THIRD QUARTER 2019 I VOLUME 13
COLORADO SUNBURST ANEMONES REEF-SAFE TRIGGERS
TRIDACNA CLAMS: LIVING SOLAR PANELS REEF SPOTLIGHTS: AQUAFOREST SEA & REEF TAIWAN
CYCLING AND INITIAL STOCKING
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FEATURES 6
AQUAFOREST SEA Seweryn Lukasiewicz is the co-founder of Aquaforest and set up his first tank when he was 6 years old. This magnificent reef tank lives in the Aquaforest headquarters and provides a visual testament to the efficacy of their products.
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BEAUTIES, NOT BEASTS: REEF-SAFE TRIGGERS
Sabine Penisson is a French photographer and author focused on coral reef fauna. Have you ever wanted to keep a trigger in your reef? With Sabine’s expert guidance on species selection, feeding, and temperament, your wish can come true!
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LIVING SOLAR PANELS Dr. Eric J. Armstrong obtained his PhD from UC Berkeley and is currently studying the biology of giant clams. Here, Dr. Armstrong reveals new research into the efficiency of giant clam photosymbiosis and how it could lead us to more efficient solar technologies.
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COLORADO SUNBURST ANEMONE GUIDE
Sergio "Surge" Vasquez is a devoted collector of high-end anemones and has been propagating these amazing animals for years. Colorado Sunburst Anemones are some of the most magnificently colored of all the Bubbletips. Learn how to identify a true CSB in this comprehensive article. Cover image by Elite Reef
THIRD QUARTER 2019 | Volume 13 Copyright © 2019 Reef Hobbyist Magazine. All rights reserved.
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RHM STAFF
CYCLING AND INITIAL STOCKING OF YOUR NEW MARINE AQUARIUM Keith Moyle is a 40-year veteran reefer and writer on reef topics. Keith guides us through the potentially confusing early stages of marine aquarium setup, including cycling and initial stocking. REEF TAIWAN Eric Yang is from Taiwan, enjoys diving, and has a keen interest in corals. This reef is the second incarnation of Eric’s tank, and with a refocused attention on space and flow, the author provides lessons on planning for the long-term health of a reef tank.
Find full access to RHM archives. Learn about the latest reef technology and products. Download any issue in PDF for your computer or mobile device. Sign up for a hard-copy subscription or FREE digital subscription. Find us on Facebook at www.facebook.com/reefhobbyistmag
President Harry T. Tung Executive Editor Jim Adelberg Art Director Yoony Byun Advertising@rhmag.com
Photography Advisor Sabine Penisson Copy Editor Melinda Campbell Proofreader S. Houghton
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SEWERYN LUKASIEWICZ
SEWERYN LUKASIEWICZ
AQUAFOREST SEA
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his aquarium was established in 2016 at Aquaforest headquarters near Nowy Sacz, Poland. Our main goals were to recreate a natural reef environment and provide living proof of the efficacy of our products. We decided on a mixed reef to mimic a natural reef environment as closely as possible. We wanted to create a thriving ecosystem filled with various types of corals, from large-polyp stony
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(LPS) and small-polyp stony (SPS) corals to soft corals. This is the final result, which we proudly call Aquaforest Sea. It may seem like having so many specialists involved would make setting up such a tank child’s play, but nothing could be further from the truth! The more aquarists involved, the more ideas on how to aquascape, which coral species to grow, and what fish to
Aquaforest Sea measures 10' Ă— 6' Ă— 2'
choose. In the end, we combined all of our best ideas and utilized our collective experience to create something we felt was amazing. But there was still a big challenge to come. In 2017, we decided to move the company headquarters to a new location. But there was one big question on our minds: how were we supposed to move 1,450 gallons of aquatic life 60 miles away?
We knew that keeping parameters stable would be crucial, so we decided to move the entire system, including the aquarium water. Along with all of the equipment and livestock, we transported the water 60 miles away and put it back into the system in the new building. Moving the corals, fish, rockwork, and equipment was a job that took many of our staff multiple days to complete. The move left us all exhausted, but in the end, we managed to do it without any loss of livestock.
Amphiprion clarkii
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4,000 watts of T5 lighting can be seen above the canopy.
SYSTEM PROFILE Volume: 1,450 gallons Dimensions: 10’ × 6’ × 2’ Lighting: 4,000 watts of T5s, 750 watts of LEDs
Media Reactor 1: AF 150 with AF Phosphate Minus Media Reactor 2: AF 150 with AF Zeo Mix Media Reactor 3: AF 150 with AF Carbon (to clean incoming air for skimmer) Media Reactor 4: AF 110 with AF Carbon ADDITIVES
FILTRATION AND MEDIA Skimmer: AF400 Live Rock (sump): 1,300 lb Filtration Media: AF Life Bio Fil
The multi-container sump holds the skimmer, reactors, and live rock. These containers are filled with 1,300 pounds of live rock.
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Water Chemistry: AF Component 1+ 2+ 3+ Microelements: AF Micro E, Kalium, Strontium, Fluorine, Iron, Iodum (dosage established according to ICP Marinlab results) Coral Supplements: AF Energy, Amino Mix, Vitality, Build (3 ml of each daily)
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Sa ilfi n
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CORAL FOOD - AF Power Food - AF Pure Food - AF Growth Boost - AF LPS Food FISH FOOD - AF Plankton Elixir - AF pellet foods with automatic feeder - AF Fish V, Garlic Oil - AF Calanidae Clip - AF Vege Clip WATER TESTING - Calcium - Carbonate Hardness - Magnesium - Nitrate - Phosphate - ICP test by Marinlab (once a week) PARAMETERS Temperature: 77° F Salinity: 35 ppt Calcium: 420–440 ppm Carbonate Hardness: 7.8–8.2 dKH Magnesium: 1300–1350 ppm Potassium: 385–390 ppm Nitrate: 3–4 ppm Phosphate: 0.01 ppm
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Now that we’re in our new headquarters, we organize trips for schools, run contests, and invite all interested aquarists to see our proud achievement, Aquaforest Sea. Without any hesitation, we call this tank the heart of our company, living proof of our passion for corals.
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Xanthichthys mento | Image by author
SABINE PENISSON
Beauties, Not Beasts:
Reef-Safe Triggers
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riggerfish are some of the most beloved reef fish. They are beautiful, energetic fish, full of personality and interesting behaviors. Yet, very few aquarists dare to add one to their aquarium for fear that it might turn their peaceful little ecosystem upside down. While some species should be avoided for this reason, others make good candidates for the home reef aquarium. Triggerfish are amazingly bold and sympathetic fish that will greet you when you arrive in front of their aquarium. They have a powerful
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yet graceful manner of swimming, sport beautiful colors, easily adapt to tank life, and thrive in captivity. They are not prone to the usual aquarium fish diseases and have a legendary appetite for almost any kind of meaty food. But despite this litany of desirable characteristics, some demerits take the luster off this glorious picture. Yes, triggerfish are gluttons, and many will indulge themselves by cleaning up your cleanup crew members. Whether they eat your shrimps, crabs, snails, urchins, or starfish, this can be quite a problem when there’s no cleanup
The Latin name, Balistidae, comes from the ancient weapon, ballista, used in Ancient Greece and schematically similar to the catapult. This weapon is armed by a pawl (star wheel) and ratchet system. This mechanism illustrates the way the Balistidae members erect and block their thick first dorsal spine by securing it with the second dorsal spine, like a trigger. This very specific fin arrangement makes the erected first dorsal spine almost impossible to lower unless one can lower the second spine first. The Balistidae use this spine to wedge themselves securely in rock crevices when retreating from a threat or when they are asleep. This mechanism gives the family its common name in English of triggerfish. These two spines are retracted in a groove when at rest and are separate from the parts of the dorsal fin used for swimming.
Balistapus undulatus is not a reef-safe species due to its bold temperament and affinity for redecorating tanks. | Image by author
crew left to do the household chores. Some triggers are even a threat to small fish. Many triggerfish like to redecorate their tanks by dragging rocks around (from small pieces to surprisingly heavy stones), and this taste for redecorating can lead to a real mess or even tank breakage in the event of hazardous rockslides. Some species are famous for breaking coral branches and consuming small-polyp stony (SPS) coral tips, which is a big no-no for coral keepers. And keep in mind that triggerfish are big, strong, and energetic fish. They require a large space of their own and can be mean to their tank mates if they feel cramped. Yes, they can be real bullies.
Balistidae feature powerful jaws and solid teeth—anyone who’s been bitten by a triggerfish will tell you these fish can apply tremendous pressure with their mouths. Despite this strength, the This sketch shows the first/second dorsal spine mechanism. | Image by author
As a result of these concerns, triggerfish are often relegated to fishonly aquariums, since these are usually big tanks with big fish that won’t feel intimidated by the stubborn yet charming triggers. However, some triggerfish species are more peaceful and can be model citizens in almost any reef aquarium, provided you can meet their tank-size requirements. TAXONOMIC AND BIOLOGICAL FACTS The Balistidae family is part of the Tetraodontiformes order, along with some of the most famous aquarium fish families, such as Diodontidae (Porcupinefish), Monacanthidae (Filefish), Ostraciidae (Boxfish), and Tetraodontidae (Pufferfish). The family is split into 12 genera and (thus far) 42 species: - Abalistes (3 species) - Balistapus (1 species) - Balistes (7 species) - Balistoides (2 species) - Canthidermis (3 species) - Melichthys (3 species)
- Odonus (1 species) - Pseudobalistes (3 species) - Rhinecanthus (7 species) - Sufflamen (5 species) - Xanthichthys (6 species) - Xenobalistes (1 species)
These fish are distributed along the entire tropical and subtropical belt, even in the more temperate waters of the Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic French coast, up to the UK (Balistes capriscus). Reef Hobbyist Magazine
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Rhinecanthus rectangulus has a taste for shrimps and crabs and likes to move rocks around, making it a better candidate for a larger fish-only tank. | Image by author
mouth is quite small and set far from the eyes in most species, a sign of evolution regarding the taste many species have for longspine urchins. The body is oval shaped, compressed but stocky. They swim by slowly undulating their dorsal and anal fins, but they use their tails when a fast start is required. Sexual dimorphism doesn’t occur in any genus except Xanthichthys. All triggers are demersal spawners and lay their eggs in a nest on the sand. Both parents take care of the nest, tending to the eggs and guarding the site with great aggressiveness until the larvae hatch. DIET COMPARISON J. E. Randall noted in 1967 that “the balistids are known for their powerful jaws and sharp cutting teeth, which enable them to prey on a variety of armored invertebrates denied as food to most other fishes.” Many triggerfish show a large variety of prey in their stomach content analyses, as they are highly opportunistic feeders. That is a very good feature because it makes their transition to captive life easy. Triggers will accept virtually any kind of food presented, almost immediately. For example, Balistes vetula feeds mainly on urchins (more than 70 percent of their gut content analyses1), but samples of many other Xanthichthys ringens (Sargassum Triggerfish) is not typically a threat to a reef aquarium cleanup crew. | Image by Cliff
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Melichthys niger, commonly known as the Black Durgon, can look either very dark black or brownish with a yellow back, according to its mood, age, and ambient light. | Image by lowjumpingfrog
animal families were also found in the gut, such as crabs, shellfish, starfish, worms, snails (even large and thick-shelled snails such as Queen Conch), algae, shrimps, lobsters, tunicates, fish, and coral fragments. That kind of diet makes this fish a very hazardous addition to a reef tank. Rhinecanthus rectangulus prefers a diet of primarily Gammarus spp. amphipods, tunicates, filamentous and coralline algae, crabs, polychaete worms, shrimps and other small crustaceans, bryozoans, and urchins2. Though this diet could be OK if keeping this fish in a reef aquarium, its bold temperament and powerful rock-moving habit makes it more suitable for a large fish-only tank. On the other side of the scale, Melichthys niger could be a nice potential candidate for the reef aquarium, as its gut content analysis reveals mainly algae, small crustaceans, shrimps, copepods, and mollusk larvae. But it is often a regular sand digger, which can be a problem in reef tanks. M. niger can be considered by reefers who aren’t as coral focused or where the potential digging won’t be a problem. Xanthichthys ringens is a genuine pelagic plankton feeder: most of the gut analyses show a massive presence of calanoid copepods, mollusk larvae, planktonic fish eggs, chaetognaths, and siphonophores. This is the best species choice to avoid any threat to a reef aquarium, including your cleanup crew. Xanthichthys mento, Based on the stomach contents of Xanthichthys mento, it is an ideal species for reef aquariums. | Image by author
Thor amboinensis will be a tempting snack for many species of triggers. | Image by Rickard Zerpe
whose favorite banquet is a selection of amphipods, copepods, lobster larvae, mollusk larvae, polychaetes, and fish eggs, is another ideal option. BEST SPECIES FOR THE REEF AQUARIUM Xanthichthys live in the open water, mid- to deep reef, outside the drop-off zone. They are, as noted above, almost exclusively plankton feeders. Most of the species in the genera are deep-water fish, and even though they can be very common in some areas, they are scarce in the trade, as most fish collectors are not equipped to collect fish at depth. They are therefore somewhat expensive fish. With an average adult size of 8 to 10 inches in captivity, a minimum of 250 gallons is required for a single fish, and at least 400 gallons will be required for a pair. It’s important to keep these open-water swimmers in a long tank, ideally 8 feet long, but considering the average home aquarium size, 6 feet would be a viable compromise. Keep in mind that most species are deep-water fish, accustomed to a cooler temperature than the usual shallow-reef species. They’ll feel more at ease at 71 to 75° F than 78 to 82° F. Water temperature could play a role in their metabolism and, by extrapolation, their longevity. These are genuinely peaceful fish (yet energetic in their behaviors) and won’t harass fish tank mates or cleanup crew members. Just don’t tempt your triggerfish with nano shrimps such as Thor amboinensis or other such small-sized animals. These triggerfish will totally ignore corals and sessile animals. There are six species in the genera. Xanthichthys is the only genera where males and females are quite distinctive in coloration, and this is true for every Xanthichthys species. The two species I consistently recommend based on temperament and availability are the Blue Throat and the Redtail Triggerfish. Xanthichthys auromarginatus (Blue Throat or Gilded Triggerfish) is widely distributed in the Indo-Pacific, from East Africa to Hawaii, and
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Xanthichthys auromarginatus female | Image by author Xanthichthys auromarginatus male | Image by author
north to the Ryukyus down to New Caledonia at the southern end of its range. They are often encountered in small, loosely organized groups along seaward drop-offs in strong currents that are rich in zooplankton drifts. It’s the only species that can sometimes be found in shallower water (40 feet), but more often they’re seen at average depths of 65 to 120 feet. Average adult size is 8–10 inches. Males bear the distinctive bright blue throat and bright yellow fin margins. Females are overall gray, with light pearly scales on the entire body, black backline, and black tail margins. Xanthichthys mento, the Redtail Triggerfish, has a common adult size of 9–11 inches, up to 1 foot in the wild. This species is widely distributed in the subtropical Pacific Ocean, with a southern population from Fiji to Chile and a northern population from South Japan to Southern California. These triggers form large schools around oceanic islands: Pitcairn, Easter, Hawaii, Clipperton, and Galápagos, for example. Juveniles may drift under algae rafts and sometimes end up several hundred miles from the coast. Redtail Triggers are one of the most brightly colored Xanthichthys species. Males are mustard yellow with blue dots on each scale on the sides, a bright purple tail outlined in red and blue, and a broad, dark red line on the back and belly borders. They have a very bright orange patch under the first dorsal spine (hidden when the spine is at rest), bright yellow-margined dorsal and anal fins, and the head is mustard yellow to army green. They also have three grooves on each cheek, brightly colored in blue. Females are almost the same, only duller for the whole body coloration. Reef Hobbyist Magazine
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ACCLIMATION AND BEHAVIOR IN THE AQUARIUM Triggerfish adapt readily to captivity. They are not shy and are always looking for something to eat. They’ll eagerly take just about any food you offer almost as soon as they are tanked. They are not prone to many of the common diseases and parasites because they possess thick scales and a mucus layer that protects them. To avoid intimidating smaller fish, introduce a triggerfish as the last addition to your population. Even if peaceful, triggers have imposing temperaments and speed.
Xanthichthys mento (male) | Image by author The Red Tooth Trigger is mostly reef-safe and mild tempered for a trigger. | Image by author
Keep in mind that, as with many other species, triggerfish behaviors will get bolder as they get bigger and older. They might be perfect guests for some years and then suddenly reveal a much more devilish side, snacking on some mobile invertebrates, nipping small fish, or displaying new levels of aggression. These behaviors can also be signs of stress, such as when a fish is hungry or feels uneasy in its environment. If a trigger feels claustrophobic, it may respond aggressively to its tank mates. To keep your tank peaceful, be sure you have plenty of space available for your triggerfish and feed it generously every day. A thriving triggerfish is thick-bodied, shows vibrant colors, and acts vivaciously. It’s not at all shy and should come to the glass whenever its keeper is in sight. Feed your triggerfish with a variety of meaty foods like shrimps (large krill, shrimps for human consumption, fresh, frozen, or dried, but with no additives), shellfish (clams, oysters, mussels), squid meat, and even small frozen or fresh fish. Don’t hesitate to regularly enrich this diet with vitamins, garlic juice, or fish oil. If your fish is fed with a large range of quality food and fed generously, it won’t be looking for a snack, and this will reduce hostility toward its tank mates.
Clown Triggers are big, bold aquarium fish. | Image by Richard Aspinall
Most of the time, you’ll house herbivorous fish such as surgeonfish and tangs in your community tank, and there is a good chance you’ll see your triggerfish feed on the algae sheets you provide the herbivores. Actually, many reef fish that are considered carnivorous will take a part of their daily ration from algae, as it is rich in proteins, vitamins, omega-3 fatty acids, and oligo-elements, such as iron, manganese, and iodine. So, don’t hesitate to feed your fish every day with fresh or dried algae. Triggerfish are amazing fish when placed in an appropriate environment. I wish you the best with your triggers and many years enjoying their pleasant company! R References: 1. Randall, J. E. Food habits of reef fishes of the West Indies. Hawaiian Institute of Marine Biology, (1967). 2. Hobson, E. S. Feeding relationships of teleostean fishes on coral reefs in Kona, Hawaii. Fishery Bulletin Vol.72, N°4, (1974).
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Image by Wolfman
DR. ERIC J. ARMSTRONG
LIVING SOLAR PANELS
How researching giant clams is improving modern solar-capture technology
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s I mentioned in my previous article, “Anything but Boring: How a Giant Clam Conquers Stone,� some of the most vibrant colors on tropical coral reefs are produced not by the corals but by the group of giant bivalves known as Tridacna clams. Giant clams are the largest living clams and are found throughout the tropical Pacific, living in close association with reef-building, small-
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polyp stony (SPS) corals. Like corals, all tridacnid clam species live in a symbiotic partnership with a group of algae known as Symbiodinium (also called zooxanthellae), which are energetically important for their animal host. As a result of this unique (for a clam!) partnership, giant clam anatomy is highly modified to facilitate the capture of light for photosynthesis. Delving into how these modifications came about and what secrets they can tell us
about how to efficiently capture light reveals that giant clams are a whole lot more sophisticated than you might expect at first glance! OUT OF THE PAST AND INTO THE LIGHT Based on fossil evidence, it’s thought that giant clams first appeared on Earth around 30 million years ago in what was then a tropical sea (the Tethys). Paleontologists speculate that at first, the shallow portions of this sea had a muddy bottom in which many types of animals, including the ancestors of giant clams, burrowed and made a living. How the mud-living clams of this distant past transformed into the giant, reef-dwelling clams we have today is thought to have occurred in a series of steps: Step 1: At first, living in mud was probably a beneficial arrangement for the ancestral clams as the muddy sediment provided additional protection against predators. However, this protection comes at a cost—the deeper a clam digs, the less oxygen it has access to. Step 2: Some modern burrowing clams get around this oxygen deficit by living in partnership with special sulfur-munching bacteria that can use hydrogen sulfide gas (the compound responsible for that distinctive “rotten egg” smell of some deep-black soils) as a source of energy rather than oxygen. Fossil evidence from shells (in the form of specific ion ratios within the shells themselves) suggests that early giant clams developed this bacterial partnership too. Step 3: As the shallow regions of the tropical sea began to warm and oxygen became scarcer as a result, even clams hosting sulfur-munching bacteria may have been forced out of the muddy sediments and back into more freely flowing waters. At this time, there also began to appear the first evidence of extensive shallowwater reefs. Under these new conditions, the bacteria-sporting ancestors of giant clams may have been uniquely primed to develop a new symbiotic relationship, this time with photosynthetic algae rather than bacteria.
Brightly colored siphonal mantle tissue on Tridacna maxima | Image by Karelj
called zooxanthellae) and their reef-building coral hosts. However, giant clams also take advantage of zooxanthellae partners to gain access to increased energy supply from tropical sunlight. Despite these first-order similarities, the anatomical arrangement of algae within the host’s tissues differs dramatically between corals and giant clams. In corals, zooxanthellae are kept within the coral inside special compartments called symbiosomes (reviewed in detail below). These symbiosomes are distributed throughout the cell and spread relatively evenly across the coral so that the zooxanthellae are ultimately laid out in a more or less flat sheet facing the sun.
Step 4: At some point during this warm tropical period, giant clams swapped their bacterial symbionts for algal ones. This new arrangement required the clams to reinvent their basic body structure from one that could dig to one that could collect sunlight and resulted in the ancestors of modern giant clams, the Tridacna and Hippopus clams that we know and love. What were these body modifications, and how do they help clams survive on modern coral reefs? Probably the most dramatic and most important of these anatomical changes was the development of a light antenna, the brightly colored and showy siphonal mantle tissue. Besides its eye-catching beauty, this incredible tissue is up to some pretty sophisticated biophysical and chemical tricks, including bending light and turning waste into energy! THE SIPHONAL MANTLE: NATURE’S BEST-DRESSED SOLAR PANEL Nature is full of strange and interesting partnerships, and one of the most spectacular is surely photosymbiosis—two different species living together and using light as a source of energy. Perhaps the most famous and well-studied photosymbiosis is the partnership between algae of the genus Symbiodinium (also Reef Hobbyist Magazine
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in theory, lead to suboptimal exposure to light along much of the tube. In this arrangement, a zooxanthellae cell at the bottom of a giant clam Z-tube would almost certainly be overshadowed by the algal cells sitting above it and might therefore get too little light, on average, to conduct photosynthesis (Image 4A). Conversely, the zooxanthellae at the top of a tubule would be left to fry under full exposure to the incoming light with very little interposing clam tissue to screen them from harmful UV rays (Image 4A). In addition, any incoming light that didn’t manage to strike a tubule directly would be completely unusable by the zooxanthellae, passing through the clam’s tissue without producing any energy in return. This seeming inefficiency of the giant clam Z-tube system was so confounding that it led a group of scientists to question how zooxanthellae within giant clam Z-tubes can even survive. The answer was more surprising than anyone could have imagined and may just revolutionize how we harness solar energy.
The siphonal mantle on this Tridacna squamosa acts as this clam’s solar panel. | Image by Nick Hobgood
However, in giant clams, zooxanthellae are hosted outside of the clams’ cells in modified extensions of the digestive system known as zooxanthellae tubules, or Z-tubes1. These tubular extensions on the gut extend upward from the stomach into the brightly colored, lightexposed tissue of the siphonal mantle where they are arranged roughly parallel to the incoming solar radiation (see Image 4A)—an odd orientation given that this would, Image 4A
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It turns out that giant clams have a (not so) secret weapon in their effort to provide just the right amount of sunlight to their zooxanthellae partners: the brightly colored tint of their skin. The eye-popping colors of giant clams are a result of a special type of light refraction called iridescence. This is the same phenomenon responsible for the bright coloration of butterfly wings and some bird feathers and is a result of the physical reflection of light rather than the presence of a colored pigment. In giant clams, this colorful reflection of light is produced by thousands of tiny, highly modified cells called iridocytes—literally “iridescent cells.” These cells are composed of tightly stacked layers of protein, like a bunch of fingernails stacked one on top of another in incredibly thin layers. They are also located just above and alongside the Z-tubes, which, as it turns out, is no accident (Image 4B). In that location, the iridocytes serve to split beams of incoming light at an angle so that what was originally a single shaft of sunlight instead becomes a diffuse column of angled rays (Image 4B). This columnation of light means that the entire Z-tube, not just the very top, gets just the right amount of sunlight for photosynthesis and ensures that even the zooxanthellae at the bottom aren’t left in the dark! What’s more, not only do the iridocytes optimally disperse light over the length of the Z-tubes, but they also change the color of the light that reaches the zooxanthellae with pretty powerful consequences for photosynthesis2. Image 4B
Image 4A: Giant clams keep their zooxanthellae (brown cells) in tubular extensions of the stomach called Z-tubes (ZT). Image 4B: The light-reflecting iridocytes (I) play a special role in getting light to the zooxanthellae algae for photosynthesis.
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Image 6A
Image 6B
Iridocytes are responsible for the iridescence on this clam’s siphonal mantle. | Image by Nick Hobgood
Giant clam iridocytes preferentially scatter blue and red light deeper into the clam tissue (and send back green light that we see as the bright color on the clam surface). As it so happens, blue and red light are the exact wavelengths that zooxanthellae need for photosynthesis to be most efficient. Taken all together, the arrangement of zooxanthellae in Z-tubes in the presence of the light-refractive iridocytes means that giant clams can conduct up to 10 times more photosynthesis per unit area than a coral (or other similarly flat, light-collecting surface)! This discovery is now being used to try and reengineer our own solar panels so that more light can be collected over a smaller area2. That could mean greater energy yields from fewer solar panels in the future—truly an inspiring example of biomimicry in human design! MORE TO IT THAN JUST BRIGHT LIGHTS The giant clam’s tricks don’t stop at reengineering solar technology though! In addition to light, photosynthesis requires a source of carbon for the building of sugar molecules—like the carbon dioxide (CO2) needed for plants to grow. In order to benefit from its zooxanthellae, a giant clam must have a way to supply them with carbon. In marine ecosystems, the most prevalent form of available carbon is bicarbonate (HCO3-). However, zooxanthellae are unable to effectively utilize HCO3- as a fuel source and thus must rely on dissolved CO2, which is present in much lower quantities on most coral reefs. To get around this issue, many symbiotic organisms help their zooxanthellae obtain and concentrate CO2 through molecular pathways—variously referred to as carbon-concentrating mechanisms, or CCMs. These CCMs can take many forms, but in corals and giant clams, carbon supply is strongly regulated by the animal host through the activity of a special protein called vacuolartype H+-ATPase (VHA)3. VHA is an enzyme (basically a protein that helps initiate a chemical reaction) that is found in all animals and many nonanimals too! Its purpose is to move positively charged hydrogen ions (H+) from one side of a barrier to the other. In living cells, those barriers are usually cell membranes, and thus VHA serves to move H+ around within or between cells. This movement of H+ has two primary effects: first, it can help to acidify an area of the cell (by concentrating more H+ at that location), or it can aid the movement of other negatively charged molecules (anions) that are
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Image 6A: A closer look at giant clam Z-tubes. Giant clam siphonal mantle tissue showing approximate arrangement of mantle cells (M; clam muscle cells) relative to light-refractive iridocyte cells (I), zooxanthellae tubules (ZT; Z-tubes) and Symbiodinium (S; zooxanthellae algal cells). The location of VHA within siphonal mantle cells is shown in green. The dotted line (*) denotes the cross section of a Z-tube displayed in finer detail in Image 6B, which shows a model of the Z-tube system in tridacnid clams as compared to the arrangement in SPS corals. Image 6B: The role of VHA in fueling giant clam growth. In giant clams, zooxanthellae are hosted outside of the animal host cells within hollow tubular extensions of the stomach (ZT; Z-tubes). These tubes are surrounded by clam cells (blue) that express VHA (green) on the surface facing the zooxanthellae. In corals, symbiotic algae is housed within the animal cells in a separate cell-like compartment called the symbiosome (SB), which also contains VHA (green) along its surface. In both giant clams and corals, carbon dioxide (CO2) produced from respiration within the animal cells is converted by an enzyme (host carbonic anhydrase; CA) to hydrogen ions (H+) and bicarbonate (HCO3-) (Step 1). H+ is then moved inside the Z-tube (or symbiosome) by clam (coral) VHA (green/yellow icon; Step 2). HCO3- follows via an as yet unknown transport mechanism (gray circle; Step 3), where the same enzyme as before (clam or coral carbonic anhydrase) causes it to recombine with H+ back into CO2 (Step 4). CO2 diffuses into the zooxanthellae cells (Step 5), where it is used in photosynthesis to produce oxygen (O2) and sugar (Step 6), which can both be used by the host clam or coral to fuel growth and respiration (producing CO2), thus starting the cycle over again.
electrically attracted to the positive charge on the H+. As we’ll see shortly in our discussion of VHA and giant clams and corals, these two effects aren’t necessarily mutually exclusive. In SPS corals, the VHA protein is put to work acidifying the special chamber of the cell where the zooxanthellae live (i.e., the symbiosomal compartment; Image 6B). Likewise, in giant clams, VHA is used to acidify the Z-tubes where the zooxanthellae are housed (Image 6A and B). This means that both corals and giant clams are actively working to soak their zooxanthellae partners in an acid…but why?! It turns out that this constant supply of acid (H+) is useful for converting other compounds (specifically, bicarbonate
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Image 8
Giant clams (center), corals (top), and, very likely, anemones too (bottom), all use the protein vacuolar H+-ATPase (VHA) to supply carbon to their zooxanthellae partners and thus increase the amount of energy they gain from photosynthesis. Photo taken by Eric J. Armstrong at the California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, CA.
A chemically stained image of giant clam siphonal mantle tissue (looking down from above, clam cells in blue) showing the location of the VHA protein (green) in the Z-tube walls alongside zooxanthellae algae cells (red)
[HCO3-]) into carbon dioxide gas (CO2)—the very molecule that zooxanthellae need to carry out photosynthesis3!
giant clams! Though the physical arrangement of zooxanthellae differs between corals and giant clams, the carbon concentrating mechanisms and resulting photosynthetic benefits are quite similar. Symbiont photosynthesis can provide more carbon than is required to meet respiratory demand in both corals (approx. 150 percent)5 and Tridacna clams (up to 400 percent)6. Without VHA, corals and clams would be missing out on a TON of energy from their zooxanthellae partners!
How was this process of carbon dioxide supply discovered? Fluorescent compounds were used to find where VHA was located in coral and clam cells. Then the whole system was turned off in the lab to see what happened. Researchers at Scripps Institution of Oceanography in San Diego, CA, and I (working at the University of California, Berkeley) used a method of cell labeling (immunohistochemistry) to highlight exactly where in a giant clam’s tissues the VHA protein is located. We found that VHA (shown in green in Image 8) is closely associated with the Z-tubes, which contain the zooxanthellae cells (shown in red in Image 8). The blue dots in the image show the location of the clam cell’s nuclei (Image 8). This proved unequivocally that VHA was present right where it’s needed to help concentrate CO2 in the giant clam Z-tubes. Next, we applied two special chemical compounds, concanamycin and bafilomycin, which both stop VHA from working. With the “mycins” applied to samples of coral and giant clam tissues (and thus stopping VHA from moving H+ around the cells), we recorded what happened to photosynthetic output. The results were surprising. In corals, inhibition of VHA resulted in an approximately 1 unit increase in the pH of the symbiosome (meaning a reduction in the H+ present by almost tenfold) together with a 30–80 percent reduction in net photosynthetic oxygen production rates3. The same trends were observed in giant clams, where inhibition of VHA led to a 40 percent reduction in zooxanthellae photosynthesis4. These findings highlight how important VHA-induced acidification of the symbiosome and Z-tubes is in promoting photosynthesis in scleractinian corals and
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Thus, in the end, the brightly colored siphonal mantle that makes Tridacna clams such beautiful additions to our reef tanks is significantly more than just a fancy decoration. So the next time you see a giant clam in an aquarium or at a local fish store, consider that you’re not only seeing a beautiful and fascinating animal, but also one of the world’s most sophisticated solar collectors! R References: 1. Knop, D. Giant clams: a comprehensive guide to the identification and care of Tridacnid clams. (Dähne Verlag GmbH, 1996). 2. Holt, A. L., Vahidinia, S., Gagnon, Y. L., Morse, D. E. & Sweeney, A. M. Photosymbiotic giant clams are transformers of solar flux. J. R. Soc. Interface 11, 20140678–20140678 (2014). 3. Barott, K. L., Venn, A. A., Perez, S. O., Tambutté, S. & Tresguerres, M. Coral host cells acidify symbiotic algal microenvironment to promote photosynthesis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 112, 607–12 (2015). 4. Armstrong, E. J., Roa, J. N., Stillman, J. H. & Tresguerres, M. Symbiont photosynthesis in giant clams is promoted by V-type H+-ATPase from host cells. J. Exp. Biol. 221, (2018). 5. Muscatine, L., Falkowski, P. G., Porter, J. & Dubinsky, Z. Fate of photosynthetic fixed carbon in light- and shade-adapted colonies of the symbiotic coral Stylophora pistillata. Proceeding R. Soc. London B Biol. Sci. 222, 181–202 (1984). 6. Klumpp, D. W. & Griffith, C. L. Contributions of phototrophic and heterotrophic nutrition to the metabolic and growth requirements of four species of giant clam (Tridacnidae). Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 115, 103–116 (1994).
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SURGE VASQUEZ
THE COLORADO SUNBURST BUBBLE-TIP ANEMONE GUIDE Since my last article in RHM, the value of Colorado Sunburst (CSB) and other Bubble-tip Anemones (BTAs) has really gone up. CSBs are beautiful anemones that readily morph to display different colors depending on lighting and environmental conditions. Typically, you will find orange variations of this anemone, but there are also less common morphs that contain yellow, red, and combinations of these colors. Several years ago, I purchased my first small batch of CSBs from a shop called A Reef Creation. When I received the anemones,
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they did not appear to have the same colors as I’d seen in various pictures of CSBs. They appeared more reddish than I had expected, and for a while, I doubted whether these anemones were true CSBs. After years of keeping these anemones, I now have a better understanding of why certain traits are displayed under certain circumstances and at different life stages. In this case, the reddish color of the newer tentacles was the result of frequent propagation of the anemones. Newly split or propagated nems also display more linear striations on the oral disc, which may break up as the anemones mature. When mature CSBs split on their own, they will grow the same reddish tentacles and more linear striations.
Three differently colored CSBs: a reddish one (top), an orange one (left), and a yellowish one (right) | Image by Elite Reef
More recently, I acquired the Elite Reef-lineage CSB from Farmer Ty, as well as directly from Heather at Elite Reef in Colorado. I have also manually propagated CSBs and have observed firsthand how they can morph as they mature. In one case, I had one parent anemone that I split into two halves, and those halves evolved completely differently. One stayed orange, and the other became more reddish. Months later, the reddish one reverted to orange. This variability in color and tendency to morph over time are just some of the interesting traits of CSBs. These anemones have really captivated my attention and fueled my passion for their captive propagation. Currently, CSBs are extremely sought after and are fetching over a thousand dollars for small specimens, so I have composed a guide Linear striations on the oral disc | Image by Elite Reef
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Vividly colored Elite Reef CSB | Image by Elite Reef Elite Reef-lineage CSBs with different colors | Image by author
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Newer tentacles exhibit a reddish color while mature tentacles are more orange. | Image by author
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to help reefers with CSB identification. Here are some identifying characteristics of Colorado Sunburst Anemones based on my experience with them over the years. My hope is that this guide will help hobbyists who are in the market for a CSB. TIPS FOR IDENTIFICATION
White webbing can be seen on the green oral disc. | Image by Elite Reef
There should be a light speckling of green on the surface of the body, though the speckling appears blue in this image. | Image by Elite Reef
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• The first thing to look for on a specimen is the growth of new tentacles. Most of the time, the juvenile tentacles will be reddish at first and are often a different color than the mature tentacles. Toward the tips of the mature tentacles, coloration can be the same as the body of the tentacles or fade to yellow or green. The tentacle tips can display purplish coloration, but that comes and goes. • The oral disc is usually green but can vary in intensity. The green can fade away in certain environmental conditions. • There is usually a white webbing pattern on the oral disc at the base of the tentacles, but this can also fade as the anemone morphs. • The surface of the body (column) has light speckling of a green color. Heavy speckling may be a cause for concern if the anemone is being sold as a CSB. The lower column toward the foot should also look reddish. • The foot (pedal/basal disc) color is critically important. It should be reddish in coloration with white marbling. The most important trait that can help you differentiate between a more valuable and exotic BTA and a common type is the foot color. Even when CSBs lose coloration due to alkalinity and salinity swings, I’ve noticed that the foot retains its color. The faux CSBs
The red foot of a CSB should have white marbling. | Image by Elite Reef
I’ve seen don’t have this trait. I must also mention that color intensity is not a definitive factor, as I’ve also had other very bright strains of BTAs. Though true CSBs are known to be one of the brightest anemone strains, they can vary in intensity depending on
Elite Reef-lineage CSB | Image by Elite Reef
environmental conditions, just like any other nem. Please see the various pictures of these magnificent anemones for reference, and join the Sunburst Anemone Club on Facebook if you would like more information on these beautiful anemones. R
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Image by Ultum Nature Systems
Cycling & Initial Stocking of Your New Marine Aquarium
KEITH MOYLE
INTRODUCTION
PRELIMINARIES
In my previous article titled “Planning Your New Marine Aquarium,” I wrote about the importance of researching and planning your aquarium. I’m assuming you’ve already gone through those important early stages in your marine aquarium adventure, having made your choices on the system you want, assembled all the equipment needed, and listed the fish and corals you intend to keep. In this article, I will cover the next and possibly the most exciting aspects of a new tank, namely setting up, cycling, and stocking your aquarium.
Before cycling your system, there are several important steps to complete.
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The aquarium needs to be installed and leveled, and all the tank’s plumbing will have to be checked for leaks. It’s a good idea to do an initial fill with fresh water, which can be drained after completing the leak test. You should be familiar with all the equipment you intend to use, having read the operating instructions and installed the equipment accordingly.
Reef cement was used to glue this rock structure together for increased stability. | Image by author
Structural rockwork design is best done dry and outside the tank until you’re happy with the result. I recommend using reef cement to hold the structure together once you put it in the tank to avoid collapse. Position the scape before adding sand so that it cannot be undermined by burrowing or digging fish and invertebrates, potentially destabilizing the rockwork. Rinse the sand in reverse-osmosis (RO) water to remove any dust (if necessary), and add it to the tank to the desired depth. I prefer a depth of 0.5" since deeper beds require more maintenance to control nutrient buildup. Use RO water to fill the tank, but don’t fill it completely, since the salt will displace water once it’s added. Avoid disturbing the sand when filling the tank, if possible. Depending on the salt mix being used, you may need to heat the water prior to adding the salt. Install and switch on the wavemakers. Then add the salt slowly in a high flow area to avoid clumping and aid in mixing. Always add less salt than required and check the salinity, gradually adding more salt to bring it to the desired salinity. Never add salt first, since this can cause localized saturation and precipitation of elements. Next, add a little more salt and RO water until the aquarium water flows into the sump, and then activate your return pump. Finally, adjust the return flow rate to maintain the correct water level in the sump. Once water is circulating, recheck and adjust salinity as necessary. If using premixed salt water from your local fish store, it’s still advisable to check the salinity as it may need to be adjusted. Leave the tank operating this way for a few days to ensure everything is working correctly. Reef Hobbyist Magazine
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THE NITROGEN CYCLE
There are several ways to cycle a marine aquarium, and all are based on the introduction of an ammonia source (and live bacteria) to initiate the nitrogen cycle. How this is achieved is determined by various factors and the type of rock or filtration media used. I’ll start by outlining the use of artificial rock, currently the most common option. ARTIFICIAL ROCK AND CERAMIC BIOLOGICAL FILTRATION MEDIA-BASED SYSTEMS Unlike live rock, artificial rock doesn’t contain the necessary nitrifying bacteria for biological filtration. Typically, these
Image by XcepticZP
Fish waste and uneaten food produce ammonia (NH3), which is highly toxic to marine life. Beneficial aerobic (oxygen dependent) bacteria, which colonize the surfaces of the sand, rock, and filter media, nitrify ammonia, converting it to nitrite (NO2-), which is also toxic to marine life. More bacteria then begin converting nitrite into nitrate. Anaerobic bacteria thrive in the innermost voids of rockwork, media, and deep in the sandbed where oxygen levels are depleted. These beneficial bacteria thrive by utilizing the oxygen present in nitrates, in turn releasing nitrogen gas, which escapes into the atmosphere. While helpful, anaerobic bacteria are rarely present in enough quantity to fully consume excess nitrates in reef systems, so our aquariums depend on us to perform water changes to reduce nitrate. systems are cycled using bottled bacteria, which are added to the tank in measured amounts based on system volume. This method also applies to systems using ceramic media. There are many brands available with a proven track record. If you choose this route, be sure that the bacteria you purchase is suitable for salt water use. Each bottle will contain millions of bacteria that will immediately start breaking down ammonia and nitrites when added to the aquarium. To start the cycle, a source of ammonia is needed to feed the bacteria. This is generally provided by adding fish to the aquarium. Once the fish produce waste (resulting in ammonia), the bacteria begin the nitrifying process, converting ammonia to nitrite. If there is a large enough colony of
A frag is cut cleanly off the mother colony with the Dremel.
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beneficial bacteria, ammonia and nitrite will never reach dangerous levels. Always follow the instructions for your chosen product, especially the manufacturer’s guidance on stocking, feeding, protein skimmers, media, and water changes during cycling. An alternative method is to add ammonia chloride as a substitute for fish waste to start the cycle. This is the recommended option when using some products, and these manufacturers can usually supply bottled ammonia chloride for this purpose. This method doesn’t allow for immediate stocking, however, and can take more than a week or two to complete the cycle. LIVE ROCK SYSTEMS In recent years, more people have opted to use artificial rock, providing an environmentally friendly and quick route to aquascaping a tank. However, live rock remains a viable option. If you choose live rock, be sure to source good quality cured rock. The live rock should have been held in clean water with high flow and effective skimming, and any dead or decaying matter should have been removed. However, there can still be some die-off in transportation, and while the desirable bacteria will still be present, live rock may cause a spike in both ammonia and nitrite when first introduced into the aquarium. Monitoring of both ammonia and nitrite is essential during the first couple of weeks to months. Continue monitoring until you see a rise and then a fall to zero of ammonia, followed by a rise and then fall to zero of nitrite, at which point the initial parts of the cycle are complete. If the rock is of good quality and transferred to the tank quickly, die-off may be minimal or avoided altogether, with no discernible ammonia or nitrite spikes. Once ammonia and nitrite levels remain at zero for 5 to 7 days, an initial water change to reduce nitrates can be performed and stocking can commence, though this should be carried out more gradually than when using bottled bacteria. MONITORING AND TESTING Whichever method you choose, it’s important to test ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate during cycling. This informs you of how the cycle is progressing and whether your tank is ready for livestock. INITIAL STOCKING You should already have created a stocking plan, including the order in which you intend to introduce livestock. This should be based on individual species requirements and likely levels of aggression, with timid fish being introduced first. Don’t be tempted to veer from the plan, and avoid spontaneous purchases without prior research. ACCELERATED CYCLING When using bottled bacteria to accelerate the nitrogen cycle, I would limit the introduction of new fish to 25 percent of the total stocking goal, despite some manufacturers’ suggestions that the entire bio load can be added immediately. Follow the dosing instructions closely, ensuring that you add sufficient bacteria for your total system volume, including the sump. After a light feeding the following day and another light feeding 3 to 4 days after that, Reef Hobbyist Magazine
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hardy corals can also be added, as neither will increase bio load significantly. ACCLIMATION
there should be enough ammonia from fish waste to fuel the bacterial colonies. After 2 to 3 days, testing ammonia and nitrite levels is recommended to ensure these are within acceptable ranges. A week after adding the first livestock, a nitrate test should be performed. Assuming nitrate is detected, a first water change of around 20 percent should be performed. TRADITIONAL CYCLING When using ammonia chloride or cured live rock, daily ammonia and nitrite tests should be conducted until both measurements have peaked and dropped back to zero, remaining at that level for a minimum of 5 days. At this point, nitrate will have risen and the first water change (20 percent) must be performed. After that, fish can be added, though stocking should be gradual over months, not weeks, to allow the bacterial populations to increase sufficiently to deal with the increasing bio load. During the first few weeks, it’s recommended to continue to monitor both ammonia and nitrite levels as a matter of course, especially after adding additional livestock. Regardless of the cycling method used, a cleanup crew can be added a week or two after the first fish introductions. Similarly,
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It’s important to acclimate fish, coral, and especially invertebrates carefully before introducing them to the aquarium. This ensures they aren’t subjected to any sudden changes in temperature, salinity, or other parameters that can cause stress or even death in extreme circumstances. This is best achieved by dripping aquarium water into a container holding the new livestock over a period of an hour or more, discarding water as the vessel fills, until the animal is almost entirely in its new tank’s water. Never allow transit water into the aquarium, even if you trust the source, as it may contain chemicals that are harmful to invertebrates. POST CYCLE Cycling a tank ensures the biological filtration is operational and can sustain marine life, though this isn’t the end of the maturation process, as the water chemistry goes through a host of changes beginning the minute the system is established and marine life is added. The water chemistry should stabilize over the first few months until a true equilibrium and balance is reached (though in reality it is often longer as new fish and corals are usually regular additions over this period). In the early stages of setting up a new marine aquarium, you will likely experience diatoms on the sand and glass and algae on the rock and sand, which are all part of
the maturation process and will burn out of their own accord over time. Be patient and give your system time before reaching for chemicals that you might not need. Always keep a log to record test results, livestock additions, changes made to filtration, flow or lighting, and general observations, including fish behaviors. It will become an invaluable tool to understand how your system works and responds to human inputs. It can also help identify the causes of any issues encountered. FINAL WORDS
Slowly drip-acclimating your fish will increase its chances of survival and longevity in your new system. | Image by author
A marine aquarium is a living and constantly evolving ecosystem. Patience is essential in the marine hobby, and every stage from planning, stocking, and even ongoing maintenance should be enjoyed, not rushed just to progress more quickly to the next stage. Nothing good in a reef aquarium happens quickly, and any changes that can alter water chemistry should be done gradually. Time taken at the outset when cycling an aquarium, in addition to carefully planned stocking, will reward you with a successful reef that provides a stable environment for marine life, something that you can be truly proud of. R
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ERIC YANG
Reef Taiwan 42
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Various Acropora spp.
SYSTEM PROFILE
T
his young coral reef was recently reestablished. The previous reef I had in this tank had been running for more than a year. That setup allowed me to accumulate valuable knowledge and experience as I explored different ways of keeping corals. Most importantly, it taught me the importance of better planning.
Display: 250 gallons (72" × 30" × 30") Sump: 55 gallons (45" × 18" × 16") Lighting: PureAquatic T5HO, (2) LED strips Wavemakers: (4) Jebao RW-8 , EcoTech Marine MP60 Skimmer: Bubble-Magus BM-C9 Media Reactor #1: Bubble-Magus BP100 (AF Carbon/ AF Phosphate Minus) Media Reactor #2: Red Starfish Z160 (AF Zeo Mix) Calcium Reactor: Vertex Rx-C 6D Dosers: Similai D4, Jebao DP-4S
Last year, I decided to restart the system from scratch. I temporarily removed all the creatures in the tank, built a new aquascape, and replaced the old sand with new. This was a very big project for me. Once the new aquascape was installed, I placed all the coral colonies into their new positions. The new plan prioritized the strategic placement of corals, water circulation, and the ability of the system to meet the needs of the corals as the tank grew in. In the new system, the amount of live rock used in the main display was reduced. I utilized mostly coral skeleton rock, which allowed me to fill a lot of empty space but still have good water flow throughout the rock structure. Compared to most reef tank enthusiasts, I consider myself a beginner. It has been less than 3 years since I started in this hobby, but I am very fortunate to have a lot of friends here in Taiwan who have been willing to share their reefing knowledge with me. From the beginning, I received a lot of valuable advice, and that advice guided me toward this simple but effective system. I use the Aquaforest system that is employed by many hobbyists here in Taiwan. I find this system simple and effective, and it makes it easy for me to identify problems and implement solutions for them. Reef Hobbyist Magazine
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Skimmer, media reactor for AF Carbon and AF Phosphate Minus, and media reactor for AF Zeo Mix
Two dosers are used to deliver additives.
- AF Component A, B, C - AF -NP PRO - alkalinity with NaHCO3
- Nitrate: 0.2–0.5 ppm - Phosphate: < 0.02 ppm - Calcium: 400–440 ppm - Magnesium: 1250–1350 ppm - Alkalinity: 6.7–7.5 dKH
WATER PARAMETERS
MAINTENANCE
- Temperature: 77–79° F - pH: 8.0–8.4 - Specific Gravity: 1.026
- 10 percent water change weekly - 10 drops of AF Bio S per water change - 10 drops of AF Pro Bio S twice weekly
ADDITIVES
- 10 spoons of AF Pro Bio F twice weekly - 20 ml of -NP Pro daily - 8 drops of AF Amino, AF Vitality, and AF Build daily - 3 drops of AF Energy daily - 10 spoons of AF Power Food, AF Pure Food, or AF Growth Boost daily - 7 ml of Component A and Component C daily - 2 ml of Component B daily If your reef tank has a lot of stony corals, I would strongly recommend using a calcium reactor.
Vertex calcium reactor
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The calcium, magnesium, and carbonate consumption is very high when corals grow fast. Looking back on these 3 years, the two things that Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ve found most satisfying in this hobby are the thrill of watching the rapid growth and color development of various corals and, more importantly, the new friends Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ve met along the way. In this hobby, it is impossible for someone to start a reef tank without the help and advice of others, whether through the internet or in person. Veteran reefers sharing their various experiences is the source of a new hobbyistâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rapid accumulation of knowledge. Through this, I have made a lot of friends in the hobby, from Taiwan, China, Malaysia, and other countries. I am extremely grateful for them. Enjoy your tank, remember to share what you know with others, and always be open to learning from other hobbyists. R
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