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THINITY

16

RACHEL MEI-LAN TAN

THINITY WEEK 16 12/30/2015

AND OF COURSE TO ALL THE HELP AND CONVERSATIONS WITH NKW, ACN, GCO, AEG, KMS, NNC, MEG

B.ARCH CANDIDATE THESIS JANUARY 2016 WITH MANY SPECIAL THANKS TO MY ADVISERS JOHN ZISSOVICI MARTIN MILLER

& ESPECIALLY TO DANIEL PARK, LANCER GU DEMI CHANG GLORIA YANG JING YU

PUSH PLANAR

00

RACHEL MEI-LAN TAN 3

PUSH PLANAR WEEK 00 20/08/2015

05 INTRO 06 HOW HUMAN EXPANSION HAS CHANGED THE FACE OF THE EARTH 10 HAVING A GREAT UNDERSTANDING OF ADEQUACY 28 EVOLUTION TOWARDS LIGHTWEIGHT CONSTRUCTION 32 VOLUMES APPROACHING SURFACE 38 ADJACENCY 42 THINNING & THICKENING 46 POPULATING IN BETWEEN THE IN BETWEEN 51 SAO PAULO - BRASIL 56 VERTICAL NET OF INFRASTRUCTURE 58 LIGHTER URBANISM, PERMANENCE OF A CITY

04

I can remember a very pleasant and probably unique spectacle I saw when I was young. In the region of Neuchatel, a whole mountain was covered with dwellings, each of them being the centre of the grounds and fields that belonged to it. The distance between the houses, being equal to the owners’ fortune, offered the many inhabitants of this mountain the necessary space for meditation and contemplation, and at the same time for the kindness of human society.

These farmers carefully cultivated products they would use themselves and employed their leisure time to craft objects of their own invention.

Especially in wintertime, when the snow prevented easy communication, they enjoyed the warmth with their large families in the beautiful and clean wooden houses they built themselves.

Such utopias consider the needs of individuals before those of the community, and in them moral consideration take precedence over political ones. The society is intended to be peaceful and quiet, stable, simple and humble, relying on principles of total independence and equality.

Therefore, each household is totally self-sufficient and no architects or craftsmen are needed.

05

LETTRES A MONSIEUR D’ALEMBERT : JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU, 1872

Technology & material are evolving. Luckily enough we are having a crisis, which is the best thing that can happen to everyone, once in a while. There are clear boundaries to the available materials that form our built environment, which poses a question..

THIN ICE : CANADA

06

How long can we go on hoisting raw materials from its depths -- in fact we passed the peak of oil production already. The ‘new frontiers’ of a future lie within what exists: although we know what is available, we most likely don’t know what the multitude of things we can do with it are.

07

COPPER MINE : SOUTH AFRICA

DEFORESTATION : SAMUEL DAM, BRAZIL 1984

08

09

DEFORESTATION : SAMUEL DAM, BRAZIL 2013

“HAVING A GREAT UNDERSTANDING OF ADEQUACY” MIES VAN DER ROHE

10

11

COLLAGE : COPPER MINE : DILLON MARSH, SOUTH AFRICA 2014

ON THE OTHER HAND IT MEANS THAT SMARTNESS ECONOMY & ADEQUACY _

WILL BECOME THE KEY WORDS IN FINDING A RESOLUTION

12

THIS CALLS FOR A REDUCTION IN ELEMENTS & LIGHTWEIGHT CONSTRUCTION WHICH IS EVERYTHING THAT MINIMIZES BUILDING MATERIAL

13

IN-ADEQUACY

DROUGHT : SHADE BALLS, LOS ANGELES RESERVOIR 2015

14

OVER ADEQUACY

15

FLOODING : HURRICANE KATRINA 2013

IN-ADEQUACY

DEFORESTATION : CLEAR CUT, BRITISH COLUMBIA 2011

16

OVER ADEQUACY

17

TIMBER ORNAMENT : SIZE + MATTER, DAVID ADJAYE 2008

IN-ADEQUACY

EARTHQUAKE : LANDSLIDE : EL SALVADOR 2001

18

OVER ADEQUACY

19

MORTUARY OF QUEEN HATSHEPSUT TEMPLE : EGYPT, 1473 B.C.

IN-ADEQUACY

EARTHQUAKE : KASHMIR, 2005

20

OVER ADEQUACY

21

COLLAGE : KAABA, MECCA - CENOTAPH FOR SIR ISAAC NEWTON, UNREALIZED - PYRAMIDS, GIZA

OVER ADEQUACY

IRON : EIFFEL TOWER : ALEXANDRE GUSTAVE EIFFEL, 1889

22

ADEQUACY: EQUILIBRIUM : NETWORK

23

“FEATHER” STEEL : CASABELLA : FREI OTTO 1966

ADEQUACY : EQUILIBRIUM : TWO ELEMENTS

PROP : RICHARD SERRA, 1968

24

ADEQUACY: EQUILIBRIUM : MULTIPLE ELEMENTS

25

UNKNOWN

ADEQUACY: EQUILIBRIUM : SINGLE ELEMENT + GRAVITY

ICE CHIMNEY : AUSTRIA

26

ADEQUACY : EQUILIBRIUM : SINGULAR ELEMENT

27

TILTED ARC : RICHARD SERRA, NEW YORK, 1981-1989

There is an evolution from the intuitive sense of building solid structures and massive walls: which is to develop an architecture that pushes the thinness to its limit (becoming a limit) and, therefore, producing a tectonic of efficiency.

TRAVERTINE : THE PYRAMID OF CESTIUS : PYRANESI 1750-1758

28

Elements become ambiguous: surface becomes structure, structure becomes void, space exists and is inhabited wherever it can be.

29

CLEAR NYLON : ON SPACE TIME FOAM : TOMAS SARACENO, MILAN 2013

STONE MASONRY : SINCE 8,000 B.C.

30

31

POST TENSIONED STEEL : JUNYA ISHIGAMI, 2008

THE IDEA WOULD BE A TRULY PLANAR ARCHITECTURE -

THAT IS AT ONCE VOLUME & APPROACHING SURFACE -

IT EXISTS IN ONE DIMENSION BUT IS INVISIBLE IN ANOTHER -

AND HOW CAN IT STRUCTURALLY SUPPORT ITSELF?

32

33

RUNNING FENCE : CHRISTO & JEANNE-CLAUDE, SONOMA, 1972-1976

INSIDE - OUTSIDE

TORQUED ELLIPSES : RICHARD SERRA, 1996

34

35

SAN CARLO ALLE QUATTRO FONTANE : BORROMINI, ROME 1641

GRAVITY : HOW TO KEEP IT UP

SOLAR BELL : TOMAS SARACENO, ROTTERDAM, IN PLANNING

36

37

EAST-WEST/WEST-EAST : RICHARD SERRA, DOHA, QATAR 2014

A reciprocal strategy at a more urban scale: as the architecture approaches “planarity,” the lines and limits, border and boundaries of a city are thickened, sometimes conceptually, sometimes physically, at times both. This thickening of the line produces a possible site for a thinning architecture: A discovery of in-between, between in-betweens, etc.

REALITY PROPERTIES: FAKE ESTATES, LITTLE ALLEY BLOCK : GORDON MATTA-CLARK, NEW YORK 1974

38

This suggests an urban morphology that is not based on centers and networks, but on pure adjacency and the blur of inside and outside-which are the ultimate constructs of architecture.

39

NEW BABYLON : CONSTANT NIEUWENHUYS 1959-1974 DIAGRAM : NOLLI VS. PIRANESI

ADJACENCY

COLLAGED OVER DIAGRAM : UNTITLED : DONALD JUDD 1982

40

41

ASSORTED FACADES : NEW YORK

THESE TWO POSSIBILITIES OF THINNING & THICKENING BETWEEN IN_BETWEENS

PUSHING TOWARDS A VOLUMETRIC PLANARITY -

BECOME A TANDEM OPERATION STRATEGY _

42

43

CLOUD ALLEY : SGHS, CHANGSIN DONG, SOUTH KOREA 2015

BETWEEN IN-BETWEENS

TIBETAN BRIDGE : PIEDMONT, ITALY

44

45

TEAM ZOO COMMUNITY BUILDING : KOICHI OTAKE, CHINSHUKAN 1981

THE LIMIT THINS THE ARCHITECTURE -

AND THE ARCHITECTURE -

POPULATES, RENDERS & THICKENS THE LIMIT

46

IT OPERATES AT BOTH THE SCALE OF CITY BUILDING & THE INDIVIDUAL SIMULTANEOUSLY -

BUT TO AN EXTREME MINIMUM _

47

IN-PROGRESS COCOON BUILDING : SILK WORM

48

49

COCOON : SILK WORM

50

THINNESS

01

LINEARITY - MINIMAL IMPACT ON THE GROUND 51

52

53

There is an evolution from the intuitive sense of building solid structures and massive walls: which is to develop an architecture that pushes the thinness to its limit (becoming a limit) and, therefore, producing a tectonic of efficiency.

TRAVERTINE : THE PYRAMID OF CESTIUS : PYRANESI 1750-1758

54

Elements become ambiguous: surface becomes structure, structure becomes void, space exists and is inhabited wherever it can be.

55

CLEAR NYLON : ON SPACE TIME FOAM : TOMAS SARACENO, MILAN 2013

SURFACE AREA : VOLUME RATIO | 729M2

.8

.7

.6

.8

.8

.8

.8

.5

.6

56

.8

.8

1.5

1.4

2.3

57

THE IDEA WOULD BE A TRULY PLANAR ARCHITECTURE +

THAT IS AT ONCE VOLUME & APPROACHING SURFACE +

IT EXISTS IN ONE DIMENSION BUT IS INVISIBLE IN ANOTHER +

AND HOW CAN IT STRUCTURALLY SUPPORT ITSELF?

58

59

EAST-WEST/WEST-EAST : RICHARD SERRA, DOHA, QATAR 2014

THINNESS IN PLAN NATURALLY LEADS TO LOOKING TO ELEMENTS OF A WALL AND IT’S FUNCTION AS A DIVISION OF SPACES

60

61

RUNNING FENCE : CHRISTO & JEANNE-CLAUDE, SONOMA, 1972-1976

PARTITION WALL

NATURE

limitless

NATURE

MAN

defined

NATURE

partition

divided

C

MAN

inhabitable

constrained limited

NATURE

OTHER

62

MAN

partition subdivision

NATURE

OCCUPIABLE WALL limitless

NATURE

MAN

defined

NATURE

partition

divided

C

MAN

inhabitable

constrained limited

NATURE

OTHER

channeled

63

MAN

partition subdivision

MATERIAL THICKNESS

WOVEN WALL COTTON FIBER 1 MM THICK

WOVEN - FIBER : 1MM

GLASS WALL 1.3 CM

GLASS : 1.3 CM

SCREEN PAPER + WOOD 2.5 CM THICK

SCREEN - PAPER + WOOD : 2.5 CM

STEEL PLATE 5 CM THICK

STEEL PLATE : 5CM

WOOD WALL 10CM

TIMBER : 10CM

CONCRETE WALL 15CM

CONCRETE : 15CM

BRICK WALL 21.5CM

BRICK : 21.5CM

MUDD WALL 25CM

STONE : 25CM

MUDD WALL 40CM

MUD : 40CM

64

MATERIAL

65

360

13

390

90

PROGRAM + MATERIAL DICTATING FORM : DEFENSIVE WALL : DEFENSIVE + DIGITAL WALL

335 160

200

90

WEST BERLIN | EAST BERLIN

40

USA |

OTHER | ROME

| MEXICO

128

BERLIN WALL

SECURE FENCE ACT

AUERILIAN WALL

1961-1989 Length: 155km Width: 23cm Height: 3.6 m Total Width: 1.2m Material: Concrete Panel

2006-current Length: 1125km Width: 3mm Height: 6.4 m Total Width: 1.2m Material: Concrete Panel

2006-current Length: 52km Width: 3.5m Height: 8 m Material: Brick faced concrete

66

390

550

800

706

90

389

100

DEFENSIVE WALL + GATEWAY + AQUADUCT : DEFENSIVE WALL

600

160

335

90

USA |

OTHER | ROME

| MEXICO

SELF | OTHER

128

RE FENCE ACT

AUERILIAN WALL

current h: 1125km 3mm : 6.4 m Width: 1.2m al: Concrete Panel

2006-current Length: 52km Width: 3.5m Height: 8 m

67

Material: Brick faced concrete

GREAT WALL OF CHINA Length: 8852km Width: .6m Height: 5-8m Total Width: 5-6m Material: Stone, brick, tamped earth, wood

THESE TWO POSSIBILITIES OF THINNING & THICKENING BETWEEN IN_BETWEENS

PUSHING TOWARDS A VOLUMETRIC PLANARITY -

BECOME A TANDEM OPERATION STRATEGY _

68

69

TORQUED ELLIPSES : RICHARD SERRA, 1996

70

LEAF

02

THINNESS WITHIN NATURE 71

HOW THIN?

72

SURFACE AREA DETERMINED BY ABSORPTION OF SUNLIGHT

73

PROGRAM OF SURVIVAL : SYSTEMICAL & MOST EFFICIENT SYSTEM FOR CIRCULATION

SUN

ENERGY

CO²

ENERGY

H²O SUGAR

R

ENERGY

74

LEAF GENERATES ENERGY WHICH NETWORKS IN A LARGER CONTEXT FOR REPRODUCTION

ENERGY ENERGY

CO²

ENERGY

FLOWERS FRUIT REPRODUCTION

SURVIVAL

75

LEAF VENATION: RADIAL FORCE

76

LEAF VENATION : LADDER | FEATHER

77

FORM : SURFACE AREA IN RELATION TO WIND + SUNLIGHT + WEIGHT

78

CIRCULATION : GATHERING POINTS + STRUCTURE

79

PERIPHERAL DIVISION OF SPACES : CIRCULATION

80

NETWORK OF LEAF : COVERING AREA

81

AT THE SCALE OF A CITY BLOCK

82

LEAF : AMSTERDAM CANAL

ANNE FRANK’S HOUSE

WESTMARKT

LELIEGRACHT

RAADHUISTRAAT

HARTENSTRAAT

WOLVENSTRAAT

RUNSTRAAT SECONDARY

83

KEIZERS RIVER

PRIMARY

TERTIARY

THE LEAF VARIES ITS FORM AND STRUCTURE ADAPT TO UNIQUE ENVIRONMENTS WHICH DEFINE RESTRICTIONS

84

7 BIOMES

ARCTIC

TAIGA

GRASSLAND

JUNGLE

DESERT OCREAN / RIVER

85

BLADES

JUNGLE WET LACK OF SUNLIGHT

86

SURFACE AREA DETERMINED BY ABSORPTION OF SUNLIGHT

ABUNDANT RAINFALL

ABUNDANT RAINFALLY, LACK OF SUNLIGTH

WIND IS STRONG

FILTERED SUNLIGHT

2% SUNLIGHT IN BOTTOM CANOPY EXTREMELY RICH SOIL

87

DRIP TIPS AND WAXY SURFACES ALLOW WATER RUNOFF TO DISCOURAGE GROWTH OF BACTERIA AND FUNGI. CONCAVE CURVE TO DEFLECT WATER

SOFT, FIBROUS TISSUE LEAVES WHICH FACE HORIZONTALLY TO CAPTURE LIGHT FOR MORE PHOTOSYNETHESIS SHED WATER THROUGH STRUCTURES CALLED STOMATA

MOSS & LICHEN PHOTOSYNTEHSIZE UNDER EXTREMELY LOW LIGHT CONDITIONS, CAN GRAFT ON SURFACES.

CONTAIN A PIGMENT CALLED ANTHOCYANIN WHICH REFLECTS RED LIGHT, ABSORBS BLUE LIGHT. IT PROTECTS THE PHOTOSYNTEHTIC MECHANISM

LEAVES AREUP TO 8 FEET LONG TO ABSORB AS MUCH FILTERED SUNLIGHT

88

89

90

91

DESERT DROUGHT

92

DRY SOIL IS SANDY AND UNABLE TO HOLD WATER

DRYNESS

WIND IS STRONG

LACK OF WATER

INTENSE SUNGLIGHT

93

WATER IS STORED IN THE STEM, SWOLLEN AND REPLETE LEAF WITH LOW SURFACE AREA : VOLUME RATIO

STEMS ARE SEPERATED INTO SEGMENTS THAT STORE WATER, ALLOWS EACH ARM TO SEPERATE SO THAT THE WATERSOURCE IS NOT COMPLETELY GONE. IF AN ARM FALLS OF IT ROOTS ITSELF AND GROWS

GROUND HUGGING SHRUBS, GROW IN CLUMPS TO PROTECT EACH OTHER FROM WIND AND COLD

LEAVES WITH HAIR ALLOW DEW TO COLLECT AND FUNNEL DOWN

LEAVES WITH HAIR HELP SHADE THE PLANT AND REDUCE WATER LOSS

94

95

BLADES

DECIDUOUS FOUR SEASONS HOT SUMMER FREEZING WINTER

96

SURFACE AREA DETERMINED BY ABSORPTION OF SUNLIGHT

FREEZING WINTER WET SEASON

MAXIMUM SUNLIGHT ABOSORPTION BEFORE LEAF IS SHED

MAXIMUM SUNLIGHT ABOSORPTION BEFORE LEAF IS SHED

ENDURING FREEZING WINTER

ABUNDANT RAINFALL IN SPRING & SUMMER

97

LEAVES TURN COLOR BECAUSE PHOTOSYNTHESIS DEGRADES CHLOROPHYLL FOR SHORTER DAYSAND SHED TO PREVENT ENERGY LOSS

BROAD LARGE LEAVES TO MAKE FOOD FOR THE TREE

FAN SHAPED LEAVES THAT BEAR THE REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES, STEMS WITH SECONDARY GROWTH

RESILIENT LEAF LIFESPAN: 3 YEARS WAXY, ELIPSOIDAL SHAPE, VERY UPRIGHT, POINTY EDGES, THICK, LEATHERY

NEED MOISTURE FOR REPRODUCTION GROWTH - VASCULAR TISSUES, SPORE PRODUCING ORGAN ON UNRDERISE

98

99

BLADES

S

AY

E

BED NOW

CONIFEROUS (TAIGA)

100

SURFACE AREA DETERMINED BY ABSORPTION OF SUNLIGHT

FREEZING WINTER

LACK OF SUNLIGHT IN FALL / WINTER

MAXIMUM SUNLIGHT ABOSORPTION BEFORE LEAF IS SHED

ENDURING FREEZING WINTER

ABUNDANT RAINFALL IN SPRING & SUMMER

101

NEEDLE LIKE LEAVES WHICH SHAPE LOSES LESS WATER AND SHEDS SNOW EASILY LARGE SURFACE AREA TO VOLUME RATIO WHICH ALLOWS THE LEAF TO PHOTOSYNETHSIZE RIGHT AWAY

DARK COLOR LEAVES TO ALLOW MORE SOLAR HEAT TO BE ABSORBED

FAN SHAPED LEAVES THAT BEAR THE REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES, STEMS WITH SECONDARY GROWTH

RESILIENT LEAF LIFESPAN: 3 YEARS WAXY, ELIPSOIDAL SHAPE, VERY UPRIGHT, POINTY EDGES, THICK, LEATHERY

NEED MOISTURE FOR REPRODUCTION GROWTH - VASCULAR TISSUES, SPORE PRODUCING ORGAN ON UNRDERISE

102

103

JUNGLE

104

TAIGA

DECIDUOUS

DECIDUOUS

105

106

SITE + PROGRAM

04

ADAPTATION TO PROGRAM AND SITE 107

WE BEGIN TO LOOK BACK AT THE LEAF AGAIN TO RETROFIT THE STRUCTURE TO DIFFERENT SITES AND PROGRAMS

108

109

FAVELLA : SAO PAULO

UNORGANIZED DENSITY FASTEST GROWING POPULATION IN THE WORLD ORGANIC GROWTH MEANDERING ROAD NETWORKS INTERSPERSED NODE ACTIVITY.

GROWTH

GROWTH GROWTH

GROWTH

110

DIAGRAM STUDIES OF INFRASTRUCTURE

111

NODES BASED ON EXISTING FABRIC SMALL AREAS TO TOUCHDOWN

PRIMARY WATER CIRCULATION SECONDARY PATH CIRCULATION

TERTIARY ARE MORE LOCALIZED CIRCULATION

NATURAL SEPARATION OF ENCLAVES PRODUCES DIFFERENT IDENTITIES WITHIN THE NEIGHBORHOOD ALLOWS NEW NODES TO BE MADE

MULTIPLE WATER SOURCE STRATEGY

SEPARATION OF ENCLAVES

BEACH

TOURISM - URBAN EXODUS AND DENSITY OF PEOPLE, NOT THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT BREAKWATERS - PREVENTING EROSION OF SAND PORTS WILDLIFE

112

BEACH : BREAKWATER

PROGRAMMED WALLS THAT ALLOW WIND TO PASS THROUGH AND PROVIDE MINIMAL AMENITIES TO THE BEACH.

BREAKWATER THAT PROVIDE PROGRAM AS SMALL OCEAN POOLS

113

BREAKWATER : PORT

BREAKWATER ORIENTED TO PRODUCE MORE SHORELINE SMALL AMENITIES FOR BEACH PROGRAM

BREAKWATER FOR A PORT SIMULTANEOUSLY A DOCK OR OTHER

114

BREAKWATER : CORAL REEF

BREAKWATER WHICH IS SIMULTANEOUSLY AN UNDERWATER WALL WITH EMBEDDED STRUCTURE THAT ATTRACTS REEF LIFE - NEW AREA FOR CORAL REEF ATTRACTS ANIMALS, WHICH ATTRACTS PEOPLE

SECTION

115

TOKYO & NY EXEMPLIFY CASES IN A CITY WHERE SPACE AND REAL ESTATE ARE PRIME, AND SUCH OCCUPANCE HAS TAKEN ADVANTAGE OF THE IN BETWEEN SPACES

REALITY PROPERTIES: FAKE ESTATES, LITTLE ALLEY BLOCK : GORDON MATTA-CLARK, NEW YORK 1974

116

THESE IN BETWEEN SPACES ARE PRIVATIZED HOUSING THAT RANGE FROM DIMENSIONS THAT ARE DETERMINED BY THE SPACE BETWEEN TWO BUILDINGS AND THE RECENT NEEDLE TOWERS THAT HAVE BEEN RISING IN NYC TYPOLOGICALLY I DONT THINK EITHER OF THESE AS PRECEDENCE ARE RELEVANT, BUT THEY ARE EXISTING EXAMPLES IN TESTING THINNESS

117

SAN GIMIGNANO, ITALY : PRIVATE FAMILY TOWERS

PRIVATE RICH PROGRAM

COLLAGED OVER DIAGRAM : UNTITLED : DONALD JUDD 1982

118

119 MIDTOWN ci. 2018: NEW YORK TIMES

ADJACENCY

157 W 57th St.

432 Park Ave.

53 West 53rd St.

111 West 57th St.

217 W 57th St.

220 Central Park S

120

MIDTOWN SPIRES : PAUL GOLDBERGER : VANITY FAIR 1000’

One World Trade Empire State

121

Chrysler

53 West 53rd St. Time Warner

157 W 57th St.

111 West 57th St.

432 Park Ave.

43 E 60th St

217 W 57th St.

TOO RICH TOO THIN TOO TALL

122

123

217 W. 57th St. : ATELIER CHRISTIAN de PORTZAMPARE

1000 ft.

4000 ft. LONG SHADOW

217 W. 57th St.

SHADOW LENGTH WILL BE 3/4 OF A MILE LONG.

124

AFTER

125

SHADOWS ACROSS THE PARK : BEFORE AND AFTER DEVELOPMENT (4PM sEPTEMBER 21ST)

BEFORE

THIS ASKS TWO DIFFERENT QUESTIONS HOW THIN CAN WE GO AND CAN WE PRODUCE A THIN ARCHITECTURE THAT CATERS TO THE PUBLIC INSTEAD OF THE SMALL POPULATION OF PEOPLE WHO CAN AFFORD SUCH LUXURIES

126

IN LOOKING AT THE PAST PRIVATIZATION CAN WE LOOK AT MAKING THE PUBLIC SQUARE VERTICAL -- SEAGRAM PLAZA

127

MANHATTAN : DENSITY IN THE GRID

ONLY 15% OF MANHATTAN IS DEDICATED TO PUBLIC SPACE THE STREET IS 49% OF IT’S TOTAL AREA MAKE THE STREET PUBLIC ALSO SHIELDING VIEWS

AVENUE

STREET

128

BREAKWATER

129

PRIVATE PROGRAM VIEWING INTO PRIVATE PROGRAM WITHIN “STREETS”

GROUND LEVEL: ESTABLISH SMALL POINTS

10TH FLOOR : VERTICAL GARDEN ELIMINATES THE NEED FOR PRIVACY CURTAINS

20TH FLOOR : GARDEN ONLY CONTINUES WHERE VIEWING IN IS POSSIBLE

ADJACENCY

COLLAGED OVER DIAGRAM : UNTITLED : DONALD JUDD 1982

130

131

ASSORTED FACADES : NEW YORK

OBSTRUCTION OF VIEW

VERTICAL GREENWALL

132

SECTION DIAGRAM OF CIRCLATION

WATER NETWORK - SIMILAR TO THE LEAF

133

IF THE COMMUNITY IS WHAT TIES TOGETHER THESE THIN STRUCTURES, WHAT OTHER PROGRAMS CAN YOU BEGIN TO EXPLORE, AND WHAT CAN THINNESS ACCOMODATE IF CIRCULATION IS LOOKED AT AS STRICTLY PATH BASED AND LINEAR

134

135

EDUCATION

COMMUNITY

FACILITIES/ INFRASTRUCTURE

STATION BATHROOM MARKET WATER FILTRATION VENDING MACHINE

GARDEN AQUARIUM LIBRARY

CHURCH CINEMA PLAYGROUND PARK CEMETARY STAGE

CHURCH + MARKET CINEMA + AQUARIUM PLAYGROUND + STATION + GARDEN PARK + WATER FILTRATION + BATHROOM

136

WATER FILTRATION

PARK

BATHROOM / FOUNTAIN

RELIGIOUS GATHERING

BACK HOUSE

MARKET

CINEMA CORN DRYING

GRAIN STORAGE

VENDING / DISTRIBUTION

PLAYGROUND

STATION

GARDEN

WATER STORAGE

CINEMA

CINEMA AQUARIUM

RESTAURANT

137

PROGRAMS WHICH REQUIRE A PATH STATION - TRAINS - METRO - PLANE DOCK - BOAT, KAYAK PIER BRIDGE CANAL LOCKS / DAMS BILBOARD AQUEDUCT RUNWAY GEOLOGICAL BORDERS - US/MEXICO MOUNTAIN SPORTS - SKI - SNOWBOARD GONDOLA STAIRS - SANTA MONICA ELECTRIC LINES - TELEPHONE POLES GAS PIPLINE BIKE -PATH HIGH TUNNEL FARMING CONVEYER BELTS SPICE DRYING CLOTH/LEATHER DYING PAPER INDUSTRY CULVERT

138

PROGRAMS WHICH CAN BE CONVERTED TO A PATH CHURCH MARKET - GROCERY STORE - DRUG STORE LIBRARY GALLERY - MUSEUM GARDEN FARM - HYDROPONIC - AQUAPONIC RICE PATTY STORAGE - DATA STORAGE - SHIPPING CONTAINERS - GRAIN SWIMMING POOL SKATE PARK TRACK - HUMAN - BICYCLE - CAR PLAYGROUND CEMETARY PRISON BEEHIVE MOAT

139

DESTINATION/TOURIST ATTRACTION MONUMENT LAS VEGAS STRIP RIO DI JANEIRO BEACH THE RHINE - BASEL - ZURICH HOTSPOTS WIFI WATER FEATURES WATERFALLS VILLA D’ESTE PALEY PARK BELLAGIO HOTEL ZURICH LAKE - PERIMETER LAKE COMO TUVALU - SINKING ISLAND AMSTERDAM - BOAT /BRIDGE CIRCULATION HAMAM - ISTANBUL OLYMPIC POOL OLYMPIC DIVING BOARD SETUP BEIJING WATER PARK MOSCOW - SOVIET POOL - FOUNDATION PENGUIN POOL - OVE 140

PATH - PASSAGE - GATE GREECE - STEPS WITH RESTAURANTS SPANISH STEPS VILLA LANTE - FOUNTAIN STEPS ZURICH - BRIDGE ATLANTIC ROAD - NORWAY WILDLIFE OVERPASS GREAT WALL OF CHINA SI-O-SE POL BRIDGE - IRAN TOWER BRIDGE - LONDON YU GARDEN - SHANGHAI SKATEPARK - SWEDEN AQUEDUCT AURELIAN WALL THAILAND - FLOATING MARKET FOUNTAINS VILLA LANTE - DINING TABLE-FOUNTAIN TRAIN 141

142

STRUCTURE

03

STRUCTURED DERIVED FROM THE ADAPTABILITY OF A LEAF 143

PRELIMINARY STUDIES ON THINNESS : BENDING MOMENT

STIFF!

144

PRELIMINARY STUDIES ON THINNESS : BENDING MOMENT

145

PRE OR POST TENSION

146

PRE OR POST TENSION

147

BOW & ARROW : TENSION BY WEIGHT AND VERTICAL FORCE

148

VARIATION IN FORCE

149

TENSION & COMPRESSION WITH TWO ELEMENTS

150

ELEMENT WORKS SINGULARLY IN TENSION & COMPRESSION

151

SECTIONAL FORCES

152

SECTIONAL FORCES

153

FIXED POSITION

154

FLEXING IN THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION FOR STIFFNESS

155

FIXED POSITION

156

FLEXING IN THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION FOR STIFFNESS

157

FORM STUDY ON HOW TO PRODUCE A MORE EFFICIENT WAY TO TORQUE A MATERIAL

158

TORQUE

90

159

180

270

360

COUNTER TORQUE

160

COUNTER TORQUE

161

162

WITH THINNESS, A TERM WHICH IS DEFINED AS SPARCE IT ADDRESSES MANY TOPICS AND ISSUES THINNESS

FORM GEOMETRY

EFFICIENCY

PROGRAM

STRUCTURE

MATERIAL

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCE

DENSITY

MATERIAL

ELEMENTS LIGHT-AIR-WATER

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

FLOW OF PEOPLE

ADAPTABILITY

SPATIAL LIMIT

PERCEIVED DIMENSION

HEIGHT

163

UPDATE DIAGRAM

TIME / GROWTH

THINNESS

STRUCTURE INFRASTRUCTURE HARDWARE

GROWTH

WATER ELECTRICITY HEAT

BENDING MOMENT

FREE NETWORK TO SELF PARTITION SPACE

LEAF

CIRCULATORY SPINES

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HIERARCHICAL NETWORK

ORGANIC EXPIRATION

SLIME MOLD

GROWTH BASED ON NEED+INFILL

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SQUATTING

FLOW FAVELLA OF PEOPLE

SPATIAL LIMIT

PERCEIVED DIMENSION

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PERMEABILITY EROSION BEACH

FLEXIBLE APPLICATION + ADAPTABLE

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FUNCTIONS WITHIN BANDING

LIGHT WIND WATER

CONNECTIVE MEMBRANE

SPATIAL LIMIT

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MASTER FORMULA

SPONGE CORAL

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Form Inspiration STUGGART

Form Inspiration The compliant mechanism of the Flectofin® is based on the Strelitzia reginae, a South African plant which is evolutionarily optimised for weight transfer of birds [Rowan 1974]. The flowFig. D.47 L􀑖􀑒􀑛􀑕􀑎􀑟􀑑, J. et al. (2010) Form-finding of Nature Inspired Kinematics for Pliable Structures.

L􀑖􀑒􀑛􀑕􀑎􀑟􀑑, J. et. al. (2011) Flectofin: a nature based hinge-less flapping mechanism.

91 er-bird-interaction comprises a reversible deformation which enables a so-called valvular pollination mechanism. The flower features a protruding perch of two adnate, blue petals which act as a landing platform (Figure D.51 (a)-(c)). When the bird lands on this structure to reach the nectar at the base of the flower, its weight causes the perch to bend downwards (Figure E.51 (b),(c)).

This bending triggers a sideways flapping of the petal laminae, and the previously enclosed anthers (male sexual flower parts) are exposed so the pollen can be attached to the birds feet and chest (Figure E.51 (c),(f)). When the bird flies away, the open perch resets to the protective closed state again due to its elastic properties. A section through the perch was prepared by biologist and research partner Simon Poppinga which reveals a monosymmetric 172

build-up (Figure E.51 (d),(f)). There are three reinforcing lateral ribs on each side, which are loosely connected by thin petal laminae. The lower ribs are joined on a cellular level, thus forming a composite rib. The uppermost ribs carry the thick wings which cover the sheath cavity when it is closed. The ribs consist mainly of fibrous tissue with vascular bundles, hence relative rigidity, and serve mainly to carry the bird’s weight [Endress 1994]. A constricted zone seen in a microscopic section between the upper ribs and wings shows no fibrous tissue, which indicates higher flexibility in comparison to the surrounding zones, enabling the elastic sideways bending of the wings (F in Figure E.51 (e)). This kinematical system was verified by rebuilding it as a physical model that demonstrates similar adaptive behaviour (Figure E.52.) of an unsymmetrical bending motion as an integrative part within a reversible deformable structure with multiple deflected equilibrium positions. The FlectofinŽ principle is thus an instrumentalisation of this failure mode. This highlights how nature and engineering differ in problem solving and shows that the structures and principles identified in biological concept generators can provide impulses and innovative means to achieve elastic kinetics in technical structures in a previously unknown manner.

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In the second level of abstraction, the Flectofin® principle is converted into several possible structural configurations, one of which are shown in Figure D.50. The beam element, for example, can be supported as a cantilever or single span beam as well as any other structural system in which continuous bending can be induced. In the wing of the Flectofin®, the stiffness near the backbone is increased. This is a major difference to the Strelitzia reginae which shows a distinct localised area of high flexibility near the rib. By stiffening the region near the backbone, the entire wing is forced into a more uniform bending deformation.

Therefore, the bending radius is largely increased which reduces bending stress and stabilises the wing in all positions against wind induced deflections.

From an engineering perspective, the flapping mechanism in Strelitzia reginae can be described as a hinge-less movement, in which an external mechanical force (the weight of the bird) initiates a complex deformation of multiple structural members (ribs, laminae and wings). They are linked in such a way that the kinetically stored elastic energy can reset the system so that this mechanism is not only reversible but also repetitive. The actual mechanism behind this movement is known to engineering as lateral torsional buckling, a failure mode that is attempted to avoid by sizing structural members to adequate stiffness or introducing eccentricities as shown in the physical models in. The models of a suspended bridge in Figure D.53. show lateral buckling for the upper system where all hinges are in a line. For the lower system eccentricity leads to stability and thereby avoidance of sideways tilting of the cable bracings when the main beam is starting to flex. What is known as a failure in engineering is thus instrumentalised by the plant for a highly effective compliant mechanism.

Form Optimisation An important question in the development of the Flectofin® was the reduction of stress peaks at the transition of a semi-elastic shell element to a beam element. ‘Biological solutions’ to this particular problem are found in many plants species. Being exposed 174

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to wind or other forces, plant leaves have developed several strategies to avoid notch stresses in the transition areas from leaf lamina to petiole. The most common solutions are based on gradual transitions achieved through changes in fibre orientation, variable thicknesses and optimised contour lines. In the FlectofinŽ, the change of thickness and fibre orientation within the shell element enables a stress harmonisation throughout the entire surface (Figure D.54 a and c ). This was made possible by increasing the stiffness in the shell element at the transition to the beam element. Hereby, the bending is forced further into the surface, leading to larger bending radii and, consequentially, smaller stresses. Remaining notch stresses on either ends of the shell element were reduced by optimising the contour line. Figure D.54 b shows how the contour geometry of Eucalyptus spec. leaves were applied to the shell geometry. The stress peaks were considerably reduced by this application of tension triangles [Mattheck and Burkhardt, 1990)]. These geometrical optimisations reduce the maximum notch stress to approximately 60 % of the permissible stresses for standard GFRP. A further development to stabilise the inactive position is shown in Figure D.55 A-E, with a configuration of two wings that theoretically interpenetrate in pos. A. Therefore, they rest in pos. B where they push against each other and share a large contact area which highly increases their stability. Due to their concave curvature in the inactive state, the wings will bend outwards when the backbone is actuated as shown in pos. B-E. As a positive side effect of the symmetrical deformation, the eccentric forces in the backbone are induced by the bending of the wings counteracting each other. This limits the torsion in the backbone and results in a more filigree profile. This double FlectofinŽ is a further development of the initially proposed façade component, which has an increased shading efficiency and higher wind stability.

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D 5.3 Structural Behavior The compliant mechanism of the Flectofin速 is described as systematised failure and deformation. More specifically, uniaxial bending of the beam causes an unsymmetrical bending motion of the shell element which is triggered by torsional buckling.

Such instability is observed in beams with slender profiles exposed to in-plane bending. When the bending reaches a critical point, the beam undergoes a combined deformation involving both outofplane bending and torsion [Simitses and Hodges 2006]. While lateral-torsional buckling is usually initiated on the compression side of a beam, in the case of the observed system, the compression side is reinforced by the backbone and held by the supports; consequentially, it is the tension side that is deviating into outof-plane bending due to its low lateral stiffness. This coupled deformation of torsion and flexion is also referred to as warping.

D 5.4 Gained Insights Structural behaviour While the FE simulation with perfectly symmetrical geometries and consistent mechanical properties suggests the existence of a robust mechanism for both the single as well as the double Flectofin速, the usual discontinuities from manufacturing caused some unpredicted behaviour in the elastic kinetics of the sys tem. A long period of optimising the manufacturing technique and adopting the geometry for a more robust mechanism was needed to guarantee a functioning of the compliant mechanism.

Specifically, the curved attachment of the thin-shell wings to the backbone stabilise the mechanism into a set unfolding direction.

In the case of the Flectofin速, this logic of curved line folding was discovered accidentally from manufacturing tolerances but is understood as a key to the function of the mechanism because of parallel investigations of other plant movements such as the Aldrovanda discussed by Schleicher et. al. (2011).

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RUNNING FENCE : CHRISTO & JEANNE-CLAUDE, SONOMA, 1972-1976

Material The system’s inherent material requirements for high strength and low bending stiffness are most adequately fulfilled by FRPs. After a comparison of different high modulus fibres, glass fibres were selected because they are much cheaper than carbon fibres, more translucent, and have a better weather resistance than aramide fibres, for example. Many different glass fibre woven fabrics and non crimp fabrics that differ in their fibre lay-up and area weight were tested for stiffness, resistance against wind induced vibration, and the 90° bending properties near the base of the backbone. So far, the desired high strength and low stiffness properties were achieved by arranging 4-8 very thin plain woven fabrics with an area weight of 80 g/m² in a set of layers (Figure d. 56 and B-D in Figure D.57). In order to further reduce tension forces at the edges of the fin, in particular at the meeting point of the wing and the backbone, glass rovings were spread out along the direction of forces (F in Figure 57). For the matrix, an ultra-flexible epoxy resin was chosen that was additionally treated with several dyestuffs to satisfy diverse optical demands.

In order to achieve the essential high quality in the laminate, the Flectofin® was fabricated by a manufacturing method called the vacuum bagging process (VAP). A special layer of air-permeable foil is used to eliminate trapped air in the laminate, thus, enhancing the material’s largely dynamic properties. This manufacturing technique was one of the keys to a successful production of immaculate and mechanically consistent elements.

Design and construction One of the main advantages of the Flectofin® is the diversity of structurally stable positions which the structure can attain be tween fully opened and closed. The system is thus adaptable to different boundary conditions which could optimise efficiency in shading systems. A significant expansion of possible future applications is given by the fact that the system functions without a straight turning axis; it can therefore be adapted to facades with curved geometries. (These aspects of the Felctofin® and other biologically inspired compliant mechanisms are studied 180

elaborately in the Doctoral thesis of my colleague S. Schleicher “Bio-inspired Compliant Mechanisms for Architectural Design”) As a proof of this concept, it inspired the façade of the Thematic Pavilion at the EXPO 2012 trade-fair in Yeosu, Korea, by Soma Architects and Knippers Helbig Advanced Engineering (see Figure C.28. Knippers Helbig Advanced Engineering was then commissioned with the planning and constructional design of this kinetic facade. In a first investigation, it was determined whether the Flectofin® principle could be magnified to the large scale of 108 lamellas with varying heights between 3 m and 14 m. It was proven that up-scaling of the basic principle is possible, yet could not entirely fulfil the architectural intentions of the facade. Inspired by the Flectofin®, an alternative elastic mechanism was developed, based similarly on structural failure (buckling).

These further developments show the potential for such basic discoveries, in this case, the instrumentalisation of failure and deformation

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Bending Moment FORM FINDING MODEL SIMULATION

Form-finding is generally understood as the process of developing the geometric form of a structure based on mechanical behaviour.

In contrast to a common design process, form-finding is a deterministic process in which the setting of the physical boundary conditions leads to a single solution.

From a strictly mechanical point of view, form-finding can be defined as an optimisation process, in which a target stress field is given and the corresponding geometrical form is searched for.

Therefore in structural engineering, the term form-finding is mostly linked to tensile membrane structures, as well as catenary arches and shells, in which form-finding automatically includes form-optimisation based on structural behaviour. The geometry of bending-active structures

has to be form-found similarly based on mechanical behaviour; however, stresses belong to the solution and therefore ‘formfinding’ does not automatically include the aspect of structural optimisation. Beyond the definition of boundary constraints, the ‘form-finding’ of bending-active structures involves the adjusting of more variables which include setting the length and mechanical properties of the bending-active elements and introducing various couplings and inner constraints.

It may therefore be more precise to speak of a ‘formdeveloping’ process. However, despite having more variables of physical boundary conditions, it is still a deterministic process, objectively based on mechanical behaviour, and shall therefore generally be referred to as ‘form finding’ 182

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The fundamental differences in the form-finding of form- and bending-active structures lie in the definition of length and surface dimension, the simulation of material behaviour and the consideration of residual stress: 路 In form-active structures, the surface dimensions are the minimal result defined by the stress state and boundary conditions which are independent of their input dimensions. In terms of material behaviour we simply consider the fact that a membrane serves only to carry tension forces by simulating a surface under pure tension. The actual mechanical material properties of the membrane, however, are not considered since the form-finding is purely based on the equilibrium of tension forces and only geometrical stiffness is considered. Residual stress is a target input.

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Scaling & Scalability STRESS STIFFENING EFFECTS

Since residual stresses are dependent on the bending radius and cross-sectional height, we are restricted by material strength in the sizing of structural members. This limitation means that the size of a cross-section may not be defined freely according to the requirements for strength and stiffness under external loads.

Hence, scaling problems may occur when changing the scale of a bending-active structure.

In classical structural engineering we may consider three ranges of scale: the physical structural model, a reduced scale structure and a large scale structure, in which dimensional analysis and the derived scaling laws help to calibrate the proportions of test results between different scales [Harris and Sabnis 1999]. In today’s engineering practice, analysis is mostly

based on the Finite Element Method (FEM) in which dimensions are considered by the relation between geometrical and mechanical input variables.

Structural analysis is therefore always done on a virtual 1:1 model.

With these powerful computational means the necessity for structural physical models has been reduced to some dynamic problems e.g. wind tunnel testing.

Reduced scale mock-up structures have similarly become dispensable.

In the development of bending-active structures the physical structural model has regained importance as a form-finding tool in the early design stages. An emergent amount of medium scale bending-active research structures is raising the question of their relevance for large scale building structures. In some 188

cases like the gridshell, visionary projects such as the ‘Multihalle Mannheim’ with 64 m span have long proven their scalability.

In this particular project, which was predominantly developed through physical models, scale factors for self-weight were derived to correctly simulate dead load deformation of the scaled model [Happold and Liddell 1975]. Other expressions of active bending in building structures are yet to be analysed for their scaling behaviour. The research presented in this chapter is based on the experiences from various case study structures, all in the range of 2 to 10 m span. In all of these structures the scalar jump from a physical structural model to a medium scale structure was successfully undertaken. The question analysed now, concerns the scalar jump from a medium scale to a large scale structure and aims to fathom the scaling limits of various forms of bending-active structures.

Scaling in the most general sense is concerned with powerlaw relationships between two or more variables of a system.

Investigating the scaling of building structures the variables concerned are deformation and stability on the one side, load and mechanical properties on the other. If the relation of these variables is independent of the system’s dimensions we consider the system to be self-similar.

Some of the more common effects to consider for the scaling of building structures are: · Dimension effect: cubic increase of mass with scale · Load effect: quadratic increase of surface area leads to quadratic increase of surface load · Size effect of material: probability of material defects increases with size, whereas the influence of material defects increases for small size specimens. · Height effect: exponential growth of wind-speed with height combined with quadratic growth of wind-load with speed. · Dynamic effects: Wind induced vibration etc.

Since the investigations in this paper are aimed to be of general nature we only consider the change in mass and load. The effects of change in material properties, wind load and dynamic behaviour with scale are very individual to each project and are therefore not taken into account in the further investigations.

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Their influence on scaling, however, will play a role on the construction of some large scale bending-active structures.

F 2.2 Dimensional Analysis of Elastica In order to gain a principal understanding of the scalability of a simple bending-active system some initial studies are made on the elastica arc. From section B2.4.3 we can recall that residual stress in such an elastically deformed beam can be determined with the Euler-Bernoulli law, in which the bending moment Mő is proportional to the change in curvature as shown in equation (4ѓ) [Fertis 2006]. With the section modulus Wy and the consideration that the width b of a cross-section has no influence on the maximum bending stress we can write the residual bending stress as an expression of the cross-sectional height h, the Modulus of Elasticity E and the Curvature 1/r (5ѓ).

In (5ѓ) we can see that both curvature (1/r) and cross-sectional height h have a linear influence on the residual stress caused by active bending. The moment of inertia Iy is therefore limited by a given minimal curvature in the system and the permissible bending stress of the chosen material. The radius of curvature can be expressed as a function of the span Li and the rise fi. In (6ѓ) this relation is given with a scale factor s. Simplification of the equation shows that s can be excluded as a linear factor; thus, linear up-scaling of a structure allows for a linear up-scaling of the cross-sectional height while keeping the residual stress constant.

Assuming constant material properties this leads to the overriding question, whether the influence of the span L on the deflection U z can be compensated by the moment of inertia Iy, if the scaling of the cross-sectional height is limited to be linear for keeping the residual stress ΗM constant.

Deriving the dimensions using the Buckingham Pi Theorem: Dimensional analysis enables a convenient investigation of physical behaviour by combining the variables of a system into dimensionless groups (Pi-terms). The Buckingham Pi-Theorem states that the relations in any physical system can be described by a group of n-rd Pi-terms, in which n is the number of variables and rd the number of basic dimensions therein (rank of the dimensional matrix) [Buckingham 1914]. In mechanics, the basic dimensions are mass, length and time. In the following 190

considFђџѡіѠ, erations on static structural behaviour, force is chosen as a basic dimension without further reduction into its constituent components for better comparison to known engineering equations.

Based on the Pi-terms, a functional equation can be derived which shows a reduced form of the relevant variables; however,it does not give information about the nature of the solution. The exact form of the functional relationship has to be empirically obtained by a set of experiments in which the Pi-terms are systematically varied. Analytical analysis of the individual Pi-terms often is sufficient enough to describe the change of system behaviour with scale, without knowing the complete solution of the functional equation.

Investigating the deflection for a given elastica curve of span L stiffness EI and the line load qz and excluding the influence of mass and residual axial force we may derive the following functional equation: ( , , , ) Z y qz U f L E I 5 Variables: Uz, L, E, Iy, qz 5Ȭ2= 3 PiȬTerms 2 Dimensions: [mm], [N] The dimensional Matrix is: []11241 []00101 mm N Uz L E I y qz The dimensionless Pi-terms may be derived using various procedures, some of which are explained and discussed in detail by [Barr 1983]. Independent of the procedure it must be noticed that there is no unique set of Pi-terms that can be derived for a given problem. Pi-terms may differ in type depending on the choice of a repeating variable that eliminates dimension, additionally transformations of Pi-terms are possible. Here the results of the system deflection under a linear load were derived with the step wise procedure using L as the repeating variable.

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F

Structural Behaviour of Bending-active Structures

force. Their linearity prove the similitude derived above f variations of the elastica curve, in which the rise to span rati constant in correspondence with the incline of the graph.

s¡qz Uz

Ĺ—

In Figure F.1 and F.3 an elastica curve with f/L=0.15 is investi by plotting the load deformation with corresponding com sion stress for a step wise increasing scaled line load. In to exclude findings that are limited to symmetric system line load is applied asymmetrically. In Figure F.50 investiga were compared at two different scales with s=1 and s=8 sho the nonlinear behaviour at higher loads and final snap-thr buckling.

s¡L s¡f 2

Ĺ™

4

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7

Finally, the dotted line shows the elastica in a calculation out dead load and residual stress. Here, the two load defle curves almost perfectly match and snap-through buckling o at the same load factor, ̇Î?= 0. This clearly supports the hy esis made in section 2 that the bending-active elastica arc is similar if dead load and axial force are omitted. In genera graph shows how the curves are very close in the linear r and the influence of dead load grows with size (̇Î?= 0.2 fo and ̇Î?= 1 for s= 8).

8

9

Ĺ—Ĺ–

For each scale, the system is calculated in three differen narios. First, (indicated by the continuous lines) including load and axial force, showing a difference in load factor ̇ between scale s=1 and s=8 at the point of snap-through buck In a second scenario, (dashed line) the residual stress and t by axial force N is disabled. This leads to a shift of both gr by load factors ̇Î?= 1.0 for s=1 and ̇Î?= 1.2 for s=8 higher a point of failure. The difference between scales is reduced ̇Î?= 1 to ̇Î?= 0.9.

Fig. F.48

F 2.4 Scaling of Case Study Structures With the scaling investigations on three successfully built study structures, the above drawn conclusions are verifie jump in scale from a prototypical structure, in the size of a hibition pavilion, to a large building structure is investig The choice of material for these bending-active structures i ited by availability of materials offering high strength with

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F2

250

above for all pan ratio is a raph.

straight f/L: 0.05 f/L: 0.15 f/L: 0.20

Uz [mm] (with qz = s x qz)

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investigated ng compresad. In order systems, the nvestigations s=8 showing nap-through

different sceluding dead factor ̇Ώ= 1 gh buckling. ss and thereboth graphs higher at the educed from

f/L: 0.30 f/L: 0.50 f/L: 0.60 f/L: 0.75

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0 0

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4

Scale s [-]

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Fig. F.49

5

NJΏƽŖ 4 NJΏƽŖǯş

Loadfactor ΏȱǽȬǾ

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Scaling and Stability

3 NJΏƽŗ Ȭ 2

Fig. F.48 Study of Elastica curves with constant span and varying rise at different Nonlinear

ly built case e verified. A ize of an exinvestigated. ctures is limgth with low

S=1 / dl: yes Ȧȱ ǯ ǯ S=1 / dl: yes Ȧȱ ǯȱ ǯ S=1 / dl: no Ȧȱ ǯȱ ǯ

1 s·L Ώȉ ȉqz Linear 0

0

ŖǯŞȉΏȉ ȉqz Uz

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60

Displacement UzȱȦȱ ȱǽ Ǿ

S=8 / dl: yes Ȧȱ ǯ ǯ S=8 / dl: yes Ȧȱ ǯȱ ǯ S=8 / dl: no Ȧȱ ǯȱ ǯ 80

100

Fig. F.50

scales.

Fig. F.49 Deflection curve for different scales of the elastica arcs in F.48.

Fig. F.50 Load deflection curve of the elastica curve with 15 % f/L ratio at two scales; showing linear, nonlinear and snap-through failure range.

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Garden FROM SCAFFOLD LIVING WALL TO VERTICAL GARDEN AND THIN FARMSCAPE

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SCAFFOLD

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CRYSTAL CASTLE

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FRAME

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LIGHT SURFACE

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DENSE SURFACE

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VERTICAL PARK

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ENCLOSED GREEN

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VERTICAL HERB GARDEN

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HYDROPONIC SYSTEMS

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Hydroponics WATER WEUGHT ENCLOSED SYSTEM PUMP

The main principles behind the hydroponic drip system are relative simple which makes them incredibly easy to use, hence their popularity.

Vital nutrients are added to a tank of water to create a nutrient reservoir which is kept separate from the plants. The water is then pumped up a network of tubes, and is released to the plants individually.

The pump can be controlled by a timer, taking any manual watering out of the equation, and allowing you to decide how frequently you want a watering cycle to occur. You can also place an emitter at the end of each tube in the network to allow more, or less, water to reach a specific plant during each watering cycle. This means that you can put a range of different plants into the same system and tailor make watering cycle to cater to the different plants’

individual needs. There are two types of drip systems: the recovery drip system and the non-recovery drip system.

The recovery part of the name is pretty self-explanatory, and refers to whether the water recycles itself or not. In a hydroponic recovery drip system, any excess nutrient solution will drain back into the nutrient reservoir, where it can be re-used. This makes the system much more efficient; consequently, a relatively low amount of maintenance is needed.

You will have to check the solution reservoir periodically: as the plants absorb the nutrients this will start to distort the makeup of the nutrients remaining in the water.

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Aquaponics BIO FILTRATION OTHER WILDLFIE PUMP

Aquaponics is the combined culture of fish and plants in recirculating systems. Nutrients, which are excreted directly by the fish or generated by the microbial breakdown of organic wastes, are absorbed by plants cultured hydroponically (without soil). Fish feed provides most of the nutrients required for plant growth. As the aquaculture effluent flows through the hydroponic component of the recirculating system, fish waste metabolites are removed by nitrification and direct uptake by the plants, thereby treating the water, which flows back to the fish-rearing component for reuse. In my system tilapia will be produced along with a variety of herbs, leafy plants, vegetables, and perhaps fruits.

The aquaponic system I will be utilizing is a scaled down version of the University of the Virgin Islands commercial scale system. It is roughly

1/4th the size of the UVI system, but may be multiplied in accordance with resources and demand.

The UVI system has been producing tilapia for more than a decade. It is a proven system.

Aquaponics has several advantages over other recirculating aquaculture systems and hydroponic systems that use inorganic nutrients solutions. The hydroponic component serves as a biofilter, and therefore a separate bio-filter is not needed as in other recirculating systems. Aquaponic systems have the only bio-filter that generates income, which is obtained from the sale of hydroponic produce such as vegetables, herbs, and flowers. In the UVI system, which I copy, and which employs raft hydroponics, only calcium, potassium and iron are supplemented. The nutrients provided by the fish would 214

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Green Sky Growers is a true technical marvel, a state of the art farm which is one part laboratory and one part organic garden. It raises thousands of pounds of fish and vegetables every year using a mutually-beneficial farming technique called aquaponics. Green Sky Growers raises everything from tilapia to perch, herbs to tomatoes, delivering them fresh to the public and a hungry group of local restaurateurs. If you enjoy a dish

of striped bass and leafy greens at the restaurant below, you may have no idea that the ingredients were sourced from 50 feet above.

Green Sky Growers have turned to aquaponics to increase their yields and lower their resource needs. Aquaponics is the combined raising of fish and vegetables in a mutually-beneficial, closed-loop system. It is a combination of “aquacul220

ture”, the farming of fish, and “hydroponics”, the raising of vegetables in a soilfree, nutrient-rich water solution. On its own, aquaculture can create toxic waste water which cannot be reused and must be discarded. In hydroponics, spent nutrient solution can also be toxic. With aquaponics, the fish waste is naturally transformed from ammonia into nitrates which becomes plant food. In this process, the plants filter the water and strip the toxic ammonia to provide clean water for the fish. It’s a best of both worlds system, a genuine ecosystem where the plants and fish form a symbiotic relationship as managed by the farm’s team. What makes Green Sky Growers different from your average farm is their focus on state-of-the-art technology. Their two combined greenhouses are managed by custom software that measures environmental conditions and adjusts the conditions inside. On breezy, warm mornings, the greenhouse software will open the wall shutters to allow breezes through and to keep the inside temperature in a healthy range. Once the mid-day sun heats the greenhouse toward suboptimal temperatures, the software opens a shade system which covers the glass roof above.

If temperatures rise above manageable levels, chillers will lower the water temperature to keep the fish healthy.

Everything is automated– the software system has a temperature goal and will automatically adjust a range of variables to maintain that temperature indoors. The fish are everywhere at Green Sky Growers. There are five main tanks 221

which house hundreds of fish per tank.

During our visit, there were three tanks of tilapia, one tank of striped bass and a fifth tank in preparation for the arrival of perch fingerlings. The tanks are massive, and the fish within them are happy. An automated feeder drops feed into each tank at regular intervals. While the fish do congregate near the windows during feedings, they have space to roam and they are free from predators throughout their growth cycle. The hydroponic growing systems at Green Sky Growers range across a few different disciplines. Rows and rows of Nutrient Film Technique systems raise big, leafy and blemish-free basil and lettuces in nearly half the growing time of traditional soil farming. The spinning aeroponic towers, shown above, spray the plant roots with nitrate-rich water that gives the plants what they need to grow green and bear fruit. They rotate, slowly, allowing for even sun for all plants throughout the day. After the water passes through the “NFT” systems and the aeroponic towers, that water is now plant-purified and ready to be pumped back into the fish tanks. -

Nutrient Film CONSTANT FLOW OF WATER SLOPED ROWS

NFTs are often used in commercial hydroponics, particularly for short harvest crops.

An NFT system does not require a timer.

Instead, the nutrient solution is pumped from the reservoir up into the growtray in a continuous cycle. The growing chamber is built with the slightest downhill decline, allowing the solution to trickle from the top end of the tray to the bottom, where it is recycled back into the nutrient reservoir.

Instead of a regulated watering schedule, the plants in an NFT hydroponic system are provided with a constant flow of nutrient solution.

The slope is set at a shallow angle to ensure the solution only trickles along the growing tray. However the slope is sufficient for ensuring that the solution does reach the bottom, where it is drained back into the reservoir. This

ensures the growtray is never flooded, which prevents your plants from being overfed. In fact, only a small film of nutrient solution is accessible to the plants — which are suspended above with their roots hanging down — at any given point.

Because there is no timer involved there is less scope for anything to go wrong.

This means maintenance is kept to the bare minimum: You simply prepare the nutrient solution and then turn the pump on.

Because the system can run for so long without being manually checked, they usually include an air stone in the nutrient reservoir which is vital for keeping the water within the system oxygenated.

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Aeroponics MIST ROOTS DIRECTLY FASTER GROWTH

The aeroponic system is the most technologically advanced of all the hydroponic systems. Many top scientists have claimed that this very system could be the solution to food shortages in the future.

The plants are suspended in the air, as in the NFT system, with their roots hanging down below. The nutrient solution is then pumped up a tube, where a second higher pressure pump sprays the solution as a mist over the dangling roots.

Because each misting provides the plants with less food than a standard cycle in, say, a drip system, the misting takes place considerably more frequently, which does mean a more advanced timer is required. This, as well as the high pressured pump, can mean that the component costs are higher for this type of system.

The nutrient water is moved around far more frequently in this system due to the regularity of the feedings, as well as the actual process of turning the water into mist. This means the nutrient solution is far more oxygenated than in any other system, and this helps the plants achieve faster growth rates. The plants will also adjust to their feeding methods, and will grow more roots to enable them to absorb more nutrients from the mist.

The reason this technology is considered essential for future food production is that it offers the possibility of a group of plants to be grown vertically, meaning less land is required to farm. If a plant can be suspended on a vertical wall, with their roots protruding out the other side, then the roots can be misted using the techniques already described.

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Common Crops Produced On A Commercial Scale Leafy Greens: Lettuce, Basil, Spinach, Bok Choy, Swiss Chard, Kale.

Herbs: Basil, Chives, Dill, Parsley, Cilantro, Mint Fruiting Plants: Tomatoes, Cucumbers, Peppers, Eggplant, Okra, Strawberries Flowers: Zinnias, Marigolds, Cosmos, Nasturtium

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Growth Down RE-ORGANIZATION FOR WIND

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HOW THIN?

LEAF again SECTION LAYERS COATING THICKNESS PROGRAM air space - intercellular gaps within the spongy mesophyll. These gaps are filled with gas that the plant uses (carbon dioxide - CO2 ) and gases that the plant is expelling (oxygen - O2, and water vapor). cuticle - the waxy, water-repelling layer on the top and bottom surfaces of a leaf; it helps keep the leaf from dying out (and protects it from invading bacteria, insects, and fungi). The cuticle is secreted by the epidermis. Label the cuticle on the top and bottom of the leaf. guard cell - one of a pair of sausage-shaped cells that surround a stoma (a pore in a leaf). Guard cells change shape (as light and humidity change), causing the stoma to open and close.

spongy mesophyll - the layer below the palisade mesophyll; it has irregularly-shaped cells with many air spaces between the cells. These cells contain some chlorophyll. The spongy mesophyll cells communicate with the guard cells (stomata), causing them to open or close, depending on the concentration of gases. stoma - (plural stomata) a pore (or opening) in a leaf where water vapor and other gases leave and enter the plant. Stomata are formed by two guard cells that regulate the opening and closing of the pore. Generally, many more stomata are on the bottom of a leaf than on the top.

lower epidermis - the waxy skin (outermost cells) on the underside of a leaf, usually one cell thick; it keeps the leaf from drying out.

upper epidermis - the protective, outer layer of cells on the upper surface of a leaf, usually one cell thick. The epidermis secretes the waxy cuticle. The upper epidermis contains some guard cells (but fewer than the lower epidermis).

mesophyll - the chlorophyll-containing leaf tissue located between the upper and lower epidermis.

These cells convert sunlight into usable chemical energy for the plant.

vein (vascular bundle) - Veins provide support for the leaf and transport both water and minerals (via xylem) and food energy (via phloem) through the leaf and on to the rest of the plant.

palisade mesophyll - a layer of elongated cells located under the upper epidermis. These cells contain most of the leaf's chlorophyll, converting sunlight into usable chemical energy for the plant.

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SURFACE AREA DETERMINED BY ABSORPTION OF SUNLIGHT

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BEECH LEAVES

Beech leaves. Light micrograph of a transverse section through two beech leaves (Fagus sylvatica). The shapes of the two leaves are different because the bottom leaf is constantly exposed to bright sunlight, whereas the top leaf is in the shade in the lower parts of the tree. The sun leaf, in comparison to the shade leaf, has a thicker cuticle to reduce water loss through transpiration, more layers, bigger cells and more chloroplasts to capture more sunlight (photosynthesis), more starch grains (stored sugars made photosynthesis) and is thicker with more vascular tissue and supporting fibres (yellow) in the midrib.

Magnification: x100 when printed at 10 centimetres

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SUN VS.SHADE : MAPLE ACER

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FORM : SURFACE AREA IN RELATION TO WIND + SUNLIGHT + WEIGHT

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CIRCULATION : GATHERING POINTS + STRUCTURE

Water lily leaf. Light micrograph of a transverse section through the leaf of a water lily (Nympha sp.) plant. All aquatic plants (hydrophytes) have a similar structure.

The upper epidermis of the leaf has a thin cuticle (top) underneath which is a multi-layered palisade mesophyll. In-between the palisade cells are elongated sclereids (purple) for support. Underneath this is the spongy mesophyll and large intercellular air spaces (lacunae, white). The vascular bundles (dense patches) consist of xylem (red) and phloem (dark-blue ovals). The base of the midrib, under the epidermis, consists of collenchyma cells (dark blue). Magnification: x103 when printed 10 centimetres wide.

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PERIPHERAL DIVISION OF SPACES : CIRCULATION

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NETWORK OF LEAF : COVERING AREA

Tea leaf. Light micrograph of a crosssection through a tea (Camellia sinensis) leaf. The upper and lower epidermis on the surfaces of the leaf are blue. Under the upper epidermis are palisade cells (brown), which contain chloroplasts, the site of photosynthesis. Beneath this a spongy mesophyll layer with large spaces between the cells. At bottom left, a stoma (pore) is seen. Stomata allow gases and water to enter and leave the plant. Magnification: x230 when printed 10 centimetres wide.

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AT THE SCALE OF A CITY BLOCK

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LEAF : AMSTERDAM CANAL

Heather leaf. Light micrograph of a transverse section through the leaf of a heather (Erica sp.) plant. Heather is a drought plant (xerophyte). Xerophytes have evolved an anatomy that cuts down water loss through transpiration. The epidermis consists of thick-walled cells covered in a thick cuticle (lightpink). Underneath this are the cells of the palisade mesophyll and spongy mesophyll containing chloroplasts where photosynthesis takes place.

Magnification: x234 when printed 10 centimetres wide.

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7 BIOMES

Cross-section of a Beach Grass leaf (Ammophila breviligulata) a monocot, showing recessed stomates. LM X40.

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AMYLPHERNIA

The grass that’s primarily responsible for trapping wind-blown sand and building the dune systems around our coast that are such important wildlife habitats. Marram grass survives in the arid environment of a sand dune by rolling up its leaves during long periods of drought, so that all the leaves’ breathing pores or stomata are inside the rolled leaf, minimising water loss. with the outside surface of the leaf at the bottom of the picture (smooth, curved surface) and the inner convoluted surface at the top. The outer surface of the leaf at the bottom is composed of a layer of thick walled cells, covered with a thick cuticle to resist wind-blown sand abrasion and this layer also acts like a spring, giving the leaf a natural tendency to roll up under drought conditions. The stomata are hidden on the inner surface of the leaf amongst those stubbly hairs near the bottom of those convolu-

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tions – which in the whole leaf are actually ridges and furrows that run along the whole length of the leaf.

The clusters of thin-walled blue cells at the base (i.e. in the ‘valleys’) of the furrows of the convolutions are responsible for unrolling the leaf – when it rains and the plant takes up water these thin walled cells inflate like balloons, forcing the leaf to unroll. Other features that you can see in this leaf cross section are the snaking rows of reddish cells which are actually the cells containing most of the chlorophyll, that carry out photosynthesis – The other distinctive features are the scattered structures that look like ‘smiley faces’ with a pair of large ‘eyes’ with a blue open ‘mouth’ – these are the leaf veins that conduct water and sugars along the leaf – they’re the plant’s internal plumbing system.

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HOLLYHOCK LEAF

Fungus - sack with spores coming out.

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PINNEAPLE

The cross-section of a mature ‘Smooth Cayenne’ leaf can be up to 4mm thick with approximately half the volume occupied by water-storage tissue. When moisture levels are good, up to half of the 4mm cross-sectional thickness of a mature leaf is made up of specialised water storage tissue. This tissue serves as a reservoir and is drawn upon to maintain plant growth, and even fruit development, during periods of inadequate moisture. After extended dry periods this tissue decreases to near nil – a sign of drought.

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PINE

The leaves of pine trees are called needles. Though their shape is different from the leaves of most angiosperms, they contain more or less the same tissue types. Pines often live in harsh conditions: hot, dry summers and freezing winters. They are good at withstanding environmental stress. Their needles, with a low surface area-to-volume ratio, help reduce damage due to drying out or heavy snows.

Pine needles also have some features not seen in Syringa leaves.

Transfusion tissue surrounds the vascular bundle, and apparently helps transport materials into and out of the vascular tissue. This tissue is abundant in pine needles, but not in most leaves of flowering plants.

Resin ducts carry resin, which is a hydrocarbon-containing substance that may help protect the leaves.

The cuticle is visible as a faint pink layer around the outside of this pine needle. The stomata are sunk into small pits in the epidermis; this reduces airflow and evaporative water loss.

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SUCCULENT

A cross section of Phemeranthus teretifolius, a succulent, leaved perennial herb. In addition to the single, large central bundle, a 3-D ring of smaller vascular bundles is visible at the junction of outer photosynthetic tissues and inner water storage tissues.

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Blister Formed by Phytoptus Pyris

by Leaf

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Clatonia

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PONDWEED

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DIACTYLEDON

Dicotyledon leaf cross section vascular bundle vascular tissue xylem phloem epidermis mesophyll leaf anatomy midrib. 200 X optical microscope photomicrography plant anatomy botany dicotyledon 273

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OLEANDER

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OLEANDER

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LILY

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TEA LEAF

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SYRINGIA

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S

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BED NOW

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LINGUNSTRUM

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MAPLE ACER

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Notice the dark green bodies within the various cells found in the images of cross sections of plants above and below; these are chloroplasts.

C4 plants like the corn examples below, have two types of photosythetic cells, which differ in form and function.

Bundle-sheath cells surround the viens found in leaves. In C4 plants they are photosythetic in C3 plants they are non-photosynthetic. Both C3 and C4 plants have photosynthetic Mesophyll cells.

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EPIDERMAL OUTGROWTH

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EPIDERMIS

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AMOPHILA

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CHLORPLASTS

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BIG BOX x

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BEACH

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BEACH : BREAKWATER

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LEAF GREEN WALL VERTICAL FARM

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Male, Maldives 35,000 per sq KM 153,379 people 5.8 km2 TROPICAL MONSOON The Maldives is an archipelago made up of about 1200 islands that are scattered in a line running for 800km southwest of the tip of India. Although the total area of the country occupies 90,000km2 of Indian Ocean, its land area is a tiny 300km2.

these constraints, a number of indigenous farming systems have evolved that are highly sustainable in this unique and delicately balanced ecosystem. These systems are characterised by low levels of external inputs and the intensive use of local knowledge and materials.

The islands, of which only 200 are inhabited, are grouped into 19 atolls and are extremely small, averaging 0.5km2, and no more than 2 metres above sea level. Most islands are dominated by large stands of coconut and salt-tolerant coastal fringe forest. Inland, the low lying and relatively fertile soils are able to support numerous tree species and shrubs.

Malé, the capital city of the Republic of the Maldives. The Maldives is an island nation southwest of India and Sri Lanka. It is the smallest Asian country in terms of population and land area.

This tropical group of atolls is comprised of 1,192 islands, 192 of which are inhabited. Its total land area is 298 sq km, which equates to 1.7 times the size of Washington, DC. Estimates for 2013 put the nation’s total population at 393,988. It is the largest population per sq KM.

Agriculture under atoll conditions is notoriously difficult due to poor soils, limited water availability, harsh environmental conditions and the scattered and isolated nature of the islands. Despite

The city is geographically located at the southern edge of North Malé Atoll (Kaa308

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fu Atoll).[3] Administratively, the city consists of a central island, an airport island, and two other islands governed by the Malé City Council.

Malé has a tropical monsoon climate under the Köppen climate classification.

The city features a mix of both wet and dry seasons, with the wet season lasting from May through December and the dry season covering the remaining four months. Unlike a number of cities with

this climate, Malé experiences relatively consistent temperatures throughout the course of the year, with an average high of 30 degrees Celsius and an average low of 26.5 degrees Celsius, which is equivalent to many equatorial cities’ average year round daily mean. The city averages slightly more than 1600 mm of precipitation annually.

The city is divided into six divisions, four of which are on Malé Island: Henveiru, 310

Galolhu, Maafannu and Macchangolhi.

The nearby island of Vilingili, formerly a tourist resort and prior to that a prison, is the fifth division (Vilimalé). The sixth division is Hulhumalé, an artificial island settled since 2004. In addition, the airport Island Hulhule is part of the city. Plans have been made to develop the Gulhi Falu reef, implementation began in 2008.

The Island of Malé is the fifth most densely populated island in the world, and it is the 168th most populous island in the world. Since there is no surrounding countryside, all infrastructure has to be located in the city itself. Water is provided from desalinated ground water; the water works pumps brackish water from 50-60m deep wells in the city and desalinates that using reverse osmosis.[14] Electric power is generated in the city using diesel generators.

[15] Sewage is pumped unprocessed into the sea.[14] Solid waste is trans311

ported to nearby islands, where it is used to fill in lagoons. The airport was built in this way, and currently the Thilafushi lagoon is being filled in.[16][17] Many government buildings and agencies are located on the waterfront. Malé International Airport is on adjacent Hulhule Island which includes a seaplane base for internal transportation. Several land reclamation projects have expanded the harbour.

Tourism is the largest industry in the Maldives, accounting for 28% of GDP and more than 60% of the Maldives’ foreign exchange receipts. The GDP per capita expanded by 265% in the 1980s and a further 115% in the 1990s. Over 90% of government tax revenue comes from import duties and tourism-related taxes. Malé, the capital, has many tourist attractions and nearby resorts. The central harbour and port of the Maldives is located in Malé, the centre for all com-

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mercial activities. Maldivian, the airline of the Maldives, has its head office in MalĂŠ[18] as does the airline FlyMe.[19]

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Where the Taro Never Ends

The atolls of the Maldives represent a delicate and unique ecosystem that is highly sensitive to changes resulting from human, climatic and environmental activity. Within this fragile ecosystem a number of indigenous farming systems have evolved that are ecologically and culturally sustainable. Of these, the homegarden has been the most enduring and diverse.

Taro, an extremely important staple food, is maintained in large pits at the edge of swamp areas. These pits are regularly replenished by old leaves from previously harvested taro plants and other dried leaves and are actively trampled into the pit during harvest. These methods, in conjunction with well adapted local taro varieties, have ensured that taro pits have been continuously harvested for decades without any serious fertility or pest and disease problems.

Spirits, Magic and Astrology

Homegardens – A Source of Riches

On some islands a type of bush fallow or shifting agriculture is practised. Land clearing and planting is dictated by the local astrological calendar, known as the Nakaiy. This ensures that the season coincides with the rains and is relatively short, minimising the build up of major pest and disease problems. The methods used in this form of agriculture are rich in local knowledge but also rely on a number of magico-religious rituals. Belief in the spiritual world and a local form of magic, fanditha, is very strong in the Maldives and pervades all aspects of life. It is a belief system that has managed to co-exist with Islam for hundreds of years. Certain people are held in high esteem because of their extensive knowledge of fanditha and are very much in demand during periods of cultivation. These people, known as Ihuraveera, make decisions regarding where and when to plant and harvest.

However, the most enduring of the indigenous farming systems in the Maldives is the polycultural homegarden.

It represents a highly stable system of permanent landuse that is attended to year around.

Like homegardens in other parts of Asia, those in the Maldives do not supply the main source of food or income for the household yet they continuously provide many of the varied household subsistence needs. Most of the species grown in the homegarden, especially fruit and timber trees, are multipurpose in nature providing food, fuelwood, stimulants, dyes, medicines, wrapping, cordage, timber and so on.

Homegardens vary greatly in size and are usually enclosed by coral brick walls, live fences or woven palm leaves. Gardens consist of an upper canopy dominated by coconut, arecanut, breadfruit, mango and other fruit trees, a middle

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canopy comprising banana, papaya, pandanus and small fruit trees and a lower canopy devoted to a wide range of vegetables, spices, ornamentals and medicinal plants.

Maldivian homegardens represent an enormous range of plant species equalling that found anywhere else in Asia.

At least 35 fruit crops, 40 vegetable, 4 cereal, 8 spice, 20 timber and 62 ornamental/flower species are known to be cultivated in Maldivian homegardens.

This does not include the vast numbers of medicinal and other utility plants that are grown.

Species such as mango, lime, pomegranate and custard apple have many uses, including medicinal, as do a large number of timber trees such as sea hibiscus and the tulip tree. Banana in addition to supplying food from the fruit and flower also provides leaves for wrapping, plates, mulching, decoration, cooking, cordage and polishing. Pandanus provides food from the fruit and nut but also perfume from the flower, timber, leaves for composting, pest control, wrapping, flowers for insect repellent, wood for handicrafts, fuelwood, timber and gum for caulking fishing boats. Coconut certainly lives up to its name, the tree of life, and has been estimated to have over 170 individual uses on the islands.

The major soil preparation methods used in homegardens are the preparation of beds and digging of planting holes. Planting holes are usually filled with old plant material, coconut husks, 319

rusty cans and kitchen wastes. Most of the crops in the homegarden rely on rain for water although certain high value vegetable crops will receive watering during dry periods. Other practices such as mulching, pruning and grafting are carried out intermittently.

Inventive Natural Pest Control In homegardens a large number of traditional pest control methods have been devised to minimise damage by fruit bats, rats and certain insects. Bats are notorious for feeding on fruits and homegardens protect ripening fruit by enclosing them in coconut shells, covering trees with fishing nets, snaring bats with hooks and fishing lines, placing human effigies and oil lamps in trees and pulling tin can scaring devices.

Rats which can cause enormous damage to coconuts are prevented from gaining access to nuts by banding the trunk with pandanus and palm leaves or more commonly with tin sheeting. Rats are also caught by locally made traps using sticks and large coral stones. Hand-picking of certain insect pests, such as the coconut rhinoceros beetle, is common. Other homegardeners drive off insect pests by smoking them out with fires under fruit trees. They make vital contributions to the island’s economy directly and indirectly. They have made this community more self-sufficient and are a great help to the nation’s food security. They have dramatically cut down the imports of some fruits and vegetables into the island. Good examples are cucumber, capsicum, fresh beans, tomatoes, lemon

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and passion fruit.

This is what we see on the surface.

Scratch the gloss and a nasty picture emerges. Farmers are contaminating the soil and ground water with pesticides at an alarming rate. They are no longer content with less toxic concoctions like ΄dhunfaiyfen΄. If it is a spray against ants, they demand to see the ant drop dead at the moment of impact. Nothing less. The pity is that chemical pesticides and insecticides are mostly toxic and in most cases there is a pre-harvest interval for these toxins after the produce comes into contact with the toxin. When no one realizes this, the toxins end up being deposited in someone’s liver or other vital organ via the chillies, cucumbers and lettuce they consume. The rest sinks into the soil and below until it reaches the water lens where it stays for years if not decades or centuries.

While we are debating the future of our development, I believe the future of agriculture is an important issue. One thing we must realize is that land is our most scarce resource and every opportunity to expand vertically will have to be seized.

Farmers must become more efficient and move towards hydroponics and auto pot hydroponics. Backyard gardening must be encouraged and specialization in a particular crop must be promoted among farmers.

We must also stick to our strengths.

Traditionally, taro and mango had been the pillars of our agriculture and they both require very little care and attention 321

as opposed to crops like cucumber and chili. A sizeable portion of the reed fields can still be turned into taro cultivation and more innovative ways of selling mango must be found. More value needs to be added to mango and taro products. Mangoes thrown away can be turned into chutney with a simple effort.

Mango seeds contain starch that used to be harvested and made into savory pancakes just like ala fathafolhi (taro pancake).

There are a number of strategies that can be used to develop agriculture but for a start we need to look at where we stand right now in relation to the vision we have so that we chart a clear course towards the finish line avoiding the pitfalls and riding the opportunities along the way.

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FILTER SULFUR FILTRATION CONTAINMENT OF ELEMENTS

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Kawa Ijen, Indonesia 60KG SULLFUR PER TRIP ACIDIC AIR POLLUTION - NEEDS INSULATION UNSTABLE/SHAKY GROUND 200 MINERS PER DAY PRODUCES 14 TONS OF SULFUR EVERYDAY

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COATING CLIFF, EXISTING VERTICAL MONASTERY

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BREAK WAVE OCEAN REDUCTION IN TIDAL FORCE

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PATH XXX

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WALL BATH DAM STORAGE

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COURTYARD URBAN MICRO APARTMENTS

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view into fishing deck L.1

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view from bedroom L.2.5

view from top of stair into living L3

view from top of stair into garden/kitchen L.4

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oom

stair

stair hen

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NETWORK FAVELLA BUDDHIST COLLEGE

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to be sited on something skinny rising water condition poor soil site restriction

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SECTION AA

SECTION AB

18.0m

16.5m

18.1m

16.4m

14.3m

13.3m

12.1m

10.6m

10.0m

8.3m

7.7m

5.5m

3.3m

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SECTION AD

21.0m

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1.6m

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SECTIO

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MALDIVES PORT CINEMA BANK OF MALDIVES

HOTEL

PARK

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FERRY TERMINAL

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MALDIVES NTL UNIVERSITY CRICKET GROUND

STADIUM CEMETARY

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SECTION AC

SECTION AB

SECTION AA

TION AD

REPUBLIC SQUARE

ISLAMIC CENTRE

JETTY PRESIDENTS OFFICE

BANK

NATIONAL GALLERY

JETTY AIRPORT FERRY

FERRY TERMINAL

PARK

TOURISM CAFE

ARTIFICAL BEACH

MALDIVES NTL UNIVERSITY

ELECTRIC STATION

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VILLA COLLEGE

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5째

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END