Thesis_Panelised construction in Interior Design

Panelised construction

In Interior Design A study of Assembly based Processes

Thesis by: Rajvi Patel, UI2915

Guided By: Amal Shah

Undergraduate Thesis, 2020 Faculty of Design CEPT University

Declaration

This work contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other Degree or Diploma in any University or other institutions and to the best of my knowledge does not contain any material previously published or written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text.

I consent to this copy of thesis, when in the library of CEPT Library, being available on loan and photocopying.

Student Name & Code No: Rajvi Patel, UI2915

Date: 8th May,2020

Signature of student:

A study of Assembly based Processes

Dedication

I dedicate this Research Thesis to my Parents and to my school Faculty of Design, CEPT University.

It has given me the opportunity to explore myself in the field and has given me the confidence for the real world.

Acknowledgment

First, I am grateful to God for the good health and wellbeing that were necessary to complete this thesis.

I wish to express my sincere thanks to Prof. Amal shah, My Guide, for providing me with all the necessary guidance for the research.

I place on record my sincere thank you to Krishna Mam, KP Sir, KD Sir, Chandra Mam, Jay Thakkar Sir, Vishal Sir and all other faculties for the valuable guidance, continues encouragement extended to me over this five years.

I take this opportunity to express gratitude to my parents for their help and support. I am also thankful to all my batch mates for the unceasing support, encouragement and all the fun. I am immensely obliged to my friends for their elevating inspiration. And last but not the least I am also grateful to Ridham who supported me throughout for this venture.

I also place on record my sense of gratitude to one and all who directly and indirectly have lent their hand in this success.

CONTENT

•

INTRODUCTION

• Introduction to Off-site construction

• Aim and objectives

• Scope and limitations

• Methodology of research

• Significance of study

01. OFF-SITE MANUFACTURING AND MODERN METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION

1.1 What is production in Interior design

1.2 What is construction in Interior design

1.3 Correlation between production and construction in modern context

1.4 Constants and variables for off-site construction

1.5 Modern method of construction and off-site manufacturing

1.6 Classification of Modern methods of construction

1.7 Types of off-site construction

1.7.1 Volumetric 1.7.2 Hybrid 1.7.3 Panelised 1.7.4 Natural materials 1.7.5 Light weight facades 1.7.6 Sub-assemblies and accessories systems

1.8 Summary

02. UNDERSTANDING PANELISED CONSTRUCTION

2.1 Introduction to panel as an interior element

2.2 Concept of panelised construction

2.3 Introduction to Panelisation and Types of panels

2.3.1 open panel

2.3.2 close panel

2.3.3 SIPs

2.3.4 Insulated concrete

2.3.5 Composite

2.3.6 Infill panels

2.3.7 Curtain walling

2.3.8 Timber frame panel

2.3.9 Lightweight steel frame panels

15 24

18 26

19 20 29

31

21 36 48

37 51 53

38 45

2.4 Nature and type of panelised construction

2.4.1 Small panel

2.4.2 Large panel

2.4.3 Crosswall construction

2.5 Summary

03. DERIVATION FROM LITERATURE REVIEW

3.1 Factors and parameters governing panelised construction

3.2 Assembly based construction

3.3 Framework and Methodology for analysis of panelised construction

04. APPLICATION OF PANELISED CONSTRUCTION (CASE-STUDIES)

4.1 Dragon Skin Pavilion, Hong Kong 4.1.1 Inferences

4.2 NP Pavilion, Mumbai 4.2.1 Inferences

05. CONCLUSIONS

• RELEVANCE OF RESEARCH WITH THE FIELD OF INTERIOR DESIGN • FUTURE SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH • REVIEW COMMENTS • BIBLIOGRAPHY • ILLUSTRATION CREDITS

67 69 72 73 75 79 95 110

INTRODUCTION

• Introduction to Off-site construction • Aim and objectives • Scope and limitations • Methodology of research • Significance of study

“Aim to build as much of the building as possible under cover, out of the rain.” – Anthony, 1945

Introduction

Offsite manufacturing, prefabrication, pre-assembly and modularisation are part of the wide range of contemporary innovative technologies accessible to consumers, developers and project managers pursuing greater cost-efficiency in construction. Offsite construction is an application of modern methods of construction where it is a fusion between the manufacturing process and building. Offsite construction is where the components or units are made in the factory environment and shipped to the actual construction site and assembled together.

Many have precisely sought to define Offsite construction or to use other words to describe the basic principles behind this approach. For example, in a foundational report for the construction industry institute in the USA, Tatum (1986) defines prefabrication and pre-assembly as follows:

“Prefabrication is a manufacturing process, generally taking place at a specialised facility, in which various materials are joined to form a component part of the final installation.”

“Pre-assembly is a process by which various materials, prefabricated components, and equipments are joined together at a remote location for subsequent installation as a sub-unit. It is generally focused on a system.”

Prefabrication or Offsite fabrication refers to building components, interior or exterior, with either a complete or partially prefabricated elements which are assembled in a building with controlled environment. Preferably, assemblies are fabricated simultaneously minimising overall construction time and costs in Offsite locations and are fully assemble at the actual construction site.

The earliest example of interior prefabricated elements applies to two of Asia’s primary elements: The screen (planar element) and the tatami mat (modular element). The screens were first installed in China as early as 400 BC, known nowadays as the Japanese Shoji. Western history proved the screen’s invention in the mid-sixteenth century but in the nineteenth century it gained real popularity.

Offsite production in its broadest sense includes many contemporary construction methods, with the construction brick or block being the most straightforward prefabricated product in use in much of the world. At the other end of the spectrum, whole buildings are prefabricated and pre-assembled in remote environments. The use of Offsite construction is highly efficient in terms of operation, quality, expense, time, safety and the effective use of labour and other resources leading to improved project performance (Tatum,1986).

The units produced by Offsite construction are generally described as ‘modules’, ‘units’, ‘pods’ or ‘assemblies’. In 1965, White defined prefabrication as “A useful but imprecise word to signify a trend in building technology.” The technique Offsite is adopted worldwide as the ideal means of producing an immense array of elements from structural members, cladding units, and bathrooms to fully furnished modular buildings. There are several types of Offsite construction such as volumetric Offsite construction, Non-volumetric Offsite construction, modular construction, hybrid construction etc. The Offsite construction involves a range of materials, process, scales, systems, manufacturing methods and fabrication, design softwares, and different assembly techniques and equipment.

This research seeks to understand the relationship between panelised construction as a part of Offsite construction and the design process, context and needs in which it emerges. Also, it focuses on seeing categories of Offsite construction emerged in the recent past with multiple examples of interior architecture projects. It majorly focuses on the process of design and execution while using panelised construction as a method of creating spaces through several case studies.

KEY WORDS

Off-site construction, Panelised construction, Modularity, standardization, Assembly system, Interior practices

AIM

The research will investigate the process of Panelised construction and seek to understand Assembly based process and establish its relevance to the field of Interior Design.

OBJECTIVES

• Studying the fundamental concepts of production and construction of built environment

• Knowing the typologies of off-site construction

• Studying the factors which gave reasons to use off-site construction technique in the particular interior architecture project

• Understanding the typologies and principle concepts of Panelised construction

• Evaluating the application of Panelised construction as a part of off-site construction techniques through different interior architecture examples

• Analysing the method of using Panelised construction and off-site manufacturing in interior practices

• Understanding its three significant drivers of Panelised construction Cost, Quality and Time through case-studies

• Concluding it with seeing factors like standardisation, flexibility, modularity etc. As an outcome of such process used in various projects

SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

• The scope here is to study the production of built environment through the technique of off-site production and construction through various interior architecture projects.

• The study focuses on the Assembly based construction using Panelised construction as a major aspect.

• The examples of projects are used to develop understanding of the individual aspects of the manufacturing process of the panels and Panelised construction.

• It also investigates technical aspects of such manufacturing and construction techniques.

• It will also see the relations with spatial planning, organisation or the type of project for which such techniques are used.

• Though research tries to understand the diverse types of off-site construction but major looks into panelised construction as a subtype of it.

• The prime limitation here is that the study tries to relate panelised construction only in interior practice as the concept of such construction started from mass-housing projects.

METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH

PANELISED CONSTRUCTION

Concept of Panelised construction Types of panels

Types of Off-site construction

Correlation between production and construction in modern context

Off-site manufacturing and Modern methods of construction

Research context

Interior Architecture Examples

+

Case Studies

Inferences

THEORY APPLICATION

CONCLUSION

Further research scope

SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

• This study will help interior designers to understand the relevance of assembly through Panelised construction.

• The research is intended to give a better understanding of the concept of Panelised construction in the interior environment and manufacturing process needed in such construction

OFF-SITE manufacturing and modern methods of construction

1.1 What is production in Interior design 1.2 What is construction in Interior design 1.3 Correlation between production and construction in modern context 1.4 Constants and variables for off-site construction 1.5 Modern methods of construction and off-site manufacturing 1.6 Classification system of Modern methods of construction 1.7 Types of off-site construction 1.8 Summary

1.1

WHAT IS PRODUCTION IN INTERIOR DESIGN

Production means “An organised activity or process of transforming the raw materials into finished product.”

The processing and production of Interior elements involve a wide array of vastly varied materials processing. These are often non-metallic. The variety of these materials and the products they are used with required significant variation in design and packaging techniques.

A significant proportion of interior elements must also meet the design criteria, in addition to technological specifications. In most cases the aesthetic process is a separate procedure which must be repeatable in components of a large area such as walls, doors, floors, partitions, etc. Interior components thus usually consist of a wide variety of different materials and semi-finished to finish components. An example of a basic structure is injection molded components. Where component’s function an aesthetic aspect both are merged by using direct dyeing.

A decorative sandwich panel is an example of a complex structure. Today, these components are used in several spaces. They are usually made up of a sandwich structure with a fibre-reinforced plastics rear and a front top layer with a hexagonal honeycomb at the center. More commonly, they consist of multiple decorative laminates, which again comprised of many layers. It is also understood that different manufacturing methods, such as the method for producing a closed sandwich panel, will result in entirely different heat release values when similar materials are used. A sandwich panel that is typically used for partition walls, manufactured in a vacuum process, generally shows lower results than an identical panel made in a multi-stage press. In fact, the phenomenon often depends on the span of time.

Such interconnections clearly demonstrate that the development of interior components can only be carried out effectively in close collaboration between the materials developers and the manufacturers, designers, materials, process engineers and production departments. In the future,

Fig 1.1.1: Preserving the authenticity of the Eames chair by Mass producing them

specific problems will emerge that will make this cycle of improving material properties, processing methods and efficiency of components much more challenging. Firstly, this involves the importance of reducing the cost of interior production. These are increasing technical requirements and above all increasing requirements about human safety. It is clear that in material manufacturing, materials and processes are closely related, and one cannot be represented without interacting with the other as well.

• Production of elements in Interior environment:

There are types of elements which can be produced in controlled environment like factory which includes partitioning system, furniture, especially chairs, door and window panels, acoustics, insulations, flooring panels, ceiling and wall panels and boards etc. Such a production process increases the standardisation and improves the quality of the products. It also helps in reducing the cost as multiple elements are produced using a single process. From simple chair element to intricate wall panels can be manufactured using technologies such as CNC tooling, Laser cut machines, press molding etc. Process of production leads to less time on the actual site. Majorly the time is used in the production of interior components so that assembly on site becomes easy and quick.

Production is an essential stage in the process of design, production and implementation. The production phase ensures the finish and quality of the components. The designer and representative from the factory cross checks measurement for the project before starting the process of production. The entire process is done under the control of qualified factory managers and supervisors. There are several types of production include Job production, Batch production, Mass production, Craft production etc. Interior design project generally uses Mass production and Mass customisation for elements like Doors, windows, furnitures, wall panels sanitary fittings etc.

1.2 WHAT IS

CONSTRUCTION IN INTERIOR DESIGN

Construction means “The action of building or making something, typically a large structure.”

Construction is an ancient human activity. It began with the purely functional need for a controlled environment to moderate the effects of climate. Constructed shelters where one means by which human beings were able to adapt themselves to a wide variety of climates and become a global species.

The construction process is the series of steps taken by various trade workers to finish the building of interior space. Regardless of the design purpose of a specification or whether it serves practical purposes, all the details reflect the fact that structures are made up of both on-site and offsite assembly. Produced materials, need a series of tasks, and are designed by manufacturing staff who may belong to diverse groups and have specific skills and abilities. The building method is most frequently closely related to expense and time, in addition to the underlying physical buildability. An elaborate detail that requires a range of materials would most likely cost more and take longer than a simplified details.

Fig 1.2.1: Panelised ceiling construction in Trumpf campus in Stuttgart, Germany

Interior construction is defined as the work that interior architects and engineers are doing in collaboration with the design department in an interior built environment. It is a collaborative efforts between architect, interior designer, and the construction team including a lead engineer and the fit-out team.

The term interior construction is a general term used to classify building interiors and the features associated with it as space is built for human use. Raw materials are rarely found in nature and they cannot be immediately used without additional processing on them. The technologies used in such processes must be examined to determine if a material contributes to a sustainable system of production with respect for nature or if it creates unintended consequences that are a hazard for the environment or living beings.

Fig 1.2.2: Construction of The Barbarian group office using assembly system, between panels

• Material and construction in Interiors

By examining the environmental consequences of material selections, it becomes evident that it is essential to integrate these considerations into every aspect of the design process. However, there needs to be clarity throughout if there is actually a need for new construction or it is possible to modify existing construction according to client’s need. The present state of construction is complicated. There is a wide range of building products which are aimed primarily at groups of interior and architecture products.

Construction in interiors today is a significant part of industrialisation, a manifestation of its diversity and complexity and a measure of its mastery of natural forces, which can produce a widely varied built environment to serve the diverse needs of society. In the designing of the building and its interior, it is necessary to understand the way in which structures behave concerning the materials and the construction techniques being used in that.

Fig 1.2.3: Siegerland Church construction was done by using prefabricated open panels manufactured from factory

• Concept of production in the Interior environment

Nowadays buil-in-furniture is a common concept in modern interior construction using mass-produced elements. Although the design is done by interior designers the parts and components are mainly made in a factory using mass production. Such interior systems produced in a controlled environment helps in reducing the design time since the construction methods and sizes of units are predetermined. Many of the mass-produced systems available are based on knock-down construction principles. Which means that all the components of an interior systems are assembled on-site using simple fixing techniques. Technology is playing a pivotal role in interior construction by reducing the time and cost of interior elements.

1.3 Correlation between production and construction in modern context

The manufacturing and production business today are the most flourishing sectors in the world. This is because of the demand for products from the manufacturing unit locally and globally. The manufacturing business involves industries such as food and beverage, interior architecture products, furniture products, chemical industry, automobile industry etc. This means that there are so many areas to invest in the manufacturing and production business. The factory itself is the main factor of off-site manufacturing and production sector. The location and area of the factory is the crucial factor where all the raw materials are brought and turned in to finished products.

There are so many industries in the manufacturing business, it means that each of the many sectors has its own unique way of processing their products. An automobile assembling industry will function vastly different from a furniture assembling industry. This translates to the same goal of sullying the market with products but considerable differences in the interior architectural design of the factory.

Fig 1.3.1: CNC cut panels were produced in factory with the details for internal and external darting technique allowing tolerance from circular cutouts

• Material and construction in Interiors

The production of off-site products has been seen to be more efficient than on-site construction. The basic rule for everything manufactured in factory is that quality and productivity are getting better. While in construction of such factory produced components and parts, the details for assembly need to be precise. Such components can be easily assembled using joineries and fixing techniques. Off-site manufacture for construction implies that there is greater control of safety hazards and therefore, these risks are also controlled more effectively.

Mass production of interior architectural products like furniture, panels, and other elements leads to ease of construction and reduce the time of construction also. In such production and construction process it is must to detail and design things thoroughly before the manufacturing process start in factory. Because after that a minor change can cost extremely high. It can be challenging for designers to design products using such a process and it needs constant contact with manufacturers to be precise with the produced elements.

Fig 1.3.2:

Plywood based ‘Fabric wood” pavilion was developed using 280 molded plywood panels, where plywood was processed in order to give a look like fabric in The Hermanmiller shop in shop project

1.4 CONSTANTS AND VARIABLES OF OFF-SITE CONSTRUCTION

A. The factory, typically at a fixed location with excellent transport links, provides a controlled environment unaffected by climatic conditions employing a local work force. Moving to a factory environment with a secure supply chain utilising suitable degrees of mechanisation provides a set of defined advantages (Gibb, 1999):

•

VALUE:

1. QUALITY:

Components and assemblies from the factory are manufactured under better quality control. They are also checked before being shipped to the site. Hence, efficiency is higher than the on-site assembly of the same products. Better quality and more robust assemblies minimise the need for rework and thus require fewer total resources. The resources needed to rectify poor site assembly quality are rarely quantified, so the cost advantages associated with the increased quality of off-site assemblies are rarely defined, at the same time ‘zero defects’ are often recognised as an off-site advantage. Fewer defects to fix and more consistent system results to contribute for cost savings both in resources and in revenue.

2. CUSTOMER SATISFACTION:

Improved quality assurance results in reduced snagging and defects. Factory based manufacturing gives clients security for the quality of products.

3. TECHNICAL:

It is possible to achieve a higher level of thermal and acoustic performance using quality assured process engaged and investment in research and development.

•

EFFICIENCY:

1. TIME:

Decreased construction time because of scheduling operations to be performed simultaneously rather than sequentially, such as systems or modules being produced for ‘just-in-time’ delivery once site infrastructure is complete including foundations and services. Use of cranes and other technology helps saving time on-site for the assembly of the

manufactured components. Also, the potential increases in saving the cost by reducing the hours of on-site working hours.

2. WASTE:

In comparing conventional construction with offsite, it is vital to consider the various levels of waste that occur at two main phases of operation, in the manufacturing of the product and during construction. Traditional construction is, in material terms, very inefficient. Waste streams can constitute up to 20 per cent of the tonnages of raw material, with 10 per cent being a fair average for all types of buildings. In financial terms, which might reflect about 3-5 percent of the cost of construction, which is a significant amount. By contrast, manufacturing practices are much more efficient, with estimates in the range of 1% – 3% of cost being considered.

Material waste produced at a plant can be reused and more easily managed. Off-cuts are reduced, packaging can be reused and recycled, breakages are avoided, and remedial work completed. By switching operation from site to factory, waste is reduced at manufacturing as well as on-site. Research from WRAP has shown that offsite construction can minimise waste on-site by up to 90%. Also, attention should be given to eliminating waste at the end of construction life. Offsite options make it possible to de-construct and re-use some of the building pieces elsewhere.

3. FLEXIBILITY:

Using standardised component parts using a masscustomised system guarantees the desired degree of differentiation in compliance with consumer needs. These raises design variations according to the kit of parts.

•

1.

SUSTAINABILITY:

SOCIAL:

The factory environment enhances working conditions and provides a change in “construction culture” by offering a safe, healthy workplace with enhanced job security and flexible shift patterns. It is especially important when considering workplace diversification-females account for approximately 13% of total employment in the construction industry, but 27% of “off-site” positions are filled by women.

Fig 1.4.1: Steps used for successful off-site project completion

PREDESIGN DESIGN DEVELOP DETAIL ORDER FABRICATE DELIVER ASSEMBLE

2.

ENVIRONMENT:

Offsite construction in a factory leads to more effective use of materials obtained by a qualified supply chain that is then optimally used to produce components that are installed on-site to form enhanced standards of material efficiency in the building.

3.

ECONOMIC:

The effective use of a local labour force to add value to a regional supply chain for the production of a higher quality component is economically feasible when adequately performed.

B. Although off-site construction offers many advantages to traditional on-site construction there are barriers to its implementation which includes:

•

RESISTANCE TO CHANGE:

Off-site is very much a change in the construction culture. Therefore it has a different skill set required with an emphasis on holistic experience and a greater understanding of the criteria for project management, scheduling, and planning. Since this is the case, an innovative approach to training and skills is required at all levels, including enhanced career development pathways and enhanced levels of up-to-date knowledge.

•

PERCEPTION OF HIGHER COST:

The higher capital and technological approval costs for offsite construction need more educated investment decisions showing the added benefit of off-site construction (quality guaranteed, just in time approaches, environmental impact, and efficiency of building materials). For this purpose, offsite construction requires strong business leadership combined with operational management and technological expertise to overcome the concerns of the public, consumers, lenders, and stakeholders.

•

GUIDANCE AND INFORMATION:

The principle of off-site is closely aligned with manufacturing. It draws on concepts that aim to achieve quality and productivity improvements along with waste reductions. Consequently, the direction needed and the flow of information

between design, manufacturing and assembly is different from conventional construction and it needs further coordination at all levels with a need for further comprehensive knowledge.

• TRADITIONAL CONSTRUCTION BUSINESS MODELS:

Off-site construction has a different cash flow model with a change to more capital costs that can build different financial structures in-turn. However, this is offset by the speed of construction, which involves social housing in particular where revenues are more assured. Due to the shorter construction time associated with off-site construction, the average cash turnover period is less, and this can be seen as an advantage because it can minimise total development funding. However, the main obstacle, by using off-site approaches, is the need for better awareness of the various financial funding and cash flow processes.

• EARLY DESIGN STRATEGIES:

To ensure the feasibility of off-site approaches even though the decision to take is made in the later design phase. The challenge for designers is to follow an early design approach that will not restrict offsite ideas from later being implemented. The decision not to implement offsite should be taken early in the project before the contractor is selected and before the off-site benefits are understood completely. In this situation, the consultants are likely to consider the conventional approach as their brief and ‘modern design’ would be the default design strategy. Consider that conventional design is likely to become an obstacle to the later implementation of off-site approaches.

In contrast, the offsite design does not prevent a conventional construction approach. The design process should be targeted at early design fixity and specification. Again, this is a technique that can also benefit from a conventional approach to delivery. By implementing this content and process design approach, consultants will give their clients the best value, without preventing off-site approaches to be implemented.

• SPACE:

Given allowances for module supports that need to be made, overall space requirements for both methods are generally comparable. This is because modules are more complex than standard installations and all space issues are sorted out in the most efficient structure before they arrive on site. In this way, access to maintainable components is often improved rather than depending onsite operational decisions, and overall reduced footprints will result in particular for plant. Distribution within the building would typically use a proprietary support system to connect pipework, ductwork, and containment such that a frame for modular purposes would add little overall when combined with other components, the total space cost could be minimised.

• SKILLS AND EQUIPMENT REQUIRED TO INSTALL LARGER COMPONENTS AND ASSEMBLIES:

Comprehensive prefabricated sections require heavy-duty cranes to be put in position and precision handling. The requirement for heavy lifting equipment is often cited as a consideration against off-site approaches being implemented. Nevertheless, the predictability that off-site provides allows for better preparation of site activities like the construction equipment and timing required for installation. With proper planning, it is possible to implement the use of heavy machinery and other advanced resources with excellent efficiency and contribute to the high productivity of site operations. Site activities should be prepared at design stages and in collaboration with design consultants and manufacturers will advise design solutions. Significant productivity improvement can be accomplished by integrating off-site solutions by manufacturing and site operation technologies like product and process standardisation, mass customisation and continuous improvement. (Gibb, 1999)

1.5 MODERN METHODS

OF

CONSTRUCTION AND OFF-SITE MANUFACTURING

Offsite manufacturing is not a novel phenomenon. In housing, Off-site manufacturing started nearly before four hundred years ago, when a panelised housing was shipped from England to Cape Ann, Massachusetts in 1624 to provide accommodation for the fishing industry. By the 19th century, the number of portable buildings had increased as new settlements and colonies were established to meet the demand for housing solutions and kit houses shipped by rail during the Gold Rush 269 in California in 1849 (Arieff and Burkhart, 2002). In the early part of the twentieth century many architects and inventors had experimented with these housing schemes. The subsequent housing shortage fuelled the driver towards off-site manufacturing following the World Wars. More recently, high pressures requiring substantial housing changes have contributed to the birth of off-site manufacturing techniques. There is currently a keen interest in offsite manufacturing not only in housing but in interior architecture also. Quality of the construction and reduced cost levels are the main driver for such construction technique being used.

CLASSIFICATION OF MODERN METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION

1.7 TYPES OF OFF-SITE CONSTRUCTION

1.7.1 VOLUMETRIC CONSTRUCTION

Volumetric construction involves three-dimensional, factory-made modules that are then shipped to the site and assembled together. The frames are typically made from steel, timber, or concrete and they can be supplied with internal as well as external finishes. It can also include facilities such as plumbing and electric wiring or it can be just basic structure. There is no need for super structure in such construction. There are multiple hotels, housing projects and restaurants are constructed using this method of construction.

Volumetric construction also known as modular construction, includes the production of threedimensional units. In order to get third party approval, the quality control system needs to be in place. Such volumes can be brought to site in various forms such as basic structure or the shell including all the internal and external finishes already placed.

When used for large numbers of identical units, volumetric construction is the most effective, as can be found in flats and high-rise buildings. Typically, a house consists of four units and a roof on it. Where flat usually consists of one or more units, typically two units. This construction can be carried out using various materials such as timber frame, light gauge steel, concrete or composite structures. Modules are sometimes used in hybrid construction with panels and other components. Sometimes external cladding is part of the prefabricated system with

Fig 1.7.1.1: Construction of Habitat 67 using 354 volumes prefabricated using concrete in 1967

minimal scaling required on-site. Additionally, in traditional masonry construction cladding may need to be added on-site after installations of 3D units. In such case detailing for the support of cladding, cavity barriers and moist proof courses need to be designed, correctly placed and checked. There are two types in volumetric construction:

1.7.1.1.1 Modular Construction 1.7.1.1.2 Pod Construction

1.7.1.1.1 MODULAR CONSTRUCTION

Modular construction refers to prefabricated units which are produced in the factory and transported to site and assembled as a huge volumetric element of the building. Such modules can be made up of various materials and sizes. Modular construction can be used not just in building but can be part of interior elements such as partition walls, furniture etc. (Prasad, 2016)

Fig 1.7.1.1.1:

1.7.1.1.2 POD CONSTRUCTION

Pods were first incorporated into the construction market for bathrooms and kitchens for hotels, shower rooms, utility cupboards, office washrooms, housing projects etc. Pods are typically non-structural units which are used in the load-bearing structure as inserts. It can be made up of steel frame, glass-reinforced plastic, timber, concrete or composite materials. Pods are generally finished using plasterboards, tiles, ceramic, sanitary and brass ware. Three-dimensional units produced in a factory and then installed using

Placement of Factory produces Volumetric unit construction

crane during super structure construction. Pods can be bespoke according to the project in terms of shape, size and different finishes being used. Pods are also facilitated with plumbing and electric wiring which can be quickly joined with existing superstructure via a ‘plug and play’ concept. Pods can also be used as flat pack kits which can be assembled using drawings. In such case panel sizes are selected to ensure proper ergonomic requirements such as door openings and stairways. Repetitive design of components has the potential to reduce the wastage of material and mass production decrease the cost for the manufacturers and consumers.

Fig 1.7.1.1.3: Kitchen and bathroom pods ready to install, fully-fitted with necessary elements such as sanitary, lighting, equipments

Fig 1.7.1.1.2: Construction of bathroom pod in factory and transported on-site

1.7.2 HYBRID CONSTRUCTION

Hybrid construction involves both volumetric 3D units and panelised 2D components inside the same building. Often known as semi-volumetric construction. Such systems are manufactured in a controlled environment like factory and finished with all facilities. In hybrid construction all finishing and furnishes are finished and delivered to site. Kitchens and bathrooms like highly service-oriented area can be constructed using volumetric units and other than that the structure can be made from panelised construction. Hybrid construction is a method which uses two-dimensional panels and three-dimensional units in the same built environment. It consists of structural and nonstructural both the elements.

Fig 1.7.2.1: Hybrid construction using onsite concrete casting on lower floor and factory made panels for the exterior walls

1.7.3 PANELISED CONSTRUCTION

Panelised construction refers to prefabricated twodimensional components such as walls, roof panels, floor panels, interior partition walls, which are finished in the factory and assembled on site. The panelised components can vary in term of the size and materials. These components can be load-bearing or non-load bearing. They can be made of timber, light gauge steel, glass, structurally insulated panels and concrete or nonstructural infill walls. Panels can be manufactured using various processes and technologies like CNC tooling, press moulding, forming, bending etc. Cost-effective, quality control, re-usability, waste management are some of the

Fig 1.7.3.1: Manufacturing of panels with finishes and windows in the factory using guide in the floor

advantages of using panelised construction. Such construction type is also common in temporary structures, pavilions, exhibition stalls, partitioning systems, facades, furniture elements etc. There are basically two types of panels: Open panel and closed panels. Structural insulated panels, concrete panels, infill panels etc. are also used in panelised construction. (Smith, 2016)

1.7.4 NATURAL MATERIALS

Many types of natural materials are used in the construction process. The main two categories are: Timber frame construction and Multilayer engineered timber construction. Traditionally timber frame construction consists of heavy timber jointed using joints like lap joint, tenon and mortise joints etc. There are diagonal bracings also done in between to prevent movement in between the post and beam. Engineered wood is also known as man-made wood

1.7.4.1:

Fig

Timber frame construction using various size of frames on which panels will be cladded

or composite wood. There is range of products used in the manufacturing of composite wood, examples includes: particles, fibres, strands, wood wastage etc. These are fixed using layers of bonding and adhesive material in between. There are other methods of forming and pressing also used in making man made wood. Veneer, laminate, plywood is also known as a composite wood material.

1.7.5 LIGHT WEIGHT FACADES

The facade is typically a front face of the architecture, but sometimes the side and rear elevations are also included. The building uses several different types of lightweight facades, and the primary forms are: Masonry block walls using timber and metal frame and the ventilated facade system. In both this methods masonry is done using platform of timber or metal frame. The main advantage of the light weight facade is the ease of installation. Where the ventilated facade system was built to protect the building from rain and wind. This helps to keep the building dry by reducing the effect of water on the facade. It also adds on the aesthetic characteristic to the building and also on the advantage of heat and sound insulation to the building. (Smith, 2016)

Fig 1.7.5.1: Masonry block construction will be done using steel wall frame

1.7.6 SUB-ASSEMBLIES AND ACCESSORIES SYSTEMS

Sub-assembly is the method of installing a component, prefabricated parts, equipment and materials together at the factory before transported to the actual construction site. These parts can be small components like the precast floor, beam, columns, staircase, roof trusses, piping etc. These systems are usually manufactured in factory-made or sometimes assembled on site. There are several types of components and sub-assemblies like prefabricated foundations, floor cassettes, roof cassettes, roof cassettes, Pre-assembled roof structure and prefabricated dormers etc.

Fig 1.7.6.1:

Prefabricating such floor and roof components offsite has potential to reduce work height which adds to health and safety benefits. Such components can be installed using a crane and other hoisting machinery on the actual site. These processes can speed up the whole construction steps. It also reduces the labour work onsite and the cost of construction. Prefabricated beams and columns can make a perfect foundation in very less time. (Smith, 2016)

Floor cassettes being made in factory and ready to assemble on-site

1.8 SUMMARY

This chapter presents a basic understanding of the Production and construction in specific to the field of interior design. The discussion has indicated the connection and relation between production and correction. There are multiple products and elements in the interior built environment which uses the production process. Many manufacturing and production companies make types of interior products like wall panels, furniture, flooring panels, fabric products etc. Such process plays an important role in the creation of an interior environment.

There are advantages and disadvantages of Panelised construction generated from a literature review. The advantages common for all kind of project includes three main parts: Value, Efficiency and Sustainability. Disadvantages from such construction process are based on the design process, skills, equipment and strategies.

This chapter discusses forms of off-site construction in depth with the relation with the interior design field. There are seven main types or forms of off-site construction and it has more sub-types too. Offsite manufacturing is not a new concept. Various types of off-site manufacturing started years ago for housing projects and now it is being used in multiple fields. Volumetric construction involves 3D volumetric units where Panelised construction uses 2D elements in construction.

In many literatures, Modular, panelised, Hybrid, Volumetric construction have been discussed in more architecture projects. Nevertheless the chapter includes specific discussion on such construction techniques from the interior built perspective. The Design and engineering are more involved than traditional construction due to the need of preventing later changes in design, constructing modules with adequate structural integrity during transportation, handling and installation, and usually due to the required connections between modules. Fabrication is an operation involving the manufacture and installation of offsite modules in the factory. This practice is increased in scale, as it incorporates two traditional phases of construction into one.

2.1

INTRODUCTION TO

PANEL AS AN INTERIOR ELEMENT

Panel refers to “A flat or curved component, typically rectangular, that forms or is set into the surface of a door, wall, or ceiling.”

“A Panel is a single piece of material, usually flat and cut into a rectangular shape, which serves as the visible and exposed covering for a wall.” Wall panels are both operational and decorative, providing insulation and soundproofing, along with the uniform appearance and some measure of consistency or ease of replacement. Although a piece of material performing such functions does not have a fixed size limit, it has been proposed that the maximum realistic size for wall panels should be 24 inches by 8 feet to allow for transportation. Panels are planer components used in the construction of structural walls, floors, and roofs, load-bearing or non-loadbearing enclosures, and interior partitions. There are different types of panels available in the U.S. industry, including light panel wall systems such as wood paneling, Structural Insulated Panels (SIPs) and light gauge metal frame panels; non-load-bearing external glazing modules and cladding panels; and tilt-up concrete construction.

Fundamentally there are two types of panel. Framed panel and Insulated panels are being produced. Framed panel ranges from the most straightforward assemblies of structural framing and sheathing to fully finished panels containing insulation, wiring, plumbing, and both exterior and interior finishes. Framed panels are categorized into two: Open panels and Closed panels. Open panels may be finished on the exterior however, at the time they are incorporated on the site, they lack insulation,wiring, and interior finishes which are done on the actual on-site. More complete closed panels include such things like interior finishes, wiring, insulation etc.

Interior space is the most versatile of all construction systems. However, it can also be the most complex and costly over the facility’s life period, Considering the rate at which transformation happens. Panelised partition in interiors is a common concept used in modern time. There are various concepts developed for the same. These have been built by manufacturers for years; however, DIRTT company uses some unique

Fig 2.1.1: Framed panel

Fig 2.1.2: Insulated panel

Fig 2.1.4: Use of fabric panels in interior for aesthetics and also for acoustic purpose

features which make it more attractive for future thought about prefabrication and interior space. The organisation has created a platform called ICE, a BIM interface that allows users to create personalised environments. ICE produces a list of parts and costs, then generates factory code to order.

Fig 2.1.3: Wooden panels which can be used from wall to ceiling

This helps DIRTT to predict supplies of products and eventually to be able to operate CNC machines. From this data the panels are fabricated and installed on-site in an industrial or residential building. The process uses a special plug-and-play to allow for quick switching of electrical and panel material. The floor-to-ceiling panels are set on height-adjustable feet and can be conveniently rearranged. Users can adjust their entire workspace, and they can upgrade panels with varied materials. Instead of creating a new client’s entire office area, a developer may give their tenants the framework to reconfigure when necessary. This decreases cost and material waste. There are various types of panels which can be used in interior built environment. The panel can be a piece of surface which can be replaceable when needed

and constructed using various materials including fabric, wood, steel, glass, metal, concrete, plywood, PVC, MDF, plastic, vinyl, gypsum etc. There is factorymade panels available in multiple sizes and textures which can be ordered and assembled in interior spaces directly. Panels also work as sound insulation. The idea of panels and panelised construction started from Mass housing design in the U.K. but now it is also used widely in interior design.

There are many advantages of using panels in interiors such as fire and moisture resistance, easy to install, easy to replace whenever needed. Also some of the materials are recyclable or reusable so that it gives good impact on environment. Panels can be used in floor, walls, and ceiling too. It reduces the construction time and labor needed on-site. The panels are often only finished on one side, whereas the other side will be against the floor, wall or ceiling. While most of the panelings are installed in interiors, others are used to create structural walls made up of various materials.

Fig 2.1.5: 3D textured panels used on wall to add aesthetic value in interiors

2.2 CONCEPT OF PANELISED CONSTRUCTION

Panelised construction is as old as the light-frame wood construction itself. Attempts to establish panelised housing businesses as early as the 1890s focused on the logic of building in the controlled environment of a factory. Panels could be built yearround free from the effect of the weather, and all the parts of the house could be built on the ground without scaffolding. Although based on sound logic, early attempts at panelisation met with limited success because transportation of finished panels to the site was difficult, and erection of the large panels above the first floor level was difficult and dangerous.

In the early years of the 20th century some companies capitalised on the benefits of factory manufacturing without any troubles associated with large, unwieldy panels by offering complete house kits that were made up not of panels, but of individual pieces that were precut but unassembled. The most successful of these was Sears, Roebuck and Company, which sold more than 100,000 house kits between 1916 and 1933. The sears kits included everything required to build a house down to sufficient paint for three coats, and each piece was labeled with instructions for easy assembly.

Fig 2.2.1: Process of panelised construction from factory to onsite assembly

Since the era of the kit houses, light-weight materials and the rapid increase in small cranes and boom trucks have allowed paneling companies to build larger and larger sections of houses in their factories. Today, there are 8 foot tall by 8 foot long panels that can be easily carried by two men, and panels as long as 40 feet or more than that can be quickly set high on building with a small crane. The National Association

Fig 2.2.2: Large sections were possible to produce by manufacturers in the factory and were easy to assemble on site because of the use of cranes and other machineries

of home builders reports that panelisation is currently the fastest growing segment of the building industry. Panel manufacturers cite as benefits of their systems the efficiency and increased quality control of factory production as well as a shorter on-site construction schedule. The time saved at the site can translate into lower financing costs for the owner and more profit of the builder, who can produce more houses each year with the same amount of labour.

2.3 INTRODUCTION TO PANELISATION

Panelisation refers to a factory-controlled process of building assemblies or two-dimensional components for the roof, walls, and floors. In other words, the exterior and interior panels of the home are constructed to architectural detail in a factory, loaded on a flatbed tractor-trailer rig, delivered to the construction site, and hoisted into place by an overhead crane. The panels are manufactured using various type of materials, but the timber and steel frame construction require the technology associated with such types in detail. The more innovative structure follow panelised construction for intermediate floors and roofs as well as the wall units that are now widely used in the most designs of timber and steel frame buildings.

Panelisation takes a little planning, and the best efficiencies are achieved if there are numerous wall assemblies that can be built with the same production template. This means that the building designer would need to break down wall runs to standardised dimensions, with standardised window and door openings, etc. Factory panel production can include pre-drilling holes running chases for wiring and plumbing pipe runs and pre-insulating wall assemblies. Structural insulated panels are also panelised assemblies. These can have exterior sheathing and interior drywall already hung. (Koones, 2019)

Nowadays the concept of such construction is widely being used in Interior projects also. Which can be seen in interior partitions, temporary structures like pavilions, stalls, exhibition booths, furniture, doors, windows etc. In such projects most of the elements are manufactured in factory or workshop and after they are transported on site for the assembly. Such construction helps to save time onsite and also elements can be used multiple times in order to save cost. Panels can be made using various materials and sizes. Also, the type and degree of finish can be varied. There are types of joineries and hardware which can be used to join panels. Even some designers customise them too. (Edward Allen, 2011) Many of the manufacturers’ offers kit of parts with panelised components including doors, windows, kitchens, furniture elements, bathrooms pods etc. The bathroom and kitchen are mostly built as wet cores around which interior and exterior panels are

assembled. Which allows minimisation of on-site plumbing work. Panelised construction allows for wider varieties of design as it is not just limited to the constraints of modular package. Besides, the components are also easy to transport over roads using trucks.

The main advantages of using panelised construction are to have control over the quality of components as the manufacturing processes of the panels are done in a controlled environment such as factories or workshop. There can be a more effective use of

Fig 2.3.1: Diagram showing Panelisation of modular home using quality material that meet industry building standards material with minimum wastage. Such construction also takes less time for assembly and dismantling onsite and reusable when needed again. The design of all the details for panels need to be done beforehand as after manufacturing process starts, change in any small detail or any mistake can add on to enormous cost.

• TYPES OF PANELS

Fundamentally, two types of panels are currently being produced: open panels (Frame panels), which are based on the standard materials and details of wood light-frame construction, and structural (SIPs), which employ rigid insulation in conjunction with lightweight structural elements.

Open Panel

Concrete Panel

Closed Panel

Structural Insulated panel (SIPS)

Fig 2.3.2: Type of panels used in off-site construction

2.3.1 OPEN PANEL SYSTEMS

Open panels are non-insulated sections of a framed building that are manufactured in a factory and assembled at the site. The panels are made with the same framing members, sheathing, and finish materials as standard wood light-frame construction, and they are joined to one another at the edges. Most open-panel manufacturers produce only walls, but some of them produce panelised floors as well. Roofs are not typically made of open panels because time-saving at the site is minimal, and the panels cannot compete economically with trusses or rafters. In order to avoid the problems associated with two separate framing contractors, panel manufacturers often train their crews both to set panels and do conventional framing.

The first modern structural panels were built in 1935 by the Forest products laboratory of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). The panels were made up of two sheets of plywood and spaced apart and held rigid by 1x3 members. Three houses were built in which these uninsulated panels were used for both walls and roof. The design of these houses depended strongly on the module of the plywood sheets, and the placement and sizes of windows and doors were coordinated with the panel dimensions. (Friedman, n.d.)

Fig 2.3.1.1: Construction of Exhibition stall using open panels system with metal frames and gypsum panels

2.3.1.2:

Today, uninsulated panels are made up of sheathing on the exterior side only in order to allow the installation of electric wiring, plumbing, and insulation from the inside of the house. The framing members and sheathing are typically the same as for standard construction – 2x4 or 2x6 studs, for example, with 12mm sheathing. Wall panels typically have doors and windows installed at the factory. Interior walls are framed but not sheathed, so they are fitted with temporary diagonal braces to keep them square during transit. This level of completion of open panels corresponds to the rough framing of a conventionally framed residence, which once the roof has been framed and dried in, allows crews to work simultaneously on the exterior and interior of the building.

Wall panels are often finished as completely as possible on the outside with siding, trim and paint. This strategy takes advantage of the controlled environment of the factory for this work. It yields a more substantial profit to the manufacturer. Panels finished on the exterior usually require additional exterior finish work to be done at the site. This work entails the completion of cladding and trim at the joints between and the end of the edges of panels.

Fig

The barbarian group office interior was constructed using CNC cut plywood panels and assembled at site using plate hardware

Although finishing the exterior of panels in the factory is an advantage to the manufacturer, no time is saved at on-site by this practice because the exterior of the house can be finished simultaneously with the work that must be completed inside the house in any case.

Design limitations for open panels are related principally to shipping constraints and crane scheduling. According to panel manufacturers, the most practical house for their product is single-story house with a hip roof. Wall panels can be as long as the truck used to transport them, However panel height is restricted to 10 feet because the wall must be shipped vertically in order to avoid breaking of seals of door and windows. It means that gable and walls or walls for rooms with vaulted ceilings must be made in two sections. A two-story house in a region where floor panelisation is not practical will require two visits by the crane to place the walls, one visit for the first floor and another for the second. Because the crane rental company charges substantial fees for travel to and from the site and setup once it arrives, the double scheduling of a crane can make panelisation economically unfeasible. (Edward Allen, 2011)

Fig 2.3.1.3: Open panels used fro interior and exterior walls where some of the finishes are done on-site

2.3.2 CLOSE PANEL SYSTEMS

These involve the factory installation of lining materials and insulation, and may be constructed of timber, steel frame, or concrete panels. Panels can often include services, windows, doors, and finishes.

Structural framing system centred panels that can have factory installed windows, doors, utilities like electrical and plumbing work, finishes of the interior and exterior and cladding materials. Just along the edges of the panel, the structural components can be seen. Usually it includes more factory based production work such as lining, finishes, cladding, interior finishes, utilities, doors, and windows. Closed panel system allows for accurate budgeting.

Fig 2.3.2.1: Close panel system used in interior ceiling where plywood sheets were finished with laminates off-site

Fig 2.3.2.2: Panels used in retail store manufactured in factory with finishes and all details ready to assemble on site

2.3.3 STRUCTURAL INSULATED PANELS

In 1952, rigid insulation was introduced to panelised construction by the architect Alden B. Dow, who designed panels made up of 41 mm thick polystyrene with 6.4 mm thick plywood glued on each side in Dow’s system, studs and rafters were eliminated because the insulation aligned the two sheet of plywood in parallel planes to create a stiff assemblage that behaves structurally much like steel I beam. Lumber was used only at the edges of panels, which were joined to construct the walls and roofs of three experimental houses. One of these withstood the impact of a runaway car that went through the building and only damaged four panels – two on each side of the house.

Fig 2.3.3.1: SIPS Panel are made using insulation foam core sandwiched in between of Oriented Strand Board (OSB) panels used in interior partition walls

Because of their composition and their structural behaviour, these panels were called sandwich panels or stressed-skin panels. The first serious attempt to mass-produce them was made in 1959 by the Koppers Company, which produced enough panels to build 800 houses in 2 years. This challenging work ultimately failed because of slow production of the panels, low energy costs, which meant that consumers saw little need for insulation, and some resistance from carpenters’ unions that saw their job threatened. It took the energy crisis of 1973 to revive significant interest in insulated panels. Moreover in 1970 and 1980s a number of several panel companies were successfully established. (Prasad, 2016)

Fig 2.3.3.2: Anatomy a typical SIPS panel used in wall and partitions with various thickness

Today, there are over 50 companies in North America that manufacture insulated panels, and it is estimated that the products of these companies are incorporated into the construction of between 1 and 2 percent of the house built each year.

Structural insulated panels (SIPs) are a type of insulating sandwich panel system mainly used for residential and light commercial construction. They take the shape of a sandwiched, insulating layer of foam between two structural facings. SIPs are manufactured off-site under factory-controlled conditions, so that they can be easily installed onsite. The benefits of using SIPs are that they are highstrength, high-performance and can be designed to suit almost any building design. (Prasad, 2016)

Fig 2.3.3.3: Construction of prefabricated house using SIPs panels fro the exterior and interior walls

2.3.4 INSULATED CONCRETE PANELS

Concrete panels are precast, assembled and enclosed in the factory. The final assembly of panels and sealing is done on the actual construction site. It is used in various high rise building to interior construction too. These can be pre-assembled with details like windows, door panels, details for interconnection etc. They are designed in a way that it lasts for more extended time periods. It also can include cladding and insulation material.

In many interior projects concrete panels are used to have ease of installation. It speeds upon the time of construction and saves cost too. The lightweight concrete panels are available in various thickness and sizes. It can be customised in different forms and shapes through the mould casting process.

Fig 2.3.4.1: Louisiana state museum and sports hall of fame emerged with flowing space using 1100 cast stone panels

Fig 2.3.4.2: Roca gallery in London by Zaha Hadid created curve surfaces using pre-cast concrete panels

2.3.5 COMPOSITE PANEL

Panels made from a combination of different materials that act together to provide structural support. Structural insulated panels are a specific form of composite panel. There are cladding panels also made using composite materials.

Fig 2.3.5.1: Cladding of composite panels made with wood and wool to create interior environment

2.3.6 INFILL PANEL

Non-load bearing panels inserted within a structural frame. Any type of panel can be used although framed panels are more common. Masonry can also be used. Such panels can be made up of different materials like wood, metal, lightweight concrete, composite material etc. It also uses technology like laser cut, CNC tooling, stamping, moulding etc. for creating designs and patterns in it.

Fig 2.3.6.1: Various Infill panels are available which can be used in interior partitions, staircase railing, facade, etc.

2.3.7 CURTAIN WALLING

Glass facades, also referred to as curtain walls, are partitions used for exterior or interior, transparent or translucent, non-load bearing enclosures. Primarily these devices are designed of glass and aluminum. These vertical systems can be load bearing and nonload bearing too. Sometime it only carries its own weight and the environmental loads act upon it. Glass panels are manufactured in factory with desired shape and size. After that they are transported to the site and assembled using various hardware and joinery systems. Usually glass panels are fitted using metal frames for stability and safety purpose.

Fig 2.3.6.2: Jean Prouve’s prefabricated house in 1945 was constructed using freestanding portable metal frame and timber infill panels

Fig 2.3.7.1: Glass partitions used in interior environment for achieving transparency and devision of space at a time

2.3.8 TIMBER FRAME PANELS

There are several different types of timber frame systems, ranging from open ‘stick-built’ systems to pre-insulated closed doors, insulation, plumbing, etc. Standard timber frame walls consist of plywood sheets or directed strand board (OSB) set in place studs. The open panel is a sturdy box when nailed to the studs, through which on-site insulation can be applied. A waterproof barrier is installed around the frame and the outside wall cladding is followed. Closed panels are delivered to the site with these elements pre-installed, thus reducing on-site work needed. (Prasad, 2016)

Fig 2.3.7.2: Frank Gehry used prefabricated glass panels in Conde Nast cafeteria

Fig 2.3.8.1: Timber frame panels were used in house where interior finishing materials are fitted on construction site

2.3.9 LIGHTWEIGHT STEEL FRAME PANELS

Steel frame panels appear to be open panels and raising the potential for cold bridging by applying insulation to the outside of the frames. Such panels are also used as infill panels in metal frames. They are used in facades and interior partitions also.

Fig 2.3.9.1: Lightweight steel perforated panels are used in partitions and facade with metal faming

2.4 NATURE AND TYPE OF PANELISED CONSTRUCTION

2.4.1 SMALL PANEL CONSTRUCTION

In present times small panel construction is only used in low level, multi story buildings. In this system, the wall is constructed of narrow, story-high panels, between which slender slab elements are spanned. The wall and slab elements are constructed in widths of 60 to 120 cm. Small formats panel allow more individual design process than large format panels; however, the number of joints is considerably higher and should be considered while planning. Although small elements are more easily assembled using simpler hoisting equipment, they require more time for assembly. (Goulding & Rahimian, 2020)

Fig 2.4.1.1: Small panel construction

2.4.2 LARGE PANEL CONSTRUCTION

The structural system of large panel construction consists of floor slabs supported on four edges by the longitudinal and transverse wall below. If the slab span is limited to 6 meters, it is possible to support it only on two axes; that is in either the longitudinal walls, the non-load bearing transverse wall only act as bracing and partitioning element.

Fig 2.4.2.1: Large panel construction

2.4.3 CROSS WALL

CONSTRUCTION

The structural system for cross wall constructions consists of the transverse wall as arranged parallel to act as supports for the floor slabs above. As the direction of the span of the slabs is longitudinal the slab can be constructed continuously across several of fields. The economic moment situation allows a slab construction of minimal static depth, which leads to a saving of construction materials. Bracing is provided by longitudinal walls or stairwells. As the facades on the shorter ends of the compartments do not carry any loads, they can be enclosed with lightweight partitioning system.

Generally the external wall elements must fulfill all the necessary requirements of building physics and subsequent to assembly, be absolutely tight at all junctions. They must be light enough to ensure ease of transport and assembly. Even when thermally and acoustically insulated to the required levels. (Goulding & Rahimian, 2020)

Fig 2.4.3.1: Cross wall panel construction

2.5 SUMMARY

The chapter starts with defining the word Panel as an Interior element. Panelised construction is as old as the light wood construction itself. Panelised concept was developed in order to have more accessible transportation of 2D components and reusability in projects like Kit homes, exhibition stalls, temporary structures like pavilion etc. Factory controlled process of making panels can increase efficiency and productivity. Panelisation takes a little planning at the design and detailing stage because after the manufacturing process starts a minor change in design can cost more. There are various types of Panels. But fundamentally two types of panels are defined: Open Panel and Close panel. Open panels are made with one side of finish sometimes and another side of finishes are installed at the site. Close panels are made with all kind of services and finishes. They are directly ready to assemble on site.

As the panelised construction concept started from Mass housing and ready to assemble kit homes, most of the literatures explain the types of panels with the lens of architectural perspective and construction of the ready to assemble residential homes. But the chapter explains the application of distinct types of panels in the field of interior design.

In summary, the following Panelised construction processes were covered in this chapter: planning, design and engineering, procurement, manufacturing and transport, handling, and erection. The study has suggested that panelised construction activities are more complex than traditional construction practices because panelised construction requires multiple activities: to be carried out earlier in the project, to be more interdependent in nature, to be improved in scale, and need extensive collaboration with other processes. This chapter includes extensive reflections on Panelised construction. Planning is essential because panelised construction techniques do not adapt well to changes, and design and execution changes may bring significant disruptions to the project. Interdependence amongst building activities plays a significant part in the design of panelised projects.

Derivation from LITERATURE REVIEW

3.1 Factors and parameters governing panelised construction 3.2 Assembly based construction 3.3 Framework and Methodology for analysis of panelised construction

3.2 ASSEMBLY BASED CONSTRUCTION

In order to erect a house built on prefabricated materials the assembling and installation are all that needs to be achieved on the construction site. This involves hoisting, arranging, modification, connection and water proofing. Thus, construction work becomes an assembly process. The manufacturing and production of building components on site is no longer needed in comparison with construction work in earlier period. The development of a joining and connecting technique that guarantees quick and easy integration is of utmost importance for the buildings made up of prefabricated materials, as is the precise time coordination.

To further reduce the construction time it is possible to prefabricate the components and assemble them parallel. The erection of a prefabricated building is a horizontal process which is arranged story by story: during the construction process the orientation of the different building components must be decided. The location, size and weight of the building elements are crucial when choosing the equipment for the hoisting. Larger components can also include the use of transportation frames and conveyor belt spreader beams or rope systems to protect hoisting devices.

For example, Precast reinforced concrete components are manufactured with lifting lugs or transport and assembly anchors that are mounted during the manufacturing process in the formwork. The building elements have guide and fitting surfaces to simplify the positioning and to prevent later alterations onsite. Other tools such as assembly guides and fitting guides are also of use. During the assembly process, columns and stand-alone walls are strutted through inclined or adjustable auxiliary supports, until they are completely stable. Assembly based construction leads to standardisation in elements and reduces the cost because of efficient manufacturing process.

The manufacturing terms of parts, sub-assemblies and assembly are used for prefabricated construction. They refer to three stages of production and processing from material to final construction:

1. PARTS:

Components are installed and can be individual materials or construction parts. Parts are not assembled

Fig 3.2.1: Assembly system of panelised and modular elements for the net zero house in Maine

on site in off-site construction but are instead put together in a subassembly in the factory.

2. Sub-assemblies:

This belongs to panels, components or units that are assembled together with parts in order to create elements to be transported and assembled on site.

3. Assembly:

It is the process of setting up the sub-assemblies together on the final location using various joinery systems.

There are strategies need to be used in assembly based construction such as: Reduce the number of operations in on-site assembly. And reduce the numbers of kit of parts in sub-assemblies. Such strategies help in reducing the manufacturing cost, faster implementation, and product efficiency. There are assembly principles which should be followed while using assembly based construction includes uncut units, possible repetition of components, accessible connections, clash detections, simulation and prototyping etc. Improvement of assembly detailing can help to reduce the time for onsite setting up. The design team must be fully engaged in the act of assembly often to establish the context for design. (Chang & Swenson, 2020)

3.3 FRAMEWORK AND METHODOLOGY FOR THE CASE STUDY

Context of the project

Panelised construction + Types of modern methods of construction

Manufacturing process of making panels

Guiding factor of using such method

Location Cost Reuse Time

Challenges

Design process

Material Technology Details Mold / Tooling

Execution process

Form generation

Material and Joinery details

Function Constructibility Aesthetics

Time factor/Schedule of the project

Re-usability Modularity Standardization

Panelised construction and assembly Time Quality Cost

4.1 Dragon Skin Pavilion, Hong Kong, China

4.1.1 Inferences

4.2 NP Pavilion, Mumbai, India

4.1

DRAGON SKIN PAVILION

Dragon Skin Pavilion, Hong Kong, China

Fig 4.1.1: Dragon Skin Pavilion in Shenzhen Bi-city Biennale

Architects: Kristof Crolla and Sebastien Delarange and (LEAD), Emmi Keskisarja and Pekka Tynkkynen (EDGE)

Location: Shenzhen Pavilion, Hong Kong, and Bi-City Biennale of Architecture, Shenzhen

Area: 16 sq. m.

Year: 2012 Materials: Grada plywood

Context:

The Dragon skin pavilion was a temporary pavilion made for the 2012 Hong Kong and Shenzhen Pavilion of the Biennale. The Biennale occurs every two years and architects have to apply to have their projects selected. The pavilion’s design was the result of the collaboration between Laboratory for Explorative Architecture & Design, Belgian architect Kristof Crolla who founded a young Hong Kong based architectural design and research practice; and EDGE Research Lab at Tampere University of Technology (TUT).

Founded in 2005, EDGE’s goal is “to develop and dispose of funding for new research projects” for TUT. An eight days architectural design workshop at TUT, titles ‘Material Design and Digital fabrication workshop.’ In this workshop, the student worked with Grada plywood and parametric modeling software to design a structure using post-formable plywood. (Gulling, 2018)

Movability of components:

The pavilion firstly was made as a part of the workshop at Tampere University. A first version of the pavilion was designed and built from scratch in 8 days. The workshop version was quick and rough so in the end the structure did not stand as it could not support its self-weight. After that, the group of university had opportunity to present this pavilion at the biennale, so they revised the prototype, optimising the structure and components for the definitive version which became the Dragon Skin Pavilion. For the 2012 Hong Kong and Shenzhen Biennale the team made the second version of the pavilion with an international team consisting of material and structural engineers.

Construction of the Pavilion:

The pavilion was made from 163 post-formable plywood panels that measured 600mx600m. It was fabricated from 7 mm thick Grada plywood. Interlocking slots were used to connect all the plywood components together without the use of any kind of glue or mechanical connectors. CNC technology and parametric design were used to procure the require shape. All the slots were custom located for each component and were cut with

Fig 4.1.2: Plywood components after bending in same radius takes very less space to storage

a CNC router before bending. All the panels were molded into the same shape. It was a single curve, placed diagonally across each square, resulting in two curved corners and two straight corners. The manufacturing of components was done by the students in the university workshop and shipped to the biennale. The final pavilion measures 4.5m wide, 3.5m deep and 2.5m high, and took 6 hours to assemble on-site.

Details used in the Panels:

All the panels were assembled using simple finger joinery so that pavilion would be easy to put together and to disassemble. The Grada plywood panels occupy very less space in transport and storage space because all the panels have the same bending radius. Finger joints in panels made the job easy as there was no need of any equipment or adhesive in the assembly of components. The joints on panels were resulted using grasshopper software which was also used in order to make sure the location of joints within straight areas. Joints were cut with CNC router before bending. All the panels were marked with specific positioning number as each plywood panel is different.

Fig 4.1.4: Manufacturing process used for the making of panels

Fig 4.1.3: Shell drawings for plywood panels

The Fabrication method of panels: The most difficult challenge in this project was the design of the production line in order to formulate plywood panels. The speed at which the production of panels had to be completed and the optimisation and control of the manufacturing process was one of the most challenging tasks. The Grada plywood becomes formable when it reaches to high enough temperature, which is the reason that students decided to use Grada plywood as a material for the pavilion. The mould used for forming process of panel was also made up of plywood. The weight of mould itself was sufficient enough for giving the desired shape and curve to the panels. Because of the heavy weight the upper part of the mold was moved using industrial crane. In order to optimise the material accurately as possible, the size of the plywood panel was decided considering the standard size of the plywood sheet. (Gulling, 2018)

Fig 4.1.5: Plywood panels sequence drawing for assembly

creating arched shape on the XY axis construct individual panels

Fig 4.1.6: Process of making pavilion shape using panel units

Design considerations:

The original Tampere University of technology workshop led by Crolla investigated the integration of digital tools with physical materials. Through the workshop students experimented making physical mock-ups with cardboard and other stand-in materials to understand the fabrication process. In the next step participants wrote parametric code using software like grasshopper for the digital design of the pavilion. The idea of the workshop was not to learn the specific coding in software but instead to learn the logic that scripts use to generate design options.

DIVIDE

LINES CREATE ARC SHAPE INTERPOLATE +LOFT

creating a surface place units on surface and extrude find midpoint + create curves create lines between points divide into corner points

Fig 4.1.7: Relative process to achieve pavilion through panel units

In the workshop Crolla focused on participants understanding how their unskilled craftsmanship intersected with the precision of the digital world. After the workshop, the design team made changes to the structure’s design. First, the components were made smaller. Next the pavilion’s overall shape changed from a barrel vault to a parabolic shape, reducing its horizontal thrust and stabilising the structure. Finally, the team relocated the slotted joints from the curved portion of the components to the flat portion. By moving the joint location, the connections between components were more consistently placed, minimising the movement between components. (Gulling, 2018)

Manufacturing considerations:

All the components were made at Tampere University of technology and shipped to Hong Kong. The Dragon skin pavilion was self-manufactured. In this project the designers were also responsible for the making of the components. This can be challenging, as the designers cannot necessarily learn from the makers. For keskisarja, the greatest challenge was the amount of time it took to bend all the Grada components. Each sheet was heated to the recommended temperature, pressed in the mold until it cooled, and then removed from the mold. All the 163 components were molded in between two to four students over three days. All the panels were shipped to biennale after that. (Parametric, 2019)

Fig 4.1.8: Plywood mold used in the forming process

Improved detailing:

To create the curved forms, layers of post-formable plywood slid past one another during forming Because the components’ slotted joints were cut into the panels before forming, the plies slid past one another at the slots. Therefore, the edges of the plies at the panels’ slots and edges were not aligned. This reduced the bearing surface of the slots, reduced tolerances, and required looser joints for fitting. Moving the slots from the components’ curved surface to the flat surface helped but did not solve the problem. For the final design slots were trimmed 2 to 3 mm more extensive than the plywood’s thickness to accommodate shift between the panels.

4.1.10:

Fig 4.1.9: The upper part of the plywood mold was operated by crane

Fig

Expression of Grada plywood panels after using simple Finger joinery detail

Assembly of the pavilion:

For Crolla, the project’s biggest challenge was the on-site assembly. The structure was not self-supporting until all the components were in place. The team tried to use temporary supports while building the pavilion, but in the end depending on manual labour for support. According to the project video that documents the making of the pavilion, up to twelve people supported the structure during final assembly. Once assembled, the pavilion was stable and was approved to be occupied by Biennale visitors.

Concept of panelised construction and its outcome:

The critical fact here is that anything visible in images, however it looks exceptionally decorative or very ornamental, that all these qualities are the by-product of an extremely rationalised and efficient fabrication and construction methodology that devised as the part of the project. The workflow that the team had set up: a normal eight by four feet wood sheet was panelised and cut in exactly the same squares. Those then had slots CNC (computer numerically controlled) milled inside. Then they were heated up and bent onto one single mold until all the shells got exactly the same shape.

Fig 4.1.12: Assembly of pavilion on-site using temporary supports and plywood panels

Fig 4.1.11: Flat plywood Pieces to Pavilion

Students were following just numbers, not even using plans. They had only one plan on the ground and from there they just puzzled pieces which were brought together. Students used human scaffolding and temporary supports to assemble the panels on-site. In the end, students managed to basically lock everything into place. Although this project was extremely “Affectual”, if that is a word which can be used, it is because of the very simple underlying procedural logic, the computer-controlled process that allowed us to very precisely define every slot and every interconnection that they arrived at this beautiful warm field of panels sliding across the space. Here you have a sense of the scale of it, you get a view from the inside where you can see the light under it playing with the transparency, by opening it up in certain areas and closing it off more towards the back, and here you can see the warm glow that comes out of it at night. So, ornament can be part of the architecture, but in this case, it came at absolutely no cost. It was actually a byproduct of a hyper-efficient construction set up where there is no difference between skin, structure, lighting deflector, etc. (Gulling, 2018)

Fig 4.1.13: Lighting effect as a resultant of paneling details

Fig 4.1.14: Panel’s bending curve from Catenary and Arc

Structure of the pavilion:

The fundamental balanced surface structure of the pavilion removed all internal forces and deformations, making the pavilion self-supporting, lightweight skin with highly tactile properties and unique luminous effect. The structure explores and examines the tactile, spatial, and material possibilities that design can bring in digital manufacturing and manufacturing technology revolutions. The dragon skin pavilion rethinks the role of design in construction by working effectively with the material’s essential properties and guiding its structural performance, while being conscious of the system’s aesthetic values and influences. (Gulling, 2018)

Reasons for failure in the project:

The Dragon Skin Pavilion was placed in an unconditional area of the Biennale, under a temporary structure made from bamboo and covered with a thin, translucent plastic sheet. The temperature inside the Biennale structure ranged from 68 F to 86 F, although the pavilion was protected from rain, humidity levels inside the temporary structure were high. In the three months that the Pavilion was up, delamination between the plywood panels had already occurred.

Fig 4.1.15: Final assembled pavilion under temporary structure at Biennale

Joinery details:

1. Function

The dragon skin pavilion was constructed using the simple finger joint details in order to avoid extra efforts for putting the panels together. The panels itself were working as a system of structural support. Panels made out of post-formable plywood were acting as structure, skin, frame etc. The aim of using finger joints between panels was to have allowance of movement. So that panels can be adjusted while placing in the structure. There is no need of specific equipments while assembling the pavilion which adds to the safety purpose of students also. Because of the simple details it was easier to do cleaning process of panels at the place of Biennale.

2. Constructibility

Ease of assembly, detail forgiving minor inaccuracies and manual assembly allowance were the three main advantages used in the Dragon skin pavilion. the panels were etched with their specific number so that without use of any kind of construction or assembly drawings panel were puzzled in their place. The construction of panelised pavilion was done smoothly, swiftly and also economically. A structure ought to go together easily and efficiently and it should do so even thigh many little things can be expected to go wrong during the construction process. As a bonus in this case the efficient construction process adds to aesthetic aspect of pavilion.

3. Aesthetics

Details play an important role in structure to please the eye. In the pavilion, panels were harmonized with one another and that created beauty out of simple plywood panels without any finishes on it. Every detail was consistent and each one of them contributed to the overall appearance of the structure. Because of such joinery detail it was possible to open it up the pavilion in some area andclosing it more on the back side. It allows the warm glow to come outside from the interior of pavilion. In this case ornamentation is a highly efficient construction process.

4.1.1 INFERENCES

• Panelised construction and Assembly:

Dragon skin pavilion was made from 7 mm thick post formable Grada plywood panels, which were moulded using plywood mold pressing technique. After manufacturing all the panels in the workshop, the biggest challenge in the project was to assemble these panels at the location of Biennale. The whole pavilion was assembled without any equipment, hardware or adhesive. Panels were etched with their positioning numbers. All the panels were puzzled into place without using any kind of drawing and just by interlocking them into joints. Interlocking joints made this pavilion reusable and movable. Form and shape were standardised for all the panels so that materials for ferma could be optimised. As the pavilion was not self-supportive till all the panelised components were interlocked into their places. In order to resolve this issue temporary scaffolding was used. The unique part in entire process of the pavilion was that the designers were also the manufacturers which helped them to understand the complex process of making the plywood panelised components.

1. Time:

The manufacturing process of Panels took a maximum of the time in making of dragon skin pavilion. Assembly of the pavilion was done in six hours at the Biennale. Though assembly was the complicated part of the whole process but the rationalised process of manufacturing of panels helped it to puzzled efficiently. It took eight days in the first making of the pavilion from manufacturing to assembly of it. All the improvements were done after first trial at workshop in order to get minimum tolerances. First all the plywood sheets were cut using CNC tooling where all the slots for interlocking joints were also made. After that sheets were heated at 150 C temperature and pressed in between the plywood mold and cured to get the desired form of the panel. All the panels were given same curve and that saved time from making multiple molds. One mold made out of CNC cut plywood pieces worked for all the panels. The manufacturing process was also planned simultaneously which helped saving maximum time.

2. Cost:

Grada plywood sheet has a standard size of 2400x1200 mm was cut in 8 exact squares which turned into almost zero waste of the material. Also, the plywood sheet was used raw, without any finishes on it for making panels. Each square panel was sizing 600x600 mm was also slotted for interlocking joints. Because of such a joining system there was no need for any special equipment or adhesive which saved upon cost. All the panels were given the same bending curve using one mould so after stacking them on each other it took little space while transporting them from workshop to Biennale. Dismantling of the pavilion would not damage any panel as they were designed keeping movability and storage of components in mind. All the panels together could be stored in minimum space and transported to another location easily. Optimisation for material and no need of extra resources helped saving cost.

3. Quality:

All the lighting effects and ornamentation visible in images were the by-product of an efficient fabrication process of panels and systematic construction method. CNC tooling gave precise slot for interconnection and clean edges. The Warm glow was seen from the pavilion as panels were opening in certain areas and closing more towards backside. Here the ornamentation came at absolutely no cost because of the hyper-efficient panelised construction process. Where panel itself worked like skin, structure, lighting deflector etc. After improving detailing of slots in the panel it reduced the tolerances and gave more precision in joinery.

4.2

NP PAVILION

NP Pavilion, Mumbai, India

Fig 4.2.1: NP Pavilion expo for NIpponply Company in Mumbai

Architects: SARANSH ARCHITECTS

Arihant Bajaj, Malay Doshi, Neel Jain

Location: Mumbai, India

Area: 100 sq. m.

Year: 2017-2018 Materials: Plywood, MS bracket

Context:

The NP Pavilion, Expo in Mumbai - installed by Nipponply was a transitory installation made of plywood panels was designed for the Acetech Exposition 2018 Mumbai (The Architecture Community, 2019). The pavilion was designed by the firm Saransh Architects based in Ahmedabad. Nipponply is the company that offers all essential products which are necessary for interior creation. Nipponply’s objective to participate in Acetech was to showcase their product range and quality of products to experience USPs with the actual application of products and trends and

also understand the need of designers, architects and consumers. The philosophy of the company behind the unique parametric pavilion design was to highlight the real application of products as the pavilion had been made from only Nippon’s own product like plywood, veneers and laminates. All these products were used in raw form to seex, feel, and understand the kind of raw materials are produced by the company. The strength, style, decor and the unique application of Nipponply products was memorising experience for all the visitors. The design of the pavilion was also an extension of the company policy reflecting transparency, Reliability and value for money. In recognition of excellent execution and best quality products the company received the prestigious award for the most “ICONIC BOOTH.”

Fig 4.2.3:

Fig 4.2.2: Triangular Plywood components showing expression of MS bracket used to join the panels

Modularity achieved through plywood panels and MS bracket in the pavilion

2

3

1 4

1. Reception 2. Display area 3.Meeting Area 4. Digital area

Fig 4.2.4: Floor plan showing the area location of the different functions needed in exhibition stall

The functioning of the pavilion: Right at the back of the pavilion is a common wall shared with another pavilion, along which are placed 150 double-sided panels displaying veneers and laminates. Two columns supporting the flat end of the shell provide room for smaller meeting and display areas, while a small reception area is provided by the largest plywood cuboid. The cuboids and the part of the shell resting on them form a canvas to display the various varieties of wood used for their veneers and laminates. The subtle graphical elements all along the pavilion acts as a self-guide explaining this part of the design. The yellow spotlights with the LED add warmth to the pavilion.

Movability of components: A triangular ‘Panels’ using the tessellating system was designed based on guided hanging chain models, achieved digitally through using self-developed scripts and from-finding plug-ins like Kangaroo. NP Pavilion was made up of 720 unique plywood panels. All the panels in the factory were routed using CNC, which assembled into one continuous shell. The panels were joined using 835 customised MS bracket pairs. All the components in the expo stall were made keeping in mind the transportation of them from Ahmedabad to Mumbai. After producing and testing the structure of the pavilion entirely in Ahmedabad, it was dismantled and shipped to Mumbai. The components were divided into 30 arches of 16 to 28 panels. Which allowed for a reduction in assembly time and packaging material. Instead of the entire assembly being carried out manually on the location, they decided to assemble some of the panels off-site. This decision helped them to save time and labour at the location.

Fig 4.2.5: Digital Model was made using self-developed scripts and form-finding plug-ins like Kangaroo

Fig 4.2.6: Assembly of panel at Ahmedabad workshop in order to test the structural strength of the NP pavilion

Construction process and Detailing of the pavilion:

The design was conceptualised and inspired by Plate skeleton system of Sea Urchins and embodied the integration of form, fabrication, and performance. Focusing on the client’s mission of showcasing the plywood, innate strength, A tessellating system of 720 triangular panels was designed. The exhibition shell was designed with benefits of comparably minimal wastage of plywood material during the milling process, high re-usability with the same precision and ease of assembly within short time period.

Tripod junction

Hexagonal junction

Fig 4.2.7: Use of MS bracket as a joinery system in between for panelised construction

One of the central concerns during development of the form was to expose these panels to various kinds of stresses, loads and end-conditions so that along with being a modulating system it suffices as a maker of strength for the given material. A flat part of the shell, smooth and abrupt bends, both-side supported ends, cantilevered ends, etc were all developed to facilitate the same.

Both the plywood panels and MS brackets take equal part form a composite structural system. The shell sits on four plywood cuboids, which tactfully incorporates all storage and electrical needs of the event along with providing structural anchoring to the shell.

Customized MS brackets

2 3 4

1

Fig 4.2.8: Front view of the pavilion showing four plywood cuboids on which hides all the storage and electrical services

Structure and Assembly of the pavilion: 9 mm thin plywood panels may not be stiff in itself but in integration with the complete system, it works perfectly to sustain various kinds of stress and loads. The Design of the pavilion was developed and fabricated through a process of design prototyping, structural experiments and material calibration over nine months. Structural test for 20 kg per square meter was conducted digitally, but the actual structure was able to take the load of two people simultaneously walking across it with just minor deflections. One plywood panel itself was not stiff enough but after using it in a structure of multiple panels joined together it was providing enough strength for the structure to stand.

The entire pavilion was assembled by hand following very simple physical rules, piece by piece, by a team of carpenters. After making it completely in Ahmedabad, the structure was dismantled and shipped to Mumbai in 30 arches of 16-28 panels. This allowed for reduction in assembly time and packaging materials. Despite of the entire assembly being carried out manually, the average dimensional tolerance achieved was of less than 13mm. (The Architecture Community, 2020)

Fig 4.2.9: Names of laminates written on the panels

Fig 4.2.10: Assembly process of pavilion at the location of expo

On the lower side of the pavilion there were various laminates used on the plywood panels in order to display their different varieties of laminates. Also, the names of the laminates were written on the panels for customer’s ease of choice.

Fig 4.2.11: View showing the etching of numbering on the plywood panels for easier assembly purpose

Manufacturing considerations: The panels were manufactured using CNC machine tooling with the exact location of holes in order to fix the MS bracket. The open groves and the etched numbers on each panel neatly unveil the entire construction process. Both of these together, form the only reference system for the assembly of the pavilion. With no secondary layer to this system, the Pavilion reveals it all for a keen eye.

Fig 4.2.12: CNC routing of plywood panels with holes for MS bracket fixing

Fig 4.2.13: Final Assembled NP pavilion with display of Nipponply‘s various products like plywood, veneer and laminates

Joinery details:

1. Function

NP pavilion was made using pairs of 835 custom milled MS brackets. A detail that goes together in an easy way, relaxed manner is economical with regard to labor and will generally be done well. The parts were easy to assemble and repetitious assembly decreased the overall time. The joinery system having MS brackets allowed to showcase the originality of the material. Some of the panels on the lower side of the pavilion were finished using veneer and laminates of the company NIpponply itself. It was done in order to showcase their products. MS brackets were designed in a way that it catered to all the angles of the panels.

2. Constructibility

All the panels were etched with their positioning numbers. The assembly of the whole pavilion was done manually using machine screw. The size of the panels was decided such that they were easy to handle and assemble. It was wise to anticipate the inevitable need to repair the panels of a structure and utilize materials that can be repaired easily and inconspicuously. A smooth construction process generally produces a building with lesser defects and fewer disputes among the panels. Constructible details are essential to a smooth construction process. Ease of assembly is important because a detail that is a struggle to build is likely to be expensive and will often be executed poorly.

3. Aesthetics

Details of using MS bracket added the geometry of screw head in the pavilion. Here the joinery detail was not just used in order to connect the panels but it also adds to the aesthetic of the pavilion. MS brackets were designed in such a way that panels are joining with the consistent gap in between them. These gaps give the panels the floating effect. It adds the lightness to the whole surface pavilion.

2. Assembly of MS bracket in panel:

in order to create smooth form of pavilion in order to create smooth form of pavilion

1C

Machine screw

Plywood triangular panel with holes for MS bracket MS bracket

Assembly of panel to panel

2A 2B

3. Detailing of customized MS bracket:

Elevation of bracket showing the Gap which creates expression between two panel

Four screw head on the front side of the panels creates harmony of geometry

4.2.1 INFERENCES

• Panelised construction and Assembly:

All the triangular panels were cut using CNC tooling and assembled using customised MS bracket. 9 mm thin plywood panel was not stiff in itself but after integrating it in complete system it was able to take all the stress and loads. Plywood panels were cut and assembled and tested in Ahmedabad workshop. For the transportation purpose and less space in storage all the panels were cut in same shape and form. Panelised construction was used in order to transport and reuse this panel again when needed. After that it was dismantled and shipped to Mumbai for the expo. All the panels in the pavilion were assembled using MS brackets which were machine screwed. The entire pavilion was assembled by hand using simple physical rule, piece by piece. All the panels have their positioning numbers etched on it which helped to assemble the panels without any specific drawings.

1. Time:

The design of the pavilion from form development, prototyping, testing material stability to fabrication took nine months. The maximum time was given in CNC tooling of the panel with holes for the fitting of the bracket and customising and making the MS brackets. Pavilion is made up of 720 plywood panels and 835 MS brackets. The structure was transported in 30 different arches of 16 to 28 panels. Which allowed saving the time and labor on the site. Simplified joinery system and systematic manufacturing process helped to save time and also added efficiency in the project.

2. Cost:

The shell was designed with minimal wastage during the CNC milling process and high re-usability with same precision and ease of assembly. Tessellation of triangular panels was used in order to get a maximum of fluidity in the form of pavilion. The sizes of each panels were decided considering the standard plywood sheet size to minimise the

wastage of material. The plywood sheet was used without any finishes on it to showcase the quality of the product of the company Nipponply. On the lower side of the pavilion some of the panels were finished using different veneer and laminate sheets for showing the kind of products they manufacture in their company. All the panels were CNC routed in factory which was the major cost factor in the project and then assembled for testing of the structure at Ahmedabad workshop. In the assembly there was no need for major equipment. Only screw machine was used to fit the MS brackets in the panels using button head cap screw. The design of the pavilion and the detailing of panels were done knowing the possibility of reusing them in another location which can create economic sustainability for the company.

3. Quality:

All the products in the pavilion were used in raw form to see, understand, and feel the quality of material produced by the Nipponply Company. The idea of etching the numbers and mentioning the names of the laminates on the panels added the detailing to the spatial quality of the space created by the pavilion. LED spotlights were adding the warmth to the rawness of all the panels and were highlighting the quality of the products. The gap created between two panels was the resultant of customised MS bracket, which added lightness in the whole surface form. On the front side of the panels screw were creating the underlying geometry in the panels and giving expression to it. Here the hardware was not used to just as joinery between panels but it added whole new perception to the panels of the pavilion. Though the whole assembly was done manually, the average dimensional tolerance was achieved less than 13 mm.

MODULARITY AND STANDARDISATION:

For the construction industry Standardisation has been defined as: “It is the extensive use of components, methods or processes in which there are regularity, repetition and background of successful practice and predictability.”

This definition implies that standardisation is a collection of components, methods, and processes to assess repetitive activities. Implementation of standardisation efforts can potentially result into quality, organisational, time, cost, design, safety and information benefits. It is defined that industrialized building methods as involving a high degree of prefabrication in order to reduce the work on site. This involves careful planning and the maximum standardisation. The quantity of factory work on the panelised elements is deliberately increased as to reduce the cost and improve the quality and speed of construction.

Mass customisation has taken over from mass production and there is no necessity of identical standardisation. Mass customisation requires flexible production lines to produce a range of alternatives assemblies between panels to produce variety of end products which meets individual project requirements. More effort is placed on the standardisation of interfaces between components which allows interchangeability and maximised choice. There is therefore the full spectrum of bespoke to standardised products available for offsite fabrication.

Modularity can be described as: “A very comprehensive set of principles for managing complexity. By breaking up a complex system into discrete pieces, which then can communicate with one another only through the standardised structure. One can eliminate what would otherwise be an unmanageable part of systematic interconnections.”

Modularisation is derived from the word “module”. It is also defined as the separate unit which is used in order to form larger unit. The term module comes from the Modularity is a general system concept: it is continuum describing the degree to which a system can be separated and recombined, and it refers both to the tightness of fixing between panels and

Fig 5.1: The design of Opera using

plywood panels and curved Timber frame in the church of sen, which were standardised in size accordingly because of the transportation via barge through the canal of Venice

the degree to which the rules of the system enable mixing and matching of component capabilities. By adapting panelised construction with a modular approach can initialises standardised design and components which can be quickly and easily assembled. Panelised construction works with either repetition of panels or all the different customised panels.

It is not necessary that each Panelised construction uses standardised approach while manufacturing panels. In many cases each panel is different than another one. In such case there is need of different manufacturing process in order to make panels. But the standardised panels can help to optimise the materials with using similar manufacturing process of each panel. It is evident that Panelised construction uses a modular approach because such construction techniques are aimed at ease of construction, interchangeability, re-usability, ease of transportation etc. It helps designers to reuse the panels again when needed which reduce the cost for them. Standardised panels can save upon the storage space and space while transporting as they have similar form and shape.

fireproof

•

KIT OF PARTS CONCEPT IN

PANELISED CONSTRUCTION

The Kit of parts structure involves organising the numbers of individual parts in a building into assemblies of standard easy-to-manufacture panels, sized for convenient handling or according to shipping constraints. Such construction techniques are generally carried out on the assembly level as opposed to the part level. This requires much thought at the conceptual design level, and coordination between the designer, engineers, manufacturers, and labours.

The designer defines the parts library describing every major assembly used in the structure. The library could be similar to an interactive LEGO set, which has many standard parts already available but is open for additions by creative users trying to meet new needs. The assemblies are conceived in a systematic way, perhaps based on a certain increment or size or Standard connections are established between the panels, allowing for greater flexibility in the form itself: anything is possible as long as the rules of connection are followed.

The number of possible shapes and appearance the panels can take after connection and increment rules are defined is infinite. Connection and increment rules can include material specifications, structural strength, paths for force reaction, the centre of gravity, standards for thermal or sound insulation, and transparency.

• PANELS USED AS KIT OF PARTS

Some of the earliest prefabricated systems were panel based. In the West where shear panel construction gained popularity, prefabricated panel concepts naturally evolved. The first systems were wood frame, but today materials range from wood to metal to precast concrete. Panel-based systems essentially incorporate structure and wall / floor cladding and decks into one-piece assemblies. An assembly consisting of raw materials becomes a discrete component that works as a single structure or cladding member. Upper-end panel-based systems also often have unique joints that ease the construction process. Panel based systems can also

Fig 5.2: LEGO parts are standardised in sizes but it is always open for creators to additions

be good candidates for kit-of-parts concepts as long as joints and connectors are designed properly for disassembly as well as assembly.

• PANEL DESIGN AND FLEXIBILITY IN ASSEMBLY

Using prefabrication and kit-of-parts techniques as a superior construction technique have its own advantages, but using the methods in an aesthetic way can be a little more complicated. But sometimes aesthetics become the byproduct of efficient construction process. It is evident that panelised construction using standardised panels can reduce the complexity of the process and increase the flexibility in the design and assembly of panels. Manufacturing of panels can be done using multiple technologies. Usually panels are designed and manufactured to optimise the material use and reduce the waste. Standardised form and shape of the panels can give flexibility and interchangeability in assembly process. Flexibility is needed to counter possible causes of reluctance to standardisation. The flexibility can be maintained within standardisation is by the appliance of modularisation. Flexibility being an essential part of an approach that combines standardisation and modularisation is proposed as mass customisation which is popular in interior designers. The improvement in flexibility can be achieved by mass customisation while maintaining standardisation and economies in scale.

Fig 5.3: 175 Kit of parts made up of CNC cut panels used in the construction of Motorway Church Siegerland

EASE OF CONSTRUCTION

Panelised construction can be assembled and disassembled quickly and the panels can be relocated and refurbished for a new use, reducing the demand for raw materials and minimising the amount of energy expended to create structure to meet the new need. The ability to construct at remote locations is a major advantage of using Panelised construction. Such construction can be used to overcome the constraints of site with precise assembly approach. Site constraints and site characteristics play an integral part in determining whether the project can be constructed using panelised construction or not. Assembly of panels can be done using various joinery and fixing system.

Fig 5.4: GETA panels are available with acoustic comfort which can be installed easily without any specific equipments. Because of the proper detailing it is to put the manually

Details such as positioning proper numberings of panels and ensuring location of joinery can ease the construction process. Because the panels must fit into their final locations within the main form and between adjacent panels, special attention is given on connections and tolerances. The sequence of activities in panelised construction is significantly different than conventional fabrication and erection. The fabrication and assembly production activities range from manufacturing and assembling structural panels to testing and commissioning the installed equipment in a complete structural form. The combination of ease of construction and reduced

time schedule is the driving force in using Panelised construction.

Fig 5.5: Panels were simply glued together using High strength structural glue in the Bunjil place cultural center in Australia

• RELEVANCE OF RESEARCH WITH THE FIELD OF INTERIOR DESIGN

In the recent times off-site construction is being on an upward trajectory. Nowadays there are more time and site constraints which look for a solution which are effective in cost and also reliable in quality. The practice of systematic offsite constructing goes back to the 20th century where builder in the US and UK started selling ‘Kit homes’ in order to solve the issue of housing shortages. However, despite its past and despite the increasing need, offsite has remained a specific solution. That, once again, is changing. Offsite development for projects as diverse as high-end apartments, hotels, temporary structures and airport terminals is now being embraced. The potential for disruption is massive.

Even the government deliberately promoted the system of offsite construction as a substitute for the traditional ways of construction. Since it aims to improve infrastructure delivery’s cost efficiency, quality, and timeliness. Improving efficiency, safety, cost control and meeting strict environmental standards all led to the rise of the offsite construction process. The benefits of using offsite methods in construction are starting to develop higher installation efficiency. Prefabrication and pre-assembly techniques are leading to more sustainable projects and it is becoming evident that many sectors need to adapt to the changes in the industry and the increasing growth of the offsite building.

Panelised construction is the technique used as a part of the offsite technique and interior construction to construct the wall, floor and ceiling panels. It is one of the forms of Modern methods of construction. By using such techniques in interior environment it is possible to use manufactured products made in a controlled environment and can be assembled directly on the interior site.

The concept of Panelised construction started from the housing crisis. But Walls are part of both interior and architecture. There are many manufacturing companies which make panels for wall, ceiling and floors also. Also this concept has been used by many designers for projects like exhibition booth, temporary structure like pavilion, furniture making,

mass produced wall partitions etc. In such projects there are constraints like minimum time for execution, remote location, issues regarding transportations, need for reusability etc. Such constraints can be overcome by using Panelised construction. The simple logic behind panels is that any volumetric 3D units are made up of panelised 2d elements only. Panelised construction can be directly connected with the interior built environment because of such qualities.

FUTURE SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH

There are various forms of Off-site construction. Though the research only focuses on panelised construction in the field of interior design. For further research topics there are options includes Modular, Hybrid, Volumetric constructions etc. Panelised construction is a small part of the many parts of offsite construction.

Also, the panelised construction can be used with various techniques in many parts of the interior environment, from small furniture to whole interior construction. In this research case studies are used with the aim of time constraints and re-usability. Such construction uses multiple technologies also. It is not necessary that Panelised construction is always standardised. It uses concepts from Massproduction to Mass customisation. It is possible that from various types of case study, different conclusion can be extracted. In this research it is concluded that it helps to reduce time schedule, cost and it also ease the construction process. But after understanding various case study types further different conclusion can be drawn.

The concept of Panelised construction was started from Mass housing in the U.K. But in research it is understood from new perception and ways used in Interior Panelised construction. This method can also be used for other forms of off-site construction which can be seen from the different viewpoint for the field of Interior Design.

• REVIEW COMMENTS

Review 1- 30th January, 2019

• Overall subject is very wide

• Title should be specific and focused on research

• Define what is technology and application of technology

• Decide upon one type of construction

• Reconsider the specific topic and case study

• Define the methodology of research

Reflection

From off-site construction, Panelised construction was chosen because of its application in the field of Interior Design. Selection of case study begun on the basis of this construction technique.

Review 2- 7th February, 2019

• Define what is panelised construction in interior design

• Specify the types of it

• Change in case study type

• Consider case study based on exhibition stall kind of temporary structure with time constraints

Reflection

Restructuring was done in order to understand the panelised construction and its types in interior built environment. Also the case study was reconsidered from new way of study.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Unpublished Thesis and Books

Allen, E., & Rand, P. (2016). Architectural detailing: Function, constructibility, aesthetics. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Ballast, D. K. (2010). Interior detailing: concept to construction. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Braham, W. W. (2007). Rethinking technology: a reader in architectural theory.

Caneparo, L., Cerrato, A., & Winkless, C. (2016). Digital fabrication in architecture, engineering and construction. Dordrecht: Springer.

Dunn, N. (2012). Digital fabrication in architecture. London: Laurence King.

Goulding, J., & Rahimian, F. P. (2020). Offsite production and manufacturing for innovative construction: people, process and technology. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge.

Gulling, D. K. (2018). Manufacturing architecture: an architects guide to custom processes, materials, and applications. London: Laurence King Publishing Ltd.

Hairstans, R. (2017). Building offsite: an introduction. Edinburgh: Arcamedia Ltd.

Jahn, B., & Dettenmaier, 070. (1997). Offsite construction. New York: McGraw-Hill.

House of Commons. (2019). Modern methods of construction. London.

Smith, R. E. (2011). Prefab architecture: a guide to modular design and construction. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Smith, R. E., & Quale, J. D. (2017). Offsite architecture: constructing the future. London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.

E-Publications

Architectsadmin3. (2019, April 26). NP Pavillion - Expo In Mumbai: Saransh Architects. Retrieved from https://thearchitectsdiary.com/np-pavillion-saransh-architects/

Chang, P.-C., & Swenson, A. (2020, January 10). Construction. Retrieved from https://www. britannica.com/technology/construction

Dragon Skin Pavilion: Emmi Keskisarja, Pekka Tynkkynen, Kristof Crolla (LEAD) and Sebastien Delagrange (LEAD). (2020, January 16). Retrieved from https://www.arch2o.com/dragonskin-pavilion-students-of-tampere-university-of-technology/

Editor. (2018, October 8). The ABCs Of Prefabricated Construction. Retrieved from https:// gosmartbricks.com/prefabricated-construction/

Friedman, D. J. (n.d.). Panelized Construction MethodsHistory, dates & methods of panelized building construction. Retrieved from https://inspectapedia.com/Design/ Panelized_Construction.php

House Construction (illustrated). (n.d.). Retrieved from https://books.google.co.in/books?id =pQxWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA65&dq=panelised+construction&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjR sOLb--bnAhWab30KHXnhBeoQ6AEIKTAA#v=onepage&q=panelised construction&f=false

Koones, S. (2019, April 5). Panelized Construction 101. Retrieved from https://www.forbes. com/sites/sherikoones/2019/04/05/panelized-construction-101/#1c9f44101383

kumar, N. (2018, August 31). Panelized Construction (MMC). Retrieved from https:// nikhil977.wordpress.com/2018/08/31/panelized-construction-mmc/

NP Pavilion · Studio Saransh. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://saransharchitects.com/portfolio/ np-pavilion/

Offsite Construction - Modern Methods of Construction. (2019, February 19). Retrieved from https://www.ikopolymeric.com/offsite-construction-methods-and-their-benefits/

P, A. (2012, March 10). Dragon Skin Pavilion / Emmi Keskisarja Pekka Tynkkynen Kristof Crolla (LEAD) and Sebastien Delagrange (LEAD). Retrieved from https://www.archdaily. com/215249/dragon-skin-pavilion-emmi-keskisarja-pekka-tynkkynen-lead

Prasad, A. R. (2016, September 24). Off-site and on -site modern method of construction. Retrieved from https://www.slideshare.net/ANNAREBECCAPRASAD/offsite-and-on-sitemodern-method-of-construction

Prefabricated structural panels. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.designingbuildings. co.uk/wiki/Prefabricated_structural_panels

Smith, R. E. (2016, September 8). Off-Site and Modular Construction Explained. Retrieved from https://www.wbdg.org/resources/site-and-modular-construction-explained

Research papers

Agapiou, A. (2019). Optimising offsite manufactured components in the UK house-building sector. Offsite Production and Manufacturing for Innovative Construction, 449–469. doi: 10.1201/9781315147321-19

Howe, A. S., Ishii, I., & Yoshida, T. (1999). Kit-of-Parts: A Review of Object-Oriented Construction Techniques. Proceedings of the 16th IAARC/IFAC/IEEE International Symposium on Automation and Robotics in Construction. doi: 10.22260/isarc1999/0025

Işıkdağ, Ü. (n.d.). A Classification System for Representation of Off-Site Manufacturing Concepts Through Virtual Prototyping. Retrieved from https://www.academia. edu/2604504/A_Classification_System_for_Representation_of_Off-Site_Manufacturing_ Concepts_Through_Virtual_Prototyping

Nadim, W. (2012). Modern Methods of Construction. Construction Innovation and Process Improvement, 209–233. doi: 10.1002/9781118280294.ch9

Rigelsford, J. (2004). Assembly and disassembly of multi-component assembly models. Assembly Automation, 24(4). doi: 10.1108/aa.2004.03324dad.007

Rigelsford, J. (2004). Assembly and disassembly of multi-component assembly models. Assembly Automation, 24(4). doi: 10.1108/aa.2004.03324dad.007

Teodosio, B., Baduge, S. K., Ngo, T. D., Mendis, P., Tecer, M., & Heath, D. (2018). A Feasibility Review of innovative Prefabricated Footing Systems for Residential Structures. doi: 10.20944/preprints201807.0441.v1

LIST OF FIGURES

Chapter one

Fig 1.1.1- Retrieved from https://the189.com/furniture/preserving-the-authenticity-of-theeames-furniture-by-eames-demetrios/

Fig 1.2.1 - Retrieved from https://barkowleibinger.com/archive/view/blautopf_ditzingen Fig 1.2.2 - Retrieved from https://clivewilkinson.com/portfolio_page/the-barbarian-group/

Fig 1.2.3 - Retrieved from https://www.detail-online.com/article/stylised-silhouettemotorway-church-siegerland-16553/

Fig 1.3.1, 1.3.2 - Retrieved from https://www.archdaily.com/804590/produce-workshopdebuts-plywood-based-fabricwood-pavilion-for-herman-millers-shop-in-shop

Fig 1.4.1 - By author

Fig 1.6 - By author

Fig 1.7.1.1 - Retrieved from https://www.archdaily.com/404803/ad-classics-habitat-67moshe-safdie/51e85669e8e44e33c300001d-ad-classics-habitat-67-moshe-safdie-image Fig 1.7.1.1.1 - Retrieved from https://www.ikopolymeric.pl/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/ offsite-construction.jpg

Fig 1.7.1.1.2 - Retrieved from https://www.idealista.com/news/archivo/2015/02/04 Fig 1.7.1.1.3 - Retrieved from https://www.hdb.gov.sg/cs/infoweb/about-us/research-andinnovation/construction-productivity/prefabrication-technology

Fig 1.7.2.1 - Retrieved from http://www.thomasbardenett.com/blog/2019/2/17/see-theforest-for-the-trees-timber-and-the-syracuse-surge

Fig 1.7.3.1 - Retrieved from https://www.residentialproductsonline.com/custom-builderlaunches-prefab-product-line

Fig 1.7.4.1 - Retrieved from https://nikhil977.files.wordpress.com/2018/08/stickhouse1. jpg?w=490

Fig 1.7.5.1 - Retrieved from https://thehivephilly.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/how-tobuild-a-building-an-outdoor-kitchen-with-metal-studs.jpg

Fig 1.7.6.1 - Retrieved from https://www.architectureanddesign.com.au/features/featuresarticles/timber-floor-cassette-systems-and-other-hybrid-tim

Chapter two

Fig 2.1.1, 2.1.2 - By author

Fig 2.1.3 - Retrieved from https://www.armstrongceilings.com/commercial/en-us/ commercial-ceilings-walls/woodworks-grille-ceiling-tiles.html

Fig 2.1.4 - Retrieved from http://jayswal.in/web/echo-tone-pet-polyester-acoustic-panels/ Fig 2.1.5 - Retrieved from https://www.mywallpanels.com/blogs/post/3D-Wall-Panels

Fig 2.2.1- By author

Fig 2.2.2 - Retrieved from https://www.chicagotribune.com/arcio/gallerysitemap/?from=4400

Fig 2.3.1 - Retrieved from http://www.homekoreusa.com/panelconstruction.html

Fig 2.3.2 - Retrieved from House Construction (illustrated) - Mike Riley ,Alison CotgraveGoogle Books

Fig 2.3.1.1 - Retrieved from http://www.descroll.com/architecture/panel-rey-pavilion-bybnkr-sanzpont/attachment/06-28

Fig 2.3.1.2 - Retrieved from https://archello.com/project/the-barbarian-group

Fig 2.3.1.3 - Retrieved from https://www.doublegconstructionwi.com/panelized-homes

Fig 2.3.2.1 - Retrieved from https://www.archiexpo.com/prod/dasso/ product-165785-2192998.html

Fig 2.3.2.2 - Retrieved from https://www.archdaily.com/catalog/us/products/7313/maxcompact-interior-fundermax

Fig 2.3.3.1 - Retrieved from https://www.ikopolymeric.pl/offsite-construction-methods-andtheir-benefits/

Fig 2.3.3.2 - Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_insulated_panel

Fig 2.3.3.3 - Retrieved from https://quickestbuilthomes.com.au/index.php/2019/08/06/ what-is-all-the-fuss-about-sip-structural-sandwich-panels/

Fig 2.3.4.1 - Retrieved from https://issuu.com/asthedew/docs/liu_yang_682731_ parta_46c6bfd7bafcd6

Fig 2.3.4.2 - Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Zaha-Hadid-ArchitectsRoca-London-Gallery-London-2009-2011_fig5_333702773

Fig 2.3.5.1 - Retrieved from http://stepankiskin.info/guardrail-mesh-1dfcecfb/ Fig 2.3.6.2 - Retrieved from https://images.adsttc.com/media/images/5285/1c8e/ e8e4/4e52/4b00/01aa/slideshow/JP_8x8-0012.jpg?1384455301

Fig 2.3.7.1 - Retrieved from http://www.alremaluae.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/ alm-wrk.jpg

Fig 2.3.7.2 - Retrieved from https://www.architecturaldigest.com/story/frank-gehry-studiosarchitecture-conde-nast-cafeteria

Fig 2.3.8.1 - Retrieved from https://www.framehomes.co.uk/product/open-panel/ Fig 2.3.9.1 - Retrieved from https://www.archdaily.com/catalog/us/products/17897/ perforated-wall-panels-pure-freeform/196582?ad_medium=widget&ad_name=navigationnext

Fig 2.4.1.1, 2.4.2.1, 2.4.3.1 - By author

Chapter three

Fig 3.2.1 - Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Exploded-view-highlightingcomponent-kit_fig8_305512569

Chapter four

Fig 4.1.1, 4.1.2, 4.1.3, - Retrieved from https://www.archdaily.com/411286/ad-architectureschool-guide-tampere-university-of-technology

Fig 4.1.4, 4.1.5, 4.1.8, 4.1.11, 4.1.12 - https://www.archdaily.com/215249/dragon-skinpavilion-emmi-keskisarja-pekka-tynkkynen-lead

Fig 4.1.6, 4.1.7 - By author

Fig 4.1.9, 4.1.10 - http://www.iaacblog.com/programs/animated-systems-dragon-skinpavilion-2/

Fig 4.1.13 - Retrieved from https://www.arch2o.com/dragon-skin-pavilion-students-oftampere-university-of-technology/

Fig 4.1.14 - By author

Fig 4.1.15 - Retrieved from https://parametrichouse.com/dragon-skin-pavilion/ Fig 4.2.1, 4.2.2, 4.2.3, 4.2.4, 4.2.5, 4.2.6, - Retrieved from https://saransharchitects.com/ portfolio/np-pavilion/

Fig 4.2.7, 4.2.8, 4.2.9, 4.2.10, 4.2.11, 4.2.12, 4.2.13 - Retrieved from https://thearchitectsdiary. com/np-pavillion-saransh-architects/

Chapter five

Gig 5.1 - Retrieved by http://buromilan.com/en/project/prometeo-musical-space-veniceitaly/

Fig 5.2 - By author

Fig 5.3 - Retrieved by https://www.detail-online.com/article/stylised-silhouette-motorwaychurch-siegerland-16553/

Fig 5.4, 5.5 - Retrieved by https://www.hess-timber.com/en/references/detail/bunjil-place/