on perspectives of natural medicine in various dental diseases. Oral diseases continue to be a major health problem worldwide. Oral health is integral to general well-being and relates to the quality of life that extends beyond the functions of the craniofacial complex. Standard Western medicine has had only limited success in the prevention of periodontal disease and treatment of a variety of oral diseases.

The dentist needs to be more informed regarding the use, safety, and effectiveness of the various traditional medicines and over-the-counter products. For example, herbal extracts have been used in dentistry for reducing inflammation, as antimicrobial plaque agents, for preventing the release of histamine and as antiseptics, antioxidants, antimicrobials, antifungals, antibacterials, antivirals, and analgesics. They also aid in healing and are effective in controlling microbial plaque in gingivitis and periodontitis, thereby improving immunity.

The 26 chapters of this book cover the chemistry, clinical and preclinical panorama of natural products used in oral care. In Chapter 1, Chauhan et al. provide an exhaustive list of natural oral care products used in oral diseases and classify them according to use and chemistry. Chapter 2, contributed by Harput, discusses the crucial role that oral hygiene plays in the prevention of oral diseases, including periodontitis, tooth decay, and oral candidiasis. In Chapter 3, Varma and Zope highlight the herbs and their extracts used as an adjuvant in periodontal disease treatment. Chapter 4, written by Chakravarthy et al., focuses on various modalities currently available and discusses the efficacy and safety of such herbal products and natural extracts in the management of potentially malignant oral disorders. In Chapter 5, Patel et al. discuss experimental studies that show the promising broad spectrum anticariogenic activity of ethyl acetate and methanolic extract of Quercus infectoria that may prove useful for the clinical evaluation and development of a formulation suitable for the treatment of dental caries. Chapter 6, by Almanza-Aranda et al., reports that turmeric and Aloe vera in culture with HGF show promising potential and have clinical use for patients with gingivitis and periodontitis. In a study reported in Chapter 7, Ferreira-Filho et al. evaluate the effects of a tincture made from Bauhinia forficata Link leaves (TBF) on Streptococcus mutans biofilm formed on teeth. In Chapter 8, Binimeliz et al. demonstrate the effect of an Elettaria cardamomum ethanolic extract (ECE) against oral biofilm bacteria through an in vitro study. Chapter 9, contributed by Eidi and Noorbakhsh, xix

xx Preface reports on the effect of Punica granatum peel extract on the growth of Candida albicans in the oral mucosa of diabetic male rats. In Chapter 10, Zope and Varma give an overview of the evidence-based use of oil pulling therapy in the maintenance of oral health. The focus of Chapter 11 by Chakravarthy and Yeturu is plant-based proteolytic enzymes, including papain, bromelain, actinidin, and ficin; as well as the application of these enzymes in professional as well as personal oral health care. The aim of Chapter 12 by Nadelman et al. is to present an updated viewpoint of the effect of probiotics on oral health by describing the relationship between the administration/consumption of these bacteria and the main oral dysbiosis, the oral microbiota parameters, and the immune salivary components. Chapter 13, written by Thakur, highlights the role of charcoal in dentistry and the development of charcoal-based dentifrices. In Chapter 14, Martins et al. present an updated review of the benefits of propolis in oral health, and the subject of Chapter 15 by Anusuya et al. is the role of grape seed extract in dentistry. In Chapter 16, Fernandes et al. discuss the use of Ocimum sanctum L for oral care and halitosis, which, because of its anticariogenic properties, is also used in periodontal diseases such as periodontitis and gingivitis. This chapter not only discusses its conventional formulation but also O. sanctum L formulations loaded in a promising novel drug delivery system. Chapter 17, authored by Kishore and Verma, presents the latest information regarding traditional, ethnopharmacological, and bioactive phytochemicals and the significant use of coconut plant in oral cavity therapies. In Chapter 18, Sawarkar et al. discuss the use of miswak for maintaining oral health and its various commercial products. Shigli et al. write about triphala in Chapter 19 and demonstrate its traditional use and newer pharmacologic activities for use as an adjuvant mainstream drug in dentistry as well as in general medicine. The role that Azadirachta indica (neem) plays in dentistry is revealed by Tanguturi et al. in Chapter 20. In Chapter 21, Ganeshpurkar reveals the lethal effect ginger has on the growth of tooth-decaying bacteria since it is a good dental analgesic and promotes dentine remineralization. Moreover, the antiplaque and mouthdeodorizing effects of ginger are also well documented. The aim of Chapter 22 by Karic et al. is to raise awareness on the use of garlic formulations to reduce the risk of oral disease and dental caries. In Chapter 23, Singh and Rao discuss the traditional uses of plants in the treatment of mouth evils at Kosgimandal of Naryanapet District of Telangana State, India.

Chapter 24 by Akaji and Otakhoigbogie reveals the healing power of plant materials, such as a chewing stick, primarily used for oral hygiene. In Chapter 25, Wiwanitkit discusses ethnomedicine and ethnopharmacology for dental diseases in Indochina, a tropical region in Asia, and Chapter 26 by Singh and Reddy enlists traditional medicinal plants with antihalitosis efficacy.

This important new volume will be valuable to dentists, oral hygienists, pharmacognosy experts, and natural product formulation scientists alike, either as a textbook or a reference.

It is a must-have addition to any dental or herbal industry library. The aim of this book is to be a reference for all those interested in the development of natural oral care as an alternative treatment.

Preface

xxi

Last, but not the least, we would like to express our sincere gratitude to all the authors who have taken time out from their busy schedules to be part of this project and have written wonderful chapters that add both to the depth and value of this book. We welcome suggestions and criticisms from our readers. We also acknowledge our mentor Prof. V.K. Dixit Sir for his valuable guidance. Special thanks to our families for their support and encouragement. We express our gratitude to the publishing and production team, especially Martin Scrivener, for their kind, proficient, and encouraging guidance.

Durgesh Nandini Chauhan Prabhu Raj Singh Kamal Shah Nagendra Singh Chauhan December 2019

Foreword Teeth are unique in the fact that, on one hand, they live for thousands of years and are often encountered in archeologic excavations, and on the other hand, we see rampant caries destroying almost all teeth in children. Dental and oral health remains a definitive part of one’s overall health and wellbeing and helps one present oneself with confidence.

The care of the oral cavity has been described as early as the Sushruta Samhita and in Hippocrates’ works. With evolution, there has been a constant change in the environmental factors, the food, oral hygiene measures, as well as products used in dental care. As we look back in time, one can appreciate that the traditional methods of oral care and their incorporation in current measures may be the way forward to sustainable dental and oral health in the future. This book entitled Natural Oral Care in Dental Therapy by Chauhan et al. has come a long way in establishing this connection.

Prevention is better than cure is a dictum that has repeatedly established itself. Modern dental science encourages oral hygiene measures based on mechanical and chemical cleansing, with continuous research on the chemical agents. Time and again, those agents and natural remedies described in history are proving to be fruitful. There are lots of research activities that have been started by academic institutions and research centers along with their industrial partners, for the development of natural product formulation in dental therapy. Thus, this book is a timely reference work for the scientific community.

Natural Oral Care in Dental Therapy is an applications-oriented book in the field of dental science. The book is a perfect resource for dentists, oral hygienists, herbal experts, phytochemists, research professionals, and technology investors. It is edited by an experienced and interdisciplinary group comprising a well-respected dentist, clinician, natural product, and pharmacology expert. I hope this book will inspire many current and future generations of academic and industrial researchers to expand the use of natural products in dentistry.

Dr. Santhosh Rao BDS, MDS, FIBOMS Oral & Maxillofacial Surgeon Associate Professor Department of Dentistry All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Raipur, India August 2019

xxiii

Part I NATURAL ORAL CARE

1 Natural Oral Care in Dental Therapy: Current and Future Prospects Durgesh Nandini Chauhan1*, Prabhu Raj Singh2, Kamal Shah3 and Nagendra Singh Chauhan4 Columbia Institute of Pharmacy, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India MKD Muti Speciality Dental Clinic, Annupur, Madhy Pradesh, India 3 Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, GLA University, Chaumuha, Mathura, (U.P.) India 4 Drugs Testing Laboratory Avam Anusandhan Kendra, Raipur Chhattisgarh, India 1

2

Abstract

Nowadays, natural medicines like honey, clove, miswak, and propolis are a part of dental treatment due to their reduced toxicity, wide availability, and cost effectiveness. This chapter gives an insight to the reader about the potential use of natural products in current dentistry. They are in many forms and include chewing sticks, oils, herbal extracts, minerals, animal products (e.g., honey), herbs, herbal materials, herbal preparations, and finished herbal products that contain parts of plants or other plant materials as active ingredients. Natural medicines hold huge benefits as adjunctive therapeutic uses in dentistry. Use of these techniques with suitable dosage would benefit the general population by preventing various dental problems.

Keywords: Antiplaque, dentistry, antimicrobial, natural, oral health care, herbal, phytochemical, medicinal plants

1.1 Introduction Oral health is a key indicator of overall health, well-being, and quality of life. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines oral health as “a state of being free from chronic mouth and facial pain, oral and throat cancer, oral infection and sores, periodontal (gum) disease, tooth decay, tooth loss, and other diseases and disorders that limit an individual’s capacity in biting, chewing, smiling, speaking, and psychosocial well-being” [1].

There are seven major oral diseases and conditions reported for most of the oral disease burden.

1. Dental caries (tooth decay) 2. Periodontal (gum) diseases 3. Oral cancers *Corresponding author: pharmanandini@gmail.com Durgesh Nandini Chauhan, Prabhu Raj Singh, Kamal Shah, and Nagendra Singh Chauhan (eds.)

Natural Oral Care in Dental Therapy, (3–30) © 2020 Scrivener Publishing LLC

3

4

Natural Oral Care in Dental Therapy 4. Oral manifestations of HIV 5. Oro-dental trauma 6. Cleft lip and palate 7. Noma

Oral diseases affect at least 3.58 billion people worldwide, with caries of the permanent teeth being the most common of all conditions assessed. Worldwide, it is estimated that 486 million children suffer from caries of primary teeth, and 2.4 billion people suffer from caries of permanent teeth as per study on the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016 [2].

Natural oral care rises to a growing trend in the increased use of “over-the-counter” dental product. Nowadays, there is a huge range of natural oral care products and technology available that are self used without consulting an expert. The potential use of natural product in current dentistry is obtained from plants, animals, marine animals, and minerals sources (Figure 1.1). Minerals like alum, sodium bicarbonate, and sodium chloride are commonly used in dentistry. The use of an alum mouthrinse daily inhibited caries development in children with decay-prone teeth [3]. The saturated saline rinse and alum rinse showed statistically significant reductions in salivary S. mutans counts in children [4]. Intrinsic tooth stain was reduced using sodium chloride with vinegar [5].

Sodium bicarbonate acts as an antiadhering agent for bacteria [6]. Cheese and cow milk stimulates salivary secretion and increases plaque calcium concentration and protection from caries [7, 8].

Natural products have been used in dentistry as analgesic and local anesthetic, as antimicrobial plaque agents, as antiseptics, whitening agent, antibacterials, to prevent adhesion of bacteria, antianxiety, and anti-halitosis. Commonly used natural products are Azadirachta indica, Syzygium Aromaticum, Acacia catechu, Aloe vera, miswak, and propolis. Plants are also used in root canal irrigation, pulpal and dentin repair, solvents, sealer cements, natural antioxidants, and storage medium (Table 1.1). Morinda citrifolia, propolis, Triphala, and aloe vera, besides their oral care activity also act as additives in

Animal Eg. Propolis, Honey

Plants

Probiotics

Eg. Clove, Miswak, Neem etc

Minerals Eg. sodium chloride, alum

Figure 1.1 Sources of natural care used in dental.

Eg. Lactobacillus

Natural Care used in Dental

Marine Eg. alginate, carrageenan, fucoidan

Natural Oral Care in Dental Therapy

5

Table 1.1 Classification of natural oral care on the basis of their uses.

Part used or type of formulation

References

Pterocarpus marsupium Roxburgh

Stem wood

[12]

Syzygium aromaticum

Flower buds

[13]

Piper betel (Piperaceae)

Leaves

[14]

Spilathes acmella (Asteraceae)

Aerial part

[15]

Vitex negundo

Fresh leaves

[16]

Anacyclus pyrethrum

Root

[17]

Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Miller)

Volatile oil

[18, 19]

Citrus aurantium and Citrus sinensis

Volatile oil

[20, 21]

Acacia arabica

Chewing stick, gum

[22, 23]

Amaranthus hybridus L.

Spinach leaf

[24]

Papain

Papain,

[25]

Pineapple

Bromelain, extract

[25, 26]

Salvadora persica

Roots

[25, 27]

Azadirachta indica

Mouthwash

[28, 29]

Aloe vera

Mouthwash

[30]

Ocimum sanctum

Mouthwash

[31]

Irimedadi oil

Polyherbal Ayurvedic formulation

[32]

Apis

Honey

[33]

Camellia sinensis (green tea)

Catechin

[34–36]

Mangifera indica

Leaf

[37]

Garcinia mangostana L

Pericarp

[38]

Triphala

Polyherbal Ayurvedic formulation

[39]

Propolis

Mouthwash

[40]

Uses

Source

Analgesic and local anesthetic

Antianxiety

Whitening agent, Antiplaque

(Continued)

6

Natural Oral Care in Dental Therapy

Table 1.1 Classification of natural oral care on the basis of their uses. (Continued) Uses

Antiadhesion activity

Anti-halitosis

Source

Part used or type of formulation

References

Probiotic

Mouthwash

[41]

Calendula officinalis

Tincture

[42]

Dill

Seed oil

[43]

Turmeric

Mouthwash

[44]

Vaccinium macrocarpon

Cranberry juice

[45]

Polygonum cuspidatum

Methanol extract from root

[46]

Andrographis paniculata, Cassia alata, Chinese black tea (Camellia sinensis) and Harrisonia perforata

Ethanolic extract

[47]

Helichrysum italicum

Flowering tops

[48]

Malus domestica (Apple)

Fruit

[49]

Schinus terebinthifolius and Croton urucurana

Hydroalcholic extract

[50]

Mushroom (Lentinus edodes)

Extract

[51]

Bauhinia variegata L. var. variegata

Lectin

[52]

Camellia sinensis (Green tea)

Epigallocatechin-3gallate

[53]

Cinnamomum verum

Bark essential oil

[54]

Chenopodium quinoa Willd

Alkali-transformed saponin from quinoa husks

[55]

Bixa orellana

Seeds

[56]

Rice bran, sesame

Oil

[57]

Sasa senanensis Rehder

Leaves

[58]

Melaleuca alternifolia

Essential oil

[59]

Brassica juncea L. (mustard)

Seed (allyl isothiocyanate)

[60] (Continued)

Natural Oral Care in Dental Therapy

7

Table 1.1 Classification of natural oral care on the basis of their uses. (Continued) Uses

Root canal irrigation

Part used or type of formulation

References

Juniperus cedrus, Hiba cedar wood (Thujopsis dolabrata), and Western red cedar (Thuja plicata)

Hinokitiol

[61]

Magnolia officinalis

Bark

[62]

Curcuma zedoaria

Root

[63]

Glycyrrhiza uralensis

Licoricidin and licorisoflavan A isolated from Root

[64]

Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer

Root

[65]

Eucalyptus

Extract

[66]

Morinda citrifolia and Triphala

Juice

[67]

Chamomile (Matricaria recutita L.)

Hydroalcholic extract

[68]

Apple

Vinegar

[69]

Oregano

Extract solution

[70]

Chitosan

0.2% solution

[71]

Morinda citrifolia

Fruit juice

[72]

Morinda citrifolia, Aloe Vera, and Propolis

Juice and solution

[73]

German chamomile (Marticaria recutita L.) and tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia L.)

Extract and Oil

[74]

Aroeira-da-praia (Schinus terebintifolius Raddi) and the quixabeira (Syderoxylum obtusifolium Roem & Schult)

Hydroalcoholic extracts

[75]

Berberine

Plant alkaloid

[76]

Azadirachta indica, Morinda citrifolia

Solution

[77]

Salvia officinalis

Extract

[78]

Source

(Continued)

8

Natural Oral Care in Dental Therapy

Table 1.1 Classification of natural oral care on the basis of their uses. (Continued) Uses

Pulpal and dentin repair

Storage medium

Source

Part used or type of formulation

References

Salvadora persica

Ethanolic extract

[79]

Turmeric, Morinda citrifolia

Extract

[80]

Allium sativum

Extract

[81]

Satureja Khuzistanica Jamzad

Essential oil

[82]

Fragaria vesca (wild strawberry)

Extract

[83]

Ferula gummosa

Essential oil

[84]

Peganum harmala

Seed extract

[85]

Azadirachta indica

Ethanolic leaf extract

[86]

Allium sativum

Oil

[87]

Green propolis

Extract

[88]

Scutellaria baicalensis

Flavonoid baicalein

[89]

Panax ginseng

Ginsenoside rg1

[90]

gardenia fruit extract

Genipin

[91]

Quercetin

Flavanoids

[92]

Nigella sativa

Oil

[93]

Tobaco

Nicotine

[94]

Polyphenols found in various plants

Epicatechin

[95]

Green tea

Extract

[96]

Coconut

Water

[97]

Thai propolis

Extract

[98]

Propolis

Extract

[99]

Probiotic

Milk

[100]

Probiotic

Yogurt (Bifidibacterium animalis DN 173010)

[101]

Goat

Milk

[102]

Morus rubra

Fruit juice

[103]

Salvia officinalis

extract

[104] (Continued)

Natural Oral Care in Dental Therapy

9

Table 1.1 Classification of natural oral care on the basis of their uses. (Continued) Uses

Sealer cements

Natural antioxidants on the shear bond strength of composite Resin

Solvents

Source

Part used or type of formulation

References

Coconut and soy

Water and milk

[105]

Capparis spinosa

Buds

[106]

Punica granatum

Juice

[107]

Green tea

Extract

[108]

Castor

Oil

[109]

Neem (Azadirachta indica) and turmeric (Curcuma longa)

Neem leaves and turmeric rhizomes

[110]

Aloe vera

Leaf extract

[111]

Juniperus cedrus, Hiba cedar wood (Thujopsis dolabrata) and Western red cedar (Thuja plicata)

Hinokitiol-modified calcium silicate (CS) cement

[112]

Curcuma longa

Curcumin-loaded mesoporous calcium silicate

[113]

Green tea and white tea

Extract

[114]

Aloe Vera, Pomegranate Peel, Grape Seed, Green Tea

Extract

[115]

Amla (Indian gooseberry)

Extract

[116]

Grape seed

Extract

[117]

Rosemary

Extracts

[118]

Mangosteen

Peel extract

[119]

Eucalyptus, orange, clove oil

Oil

[120]

Grapefruit, lemon

Oils

[121]

dental treatment. In the last few decades, various phytochemicals are reported in dentistry showing antimicrobial, analgesic, local anesthetic, anti-halitosis, and teeth whitening activity (Table 1.2). The chemical constituents obtained from natural resources play a key role in dentistry. Phytochemicals like alkaloids, flavones, flavonoids, flavonols, terpenoids, terpenes, phenols, phenolic acids, saponins, glycosides, quinone derivatives, organosulfur compounds, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, lectins, enzymes, and amino acids are widely used in oral care (Table 1.3).

10

Natural Oral Care in Dental Therapy

Table 1.2 List of phytochemical reported in dental care.

S. No

Sources

Active phytoconstituents

Activity

References

1.

Aceriphyllum rossii

Aceriphyllic acid a and 3-oxoolean-12-en-27oic acid

Anticariogenic activity

[122]

2.

Albizia myriophylla

Lupinifolin

Anticariogenic activity

[123]

3.

Allium sativum

Allicin, diallyl sulfide

Antimicrobial activity

[124, 125]

4.

Bursera morelensis Ramirez

Α-pinene, γ-terpinene

Antifungal

[126]

5.

Cymbopogon nardus

Citronellal

Antifungal

[127]

6.

Dryopteris crassirhizoma

Linoleic acid

Antibiofilm activity

[128]

7.

Diospyros lycioides

Juglone

Antibacterial

[129]

8.

Erythrina variegata

Erycristagallin

Antibacterial property

[130]

9.

Eucalyptus globules

Macrocarpals a, b, and c

Antibacterial

[131]

10.

Garcinia kola Heckel (Clusiaceae)

Biflavonoid gb1

Antibacterial

[132]

11.

Gnetum gnemon L

Resveratrol

Osteoclast activity

[133]

12.

Mentha piperita

Menthol

Antimicrobial

[134]

13.

Origanum onites

Carvacrol and thymol

Antimicrobial

[135]

14.

Scrophularia striata

Gallic acid, quercetin, and apigenin

Antimicrobial

[136]

15.

Rumex acetosa L

Procyanidin-b2-di-gallate

Antimicrobial

[137]

16.

Flavonoids present in many fruits and vegetables

Quercetin and kaemferol

Antimicrobial

[138]

17.

Nidus vespae (honeycomb)

Quercetin and kaempferol

Antimicrobial

[139] (Continued)

Natural Oral Care in Dental Therapy

11

Table 1.2 List of phytochemical reported in dental care. (Continued) S. No

Sources

Active phytoconstituents

Activity

References

18.

Dodonaea viscosa var. angustifolia

5,6,8-trihydroxy-7methoxy-2-(4methoxyphenyl)-4hchromen-4-one

Anti-S. mutans, antibiofilm, and antiacidogenic activity

[140]

19.

Curcuma longa

Curcumin

Antibacterial

[141, 142]

20.

Tea

Epigallocatechin-3-gallate

Antibiofilm

[143, 144]

21.

Galla rhois

Methyl gallate (mg) and gallic acid (ga)

Antimicrobial

[145]

22.

Grapes

Ethyl gallate

Anticaries agent

[146]

23.

Garcinia mangostana L

α-Mangostin

Antimicrobial

[147]

24.

Magnolia officinalis

Magnolol and honokiol

Antimicrobial

[148, 149]

25.

Myristica fragrans

Macelignan

Anticariogenic activity, antibiofilm

[150, 151]

26.

Mikania glomerata

Ent-kaurenoic acid

Antimicrobial

[152, 153]

27.

Morus alba

Kuwanon g

Antimicrobial activity

[154]

28.

Clove, nutmeg, cinnamon

Eugenol

Local anesthetic, analgesia

[155–157]

29.

Trachyspermum ammi

4as, 5r, 8as) 5, 8a-di-1-propyloctahydronaphthalen1-(2h)-one

Antibiofilm activity

[158]

30.

Theobroma cacao (cacao bean husk)

Epicatechins

Antibacterial activity

[159]

31.

Ginkgo biloba

Ginkgoneolic acid

Antimicrobial activity

[160]

32.

Psidium guajava Linn.

Quercetin-3-o-alphal-arabinopyranoside (guaijaverin)

Antiplaque agent

[161]

(Continued)

12

Natural Oral Care in Dental Therapy

Table 1.2 List of phytochemical reported in dental care. (Continued) S. No

Sources

Active phytoconstituents

Activity

References

33.

Rabdosia trichocarpa

Trichoranin

Antibacterial activity

[162]

34.

Rhus coriaria L.

Methyl gallate

Antibiofilm activity

[163]

35.

Rosmarinus officinalis

Carnosic acid and carnosol

Antimicrobial activity

[164]

36.

Glycyrrhiza glabra

Glycyrrhetinic acid, disodium succinoyl glycyrrhetinate

Antimicrobial activity

[165, 166]

37.

Glycyrrhiza uralensis

Icoricidin and licorisoflavan A

Antibacterial activity

[167]

38.

Aralia cachemirica L. (Araliaceae)

4-epi-pimaric acid

Antimicrobial activity

[168]

39.

Piper betle

Hydroxychavicol

Antimicrobial activity

[169]

40.

Piper cubeba

(−)-Cubebin

Antimicrobial activity

[170]

41.

Polyalthia longifolia var. pendula (Linn.)

16-Oxo-cleroda-3, 13(14) e-diene-15 oic acid, and kolavenic acid

Antimicrobial activity

[171]

42.

Propolis

Neovestitol-vestitol, apigenin, and tt-farnesol

Antimicrobial activity

[172, 173]

43.

Fruits of Rheedia brasiliensis

7-Epiclusianone

Antimicrobial activity

[174]

44.

Iostephane heterophylla

Ent-trachyloban-19-oic acid

Antibiofilm activity

[175]

45.

Symplocos racemosa

Symploquinones a-c

Antibiofilm activity

[176]

46.

Swartzia polyphylla

Dihydrobiochanin a, ferreirin and darbergioidin, and dihydrocajanin

Antibacterial activity

[177]

47.

Polygonum cuspidatum

Emodin

Antibacterial activity

[178] (Continued)

Natural Oral Care in Dental Therapy

13

Table 1.2 List of phytochemical reported in dental care. (Continued) S. No

Sources

Active phytoconstituents

Activity

References

48.

Croton nepetaefolius

Casbane diterpene

Antimicrobial activity

[179]

49.

Viguiera arenaria

Ent-pimara-8(14),15dien-19-oic acid

Antimicrobial activity

[180]

50.

Mikania glomerata Sprengel

Ent-kaurenoic acid

Antibacterial activity

[181]

51.

Vaccinium macrocarpon

Cranberry a-type proanthocyanidins and flavonols

Antibacterial activity

[182]

52.

Curcuma xanthorrhizha (Javanese turmeric)

Xanthorrrhizol

Antibacterial activity

[183]

53.

Ipecacuanha, cinchona

Emetine, quinine

Antibacterial activity

[184]

54.

Corn husks or sugarcane straw

Xylitol

Antibacterial activity

[185]

55.

Birch bark

Betulin

Antiinflammatory activity

[186, 187]

56.

Berberis vulgaris

Berberine

Slow periodontal degradation

[188]

57.

Salvadora persica

Benzyl isothiocyanate

Anti-Gramnegative bacteria

[189]

58.

Kaempferia pandurata Roxb.

Panduratin A, isopanduratin A

Antimicrobial

[190, 191]

59.

Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L. M. Perry

Eugenol

Antibiofilm activity

[192]

60.

Copaifera reticulata

(−)-Copalic acid

Antimicrobial activity

[193]

61.

Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree )

Alpha-bisabolol

Antibiofilm activity

[194]

62.

Eucalyptus

1,8-cineole

Antibiofilm activity

[195]

Q3

14

Natural Oral Care in Dental Therapy

Table 1.3 Chemical classification of natural oral care.

Category

Examples

Alkaloids

Atropine, morphine, sanguinarine, chelerythrine, colchicines, nicotine, pilocarpine, cotinine, theobromine, sanguinarine, scopolamine, cocaine, vincristine, berberine chloride, oxyacanthine sulfate, harmine, vasicine, Berberine, Salvadorine, Piperine, Emetine, quinine

Flavones, flavonoids, and flavonols

Quercetrin, naringenin, proanthocyanidin, myricetin, apigenin, luteolin, fisetin, catechin, epicatechin, pelargonidin, myricetin, kaempferol, hesperidin, catechins, epicatechin, gunistein, daidezin, gallocatechin, cyanidin, Icoricidin, licorisoflavan A, Kenferaido, galangin, isorhamnetin, rhamnetin, 3,7-dihydroxy-5-methoxy flavanone, 2,5-dihydroxy-7-methoxy flavanones Bruno, 3-methyl quercetin, 8-methyl kaempferol, Dihydrobiochanin a, ferreirin and darbergioidin, dihydrocajanin, pinobanksin, pinobanksin 3-acetate, Lupinifolin, Biflavonoid gb1, Procyanidin-b2-di-gallate, pinobanksin 7-methyl ether, pinocembrin, sakuranetin, isosakuranetin, Pinosutorobin, trihydroxymethoxy flavanone, tetrahydroxy flavanones, tetrahydroxy flavone, chrysin, acacetin, baicalein, tectonics chrysin, kaempferol, Erumanin, 3,5,7-trihydroxy-4 -methoxy flavanols, 5,6,7-trihydroxy-3,4 -dimethoxy flavone, 5,6,8-trihydroxy-7-methoxy-2-(4-methoxyphenyl)-4hchromen-4-one, 4as, 5r, 8as) 5,8a-di-1-propyl-octahydronaphthalen-1(2h)-one, Cranberry a-type proanthocyanidins, flavonols

Terpenoid

Aceriphyllic acid, Nimbidin, 1,8-cineole, ursolic acid, oleanolic acid, terpineol, nerolidol, bisabolol, melliferone, moronic acid, β-caryophyllene, santatol, abietic acid, lanosterol, cupressic acid, agathalic acid, communic acid, methyl isocupressate, tremetone, viscidone, Erycristagallin, Macrocarpals, ledol, guajol, humulene, bulnesol, Glycyrrhetinic acid, viscidone, betuletol, anwuweizonic acid, thymol, Xanthorrrhizol, betulonic acid, α-copaene, ent-kaurenoic acid, β-selinene, α-elemene, calamenene, β-amyrine, amyrine, α-muurolene, γ-muurolene, dehydroabietic acid, β-eudesmol, syringaldehyde, imbricatoloic acid, tt-famesol, Oridonin, Ursolic acid, Citronellal, 16-oxo-cleroda-3, 13(14) e-diene-15 oic acid and kolavenic acid, Enttrachyloban-19-oic acid, Ent-pimara-8(14),15-dien-19-oic acid, Entkaurenoic acid

Terpenes

Casbane diterpene, Betulin, alpha-pinene, menthol, Copalic acid, Alpha-bisabolol

Phenols and phenolic acids

Eugenol, Epigallocatechin-3 gallate, gallic acid, Α-mangostin, citric acid, Curcumin, Magnolol, Carvacrol, (6)-gingerol, Hydroxychavicol, (6)-shogaol, Resveratrol, honokiol, Methyl gallate, Ethyl gallate, Macelignan, Ginkgoneolic acid, 4-epi-pimaric acid, (−)-Cubebin

Saponins

Ginsenoside Rg1, ginsenoside Rh2, Glycyrrhizin, Buddlejasaponin IV, Diosgeninlactoside (Continued)

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Table 1.3 Chemical classification of natural oral care. (Continued) Category

Examples

Glycoside

Fomitoside-K, Divaricoside, rubusoside, C-xylopyranoside, stevioside, rutin, Quercetin-3-o-alpha-l-arabinopyranoside

Quinone derivatives

aloe emodin, Juglone, Symploquinones a-c, Emodin

Organosulfur compound

Allicin, diallyl sulfide, allyl isothiocyanate, Benzyl Isothiocyanate, phenethyl isothiocyanate, allyl isothiocyanate

Alcohol

Xylitol

Aldehyde

Cinnamaldehyde

Ketones

Panduratin A, isopanduratin A, 7-epiclusianone, Panduratin A, isopanduratin A

Lectins

Labramin, aloctin A, lectins from Canavaliaensi formis (ConA), Canavalia brasiliensis (ConBr), Canavalia maritima (ConM), Canavalia gladiata (CGL), and Canavalia boliviana (ConBol), Cratylia floribunda (CFL), Vatairea macrocarpa (VML), Bauhinia bauhinioides (BBL), Bryothamnion seaforthii (BSL), and Hypnea musciformis (HML)

Enzymes

Papain and bromelain

Amino acids

Arginine, Caseine

1.2 Safety of Natural Oral Care Herbal medicines or natural products are generally considered safe. Clinical studies usually assess the efficacy of products containing natural products. There are a few studies done on the safety and possible side effects of such products. Oral administration of clove oil developed urinary abnormalities, central nervous system depression, and a large anion-gap acidosis in an infant [9]. Neem oil in adults causes metabolic acidosis, vomiting, seizures, and toxic encephalopathy [10]. Repeated sesame oil pulling for several months caused lipoid pneumonia [11]. More safety study is needed when used in combination with allopathic drugs.

1.3 Advantage of Natural Oral Care • Development of antimicrobial resistant strains is increasing using synthetic chemicals. So natural antibacterial substances are as useful as alternative antimicrobials in oral care.

• Current synthetic chemicals such as chlorhexidine, povidone iodine, triclosan fluoride, cetylpyridinium, zinc citrate, and sodium lauryl sulfate used in dentifrices and mouthrinses as antibacterial can be quite damaging to the

16

Natural Oral Care in Dental Therapy gums, teeth, and mouth. So their long-term use is limited. So natural oral care formulation is free from such side effect.

• Use of traditional tooth cleaning methods includes efficacy, safety low cost, popularity, and availability.

• Natural oral care is a safe option to kids, pregnant women, blood pressure patients, diabetics, and people with dry mouth.

1.4 Limitations of Natural Oral Care • • • • • •

Low worldwide availability Standardization Some plants are useful when used in fresh form Complete toxic study data are not available Data of interaction with allopathy drugs are not available Very slow in curing the disease

1.5 Future Prospects of Natural Oral Care India is juvenile in handling dental problems. It is still a common problem worldwide.

Dental caries and periodontal diseases can be treated with chemicals and allopatic drugs.

The common side effects associated with them are nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, or teeth staining. The patient’s compatibility with the chemical uses is also not found to be appropriate. The dental problems are well taken using drugs of herbal origin. The utmost requirement in industries is to develop a safe and effective formulation. Prolonged use of synthetic chemical agents produces side effects, and for financial considerations, there is a need for natural agents that are effective, safe, and economical. The herbal drugs may be used externally as ointment, pastes, plasters, and poultices or internally as syrups, suspensions, or pills. Ancient techniques like oil pulling therapy, chewing stick, and aqueous herbal extract are an affordable option for its oral health benefits in rural communities.

As verified by the examples, there is extensive proof that plant products have the potential to be used as preventative or treatment therapies for oral diseases. The effective advantages with herbal products are cheap, easy availability, greater shelf life, minimal toxicity, and lack of microbial resistance, which is the major advantage with herbal drugs. The drugs used in oral care for suppressing inflammation, may have antibacterial, antifungal, and analgesic activities. They can be recommended in gingivitis, mucositis, or any infection of fungal or bacterial origin. The active chemical constituents, which are found to be effective in dental caries, are flavanoids, phenolic acids, resins, triterpenes, carotenoids, or tannins. These active constituents are obtained from drugs, for example, amla, lemon, clove, neem, tulsi, etc. The ethnopharmacology and reporting of clinical data, systems with chemical and pharmacological characterization of extracts from promising sources will lead to new product development for dentistry. Molecules such as eugenol, quercitin, and kaempeferol were isolated from plants and have dental therapeutic potential.

After development with phytochemistry and formulation technologies, and in combination with other active ingredients, a novel formulation should be made. The use of

Natural Oral Care in Dental Therapy

17

strandardized herbal formulation helps in pharmacological activity and prevents from adulteration. It can be concluded that these herbal drugs must be included in everyday life so that the dental problem can be resolved. These drugs may be used in isolation or combination. These will surely suppress the growth of oral pathogens, minimize the development of dental plaque, and also help in curing the symptoms of oral diseases. The minimal toxicity and minimal cost of these herbal drugs should be promoted for further investigation. This may come with a noble drug leading to a better understanding of traditional Asian medicines and their uses for oral health. However, a health well-wisher should take this herculean task to confirm that individuals must promote herbal medicines to protect public health.

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