Leadership in Organizations, 9th edition Gary A Yukl Solution Manual

Leadership in Organizations, 9th edition BY Gary A. Yukl

Email: Richard@qwconsultancy.com

Preface This manual is designed to facilitate learning and assessment of leadership theories, concepts, research findings, and practices in the ninth edition of Leadership in Organizations. The manual is organized by type of activity and book chapter.

The first section of the manual contains general guidelines for using the short cases found at the end of most chapters in the book. In the Table of Contents for the manual, the relevant chapter for each case is noted in parentheses. The cases facilitate learning and make the material more interesting for students. For each specific case there are notes about the answers to the case questions. The cases can be used for class activities, written assignments, or exams. Because the amount of time required for a case depends on how it is used, no recommended times were provided for the cases.

The manual also contains experiential exercises that can be used to help students learn skills that are important for effective leadership. Some of the exercises involve activities that can be used in the classroom, and other exercises involve activities more suitable for use outside the classroom. Role plays are a special type of classroom activity, and they are in a separate part of the section on exercises. Because of limited space, it was not possible to include exercises for each chapter in the book. Other relevant exercises and role plays can be found in skills books and experiential learning books on management and organizational behavior.

Feedback from professors who use the manual is appreciated. Let us know what worked well, what problems were discovered, and what improvements are needed. If you discover other cases, exercises, or videos that are especially relevant and effective for teaching leadership skills, please let us know about them also. We can be contacted by email (gyuklo@albany.edu and william.gardner@ttu.edu).

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Contents Cases General Guidelines for Using Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Case Analyses: Consolidated Products (Ch. 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Superior Staffing (Ch. 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Acme Manufacturing Company (Ch. 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Foreign Auto Shop, Parts 1 and 2 (Ch. 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Echo Electronics (Ch. 4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Alvis Corporation (Ch. 4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Ultimate Office Products (Ch. 5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Ready Foods (Ch. 5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Sporting Goods Store (Ch. 6) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 The New Dean (Ch. 6) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 National Products (Ch. 7) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Prestige Marketing (Ch. 7) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Metro Bank (Ch. 8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Astro Airlines, Parts 1 and 2 (Ch. 8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Unethical Leadership at Enron (Ch. 9) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Restview Hospital (Ch. 9) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Cromwell Electronics (Ch. 10) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 American Financial Corp. (Ch. 10) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Southwest Engineering Services (Ch. 11) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Columbia Corporation (Ch. 11) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Costco (Ch. 12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Turnaround at Nissan (Ch. 12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43

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Madison, Jones & Conklin (Ch. 13) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 A Day in the Life of a Global Leader (Ch. 13) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Federated Industries (Ch. 14) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 River Bank (Ch. 14) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Outside Exercises Description of Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Exercises: Student Journal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Managerial Behavior Diary ……………………………………………………

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Analysis of Leadership in Meetings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Analysis of Famous Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Analysis of Leadership in a Movie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Classroom Exercises Description of Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Exercises: Decision Styles Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Influence Scenario Exercise . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Analysis of Visionary Speeches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Tower Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Role Play Exercises Description of Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Guidelines for Using Role Play Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Role Plays: Save-Mart Role Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Union Chemicals Role Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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KB Sportswear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Case Notes General Guidelines for Using the Cases The cases provide concrete examples of the abstract conceptions and principles discussed in the book. Most of the cases ask students to identify examples of appropriate and inappropriate behavior by the manager described in the case.

Students may be asked to recommend what the manager should have done differently or what the manager should do next.

For the more complex cases, it is usually best to have students analyze the case alone as homework and come to class prepared to discuss it. The shorter, less complex cases can be read and analyzed right in class, but the analysis is usually better when it is done as homework prior to class. After a case is analyzed individually by students, there are a number of options for discussing it.

One option is to discuss the case with the entire class. Of course, the larger the class, the less opportunity each member has for participation in the discussion. A second option is to form small groups to discuss the case separately and report back to the class on their findings and recommendations. This option is most suitable for a small class. A third option is to select one team of students that will analyze the case prior to the class and present their analysis during class. The remaining students are asked to read the case individually and critique the analysis made by the presenting team. A different team gets a turn to present each week. This approach is more appropriate for a larger class.

The following guidelines will facilitate learning from the cases. Some of the guidelines assume the use of small groups to discuss a case following individual analysis of it.

1. When assigning cases to students, explain the purpose of the case and how it will be used. Tell students what type of analysis they are expected to prepare for class.

2. The focus of the initial analysis should be to understand the leadership dilemmas in the case and what the case says about effective leadership, not to find solutions for specific problems. In making this analysis, students should try to use the concepts and theories discussed in the chapter. After a broader understanding is achieved, it is easier to determine what problems exist (if any), how they could have been avoided, and what the manager should do next to deal with them.

3. Emphasize the complexity of leadership situations and the tradeoffs faced by managers in making choices. Encourage students to consider different interpretations of the case rather than quickly focusing on a single, narrow interpretation. Encourage students to look for multiple causes of problems, rather than a simple explanation.

Students should try to understand why people acted the way they did in the case, rather than stereotyping them or looking for someone to blame for problems. Most of

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the cases depict managers with both strengths and weaknesses who are trying to do their job in a way they think is appropriate.

4. Just as there are seldom simple explanations for leadership problems, there are seldom guaranteed remedies. In cases describing a manager who was generally successful, ask students to consider what the manager could do to be even more successful, or if there are some completely different approaches that may also be effective in that situation. In cases describing a manager who has gotten into trouble, ask students to consider whether the person has some strengths rather than focusing only on weaknesses.

5. Encourage students to be open to alternative viewpoints when discussing the cases. Remind them that the group discussion will be more successful if one or two people do not try to dominate it and impose their ideas on the group. This guideline about being open-minded also applies to the instructor. Different interpretations of a case provide an opportunity to demonstrate how people approach a problem with different assumptions, biases, and priorities.

6. Vary the membership of small discussion groups over the semester so that students are exposed to different points of view.

7. Encourage students to relate the case to their own experiences. For example, ask students to describe examples of similar incidents they have experienced in current or previous jobs, or in other organizations in which they were members.

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Consolidated Products The purpose of this case is to provide students with an opportunity to use the behavior concepts presented in Chapter 2. One basis for comparing the two successive plant managers is in terms of task-oriented and relations-oriented leadership. However, these two broad categories are not sufficient for understanding what behavior is needed to be an effective plant manager in this company. Students also need to use more specific behavior categories to understand the limitations of each manager. Successive chapters in the book provide additional insights about this case that may not be evident after reading Chapter 2, and you may want to refer back to the case at later points in the course.

1. Describe and compare the managerial behavior of Ben and Phil. Describe each manager’s use of specific task and relations behaviors. How much does each manager use participative or inspirational leadership?

Ben was very concerned about employees, and his concern was reflected in efforts to protect employee jobs and make the work environment more pleasant. He socialized with employees, was supportive, and maintained an extensive network of personal friendships with employees. However, Ben had a relatively weak concern for productivity and product quality. He was satisfied to maintain the same level of production, and he did not set high performance objectives and quality standards.

Ben used supporting and some aspects of team building, but did little to develop employee skills and confidence. He did not use much planning, clarifying, and monitoring. Ben delegated the responsibility for supervising plant workers entirely to his first-line supervisors, but provided little guidance about what he expected. The case did not describe any active use of consultation by Ben. In contrast to Ben, Phil used a significant amount of task-oriented behavior (e.g., clarifying, monitoring, and operational planning). Phil set high performance standards, pressured people to achieve them, and checked closely on their performance.

However, Phil had little concern for employees and did not hesitate to make decisions that cut costs at the expense of employee benefits and jobs. Phil was low on relations-oriented behaviors such as supporting, developing, and team building. He was very directive and autocratic in making decisions and used little consultation or delegation.

2. Compare the two managers in terms of their influence on employee attitudes, short-term performance, and long-term plant performance.

Under Ben’s relationship-oriented leadership, employees were satisfied with the company, as evidenced by the very low turnover in his plant. However, employees were not highly motivated and did not perform up to their capacity. Ben’s plant had the second worst performance of the company’s five plants.

Phil’s lack of concern for employees was reflected in growing dissatisfaction and increased turnover among the supervisors and machine operators. Phil had a very short-term perspective on plant performance, which resulted in cutting expenses for

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development of human resources and maintenance of machines. He is the type of manager who makes a good initial impression based on the short-term indicators of financial performance, such as quarterly costs and production levels. However, the longer-term effectiveness of the work unit will suffer, due to the decline in human and material resources. Unfortunately, by the time the delayed, adverse effects of Phil’s actions become evident, he is likely be promoted and off to another position, leaving the mess for his successor to face.

3. If you were the manager of this plant, what would you do to achieve both high employee satisfaction and high performance?

A better balance of task and relationship behavior is needed. The plant manager should be supportive toward employees but also exhibit task-oriented behaviors such as setting challenging objectives and monitoring performance to ensure progress is being made toward achieving these objectives. It is better to delegate responsibility to supervisors (as Ben did) than to make all important decisions in an autocratic manner (as Phil did), but delegation without clear objectives and standards is ineffective.

There was no evidence that either manager used important behaviors such as recognizing and rewarding effective performance, developing subordinate skills, consulting with subordinates, and inspiring a strong sense of commitment to task objectives. Finally, investment in development of human resources and maintenance of physical resources affect long-term performance and should not be sacrificed for temporary gains in short-term performance.

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Superior Staffing The purpose of this case is to help students understand the task and relations behaviors that are relevant for leaders.

1. What specific task-oriented behaviors are used by Jackie? * Sets specific, challenging monthly goals for each subordinate (clarifying) * Holds progress review meetings each month (monitoring) * Observes subordinates while they work (monitoring) * Works with subordinates to resolve problems (problem solving)

2. What specific relations-oriented behaviors are used by Jackie? * She is sympathetic and offers help when a subordinate is upset (supporting) * Socializes and holds parties for the department members (team building) * Coaches individual subordinates who need help (coaching) * Providing recognition for effective performance (recognizing) * Provides career advice to subordinates (mentoring) 3. What are some other specific task and relations behaviors that were not described in the case but may also be relevant for Jackie to use? * Planning effective ways to improve task performance for the department * Involving subordinates in department decisions that affect them * Measure client satisfaction with the employees supplied by Superior to evaluate the recruiting procedures and identify any weaknesses to correct

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Acme Manufacturing Company In this case students analyze the activities of a manager to identify effective and ineffective behavior. The analysis gives students an opportunity to identify weaknesses in time management and to propose remedies. The problems involve several managerial functions, including delegation, planning, and monitoring.

1. What specific things did Steve do wrong, and what should have been done?

• Steve is late for work because he overslept. He should have been more careful to set a backup alarm or to have someone wake him.

• Steve forgot the staff meeting with his boss at 9:30. He should have written it in his calendar and looked at the calendar before work.

• Steve has a disorderly office and could not find important memos and work orders.

He should maintain a better system of files and records.

• Steve delegated the rush order to a production supervisor (Lucy Adams) but did not monitor progress. Since he doesn't know what is happening with the rush order, he is not able to deal with any problems with it. He needs to have a system for monitoring progress on the tasks for which he is responsible, even when they are delegated to a subordinate.

• Steve does not know where Lucy Adams is and has no easy way to contact her. He should have subordinate managers inform him (or his secretary) when they are leaving the work site, and they should carry a pager or cellular phone.

• Steve went to an important meeting unprepared. As a result, he failed to impress his boss and peers. Steve should review the agenda and background materials for important meetings and be prepared to make a meaningful contribution.

• Steve concentrated on completing a production report that was less urgent than preparing quality figures for his boss. He should make a list of necessary activities with their priorities, and plan his time accordingly. If he were better organized, it is likely that Steve would seldom have to take work home.

• Steve spent more than an hour assembling the quality data for his boss. The task was urgent, but the time-consuming job of assembling the data was not difficult and should have been delegated to his assistant manager, or perhaps even to his secretary. Steve only needed to spend a few minutes to check the completed work and make sure it was done correctly before giving it to his boss.

• Steve wasted an hour attending a safety meeting that was not important when he had other things to do that were much more important. Unlike the earlier staff meeting, he was not required to attend the safety meeting and could have delegated this task to a subordinate qualified to handle it.

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• Steve never did talk to Lucy about the rush order or get back to the Sales Vice President as he promised, thereby leaving a poor impression. He should have had his secretary (or his assistant) arrange a meeting with Lucy as soon as she returned to the plant.

2. What should Steve do to become more effective as a manager?

Steve does not manage his time well. He is disorganized and messy, he does not plan his daily activities, he wastes time on activities that are not important, he forgets appointments and meetings, he does not delegate effectively, he does not monitor important activities for which he is responsible, he does not prepare for important meetings, and he fails to deliver on promises to important people. Steve needs to apply some of the principles of time management: • Make a list of short- and long-term objectives.

• Make a daily "to-do list" of activities relevant to the objectives, with priorities and deadlines. Use the to-do list and a calendar to plan and schedule relevant and required activities for each day.

• Delegate to qualified subordinates activities that are not critical, or that are important but require more time than he has available.

• Develop an information system to monitor projects and delegated activities.

• Use the secretary to screen calls and visitors effectively.

• Organize files, records, and desktop so important documents can be found easily.

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Foreign Auto Shop This two-part case gives students an opportunity to develop greater understanding of the importance of flexible leadership in rapidly changing situations.

Part 1 describes a normal situation, and Part 2 describes an unusual crisis situation.

Students analyze each situation and determine what pattern of managerial behavior is appropriate. Part 1 should be completed before going on to Part 2. The case illustrates how effective leaders adapt their behavior to the changing requirements of the situation, while continuing to show concern for both task objectives and interpersonal relationships. The case also demonstrates that an effective leader need not be a "heroic figure" who knows everything and solves all the organization's problems without any assistance.

Part 1 1. What is the usual leadership situation in the auto repair shop (consider the nature of the task, subordinates, and environment)?

The repair tasks are mostly self-contained, and little coordination is needed between mechanics. Thus, little planning is needed except to determine the work schedule, assignments, and necessary supplies. Except for diagnosis and troubleshooting, most of the repair work is highly structured (there is a best way to do it). However, the tasks require considerable skill, and auto mechanics need to acquire new technical knowledge periodically to keep up with changes in car design and technology. Most of the mechanics in Alan's shop are highly skilled in their work and have considerable experience. The three least experienced mechanics are assigned easier tasks appropriate for their skill level. Although they receive more guidance than the others, even they do not need much supervision. None of the mechanics is younger than twenty-three. They are all highly motivated and interested in their work.

Diagnosing problems in cars and repairing them is a challenging, self-contained task with moderate variety, and high feedback about results from the task itself and from customers. Thus, except for some routine tasks such as mounting tires and changing the oil, most of the work is intrinsically motivating and satisfying for the workers.

2. Describe Alan’s typical leadership style and evaluate whether it is appropriate for the leadership situation.

Alan's behavior is appropriate for the situation. He usually consults with subordinates in making decisions that affect them. He does not spend much time directing them or checking on their work. He makes assignments and provides coaching in a relaxed manner. He does not rely much on the authority stemming from his position as owner and manager of the business. Working alongside of the mechanics, he is viewed by them as “one of the crew” rather than as “the boss.”

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Part 2 1. Describe Alan’s leadership style during the flood and evaluate whether it is appropriate for the leadership situation.

Alan's leadership behavior is appropriate for the situation. By monitoring the external environment, he correctly identifies the flood danger and the need for immediate action to prepare for it. The mechanics have never experienced a flood in the shop, and they do not know how to respond in a coordinated, effective manner.

Thus, quick, decisive problem solving and firm direction are needed to prepare for the flood and coordinate the response of the group. There is no time for participative planning. If the group sat around discussing how to respond, they would not have time to do what is necessary to avoid serious damage to the shop and to customers’ cars.

The situation is complicated by the fact that the mechanics do not recognize the danger and do not believe that Alan is serious when he tells them to drop their regular work and start moving things to safe places. They are confused by his directive behavior because it is so different from his usual leadership style. Once the mechanics eventually recognize the danger, they will be intrinsically motivated to avoid flood damage that would threaten their jobs. However, there is little time to try to persuade them that there is a crisis. When he sees that the mechanics are not responding to his instructions, Alan becomes much more assertive by giving direct, authoritative orders in a command voice, and using appropriate nonverbal behaviors such as direct eye contact and a stern expression. Alan falls back on his position power (as owner-manager) to influence subordinates. He is firm but does not use threats or insults.

The flood crisis is novel to Alan as well as to the mechanics, and he cannot think of everything himself. Once the mechanics begin following his directions, Alan is receptive to good suggestions about other things that need to be done to avoid damage to the shop or the cars. Thus, while being very directive, he is not entirely autocratic in deciding how the group should deal with the problem. Even in a crisis, he is a more effective manager by being receptive to good ideas from subordinates.

2. Identify effective behaviors by Alan after the flood subsided.

The experience of the flood makes it easier for the mechanics to understand the reason for Alan’s unusual behavior. Nevertheless, this type of behavior carries the risk of undermining his good relationship with them. Alan’s actions after the crisis are appropriate for maintaining a good relationship. He shows his appreciation for the mechanics' efforts by personally thanking them. He gives them the next morning off as a reward for volunteering to stay late and help with the cleanup. When they return to work the next afternoon, he makes a speech to give them credit for successfully avoiding serious damage from the flood. He gives recognition for each person’s contributions, no matter how small. He does not mention that he was right and the mechanics were wrong about the danger of a flood. Thus, Alan helps the mechanics

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perceive the crisis as a joint effort in which they all played important part, rather than trying to portray himself as a heroic leader.

3. How should Alan behave toward his employees in the future?

There is no reason for Alan to change his typical style of leadership in non-crisis situations. Some students mistakenly interpret his final comments as indicating that Alan needs to become more directive. Such a change would undermine his effectiveness. Alan will have more expert power as a result of his successful interpretation of the crisis, and employees are more likely to believe him and carry out his directions immediately in a future crisis.

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Echo Electronics The purpose of this case is to provide a better understanding of the potential benefits of participative leadership. Students are asked to read a case describing a decision for which an autocratic decision was unsuccessful. The mistakes made by the manager in this case demonstrate the importance of consultation in making decisions that have important implications for both subordinates and the organization.

1. What actions could Paul have taken to prevent the problem?

Use of participative leadership may have prevented this problem. Consultation with employees about major changes is useful for discovering potential resistance to the change, gaining commitment to it, and getting suggestions on ways to implement the change more effectively. A major change in the work such as introduction of new equipment can have a very disruptive effect on people. The new workstations may be perceived by the workers either as an improvement or as a threat. The workstations offer a number of advantages, such as making the work more interesting, raising the skill level of employees, and providing an opportunity to increase productivity and product quality, thereby making the company more competitive and protecting the jobs of workers. Conversely, the workers may perceive the new equipment as a threat to their job security, because fewer workers will be needed if productivity is increased. Moreover, workers who are not computer literate may be anxious about learning new skills and worried that their experience and technical skills will become obsolete in a computerized factory.

A major change of this type should be introduced carefully to avoid negative reactions. The potential benefits for the company and the workers should have been explained before the changes were made, and the supervisors and workers should have been invited to participate in meetings to plan how to implement the changes effectively. Employees should have been encouraged to express any concerns and doubts about the feasibility of the proposed changes. The opportunity to discuss changes and influence them reduces anxiety and helps to avoid false rumors.

Whenever possible, Paul should have modified the planned changes to deal with employee concerns and utilize good suggestions, thereby giving the employees (and the supervisors) a sense of ownership of the changes.

Some other actions to ensure that the new workstations would be viewed as a positive change would help create trust and reduce anxiety. Paul should have tried to persuade top management to guarantee that no jobs would be lost as a result of the change. He should have looked for ways the workers could benefit from the changes, for example, by earning more after learning the new skills needed to operate the workstations. Paul should have made sure adequate training was provided to help the workers learn how to operate the new machines effectively.

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2. What steps should Paul take now to deal with the problem?

The first step is to determine the cause of the problem. It is not clear why productivity and quality decreased. Paul’s four supervisors disagree about the cause, and there is insufficient evidence to support their opinions.

There is no obvious deficiency in the equipment, but more investigation is needed to completely rule out this possibility. Paul needs more information about the timing, scope, and intensity of the problem. He should determine whether productivity and quality has declined for all of the workers, or only for some workers, departments, or shifts. If the company has a good records, data for the period prior to the introduction of workstations should be examined to see if the pattern was one of stable, increasing, or decreasing productivity and quality. Paul also needs to check with his contacts in other companies to determine whether they experienced a decline in productivity and quality the first few months after the workstations were introduced (it may be a natural part of the learning curve). Finally, Paul should consider the possibility that the problems are jointly caused by the workstations and some other condition unique to the company.

There is some evidence to suggest that the problem is due at least in part to worker resistance. Worker morale has declined, and two employees quit because they were upset about changes in how the work is done. These reactions suggest the new workstations may be viewed as a threat rather than a benefit, but Paul needs more information to confirm this diagnosis. Paul should hold meetings with groups of workers to discuss the problem and try to learn how the workers feel about the new workstations. If the workers trust Paul and share his objectives of improving productivity and quality, Paul can invite them to participate in finding ways to make the new workstations successful as a means of improving quality and productivity.

Paul may find that the problem has multiple causes, each requiring a different type of solution. Changes may be required in compensation, job design, work rules, job security, or training procedures. For example, if the workers were not properly trained to operate the new equipment, then new training should be developed quickly.

If the workstations are incompatible with existing production procedures, than some re-engineering may be needed. If the workers are afraid that the new machines threaten their job security, then the company needs to provide assurances that no jobs will be lost as a result of increased productivity. If the workers feel inequity, a pay increase may be appropriate to compensate them for learning the new skills needed to operate the workstations. Paul needs to persuade the CEO to approve any necessary changes. The fact that the CEO approved the initial plan for the change and shares part of the responsibility for its deficiencies may make it easier to get approval for the necessary changes.

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Alvis Corporation The purpose of this case is to provide students with a better understanding of the potential pitfalls of participative leadership. Students are asked to read a case describing two decisions for which a participative approach was unsuccessful. The mistakes made by the manager in this case demonstrate the importance of leader skill in making difficult decisions involving inherent conflicts of interest.

1. Were the two decisions suitable ones for a group decision procedure?

In the decision about production standards, decision quality is clearly important, because low standards cost the company more in incentive pay. Acceptance is also important, because the incentive system will not be effective if workers believe management is trying to exploit them. If workers become very frustrated and angry over the handling of the incentives, the quality of work will probably decline even further. The leader is expected by top management to reduce labor costs, but workers will resist any cuts in their incentive pay. Kathy has the information necessary to make a decision that would protect company profits, but an autocratic decision to raise production standards is unlikely to be accepted by employees. The most appropriate procedure for this type of decision is probably consultation. Kathy used a group decision, which risks decision quality, because worker objectives are not congruent with the organization's objectives.

In the vacation decision, decision quality is moderately important. The workers are not interchangeable in terms of their job skills, and different ways of setting up the vacation schedule have different implications for department performance. Decision acceptance is also important, since some workers feel strongly about taking their vacation at a particular time. Kathy lacks some of the information needed to make the decision, such as subordinate preferences about vacation times. If this information was available, she could probably make a high quality decision by herself. Finally, the subordinates may not share the leader's objectives to maintain high department performance. Thus, the most appropriate procedure for this type of decision is consultation. Kathy used a group decision, which risks decision quality if the workers may decide on a schedule that leaves some essential jobs without adequate coverage.

It is better to consult with individuals separately than to consult with the entire group together, which may aggravate the conflict. Kathy could start by asking each worker to indicate preferred weeks on a calendar or form, then determine if there is a schedule that would provide adequate job coverage and still satisfy everyone. If no simple solution is evident, Kathy could meet with workers who want the same vacation period to look for a solution. If no solution is found, Kathy could continue to use productivity as the criterion for deciding among people who want the same vacation period, or she could resort to a chance procedure such as flipping a coin or having people draw numbers to determine the order of choice for vacation periods.

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2. What mistakes were made in using participation, and what could have been done to avoid the difficulties the manager encountered?

As noted earlier, a group decision is not the recommended procedure for making either of these decisions. Even if it had been a good procedure for this situation, Kathy made major mistakes in using it. She should have stayed with the group to serve as its discussion leader and facilitator. For the vacation decision she should have made it clear to the group that the options are limited to schedules that provide coverage for all essential tasks. For the decision about production standards, Kathy should have introduced the issues in a way that would encourage and facilitate constructive problem solving.

The decision about production standards illustrates the importance of proper timing in use of decision procedures. The standards should have been adjusted before the new equipment was installed. It would have been easier to reach a satisfactory agreement before the workers became accustomed to receiving so much extra incentive pay. Even if information about productivity gains was insufficient to determine exactly what the standards should be beforehand, some tentative arrangements should have been made so that workers would clearly expect the standards to be corrected at a later time after some experience with the new equipment.

3. Were these decisions appropriate ones for introducing participation into the department?

The two decisions are a poor choice for introducing participative management into Kathy’s department. It is best to begin with an issue that does not involve inherent conflicts among employees, or between employees and management. The incentive pay decision involves an inherent conflict between the workers and management over division of the benefits from higher productivity; the workers want a share of the benefits, but management wants to use all the benefits to pay for the new equipment.

The vacation schedule decision involves a conflict among various individuals who want to take their vacations during the same time interval but disagree about the appropriate criteria for deciding the issue.

An example of a more suitable issue for introducing participation is product quality. Improving quality is an objective that can be embraced by all members of the organization, especially when quality and customer service are strong values in the organization culture. Participation by the workers in developing work procedures that improve both quality and efficiency would increase the amount of benefits to be divided between workers and management, thereby making it easier to find a mutually acceptable solution. For this approach to work, however, Kathy must also gain the cooperation of top management.

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Ultimate Office Products This purpose of this case is to help students understand effective leadership of change in an organization. The case describes a manager whose initial efforts to introduce change fail, but whose subsequent efforts are successful. Students are asked to explain these outcomes by identifying effective or ineffective behaviors and facilitating or constraining conditions.

1. Why did Richard fail in his first attempt to implement change?

The case does not provide much detail about the reasons for failure, but several strong possibilities can be identified.

• Richard failed to make a systematic diagnosis of the reason for the problem. His perception of the nature of the problem was biased by his functional background, and he too quickly assumed that the cause of the problem was obsolete technology. He did not understand the need for concurrent changes in operating procedures and better cooperation among the functional departments.

• People tend to resist new technology unless it is perceived to be relevant, beneficial, easy to use, and not a threat to their self-esteem, values, or job security.

Richard did not determine whose support was necessary to implement the change and then plan how to get the support. He could not get agreement among the functional managers on the requirements of the new system, which was necessary to get it operating.

• The new workstations represent a top-down change initiated without any participation by the key people who must implement it. The functional managers, over whom he had no direct authority, disagreed about the reason for the problems and blamed each other. They did not view the new technology as an adequate solution.

• Richard did not have much legitimate or expert power with the functional managers.

He got the CEO’s approval to purchase new computer workstations and software, but he did not have much visible support from the CEO for implementing the change.

2. Identify subsequent actions by Richard that were effective for implementing change in the organization.

After the failure of his initial efforts to implement change, Richard essentially started over again and did things the way he should have done them the first time.

Most of the effective actions were the opposite of the ineffective actions just described. It is not clear how he knew what to do, perhaps the consultant mentioned in the case advised him, or perhaps he read a book on change leadership.

• Richard and his staff assistants conducted a workflow analysis to identify reasons for delays in processing orders. This analysis provided important insights into the

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reasons for the problem and the scope of the necessary changes, but it did not provide solutions.

• Then he formed cross-functional task forces to re-engineer the work procedures and identify the requirements for the new information system. He used several task forces in order to get more people involved in the change process. The task forces were encouraged to meet with key customers to learn about their needs and to visit other companies to learn how they processed orders more effectively. Participation on the task forces helped people understand the need for change and begin to take a systems view of the work.

• He formed a steering committee composed of himself and the functional managers to guide and coordinate the change process. He asked the CEO to attend these meetings to emphasize their importance and help to resolve disagreements among the functional managers.

• He secured the services of an outside consultant to advise the task forces in their work and help them understand the technical aspects of the needs analysis and the re-engineering process.

3. Evaluate the change leadership provided by the CEO. The case does not include much information about the CEO, but this person does not appear to be doing much to create a sense of urgency about the need for change. New competitors and the changing needs of customers pose a threat to the older companies such as this one, and there is a need for more flexibility and proactive planning. The CEO apparently created the new position occupied by Richard, but more needs to be done to help the organization adapt to its environment.

At first the CEO did not much provide direct support to Richard, although eventually this support is forthcoming. The changes in technology and work processes introduced by Richard are important, but they may not be enough to keep this company competitive. The efforts of the task forces to learn more about customer needs provide some information that would be useful for making a competitive analysis. However, more needs to be done to identify market trends, competitor actions, and the firm’s strengths, weaknesses, and core competencies. The CEO should be leading these efforts.

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Ready Foods The purpose of this case is to show students how not to implement a major change in a company, and what can happen if the leader assumes a planned change will be accepted and implemented effectively by employees, even though they perceive it to be unfair or unnecessary.

1. Why did Bruce fail to successfully implement the changes? * He failed to clearly explain why major changes were necessary to save the company and employee jobs, and his logic in assuming that cutting perks was a much better alternative than layoffs. * He neglected to include others in the decision-making/implementation process.

While he is the CEO and wields legitimate power, such power was not sufficient to secure the commitment necessary to effectively implement the change. * The timeline for the implementation of the changes also reflects a poor choice. While a sense of urgency is important, the impact (particularly the negative effects) and the necessary time for implementation should have been more thoroughly considered.

2. What could Bruce have done differently to have a better chance of successfully implementing the changes? * He needs to be transparent and explain how performance has been declining and why major changes are needed to save the company. He should explain the new vision he has for the company. He can also explain why he thinks cutting perks is a better option than layoffs, but remain open to other options. * He could have included key employees in the diagnosis, decision-making, and implementation phases of the change. The creation of task forces to analyze the problem and consider alternatives would have provided not only more useful insights, but also facilitated the inclusion of others who would be likely to be supportive and potential change agents. * Bruce could have rolled the changes out a little more slowly than he did. Rather than simply cutting perks, he could have informed people they would be cutting the unused perks, then the under used perks, and then the fully used perks. Or he could have provided a timeline for people to find alternative solutions to the problems that cutting perks would create.

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Sporting Goods Store The purpose of this case is to develop a better understanding of the different types of influence tactics and how to use them. The case also provides an opportunity to develop skill in analyzing power relations and planning influence strategies. The power analysis should be made before trying to identify effective influence tactics.

Then students should consider likelihood of success for each type of tactic, and the best sequence for using the preferred tactics.

1. How much of each type of power does Bill have at this time?

• Bill has moderate legitimate power. He has authority to ask an employee to stop wasting time and provide faster service. However, as a new manager with little expertise, subordinates may not perceive him to have much authority to prescribe how to do their jobs better, especially when profits for the ski department are already at a level that is average for stores in the region.

• Bill has very little expert power. He does not come to the job with an established reputation as an effective manager, which would enhance his expertise in the eyes of subordinates. He has no prior experience as a store manager, and his limited experience as an assistant manager did not allow him to demonstrate that he knows how to improve profits or satisfy customers. Finally, Bill doesn’t ski and knows nothing about skiing.

• Bill has very little referent power. He has just met his subordinates and there has not been sufficient time to establish a deeper relationship with them to provide the basis for referent power.

• Bill has a small amount of reward power. He has a limited amount of control over rewards desired by subordinates. He can influence merit pay decisions, but the annual appraisals will not occur for some time and they must reflect objective performance data. Furthermore, until Bill has actually demonstrated a willingness to reward good performance, his credibility as a source of rewards will not be established with subordinates.

• Bill’s coercive power is very limited. Bill can fire or suspend employees, but only with the approval of his boss and only by making a strong case, which is not possible in his situation. Any excessive use of warnings and punishment by a new, inexperienced manager is likely to reflect poorly upon the manager, because it is likely to increase absenteeism and turnover, which may prevent any gain in profits.

2. What influence tactics could be used in this situation to influence Sally?

Explain what you would say to Sally in the process of using these tactics.

• Simple requests and legitimating tactics: Bill could ask Sally to spend less of her time visiting with customers and more time serving them. Alternatively, he could ask Sally to reduce waiting time for customers, without mentioning her own contribution to

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the problem. A store manager has the authority to make these types of requests, and legitimating tactics are probably not needed.

• Rational persuasion: Bill could tell Sally about his observations of dissatisfied customers and explain how faster service will improve department sales and profits.

• Collaboration: Bill could offer to help Sally find ways to improve customer service and reduce waiting times (e.g., provide additional personnel, improve training of salespeople, or work at the cash register himself during busy times, improve procedures for processing sales).

• Consultation: Bill could tell Sally about his observations of disgruntled customers, suggest that there may be a problem with customer service in her department, and ask her for suggestions about how to deal with the problem. Alternatively, he may invite her to participate in the diagnosis of the problem to determine if customer service really is inadequate and to see if there are other ways to improve department profits. Bill could ask Sally to prepare an action plan for improving profits.

• Apprising: Bill could explain to Sally how improving the performance of her department would help her get a pay raise or advance her career in the company.

• Exchange tactics: Bill could promise to recommend a good merit increase if Sally is able to improve customer service in her department and reduce waiting time.

• Ingratiation: This tactic is likely to improve relationships if it appears to be sincere.

For example, he could compliment Sally on her expertise about ski equipment and apparel. However, there is not much potential for using ingratiation to get Sally to change her behavior. If Bill compliments Sally and then asks her to help provide faster service to customers, the compliment is likely to appear very manipulative.

• Pressure tactics: Bill could criticize Sally's behavior, prod her to provide faster service, or warn her that she is risking her merit increase (and her job) if she continues to waste time visiting while customers are waiting.

• Inspirational appeals: Bill could tell Sally that he hopes to make this store the best one in the region, and that her department is essential to the success of the effort. He might say that he would like to see her department gain the reputation of being the best place in town for superb equipment and good service. He could say that he is counting on her help and invite her to join him in achieving this vision. However, these appeals would be based on assumptions about Sally’s needs and values. Until Bill gets to know Sally better, it is risky to make assumptions about the basis for an inspirational appeal. If used too early, this tactic may appear to be an attempt to manipulate her.

• Personal appeals: Bill has no referent power on which to base a personal appeal, and this tactic is unlikely to be effective.

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• Coalition tactics: Bill does not know anybody in the local store well enough to form a coalition. A coalition with his boss (the regional manager) is possible but not advisable. Bill should be able to manage the store without running to his boss for help on minor problems like this one.

3. What should Bill do to improve store performance?

Many students jump to the conclusion (as Bill did) that the problem is Sally’s behavior and the solution is to change it. However, Bill is new to the job and he does not have enough information to diagnose the problem. There may be some good reasons for sales people to spend extra time with customers. Conversations with customers may provide useful information about current ski conditions, recent fads in equipment and apparel, and customer reactions to the various types of ski equipment and apparel sold by the store. Extra time spent with customers may be used to learn more about their needs and provide better advice in the selection of equipment.

Finally, socializing with customers may make the job attractive to people such as Sally, despite the low pay. Bill needs to investigate these possibilities before discouraging Sally and other salespeople from spending time with customers. Some excesses may need to be curbed, but there are other things that can be done as well to reduce delays (e.g., better planning of employee work schedules to increase coverage during peak times, better procedures for processing sales quickly, better displays of goods to make it easier for customers to find what they want).

The most promising tactic in this situation is probably consultation, because this tactic would help Bill to learn more about the nature of the problem and to gain Sally’s cooperation in dealing with it. Of course, some skill is needed to use consultation effectively, and there is no guarantee that it will be successful. The use of rational persuasion, collaboration, and inspiration may be appropriate after Bill gains a better understanding of the problem and its causes. If Bill uses inspirational appeals, he should try to involve the other store departments in his vision. The effectiveness of exchange and apprising are limited by Bill’s weak reward power and lack of exclusive knowledge about career advancement in the company. Bill’s limited coercive power limits makes it difficult to use pressure tactics, and the costs may be greater than any benefits. Personal appeals, legitimating, and coalition tactics have little relevance in this situation. Ingratiation is primarily useful for improving relationships.

The case shows how little power some managers have, and it encourages students to think of ways to influence subordinates despite minimal position and personal power. Many students tend to think that Bill’s job would be much easier if only he had more position power. One way to challenge this assumption is to have students assume Bill is the store owner with complete power to fire employees, give pay increases, and introduce incentive programs. Then ask students to predict Bill’s behavior. The answer is that Bill would probably use his power to coerce and manipulate Sally into providing faster service, without first trying to determine the nature of the problem or the reasons for Sally’s behavior. This question leads nicely into a discussion of the benefits and pitfalls of having substantial position power.

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The New Dean The purpose of this case is to show how power can be used by a leader to influence subordinates and bosses, and how subordinate counter power can be used to remove a leader who is incompetent and unethical.

1. What influence tactics were used by the Acting Dean to get promoted?

The acting dean used rational persuasion in his claim that if he had the status of a regular dean rather than a temporary acting dean, he would be able to obtain more benefits from local companies for the Business School, and especially for the new building that was being constructed for the School. The relatively new Provost, who had previously been at another university, apparently believed this claim, although the validity of it is questionable. Apparently the Provost did not know about the university requirement for an affirmative action search process for any new dean or higher-level administrator position. The Provost also did not know that it was appropriate to involve Business School faculty in the decision about the selection of a Dean.

2. How much of each type of power did the new Dean possess over Business School faculty?

The formal authority of the new dean over decisions about the Business School was increased by his appointment. Even though his position power was much less than for many managers in companies, it was still substantial. His legitimate and reward power included the right to make decisions about the allocation of School funds to departments, and he could support or oppose department personnel requests and academic program proposals. He did not follow the informal practice in the Business School of consulting with the council of department heads about some important types of decisions, and was not required to inform the faculty in advance about these decisions.

The new Dean had very limited personal power over the faculty. His expert power was limited by his lack of research publications and lack of an established record of program development and academic achievement. He also had limited referent power with faculty, because he had close, personal relationships with only a few of members of the faculty, he was not trusted by most of the faculty, and he was not able to make inspiring proposals for improving the Business School.

3. What power bases and influence tactics were used to get the new Dean dismissed?

The faculty had limited counter power over the new Dean. Attempts to use rational persuasion involving the importance and effectiveness of the field projects and doctoral assistantships were not successful, because the new Dean did not share the values and objectives of the department chairs who made these appeals.

One strong basis for the claim that his appointment was not legitimate was the failure to conduct the required affirmative action process for dean selection. His lack of strong qualifications for the position and his unethical behavior provided additional .

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evidence used to persuade the Provost that the appointment of the new Dean should not be renewed (his initial term of appointment was ending). Although there was not a formal process to involve faculty in the decision to replace a dean, the informal vote of tenured faculty to recommend dismissal provided another way to influence the university administration to conduct a new dean search.

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National Products The purpose of this case is to develop a better understanding of the implications of different motive patterns for managerial effectiveness. Students are required to identify the dominant motive of three department managers and evaluate their likely effectiveness if selected for a general manager position. The case can be used in different ways, but I generally use it in the following way.

First ask each individual to do the analysis alone, either in class or as homework.

Divide the class into small groups, and ask each group to reach consensus in about 15 minutes. When the groups have finished their discussion, ask the group leaders to post their results simultaneously. My experience is that most groups will be able to identify the dominant motive correctly. Discuss any discrepancies. Then ask how many people identified dominant motives for all three managers correctly by themselves before the group discussion; the number is likely to be much lower.

1. What are the dominant motives for each candidate?

Charley Adams: the dominant need is affiliation.

Bill Stuart: the dominant needs are achievement and need for independence.

Ray Johnson: the dominant needs are personalized power and need for esteem.

2. What are the implications of these traits for the success of each candidate if selected for the general manager position?

Most of the research on managerial motivation suggests that effective managers in large organizations are likely to have a socialized power motive (high need for power combined with emotional maturity), a moderately high need for achievement, and a relatively lower need for affiliation. None of the managers described in this case has the optimal motive pattern for a general manager in a large organization.

Charley Adams would tend to emphasize harmonious relationships too much in relation to task objectives; he would avoid making controversial decisions that would put a strain on friendships (e.g., asking subordinates to do extra work or make sacrifices necessary to achieve high performance).

Bill Stuart would tend to take too much personal responsibility for accomplishing the important and challenging tasks of the group and would not delegate enough or spend enough time developing subordinates.

Ray Johnson would be domineering and insensitive with subordinates and would probably fail to develop cooperation, trust, and teamwork with them or with his peers.

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3. Should Susan recommend one of these candidates for the position or look for other candidates?

Susan should look for external candidates (or find other, better-qualified internal candidates). As noted earlier, none of the three current candidates has the motive pattern usually associated with effectiveness as a middle manager in a large organization. It is also important for a general manager to have some knowledge and appreciation of different functional areas in the organization. There is little evidence that the three department managers have much expertise outside of their area of functional specialization. Susan should also consider implementing a better management development system for the company to increase the number of internal managers who are qualified for promotion.

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Prestige Marketing The purpose of this case is to provide students an opportunity to identify traits and skills possessed by leaders and to better understand how these attributes are related to the effectiveness of the leader.

1. What are the key leadership traits, skills, and competencies of each team leader?

Jerry: He has a high level of interpersonal skills and exhibits high levels of extraversion.

He has experience as a department manager and her department has high performance.

Sandy: She has a high need for power and high technical and conceptual skills. Her attention to detail shows that she is very conscientious. She has some managerial experience, but it is not clear that her department achieves its potential level of performance.

Austin: He has a high need for affiliation and strong conceptual and interpersonal skills.

He as experience as a department manager and her department has high performance.

2. Identify any attributes that have contributed to each team leader's career success.

Jerry: His high need for achievement has helped him to be successful as the manager of a client services department, where he pushes for strong performance by subordinates Sandy: Her technical and conceptual skills have enabled her to be successful in performing market research, and it was a major reason she was selected to be the manager of this department.

Austin: His interpersonal skills and willingness to provide assistance to subordinates have helped him as department manager to develop a cohesive, high performing team.

His involvement in many different projects in past years and wide network of contacts would be useful for a cross-functional project team.

3. What attributes of each of team leaders are seen by others as problematic?

How might these attributes detract from the effectiveness of their teams in delivering a quality proposal?

Jerry: His need for achievement have encouraged demands for unsustainable levels of effort by subordinates and it impedes his ability to promote team cohesion and

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sustainable workloads for team members. If he was the new leader of the project team, the difficulty in resolving conflicts among members may limit progress.

Sandy: Her high need for achievement, strong technical skills, and need for control have encouraged her to take too much responsibility for decisions. She may not understand that her expertise will not include some of the activities of the new cross functional team, and that it will be necessary to delegate important tasks to members and involve them in making important decisions for the team.

Austin: His overemphasis on team harmony may ultimately create problems if conflicts are avoided rather than recognized and resolved effectively. His weak technical expertise my limit his ability to understand complex problems for the new project.

However, despite these limitations, he is the most likely person to be successful as the leader of the new project team.

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Metro Bank The purpose of this case is to help students gain a better understanding of transformational leadership. The case describes the leadership behavior of a relatively low-level bank manager over a period of several months. Students are asked to analyze the case and identify examples of transformational leadership behaviors and their effects.

1. What leadership behaviors did Marsha use to change the branch office and motivate employees?

Marsha can be regarded as a transformational leader. She both inspired and empowered subordinates to achieve more than they initially expected. The bank employees came to see their work roles as crucial for individual and organizational success rather than as a thankless task. Employees felt increased pride in their work, and some old-timers acquired new aspirations and advanced to higher positions. In the end, Marsha was successful in transforming a branch bank with low morale, efficiency, and customer service to one with high morale, efficiency, and customer service. The following pattern of leadership behaviors were used to accomplish this outcome: • Marsha formulated a vision to give her branch bank (one of many branches) a distinctive character and a clear mission. This vision was formulated only after she had been in her new position for a few months and got to know her employees, the situation at the branch, and the politics of corporate headquarters.

• Her vision and strategy were communicated through her statements, decisions, and daily actions. She declared that opportunities for development would be available to all employees, not just to fast-track managers, and she followed up on her promise by negotiating access to the management development program for any employees who aspired to advance into higher-level management.

• She used developmental assignments and coaching to increase the managerial skills of her immediate subordinates.

• She planned and implemented changes in work procedures, including cross training to increase employee skills as well as customer service.

• She modified the appraisal/reward system to provide tangible benefits to employees who helped others learn.

2. Describe Marsha’s vision for the branch office of Metro bank.

Marsha’s vision involved the two strategic objectives of developing executive talent and providing quality customer service, and she looked for ways to integrate these objectives so that they would be mutually facilitative. Both objectives were consistent with the existing mission of the branch. Thus, Marsha did not propose an

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unconventional vision. What she did was to make these objectives more meaningful and relevant for regular bank employees. She increased both the ideological significance of the developmental objective for employees and the tangible benefits for helping to make the program successful. She improved customer service with changes (e.g., cross-training) that also enriched the jobs of bank employees.

3. Should Marsha be described as a transformational leader, a charismatic leader, or both?

This question can be useful for stimulating discussion about the difference between transformational and charismatic leadership. Although the question is difficult to answer without some information not included in the case (such as how the employees actually viewed Marsha), there is no evidence that Marsha was a charismatic leader. She did not engage in some key behaviors that increase attributed charisma. As noted earlier, she did not propose an unconventional vision; the objectives for the branch already included executive development and customer service. Her strategy for attaining the vision had some new elements (give branch employees more opportunities for advancement, reward employee contributions to executive development, use cross-training), but these changes were not so unusual as to make her appear exceptional. She did not engage in unconventional behavior or make significant personal sacrifices to achieve her vision. Although the branch initially had some discontented employees and lower than expected performance, there was not a serious crisis that threatened its survival. In summary, Marsha demonstrated considerable competence and creativity in turning around her branch, but she did not display exceptional genius in solving highly visible problems that are central to the survival and success of the larger organization. It is difficult for a low-level manager to become charismatic, especially in a highly-centralized organization such as this type of bank. The CEO is probably the only leader with the authority to make major changes in the strategy and structure of this organization (e.g., introduce successful new products or services, find innovative ways to reorganize the company, initiate a strategic merger or acquisition).

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Astro Airlines The purpose of this two-part case is to help students gain a better understanding of charismatic leadership. The case is fairly long, because it describes the behavior of the leader over a period of four years. The leader establishes a new company that has phenomenal success for the first few years, then quickly declines into bankruptcy. Students are asked to analyze the case and identify charismatic leadership behaviors and their beneficial and adverse effects on followers and the company. The analysis of Part 1 should be completed before doing Part 2.

Part 1 1. Describe Burton’s leadership behavior?

• He articulated an appealing vision of a new type of company with an emphasis on quality, informality, participative leadership, and self-management that would provide a unique and socially important service to the nation.

• His vision involved an unconventional strategy of no frills, one-class airline service with innovative scheduling of flights and in-flight ticketing. Other unconventional ideas implemented by Burton included elimination of status perks for executives, required ownership of company stock by employees, elimination of narrow role specialization, and emphasis on operational teams to do the work.

• He took advantage of every opportunity to persistently teach and affirm his vision, and he used emotional, symbolic language.

• Burton’s design for the new organization called for substantial empowerment of employees. There was an emphasis on participative leadership and selfmanagement. Top management met with advisory and coordinating councils to get their input on important decisions. These councils were composed of employees who represented the operational work teams.

2. Was Burton a charismatic leader in the company at this time?

Burton exhibited the key behaviors associated with charismatic leadership, and many of his employees viewed him as an exceptional leader. He articulated a nontraditional vision with ideological elements, and he used unconventional strategies to attain it. He was a dynamic, emotionally stirring speaker who made employees and investors believe his vision was possible. The new company experienced some early successes that gave his vision more credibility. Professional employees like the pilots were willing to accept part of their compensation in the form of shares in a risky new company, which is another indicator of their commitment to the vision and faith in Burton.

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Part 2 1. What dysfunctional aspects of charismatic leadership were displayed by Burton?

• Burton’s strong self-confidence and experience of early success may have resulted in an over-inflated self-assessment and excessive optimism about his strategic decisions. For example, in pursuit of a grander vision of quickly becoming an international airline (rather than a small regional carrier), he acquired other airlines that were already financially weak, thereby incurring a dangerous amount of debt that would contribute to the failure of the firm. In his plans to expand the number of routes and flights, he ignored the threat of reaction by powerful competitors, and he overestimated the number of people who would want to use his no-frills service.

• He was too focused on the big-picture aspects of the vision and neglected the details of its implementation. He did not spend the time necessary to identify and resolve serious organizational problems that stemmed in part from rapid growth and in part from some of his beliefs about the best way to organize. At one point he finally acknowledged that there were serious organizational problems and promised to deal with them, but continued to emphasize rapid growth rather than consolidation and refinement of the management systems.

• He became very defensive about his ideas and autocratic in his decisions, even though his ideology was one of participative leadership. For example, he assumed the responsibilities of the president when that position became vacant, he fired executives who disagreed with him, and he maintained tight control over the board of directors.

• The same optimism and adherence to unconventional strategies that made him appear brilliant and charismatic to employees and investors when the company was initially successful, made him appear rigid and incompetent when the company went into a sharp decline. In other words, his success with innovative strategies caused attributions about exceptional expertise, but these attributions rapidly changed when success turned to failure.

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Unethical Leadership at Enron 1. How can theories ethical leadership and leader influence on organizational culture be used to explain the unethical practices at Enron?

This case shows the potential influence of top executives on the ethical culture and practices of an organization, and it demonstrates the potential negative influence of unethical leaders. The actions by top executives at Enron created a culture that encouraged employees at all levels to use unethical practices that would support the biased reporting of profits to enhance their own income and job security.

It is apparent that the top executives were motivated more by their personal needs than by the type of values emphasized in the theories of ethical leadership. Top management set an example of improper behavior in their use of questionable financial practices and biased measures of financial performance. They created a reward system the encouraged employees to use unethical practices such as exaggerating income and manipulating prices. Investors in company stock were misled by top management, and also by the auditors and organizations providing favorable ratings of the company and its management.

2. What can be done to reduce this type of unethical leadership in the future?

The chapter does not directly address the wide range of answers that are possible for this question, and it is an opportunity to go beyond the narrow focus of the text to consider the growing literature on social responsibility and ethics in corporate management. There are many ways to encourage ethical practices and discourage unethical behavior by top executives of public corporations. It is essential to encourage strict enforcement of legal and ethical constraints on improper financial schemes, insider trading, biased financial reporting, and manipulation of markets. Compensation practices for top management should be modified to reduce the focus on short-term profits and stock prices at the expense of long-term prosperity and social responsibility. Recent efforts to make directors more accountable for the actions of top management should be assessed and improvements made if necessary. The independence of boards of directors could be increased by requiring that they include some members not easily controlled by top management, as is done in some European countries. Examples include members from unions, from banks and public pension funds with a large financial stake in the company, and from universities and nonprofit organizations that have strong expertise in effective management. Boards need an adequate budget and staff to gather information on their own rather than relying only on biased information from top management. It may also be helpful to increase the incentives and protections provided to whistle blowers who report unethical practices in their companies. Auditing firms and organizations that rate the financial condition of organizations or the quality of their management should be held accountable for providing accurate information. Finally, more emphasis on ethical leadership in business schools is another way to influence cultural values about management practices.

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Restview Hospital The purpose of this case is to develop more understanding of how power can be used in unethical ways by leaders to influence organizational decisions. The case also illustrates how poor decisions may be made by top management even when objective evidence is available to make a more rational decision.

1. Explain the board’s decision to purchase the software from Standard.

The board acted on the information available to it. It was probably not necessary for Jack to argue that Standard’s software package was superior to the others, and the proposal to reward Standard Software for their excellent customer service in the past would seem like a reasonable justification as long as the competing software packages were not otherwise different in price or suitability.

Jack probably distorted the information to make the software package from his friend’s company look more attractive. He did not allow Mary to make a presentation to the board, he did not allow them to see her report, and he discouraged Mary from inviting them to the vendor presentations. It is unethical to assign the responsibility for gathering information and making a recommendation about an important decision, then prevent the subordinate from completing the assignment, misrepresent the subordinate's recommendation. Moreover, when the decision was found to be a bad one, Jack will probably blame Mary for it and fire her.

3. What could Mary have done to gain more influence over the decision?

This case shows the importance of developing a network of contacts with people inside and outside the organization. If Mary had a good relationship with some members of the board, she could have talked to them to make sure they knew about her investigation and her conclusions. Even without this type of network relationship, she may have been able to prevent Jack from distorting her conclusions by e-mailing a copy of the report (or the executive summary) to each board member at the same time she gave it to Jack. She could justify this action by telling Jack that she assumed he would want the board to have it in time to prepare for their meeting. This overt tactic is risky, however, because it may elicit Jack’s hostility and jeopardize her future career at Restview Hospital. Another, more indirect tactic that Mary could have used was to encourage the president of the competing software company to lobby directly with board members. This tactic would be easier to use if Mary had a good relationship with top executives in the other company and could rely on them to keep her role in the matter confidential.

Mary would probably not try to influence the decision directly unless she suspected Jack would try to distort or suppress her recommendations in his meeting with the board. It may not have been evident from Jack’s past behavior that he would be so biased and deceptive, but there were obvious clues, such as his insistence on adding Standard to the list of finalists and his lack of interest in presentations by the other vendors.

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Cromwell Electronics The case describes a manager who has developed an effective working relationship with some subordinate but not others. Students have an opportunity to use LMX theory and attribution theory to analyze the reasons why the manager has not been able to develop an effective relationship with some subordinates.

1. What theories from the chapter are relevant for analyzing the case?

The most relevant is LMX theory, which describes how relationships develop over time with different subordinates. Ed is trying to give all his subordinates an equal chance to develop a closer relationship. If they demonstrate drive and initiative, he provides more responsibility, recognition, and rewards. Some of the subordinates such as Pat have developed a favorable exchange relationship with Ed, whereas other subordinates such as Katie have not. The subordinates who are more independent and effective may also be using more self-management, although there is little in the case to verify this suspicion.

Attribution theory is also relevant to this case. Ed has attributed the weak performance of Katie (and two other new subordinates) as due primarily to lack of motivation. He does not seem to recognize that she lacks skill and needs more direction and coaching. Katie, on her part, is making the inaccurate attribution that Ed is showing intentional favoritism to some of the employees. She has also made the incorrect attribution that Ed does not care about mistakes, because he does not respond to them in the way she believes is appropriate, which is to tell her how to do the work correctly.

The conception of a courageous follower is also relevant to this case. Katie is unhappy about her relationship with her boss, but she is not being very proactive about trying to improve the relationship. Katie and the other two new employees who want more direction should ask to meet with Ed to discuss how they can become more effective contributors to the marketing unit. Acting together would provide some security in numbers and may encourage them to be more bold and assertive as followers. They should explain their needs and their desire to become more effective, while avoiding any direct criticism of Ed, which may make him defensive.

2. Evaluate Ed’s behavior as a manager, and identify effective and ineffective actions.

Consistent with the current fads in management training, Ed is trying to empower subordinates, make rewards contingent upon performance, and give subordinates an equal opportunity. However, he fails to appreciate the significant individual differences among his subordinates, and he does not understand the need to vary his behavior more across subordinates. It is not enough just to give subordinates an opportunity to demonstrate competence. He needs to develop more skill and selfefficacy in his inexperienced employees by providing appropriate instruction, coaching, and support. The development of an effective exchange relationship is not something that happens automatically in a sequence of reciprocal actions by the two

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parties. It is essential for a manager to meet with each subordinate periodically to negotiate the subordinate’s role and plan how to facilitate development of relevant subordinate skills. In addition, Ed should consider the feasibility of having his experienced workers share some of the responsibility for developing new workers. If any of the experienced employees want to advance into a management position, providing coaching and mentoring to a new employee is a good way to learn some relevant leadership skills.

3. What should Dan say or do now?

Dan has made a similar mistake in assuming that Ed understands how to perform his leadership responsibilities effectively. This is Ed’s first supervisory position, and Dan needs to provide more coaching to help Ed learn how to carry out his new leadership responsibilities. Ed received some formal training on how to manage subordinates, but he does not seem to understand how to apply some of the things he learned. As noted in Chapter 13, leadership training is seldom effective without appropriate follow-up activities, including encouragement, coaching, and support by the boss. Dan should meet with Ed to discuss in a supportive way how to improve his skills and leadership effectiveness.

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American Financial Corporation This case demonstrates the importance of careful planning and monitoring when making important assignment with a tight deadline. Students have an opportunity to identify typical mistakes made by managers in making assignments and evaluating subordinate performance. The case also encourages students to look at the relationship from the perspective of the follower and consider how subordinates can become more effective followers.

1. What did Betty do wrong prior to the meeting, and what could have been done to avoid missing the deadline?

The appropriate amount of monitoring depends on the complexity of an assignment, the likelihood of serious problems, and the reliability of the subordinate.

Since Don had missed deadlines previously, Betty should have been aware of the need for careful monitoring. At least one progress check was needed earlier in the project to make sure there were no problems or unforeseen complications. Moreover, Betty should have set a deadline that would allow enough time to review the report and make sure it was ready for the vice president. Unfortunately, Betty never checked to see how the project was going. She failed to check on progress prior to leaving on a trip, and she did not return Don's call when she was away, which would have let her know about the problem a little earlier.

When making the assignment, Betty should have asked Don to develop a brief action plan indicating key action steps and assigning responsibility for each one.

Betty should have met with Don soon after she made the assignment to review his action plan. Most likely a discussion of action plans would have made it clear that the figures should be checked for accuracy and completeness before doing the analysis, and it would have raised the issue of Don's need for more clerical support.

It is important to note that Don is highly motivated to do good quality work, but he needs some help in planning how to get assignments done on time. His compulsiveness may be making it difficult for him to delegate appropriate parts of a task. It is part of Betty's responsibility as a supervisor to help Don develop better planning skills and to learn how to delegate and manage his time better.

2. What did Betty do wrong in the meeting itself, and what could have been done to make the meeting more effective?

The immediate problem facing Betty is how to complete the report properly and quickly. Instead of focusing on this objective, Betty becomes preoccupied with criticizing Don and blaming him for the delays. She is sarcastic and insulting, she interrupts Don when he tries to explain what happened, she makes threats that are not necessary to influence him to finish the report, and she brings up other issues (messy office) that are not relevant to the immediate problem. This is not the time to be finding fault, and she is part of the problem. It is more appropriate to take a problem-solving approach and determine what needs to be done to quickly complete the report.

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3. What should Don have done to be more effective?

Don appears to be a low LMX subordinate who has made little effort to develop a more effective relationship with his boss. He should try to be more proactive about identifying his superior’s expectations and priorities for different aspects of the work.

Even though Betty did not ask for action plans, Don could have taken the initiative to prepare them for her review. The action planning would have helped Don determine if he needed more advice, assistance, or resources to carry out the assignment on schedule. It was also important for Don to keep Betty informed about his progress on the assignment. Accurate upward informing by a subordinate facilitates monitoring by the manager. Don should have asked for more clerical help if it was needed to complete the report on time. He waited until too long to inform Betty about the problem of the missing information. When he finally tried to contact Betty, he was not very persistent or resourceful (he could have sent her e-mail messages). Finally, Don could have applied relevant self-management and time management principles to become more organized and effective. Don’s future in this company would be more promising if he improved his image as a competent, reliable, professional.

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Southwest Engineering Services The purpose of this case is to help students gain a better understanding of effective leadership in cross-functional project teams. The case describes the leadership behavior of a project manager over a period of several months. Students are asked to consider what type of leadership is needed and to identify examples of effective leadership.

1. Describe the leadership behaviors Ron used and their influence on the attitudes and behavior of the team members.

Ron developed a highly cohesive team that was strongly committed to the project, and the project was completed successfully ahead of schedule. He used the following pattern of leadership behaviors to accomplish this outcome: • He talked about developing a leading edge decision support system that will be essential for the company to remain profitable, and this vision appealed to the values and needs of the systems engineers.

• He set a challenging objective for them and expressed confidence that they could achieve it if there was total commitment by every member.

• He told the engineers that they were all specially qualified to work on this important project, which probably increased their self-worth and sense of individual and collective self-efficacy.

• He explained how difficult and intense the work would be and asked each individual to decide whether or not to join the team. The ritual of openly acknowledging allegiance to the project probably helped to strengthen commitment to the project and identification with the team.

• He had an attitude of enthusiasm and optimism that spread to the team members and increased their confidence in him and in themselves. For example, when the team became discouraged about lack of progress, he gave them a pep talk to boost their optimism and enthusiasm.

• He achieved a good balance between directing and empowering. He clearly communicated the purpose and specifications for the new system, thereby clarifying what they had to accomplish and keeping them focused on the same objective. At the same time, he delegated considerable responsibility to individuals and gave them discretion to determine how to do their work.

• He used participative leadership. Frequent meetings were held to jointly evaluate their progress and decide how to deal with obstacles and problems. Influence on decisions was based on expertise and quality of ideas, not status or age.

• He achieved a good balance between task and person orientation. He was supportive and helpful when someone was experiencing difficulties, he took time to

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develop and mentor subordinates, and he did things to build team identification and cohesiveness. At the same time, he pushed relentlessly for continued progress in the work and made it clear he needed a maximum effort.

• He used his network of political relationships to obtain necessary resources and cooperation from peers and superiors.

2. Compare this cross-functional project team to a self-managed operations team, and identify similarities and differences in the leadership roles for them.

The organization determines the mission, resources, and scope of authority for both types of groups. The project team is a temporary group composed of people from other subunits of the organization; when the project is completed, the team is disbanded and these members go back to their home groups. In contrast, most selfmanaged operational teams have a longer existence, and the members spend most of their time doing the work of the team. The project team has a formal leader appointed by top management. The internal leader of a self-managed group has much less authority and can be replaced by another member at the discretion of the group. The external leader is appointed by the organization, but serves only as an advisor and cannot dictate how the group carries out its mission. The members of a cross-functional project team are usually evaluated jointly by the project leader and the leader of the member’s functional unit. A self-managed group usually evaluates the performance of its own members. Leadership functions such as envisioning, organizing, team building, and external spanning are more important for leaders of project teams than for the internal leader of a self-managed operational group.

Responsibility for the first three functions is shared in self-managed groups, and responsibility for representing the group falls primarily on the external leader.

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Columbia Corporation The purpose of this case is to help students understand effective leadership in a team with interdependent members. The organization described in the case is profitable and growing, but the top executives are unable to work together as a team to manage the rapid growth of the firm. Students are asked to identify the leadership problems and recommend ways to develop a more effective executive team.

1. What issues must be resolved to create an effective executive team?

The purpose of this question was to elicit an analysis of the problems facing the organization. The firm appears to be prospering, and the current crisis is a matter of weak internal management, not weak competitive strategy. There seems to be little planning on how to cope with the firm’s rapid growth in sales. The CEO dominates the decision making for this organization, but he does not appear to be doing much to resolve the strategic problems. Much of his time is spent trying to management internal conflicts that he helped to create.

There is a moderately high degree of role interdependence among the subunits in this company, but very little cooperation among them. The functional vice presidents do not trust each other and do not confront their differences openly or resolve them in a productive way. Instead, they scheme and plot how to influence the CEO to take their side in disputes.

Matt Walsh controls decisions tightly rather than empowering people, and he deals with his vice presidents as individuals, not as a team. When there is a conflict between vice presidents he tends to resolve the matter himself rather than getting the two parties together to resolve it jointly. As a result of his leadership style, the vice presidents contend for his support on issues, and they compete for influence over his decisions.

2. What types of changes should be considered?

• Building an effective management team will require important decisions to be made collectively as a group, rather than by Matt responding to requests from individual vice presidents. The management team needs to work together to resolve key problems such as insufficient production capacity and lack of mechanisms to ensure high quality.

• The executives must be held accountable for the overall performance of the organization, not just the performance of their functional units. The reward system may need to be changed so that a significant part of each VP’s compensation is based on overall company performance.

• The performance criteria for all managers must include not only current sales, but also indicators of quality and efficiency of operations, things that will affect future sales and profits.

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• The vice presidents will not be able to work together effectively as a team until they begin to focus on the big picture rather than their own narrow functional concerns.

There is need for a clear statement of priorities with regard to different objectives and plans to attain them. If making product modifications to accommodate key customers is going to be a major part of the strategy, then a way will have to be found to do it effectively. Cross-functional project teams of subordinates will probably be needed to achieve coordination among subunits and expedite rapid design modifications.

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Costco The purpose of this case is to show how the founder and CEO of a successful new company used an innovative strategy to make the company highly successful in a competitive market.

1. Explain the success of Costco in terms of the three performance determinants in flexible leadership theory (efficiency, adaptation, and human capital).

Adaptation: • The competitive strategy is price leadership, and the CEO insists on keeping prices as low as possible and lower than competitors, including Wal-Mart.

• Temporary special bargains create customer excitement, attract affluent buyers who normally would not go to a discount store, and increase impulsive purchases.

• Charging customers for the privilege of shopping at Costco provides a steady source of revenue and increases customer loyalty.

• Innovation in design and packaging is also important for making some types of products such as food items more appealing to customers.

Efficiency: • No frills and standardized design of facilities and displays minimizes costs.

• Not using any advertising reduces costs of marketing.

• Computerized inventory system maximizes efficiency.

• The savings from lower turnover costs, lower employee theft, and higher employee productivity more than offsets the higher cost of compensation.

Human Capital: • The strategy requires good execution by store managers and employees, and they are skilled and dedicated.

• Costco has generous pay, excellent health benefits, and a good 401(k) plan, all of which are better (lower employee contributions) than for other firms in the industry.

• The company policy is to promote from within the ranks, and workers at all levels have good opportunities for advancement.

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• All employees are trained to be friendly and helpful when customers need assistance.

2. What leadership behaviors and theories help to explain the strong influence of the CEO on the company and its continued success?

• When the company was founded he identified an effective strategy and a mix of management programs and practices that is compatible with it, and as the company grew he has encouraged innovation to help it adapt to changing conditions. These are examples of flexible, adaptive leadership.

• His humility is evident in lack of special privileges and low compensation relative to other companies. His concern for employees is evident in the high level of benefits and empowerment provided to them. These are examples of authentic and servant leadership.

• The clear vision, strong concern for employees, and the unusually high empowerment of employees in important decisions are examples of transformational leadership. He avoids impression management tactics that would encourage employees to attribute exceptional expertise to him, and there is no indication he is viewed as charismatic.

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Turnaround at Nissan The purpose of this case is to provide an opportunity to use concepts and theories from several different chapters to understand how effective leadership resulted in a successful turnaround of a failing company. The case involves strategic leadership, leading change, ethical leadership, cross-cultural leadership, leader behavior, skills, and traits, participative and empowering leadership, and developing leadership.

1. What was done to improve efficiency, adaptation, and human relations, and to minimize adverse side effects of the changes?

Ways to facilitate adaptation: • • • •

Develop a clear strategy for the company, and a clear focus on customers.

Communicate an optimistic image of a revitalized company at every opportunity.

Set an example of personal commitment and risk taking to promote change.

Encourage innovative thinking by the designers rather than just copying competitors.

• Gave designers more autonomy over design decisions for new models (reduced the previously dominant influence of the engineers).

• Authorize 12 new models that would appeal to customers.

Ways to facilitate efficiency: • Reduce fixed costs by closing 5 unneeded factories and reorganizing production in the remaining ones.

• Reduce the overall number of employees (by 4% of global workforce).

• Increase efficiency by reducing the number of components (chassis designs and engines) used in the different models.

• Eliminate or replace models that were not making a profit for the company.

• Reduce purchasing costs by cutting the number of suppliers and placing larger orders with the remaining ones.

• Reduce purchasing costs by ending unnecessary specifications from engineers.

Ways to facilitate human relations and resources: • Increase empowerment and cooperation by using cross-functional teams to diagnose problems and identify remedies.

• Empower subordinate managers and provide opportunities for them to learn from experience.

• Recruit new designer talent to improve innovation.

• Replace managers of company dealerships with more competent, motivated people who would increase sales.

• Change the compensation and promotion systems to tie them more closely to skills and performance.

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Minimizing adverse side effects: The efforts to improve efficiency could adversely affect human relations. To minimize this effect, he explained why the changes were necessary to save the company, he enlisted support from the unions, and he tried to minimize layoffs by using normal attrition and early retirements. He also provided opportunities for many laid off employees to find part time jobs at Nissan or regular jobs in subsidiaries, and the quick recovery eventually restored some of the jobs that were cut. The reduction in job security for managers and other non-union employees was balanced by more empowerment and the opportunity to earn bonuses and stock options.

2. What effective practices were used to identify and implement necessary changes in the strategy and the organization?

• Ghosn was careful to conduct an intensive and systematic organizational diagnosis.

Detailed information was obtained about the performance of the company, and suggestions for improvement solicited from a wide variety of stakeholders.

• Soon after he began as COO, Ghosn formed several cross-functional teams to identify problems and recommend likely solutions. When problems were discovered, solutions were implemented (rather than sweeping them under the rug).

• People were kept informed about any changes, why they were necessary, and how they would be affected. He tried to minimize any negative effects of the changes on employees.

• A clear strategy was formulated to guide actions and help coordinate subunits. The cross-functional teams helped people to transcend their functional biases and understand how problems were viewed by other functions.

• The new strategy and planned changes were announced all together rather than as separate changes so that they would be more acceptable and resistant to criticism.

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Madison, Jones, and Conklin The purpose of this case is to provide a better understanding of the problems of sex-based discrimination in organizations that are reviewed in Chapter 14. The case describes the experiences of one woman manager in a male-dominated company.

Students are asked to identify examples of discrimination and suggest remedies.

1. What forms of gender discrimination did Laura experience?

The most blatant form of discrimination was the failure to promote Laura as rapidly as male managers with equivalent qualifications. Giving high profile projects to the male managers did not provide equal opportunity for her to demonstrate her potential. It may have been true that some customers preferred to deal with men, but this bias does not justify discrimination in assignments, especially when it is likely that these customers would have been as satisfied as Laura’s regular clients after they had an opportunity to work with her.

Another type of discrimination was the failure to ensure that she had a mentor and was receiving adequate career counseling. The case does not state that all of the male managers had mentors, but the implication was that no effort was made to ensure affirmative action regarding issues of career advancement for the single female manager in the organization.

Some other indications of bias were more subtle. Although not necessarily illegal, they contribute to the lack of equal opportunity. The failure to invite Laura to social activities limited her opportunity for networking with senior executives. The lack of attention to her comments during meetings undermined her credibility, and giving credit to someone else for her ideas reflects a lack of objectivity by senior management in evaluating her potential.

2. Is there anything Laura could have done to overcome the obstacles she encountered?

It is difficult for someone in Laura’s position to cope with gender-based discrimination. Attempts to sue the company for illegal discrimination are difficult to pursue without the support of other women. Laura could have pointed out examples of discrimination to the President and asked for his help. She could have been more proactive about seeking out a mentor among senior management to support her.

Finally, she may have been able to find some activities that would provide opportunity for networking with important people in the company and key clients (e.g., joining clubs and service organizations, learning sports enjoyed by male managers).

However, it is important to acknowledge that no matter what Laura did, it may have not been enough to break through the glass ceiling in this company.

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3. What could the President have done to create equal opportunity in this company?

There are several things the President could have done to promote equal opportunity and reduce bias. First, the President should have made a concerted effort to ensure objectivity and equal treatment in the assignment of projects and assessment of qualifications for promotion. Instead of offering platitudes, he should have followed up on her complaints about lack of career progress to determine if there was any unfair discrimination and take action to correct it.

To improve appreciation of diversity, a number of things could have been done. A diversity training program is one possibility. Another possibility is to set clear standards for equal opportunity and affirmative action, and include them in performance appraisals. He should have set an example in his own behavior of acceptance, appreciation, and equal treatment. Specific examples include showing proper respect during meetings, inviting her to social functions, and giving public praise for her contributions (as well as those by other managers). The President could have offered to serve as a mentor for Laura, or he could have helped her find a suitable mentor among the other senior managers.

As noted in the chapter, a number of things could be done in response to any continued instances of overt discrimination in the company. Examples include counseling the responsible parties, giving warnings, and if necessary, taking disciplinary action.

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CASE: A Day in the Life of a Global Leader 1. How can Nathalie think about cultural differences that might be affecting her team without resorting to cultural stereotyping?

As noted in the chapter (p. 361), most leaders are not experts on all of the different cultures they encounter. Rather, they develop personal qualities and capabilities that help them to observe behavior, unravel nuances, build trust, and adapt their approaches to be successful in a particular context.

For Nathalie, she should seek to understand her global employees, understand the layers of complexity in her organization, and understand herself. By doing so, she will be better prepared to effectively lead her team. When she sent an e-mail with the draft budget to her “team” members and requested their input, she found their responses (or lack thereof) to be highly frustrating. However, the content of the e-mails provides valuable insights into cultural differences that could help her to better understand the group’s dynamics. For instance, Lingfei did not explicitly disagree with the content of her e-mail, which could be due to the expectation in the Japanese culture that one will first establish a friendly relationship before opening up and sharing thoughts and conducting business. Lingfei’s reaction may also in part be a function of Japan’s lower level of gender egalitarianism, and he may experience some discomfort stemming from Nathalie's role as the leader of the team. These are potential explanations for Nathalie’s frustration with Lingfei, but she should not assume that they are true. Instead and should try to clarify their mutual expectations.

2. Does the lack of face-to-face communication contribute to Nathalie’s problem?

If so, how?

Yes, it is likely that the lack of face-to-face communication is contributing to the Nathalie’s problems. First, by using relatively lean forms of communication (mostly email), it is difficult for Nathalie and her team to garner insights about each other and their cultures. Thus, the necessary process of simply recognizing and unraveling cultural differences is more challenging. Second, some cultures require the establishment of closer relationships prior to conducting business. Limiting communication to lean media such as e-mails in many cases makes the formation of such relationships more challenging.

3. If we believe that cultural value differences are affecting the team’s efforts, what should be Nathalie’s next steps?

To improve the team’s communications, a valuable next step would be to help the members understand one another and their cultural backgrounds. Understanding one’s employees, the layers of complexity in one’s organization, and oneself are key requirements of a global leader. Promotion of enhanced understanding can help one move beyond reliance on cultural stereotypes to develop more accurate knowledge about each individual member. Next, there are a series of guidelines (found in Table 133) for managing diversity and promoting inclusion that Nathalie could follow. These recommended actions can be divided into two categories: (1) the encouragement of tolerance and appreciation; and (2) the discouragement of intolerance and

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discrimination. Striving to achieve manage diversity and promote inclusion will increase the likelihood that employees will not only feel welcome, but also valued by the leader, the team, and the organization.

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Federated Industries The purpose of this case is to help students gain a better understanding of the various approaches for leadership training and development that are reviewed in Chapter 13. The case describes the different approaches to leadership development taken by three subunits of a diverse organization. Students are asked to evaluate the development programs and recommend ways to improve them.

1. Identify strengths and weaknesses in leadership development at Federated Industries.

Strengths: • Some subsidiaries seem to be using effective developmental activities. For example, the consumer products company has an interesting program to develop leadership skills by coaching and special assignments. Some aspects of this program may be relevant to the other subsidiaries.

• The engineering company compensates employees in part for the tuition cost of courses at the local university. All subsidiaries may want to provide some form of tuition support for outside courses and degree programs.

Weaknesses: • There was no needs analysis to identify relevant skills required for each management position. Likewise, there does not appear to be any systematic assessment of manager skills in relation to these requirements.

• Opportunities for development are very limited, and the excluded employees are dissatisfied. In the consumer products company, each manager can select only one subordinate for the development program. In the electronics company, only six executives can participate in the development program.

• There are no explicit criteria for selecting people for participation in the various development programs. The decision is left up to individual managers who can recommend one or more of their subordinates for training. The selection is probably very biased and unsystematic.

• There is no effort to evaluate the effectiveness of the development programs that are offered. The only available indicator is participant satisfaction, which is unlikely to be accurate, because participants in the selective programs are already in the “ingroup” of people favored for promotion.

• There is no cooperation and coordination among the different subsidiaries in their development programs. Top management did not even know what the subsidiaries were doing, and has not provided any guidance or encouragement.

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• Only a limited variety of developmental methods are being used, and the selection of methods appears almost random. Each subsidiary emphasizes either training or development, rather than an integrated approach.

• The leadership training and development is not designed to be consistent with the competitive strategy of the organization, or with human resource systems that affect the utility of training (e.g., appraisal, compensation, recruitment and selection, succession planning).

2. What types of changes are most likely to improve leadership development at Federated Industries?

Improvement of overall leadership development will involve correcting the weaknesses described above. The personnel directors from all the subsidiaries should be involved in planning the necessary changes. Patricia should form a steering committee composed of the directors and hold regular meetings to plan what needs to be done. A needs assessment should be conducted for each subsidiary and for corporate headquarters. It is likely that each subsidiary has somewhat unique needs and conditions. Rather than trying to impose a uniform system of management development on everyone, Patricia should encourage the directors to learn about each other’s development programs and look for good ideas that are relevant to their own subsidiaries. The steering committee should also consider experimenting with some promising techniques not currently used in any of the subsidiaries, such as feedback workshops, developmental assessment centers, personal growth workshops, and special assignments across subsidiaries. Systematic methods should be used to evaluate each type of development program and learn what works well, for whom, and for which skills. It may be cost effective to establish a corporate training center that would provide some generic types of training at a lower cost to any manager who needs it. Another possibility is to have a small corporate staff of training specialists who can be deployed temporarily to provide technical assistance and advice to the directors in designing, conducting, and evaluating their own internal programs.

3. What additional information is needed to make a good report to the CEO? Patricia needs to investigate the accuracy of the CEO’s impression that “not enough leaders are coming up through the ranks.” One possibility is to conduct a quick survey to evaluate the leadership competencies of executives at Federated.

This survey could be supplemented by interviews with the subsidiary presidents to determine if they also see a deficiency in leadership development. Patricia should also visit her counterparts at some successful conglomerates and try to find out how they conduct leadership development. It is possible that some of their best practices could be applied at Federated. Finally, she needs more information about the developmental programs at all of the subsidiaries, including how many managers are trained, what each program costs, and how the training is related to advancement and manager performance.

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River Bank The purpose of this case is to demonstrate how a behavioral feedback and training workshop is used for developing leadership skills, and how the effects can be assessed to determine if the training intervention is effective. The case is based on an actual field experiment conducted by one of the authors (Dr. Gary Yukl) with colleagues.

1. What do the findings suggest about the importance of providing a feedback and training workshop, even though it is much easier and less costly to only provide managers with feedback reports?

The feedback report did not improve leadership effectiveness for the managers who received it. They may have not perceived it to be important, and they may not have understood the potential benefits of applying the feedback to improve their leadership effectiveness. Some consulting companies offer feedback reports as a method for management development without also providing the type of workshop used in River Bank to change and improve leadership effectiveness.

2. What other things could be done to improve the effectiveness of the feedback and training workshop?

Even when a feedback and training workshop is provided, it does not always result in changes in behavior or improved effectiveness. Research with field experiments found two ways to improve the effectiveness of the workshop. Providing coaching to individual managers in the months after the workshop was found to result in more behavior change than for managers who only had the workshop. Another way was to repeat the feedback process after several months and use a shorter workshop to review the change in behavior and help managers understand how to make greater improvement in their subsequent behavior. Setting improvement goals for specific behaviors and making plans on how to achieve them is also helpful. Incentives for improvement may also be helpful.

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Outside Exercises Description of the Exercises This part of the manual includes a description of several exercises that can be assigned as term papers or field projects. The activities allow students to use the concepts and theories in the book to describe and analyze leadership processes involving real leaders.

1. Student Journal: This activity encourages students to use theories and concepts to analyze their experiences outside the classroom, and to apply practices learned from the book.

2. Managerial Behavior Diary: This activity provides an opportunity to use the behavior concepts in a specific chapter of the book to describe a specific leader observed by the student.

3. Analysis of Leadership in Meetings: This activity provides an opportunity to learn more about effective and ineffective leadership in a decision group observed by the student.

4. Analysis of Famous Leaders: This activity provides an opportunity to use the concepts and theories in the book to describe a real leader and identify strengths and weaknesses.

5. Analysis of Leadership in Movies: This activity provides an opportunity to use the concepts and theories in the book to describe leadership behavior depicted in a movie.

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Student Journal Keeping a journal encourages students to think about applying the leadership concepts and theories in the book to their work and other outside activities. A journal is especially useful for students who have regular jobs. Journal entries should be made each week. The instructor should check the journals on a random basis several times during the semester.

The journals can be used to record a variety of different things. Some subjects can be described in a single entry, whereas other subjects may require multiple entries made over a period of several weeks. Encourage students to write rich, detailed entries rather than short, superficial comments or observations, and emphasize the importance of relating entries to the class. Assure students that their entries will be confidential and will not be seen by anybody else except you. To preserve the anonymity of people described in journal entries, students can use initials or titles (e.g., sales manager, CEO) for them. Following are some examples of possible subjects for the journal: • Describe reactions to class activities such as cases, exercises, role plays, videos, and speakers. Were they interesting, informative, helpful, etc.? Suggest ways to improve these activities.

• Describe how you used theories and concepts to improve your understanding of relationships or events in your organization. Describe your analysis and explain how the theory provided new insights or a better mental model.

• Describe your experience using specific guidelines in the book to carry out a leadership function more effectively. Some examples include the use of guidelines for influencing people, empowering people, providing coaching, and implementing a change. Explain the situation, what you did, and the outcome. Describe evidence to support your assessment that it was successful or unsuccessful.

• Describe the behavior of your boss or another leader who you can observe closely.

Use concepts from the book to analyze this leader’s behavior and effectiveness.

• Describe a specific incident when someone in the organization attempted to influence you to do something. Explain the situation, and describe in detail what the person said and did, and your reaction.

• Describe the group processes that are occurring in a team to which you belong.

Evaluate how effective this team is in accomplishing its mission, and use your analysis of group processes to explain why it is effective or ineffective.

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Managerial Behavior Diary The purpose of this project is to provide an opportunity for students to use behaviors from the book, describe an individual leader, and analyze the leader’s effectiveness.

For this exercise to be feasible, the student must be able to observe a leader on a regular basis over a considerable period of time (e.g., at least once a week for 8–10 weeks). For students with regular or part-time jobs, the easiest leader to observe is the person’s immediate boss. Another possibility is the leader of a group or organization to which the student belongs, such as the leader of a campus club or organization, the coach of a sports team, or the leader of a community group, voluntary association, or social club.

There is some choice in the behavior categories to use in observing the leader, but they should be relevant for the type of leaders to be observed. Some possibilities include the leadership behaviors in Chapter 3, the influence tactics described in Chapter 8, and the group leadership behaviors described in Chapter 10.

Develop a diary form that lists the behaviors to be observed with brief definitions and a space to record notes about actual behavior. Provide copies of the diary to students. Instruct students to record brief notes on the diary as soon as feasible after interaction with the leader. For students who have a regular job, the notes can be recorded at home for 5 minutes each evening. The period of observation should last long enough to obtain a good sample of behaviors. The less frequent the interaction, the more weeks are needed to obtain an adequate sample. However, students are not limited to current behavior. You can ask students to try to recall good examples from past incidents in which the leader used any of the behaviors and make some notes on them as well. The diaries should remain confidential and will not be seen by anyone else except the instructor, unless the student provides explicit permission. Remind students that not all of the behaviors in the diary are necessarily relevant for every leader, and some may not be used very often.

The diary and relevant theories can be used to make an analysis of the leader’s behavior. The best product from this project is a term paper in which the student analyzes the leadership situation and the extent to which the leader’s behavior is appropriate for the situation. The diary entries in each category can be coded to indicate how much or how skillfully a behavior is used (low, moderate, high). Any information about leadership effectiveness (e.g., follower satisfaction, motivation, and performance) is helpful, and if such information is available, it should be included in the report.

However, such information is not essential to do the project.

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Analysis of Leadership in Meetings The purpose of this exercise is to learn more about leadership in decision groups, which is described in Chapter 11. The student is asked to observe effective and ineffective behavior in meetings. This exercise can be used by students who frequently attend meetings in which important decisions are made, and the outcome of the decision can be evaluated fairly quickly.

The worksheet on the next page can be used to record information about the meetings. The worksheet can be used during a meeting, or if the process would be too intrusive and difficult, the worksheet can be filled out shortly after the meeting is over.

An effective behavior not included on the worksheet can be added on the back. Notes on the worksheet can be used to help in the analysis of reasons for the outcome of the meeting.

The student should select one meeting in which the group reached consensus on a decision and successfully implemented it. Then the student should select a meeting that was unsuccessful because the group was unable to agree or they made a bad decision (that could have been avoided by following better procedures and paying more attention to the available information). The effective and ineffective decision processes may involve two different meetings by the same group, or meetings by two different groups.

The student should prepare a paper that describes the purpose of the meetings, the membership of the group(s), the role and authority of the leader(s), and the outcome of the meetings. A description of effective and ineffective behavior by the designated meeting leader should be included in the analysis of reasons for the success or failure.

The analysis should also evaluate leadership behavior by other members of the group.

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Worksheet for Meeting Leadership Instructions: Make a check mark next to any effective behaviors used by the leader and make brief notes describing the behavior in more detail. Other leadership behaviors can be added on the reverse side. __ 1.

Clearly explains the purpose of the meeting and required preparations.

__ 2.

Describes the problem without implying the cause or solution.

__ 3.

Shares essential information with group members.

__ 4.

Allows ample time for idea generation without immediate evaluation.

__ 5.

Encourages and facilitates participation by all members.

__ 6.

Keeps the discussion focused on the purpose or objective.

__ 7.

Uses systematic procedures for evaluation of proposed solutions.

__ 8.

Clarifies communication and summarizes progress in a timely way.

__ 9.

Encourages an integrative “win-win” solution if there is conflict.

__ 10. Clarifies member responsibilities for implementation.

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Analysis of Famous Leaders The purpose of this project is to apply the concepts and theories in the book to the analysis of leadership by a famous or well-known leader. The project provides students an opportunity to learn more about a specific type of leader that is especially interesting to them.

Students can select any type of leader for whom there is sufficient information to provide a good analysis of leadership processes and outcomes. Examples include political leaders, military leaders, business executives, religious leaders, sports coaches, and leaders of social movements.

The student should read at least three separate sources (biographies and articles) that provide enough detail to identify specific traits and skills, behaviors, influence processes, and relevant aspects of the situation. The most useful type of source is a biographical account of the leader’s activities and accomplishments. Other relevant sources may include: an autobiographical account or memoirs written by the leader, a detailed, analytical article written by someone besides the leader, filmed biographies or documentaries about the leader, and dramatized accounts of significant events involving the leader. All sources should be clearly cited in the paper.

A minimum requirement of the paper is to identify specific behaviors and refer to relevant theories to explain why the behaviors were appropriate or inappropriate in the situation faced by the leader. Even better is to identify reasons why the leader was successful enough to become famous. Both strengths and weaknesses of each leader should be identified. Issues of ethical leadership should be considered as well. It is helpful to use quotes and detailed descriptions of selected incidents to support conclusions about the leader’s behavior and influence on followers. The source for any quotes or factual details should be clearly cited.

In addition to writing a paper, it is useful to have students should make a presentation in class. Encourage students to describe some detailed incidents involving effective or ineffective behavior by the leader to support their analysis. If movies or documentaries have been made about the leader, the presentation could include some short excerpts. Each presentation should take from 20 to 30 minutes. In a large class, this project can be done as a group project involving 2–4 students per group.

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Analysis of Leadership in a Movie The purpose of this exercise is to apply the concepts and theories in the book to the analysis of leadership by one or more of the key characters in a movie. To be feasible for this exercise, the movie must include a detailed description of leader behavior, the context for the actions, and the outcomes. It is best to have rich examples of both effective and ineffective leadership to describe. It is also better if the movie does not have stereotyped “good” and “bad” leaders, but rather involves complex figures who have both strengths and weaknesses. Docudramas based partly or entirely on actual persons and events are much more useful than movies that have no foundation in real events. This exercise can be done by individuals, but because of the time required for presentations, it is more feasible for teams of 2–4 students. Movies can be selected from an approved list, or students can select ones subject to instructor approval. Each team should make a presentation to the class in which they show incidents from the movie, explain the context for each incident (essential for members of the class who have not seen the movie), and describe why the leadership behavior was effective or ineffective. If there is time, the presentation should include at least two different incidents involving the same leaders. If the incident involves a group making a decision, leadership behavior by different members can be identified. The class should be allowed some time to discuss each incident and consider other things the leader could have done. This type of presentation requires considerable time (e.g., 30 to 45 minutes for each team), and appropriate video equipment must be available.

There are many good movies that include examples of effective or ineffective leadership. Following are some movies based on events with actual leaders. Many movies with fictional descriptions of leadership are also available. Some examples include Wall Street (1987, unethical leadership), Gung Ho (1986, cross-cultural leadership), and Dead Poets Society (1989, educational leadership). Finally, there are some excellent documentary films about leadership, such as Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room (2005, unethical leadership).

Examples of Movies about Actual Leaders 1. Gettysburg (1993). The decisive events at Gettysburgh influenced the outcome of the Civil War. In a great example of inspirational leadership, Jeff Daniels portrays Col. Joshua Chamberlain trying to influence rebellious soldiers from Maine to fight with him in the defense of Roundtop Mountain, an early skirmish in the larger battle at Gettysburg. Other prominent actors include Martin Sheen (as Robert E. Lee,) and Tom Berenger as Lt. General Thomas Longstreet.

2. Invictus (2009). This biographical movie is directed by Clint Eastwood and starring Morgan Freeman and Matt Damon. It is about the events in South Africa after Nelson Mandela was elected president. The movie involves Mandela's use of the World Cup Rugby games hosted by South Africa to bridge the racial hostility and distrust after the ending of apartheid.

3. The Crossing (2000). This TV movie about George Washington (Jeff Daniels) describes how in 1776, after repeated defeats, Washington realized that something

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dramatic was needed to avoid losing the revolutionary war with Britain. After a difficult night crossing of the Delaware River, he led the Continental Army to a stunning victory at the battle of Trenton.

4. Thirteen Days (2000). This movie is a docudrama directed by Roger Donaldson about the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 when the USA and Soviet Union came very close to a full-scale nuclear war. The events provide a good example of effective decision making in a crisis situation. Actors include Bruce Greenwood as John Kennedy, Kevin Costner as special assistant to the President Kenny O'Donnell, and Stephen Culp as Robert Kennedy.

5. Gandhi (1982). A biographical movie about important events in the life of Mohandas Gandhi, a charismatic figure who led the successful non-violent resistance to British rule of India in the first part of the 20th Century. Ben Kingsley won an academy award for his portrayal of Gandhi, and other prominent actors were also in the movie, which won an academy award for best picture.

6. Miracle on Ice (2004). This movie describes the true story of how the 1980 U.S. Olympic hockey team was led by coach Herb Brooks to a surprise victory over the seemingly invincible Russian team and then went on to win the gold metal after defeating Finland. Curt Russell portrays Brooks, who uses some unconventional methods to develop the skills, confidence, and cohesiveness of the team.

7. Remember the Titans (2000). This movie was inspired by events in 1971 at a desegregated high school in Alexandria, Virginia. Denzel Washington portrays Herman Boone, the newly hired coach of the football team, and Will Patton portrays the assistant coach. Racial diversity among the team members creates conflicts, but the coaches help the team achieve racial harmony, an undefeated season, and support from the local community.

8. Lawrence of Arabia (1962). The movie is a sweeping epic about the real life adventures of T.E. Lawrence, a British major who unified Arab tribes and led them in the fight for independence from the Ottoman Empire in World War 1. It is a good movie for showing the benefits and problems for charismatic leaders. Peter O'Toole portrayed Lawrence and Alex Guinnes portrayed Prince Faisal. The movie includes several other famous actors, and it won an academy award for best picture.

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Classroom Exercises This part of the manual contains a variety of written exercises that can be used in the classroom to facilitate learning of specific concepts and models. There was not sufficient space in the manual to include exercises on every chapter or subject.

Additional exercises can be found in the many available books on experiential learning in management and organization behavior.

1. Decision Styles Exercise: This exercise provides an opportunity to practice using the simplified Normative Decision Model described in Chapter 4.

2. Influence Scenario Exercise: This exercise provides an opportunity to identify appropriate tactics for influencing subordinates, peers, and bosses in specific situations (re. Chapter 6).

3. Analysis of Visionary Speeches: This exercise helps students understand the components of a visionary speech, as described in Chapters 5 and 8.

4. Tower Exercise: This exercise allows students to experience the challenges of shared leadership in a team with a brief but complex task (re. Chapter 11).

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Decision Style Exercise Instructor Guidelines for Using the Exercise The purpose of the exercise is to give students an opportunity to practice analyzing decision situations and selecting an appropriate procedure for involving others who have relevant information or will be affected by the decision. The exercise uses a simplified version of the model (in Chapter 4) with three decision procedures instead of five, and three criteria for selecting a decision procedure. The exercise consists of six decisions incidents; students apply the guidelines to each incident to identify the best decision procedure. The analysis can be done in class or as homework prior to the class in which it will be discussed. After students do the analysis individually, there are two approaches for discussing the answers.

Option 1: Divide the class into groups of 3 to 5 people to compare and discuss their answers. This discussion takes 20 to 30 minutes. Reconvene the class to see if the groups are in agreement (most usually are) and resolve any confusion. This debriefing discussion usually takes another 15 minutes.

Option 2: Discuss the exercise in class rather than breaking up into groups. Ask one student to explain his or her analysis of an incident, and ask other students if they agree or disagree. Discuss and resolve any disagreements. Discussion of the cases in class usually lasts 20 to 30 minutes.

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Key to Analysis of Decision Cases Incident 1 Answer: Autocratic Decision • Quality is important because a poor decision will result in materials shortages and idle workers.

• Quality is assured with an autocratic decision because the leader has the necessary information and quantitative skills to determine what materials are needed.

• Acceptance is not important because subordinates do not implement the decision and are likely to agree about the need for a high quality decision.

• The feasible set includes all three decision procedures. An autocratic decision is the least time consuming.

Incident 2 Answer: Consultation • Quality is important because the new contract will greatly affect sales.

• Quality is assured with an autocratic decision because the leader knows the plant could handle the new contract if subordinates are committed to do it.

• Acceptance is important because a high degree of effort and commitment by subordinates is necessary to meet the difficult challenge posed by the new contract.

• An autocratic decision is ruled out because it risks decision acceptance. The new contract would require subordinates to make an extra effort that they may not regard as justified. Note that this judgment assumes that the leader would not be able to persuade subordinates with a rational or inspirational appeal. If the leader believes persuasion is possible, then the decision situation is quite different.

• A group decision is ruled out because it risks decision quality. With the plant operating near to capacity, members may not share the leader's objective of increasing production even more.

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Incident 3 Answer: Group Decision • Quality is important, because overall performance of the organization suffers when there are coordination problems among departments, and the many varied ways to coordinate and schedule activities are not equally efficient.

• Decision quality is not assured for an autocratic decision. The coordination problem is very complex and requires up-to-date knowledge of the activities of each department.

This knowledge is distributed among group members and is not possessed by the committee chairperson.

• Acceptance is important because the leader depends upon committee members to implement the committee's decisions and recommendations back in their respective departments.

• Acceptance is not assured with an autocratic decision because the leader lacks the authority to tell them what to do and has no other dependable source of power to insure compliance. Even consultation is not enough when the group members expect to participate more fully in making the decisions.

• Members share the leader's objective of improving coordination among departments.

It is likely that a group consensus can be reached on how to improve coordination if the leader is skilled in conducting the meeting.

Incident 4 Answer: Autocratic Decision • Quality is not important, because the leader has the information to identify the best solutions to the problem. Any of the alternatives under consideration would have equivalent effects on the performance of the two stores.

• Acceptance is assured because it is a temporary assignment that would entail no hardship for the employee. It involves the same type of work and the other store is not far away. This type of assignment is within the leader's scope of authority and would normally be considered legitimate and reasonable by subordinates.

• In this situation it is not feasible to ask for volunteers and select one of them (consultation). There is not adequate time to survey all the qualified subordinates to determine who is interested in the assignment. However, after deciding who to call, the leader should make sure there are no unknown circumstances that would make it difficult for the person to do the assignment.

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Incident 5 Answer: Consultation • Quality is important, because the distribution of budget cuts affects department performance substantially.

• Quality is not assured with an autocratic decision, because the leader cannot determine how a budget cut will affect each department's capacity to attain its objectives. The leader needs more information.

• Acceptance is important, because the perception that a budget cut is unfair or excessive would cause resentment and lower commitment. To maintain performance at current levels despite a lower budget, more effort and initiative are needed from the department managers and their own subordinates.

• Acceptance is not assured with an autocratic decision, because any cuts imposed arbitrarily on a department would seem unjustified. Consultation provides the managers a chance to present their case and influence the decision. If group consultation is used instead, department managers have an opportunity to hear each other's case and influence each other as well as their boss.

• The leader and subordinate do not have congruent objectives. The subordinates managers are primarily concerned their own department, whereas the leader is primarily concerned about overall performance of the production facility. A group decision would risk decision quality.

Incident 6 Answer: Group Decision • Quality is not important because all of the subordinates are competent and any of the alternative schedules that conform to company policy would have the same effect on performance.

• Acceptance is important because vacation time is an emotional issue and subordinates would be very disappointed to miss a special trip or an important family event, causing resentment and dissatisfaction that may affect their performance.

• An autocratic decision is not desirable, because the leader may not have enough information about each subordinate’s preferences to identify a good schedule when there are conflicts among subordinates about desired times.

• Since quality is not at risk, the leader should let the group meet to discuss the matter and work out a schedule among themselves through problem solving and negotiation.

The leader’s role in conducting the meeting is primarily to manage any conflict and facilitate constructive problem solving. A group decision may take longer than

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consultation with individuals if there are conflicts about preferences, but it usually results in greater decision acceptance if the leader has adequate skills in managing conflicts.

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Decision Styles Exercise Instructions to Students: The purpose of this exercise is to provide an opportunity to practice analyzing a decision situation and selecting an appropriate procedure. Read each decision case carefully and use the decision rules from the Normative Decision Model to guide your analysis of the situation. The order of priority for the three criteria is as follows: (1) quality, (2) acceptance, (3) time. In other words, after applying the guidelines to eliminate any decision procedure that risks quality and acceptance, then select the fastest remaining procedure. Only the following three decision procedures should be considered.

Autocratic Decision: the leader makes the decision alone without asking subordinates (or group members) for their ideas, suggestions, or preferences.

Consultation: the leader explains the decision problem to subordinates (or group members), asks them for their ideas and suggestions, and then makes the decision after careful consideration of their inputs.

Group Decision: the leader meets with subordinates (or group members) to discuss the problem and reach a joint decision; the leader runs the meeting but has no more influence over the final decision than any other group member.

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Incident 1. You are a production manager and one of your responsibilities is to order the materials used by your subordinates in production jobs. Extensive stockpiling of materials is not feasible, and having idle workers due to lack of materials is costly.

Based on past records, you have been able to determine the materials subordinates will need a few weeks in advance with considerable accuracy. The purchase orders are executed by the Purchasing Office, not by your subordinates. How would you make material procurement decisions? ___Autocratic Decision ___Consultation ___Group Decision Notes:

Incident 2. You are the Vice-President for Production in a small manufacturing company. Your plant is working close to capacity to fill current orders. Now you have just been offered a contract to manufacture components for a new customer. If the customer is pleased with the way you handle this order, additional orders are likely and they could become one of the company's largest clients. You are confident that your production supervisors can handle the job, but it would impose a heavy burden on them in terms of rescheduling production, hiring extra workers, and working extra hours. How would you decide whether to accept the new contract? ___Autocratic Decision ___Consultation ___Group Decision Notes:

Incident 3. You have been appointed the chairperson of a committee formed to coordinate the interdependent activities of several departments in the company.

Coordination problems have interfered with the flow of work, causing bottlenecks, delays, and wasted effort. The coordination problems are complex, and solving them requires knowledge of on-going events in the different departments. Even though you are the designated chairperson, you have no formal authority over the other members, who are not your subordinates. You depend on committee members to return to their respective departments and implement the decisions made by the committee. You are glad that most members appear to be sincerely interested in improving coordination among departments. ___Autocratic Decision ___Consultation ___Group Decision Notes:

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Incident 4. You are a store manager in a large chain of retail stores. The manager of another store in town has been caught short handed, and your boss, the regional manager has asked you to loan the other store one of your employees for a few days.

You know the qualifications of your employees and there are several who could do the work in the other store. It would be the same kind of work they are doing now. The work schedule in your store could be adjusted to allow any of the employees to be away for a few days. It is now evening and the employee to be selected must be notified soon so that he or she will report to the other store tomorrow. How would you decide which person to send? ___Autocratic Decision ___Consultation ___Group Decision Notes:

Incident 5. You are the manager of a production facility with five operating departments. The department managers are your immediate subordinates. The budget expenses for your facility have just been reduced, without any reduction in workload.

Now you have to decide how much to cut each department's budget. None of the department managers wants to suffer a budget cut, and each believes that his department's activities should have the highest priority. You find it difficult to evaluate how budget cuts would affect each department's capacity to do its work. This evaluation requires more detailed information about the current operations of each department.

How would you decide where to make the budget cuts? ___Autocratic Decision ___Consultation ___Group Decision Notes:

Incident 6. You are the manager of six office workers who have identical jobs. The employees are all highly competent. It is time to set up the vacation schedule for the summer. It is company policy that only one worker can be on vacation at any given time.

Each employee gets two weeks of vacation, but the vacation days do not have to be taken together. Four of the workers have expressed a strong desire to have their vacation in June. You do not know all the details, but are aware that some of the employees have special trips or important family events in June. Your subordinates are eager to find out the vacation schedule so they can make their plans. How should this decision be made? ___Autocratic Decision ___Consultation ___Group Decision Notes:

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Influence Scenario Exercise Instructor Guidelines for Using the Exercise The purpose of this exercise is to help students to understand how to influence subordinates, peers, and bosses. The exercise is more useful when students understand the 11 proactive influence tactics described in Chapter 6 of the book. The exercise involves three scenarios that describe a hypothetical but realistic influence situation. Students analyze the scenarios and identify appropriate influence strategies.

Total time for the exercise is about 1 hour if students come to class with their scenario answers already prepared.

The first step is for students to individually describe in writing how the manager in each scenario should accomplish the stated influence objective. The answers can be written as a homework assignment, or time can be allocated in class for writing the recommended influence strategy (allow about 20 minutes).

The second step is to form groups of 4 or 5 students to discuss each scenario and try to reach agreement on the best influence strategy. Instruct each group in advance to select representatives to briefly present the group’s answer for each scenario. Allow about 30 minutes for the groups to discuss the scenarios and reach agreement.

Begin with scenario 1, and ask the representatives to present and explain their group answers. Each presentation should be brief (e.g. 2–3 minutes). Post the answers and use the 11 proactive tactics to aid in classifying the recommended tactics. In doing the posting, show the sequence of tactics recommended by each group. After all groups have presented their answers, discuss any disagreements and explore reasons for them (e.g., different assumptions or interpretation of the situation). Remind students that even though some tactics are more appropriate than others, there is often more than one good strategy available, and no strategy is guaranteed to be successful. Use the same procedure for the second scenario, and again for the third one. Allow about 30 minutes total for the presentations and discussion.

If there is time, discuss differences among the scenarios in recommended tactics, and relate to differences in feasibility of the various tactics for influencing subordinate, peers, and bosses.

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Notes on Most Relevant Tactics Scenario 1: • Collaboration would be useful to help the subordinate do the assignment (e.g., offer help on other tasks, offer to postpone or reassign some tasks).

• Rational persuasion would be useful to clarify the importance of the assignment for the organization.

• Apprising may be useful to help clarify how the assignment would further the subordinate’s career.

• Consultation may be useful to involve the subordinate in determining how the assignment could be done.

• Ingratiation may be useful to increase acceptance of the assignment (say that the subordinate is uniquely qualified to do it).

• An inspirational appeal may be useful if the assignment can be linked to values, such as concern for customer service, or loyalty to the organization.

• Exchange may be useful if it is feasible to offer an incentive (bonus, promotion) for successful performance of the assignment.

Scenario 2: • Rational persuasion would be useful to clarify why the report is needed sooner than initially expected.

• Consultation may elicit ideas about possible ways to speed up the report.

• Collaboration may be useful if there is some way to help the IS Manager do the report (e.g., provide additional resources or assistance, postpone another assignment to make time).

• An inspirational appeal may be useful if successful completion of the project can be linked to target values.

• Exchange may be useful if there is something the R&D Manager can offer that is sufficient to motivate compliance by the IS Manager.

• A personal appeal may be helpful if the R&D Manager has a close friendship with the IS Manager.

Scenario 3: • Rational persuasion would be useful to make a strong case why the proposed change is feasible, desirable, and involves low risk.

• A coalition involving other department managers would be useful to show the Production VP that there is widespread support for the change.

• Inspirational appeals may be feasible if it is possible to link the proposed change to the Production VP’s values and aspirations.

• Collaboration may be useful if there are things the Production Manager can do to make it easier for the Production VP to implement the proposed change.

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Influence Scenarios Instructions for students: This exercise consists of 3 influence situations that commonly occur in organizations. Please describe in detail what the agent in the scenario should say and do to influence the target person. If you believe that more than one type of influence tactic is appropriate, indicate how the tactics should be sequenced.

Scenario 1 The Product Manager wants to assign a new task to a specific subordinate who has the skills to do it well. The task is to conduct a study on ways to improve customer service, and it is important for the Product Manager to get this information. The subordinate is reluctant to do the task because it is only distantly related to his job, and the other job responsibilities are already overwhelming. What should the manager say to influence the subordinate to carry out the task in an effective way?

Scenario 2 The Research and Development Manager is trying to complete a project to develop a new type of diagnostic instrument for medical laboratories. This project is important, because the new instrument could be a major source of future profits for the company.

To keep the project on schedule, the R & D Manager needs the Information Services department to prepare a report earlier than initially expected. The R & D manager has no direct authority over the IS Manager. What should the R & D Manager say to influence the IS Manager to complete the report quickly?

Scenario 3 The Production Manager has an innovative idea for a change in procedures to reduce costs and increase profits, but implementation of the idea would involve a purchasing some new equipment as well as hiring and training two operators. To make the change requires the approval of the immediate boss, the Production Vice President, who is usually reluctant to make risky decisions. What should the manager say to influence the Production VP to approve the proposed change?

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Analysis of Visionary Speeches Guidelines for Using the Exercise The purpose of this exercise is to help students to understand the components of an effective vision presentation, as described in Chapters 5 and 8 of the book. The exercise involves analysis of a written or videotaped presentation made by a leader who is very skilled in visioning. Students analyze the presentation and identify effective use of content and delivery style. Total time for the exercise depends on how it is done, and the exercise can take from 30 to 60 minutes.

The first step is to select one or more speeches to use for the analysis. An advantage of using two or three speeches instead of only one is to provide a variety of different approaches to compare. The speeches can be compared with regard to content and style. Videotapes speeches are better than written ones, because it is possible to observe the nonverbal aspects of the communication.

Many types of speeches can be used, including ones by political leaders, military leaders, and leaders of social movements. Examples include the “I have a dream” speech by Martin Luther King Jr. and the speech by President Kennedy in which he proposed sending a man to the moon by the end of the decade. The speeches can be assigned, or you can allow students to find effective examples on their own.

When videotapes are used, it is best to see the actual leaders making a speech.

However, another option is to allow students to analyze speeches made by actors in movies about effective political or military leaders. An example is the inspirational speech made by Colonel Joshua Chambers to the rebellious Maine soldiers in the movie “Gettysburg.”

On the following page is a worksheet for analyzing each presentation. The worksheet has separate sections for style and content of the presentation, with subcategories linked back to the description of visioning in the book. Students should use the categories to organize their analysis of a presentation. The analysis of written speeches can be done as homework if students have a copy of the speech and the analysis worksheet. If videotaped speeches are used and it is difficult for students to gain access to them, then the analysis should be done in class.

Another option is to use groups to do this exercise. You can ask each group to select a videotaped speech, show it in class, and present their analysis. The analysis can be briefly discussed and observations made by other students and the instructor.

After all of the speeches are analyzed separately, they can be compared to each other.

This option requires more time than the option of having each student analyze the same one or two written speeches as homework to be discussed briefly in class.

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Worksheet for Visioning Analysis Style of Presentation 1. Examples of colorful, vivid language and imagery, including symbols, slogans, and metaphors.

2. Examples of appeal to shared beliefs and traditional values, familiar examples, or anecdotes to which the audience can relate.

3. Use of repetition in words, phrases, or sentence structure.

4. Use of voice (tone, inflection, pauses) and non-verbals (e.g., posture, gestures, facial expressions) to express emotion, intensity, and meaning.

5. Use of site, visual aids, visual symbols, props, lighting, music, etc. to excitement and emotionality. Use this category with a videotape.

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Content of Presentation 1. Establish the need for change (e.g., describe a current situation that is unjust, intolerable, unfair, or perilous)

2. Describe a vision of a possible future situation that appeals to people's hopes and desires for something better.

3. Present a promising, innovative strategy for attaining the vision in general terms, without too much detail.

4. Talk about the challenge of achieving the vision, the need for dedication, courage, persistence, creativity, and possibly self-sacrifice.

5. Express optimism that the vision can be attained, despite the obstacles (e.g., express confidence in the ability of the audience, recall prior successes)

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Tower Exercise Guidelines for Using the Exercise This short exercise provides an opportunity for students to experience the challenges of shared leadership in a group with a short but complex task. The exercise is most relevant to Chapter 11. Introduce the task briefly and form groups with 4–6 students. Next, explain the procedures, requirements, and rules for the task. Check to see if there are any questions. Ask each group to select a group name before they begin, and allow 5 minutes for this process. Tell the groups how much time they will have for the task (allow 30 to 40 minutes). Then, distribute a bag of materials to each group, along with one copy of the printed list of materials and the rules and requirements. When each group is ready, tell the groups to open their bag and check to ensure they have all the required materials. During construction have the can available for teams that want it to test their tower. Provide a 10 minute warning and a 2 minute warning before the end of the time period. After construction is ended, ask the groups to bring their towers to the front of the room one at a time to be tested. If desired, the test can include wind or earthquake simulation (the instructions should include any additional requirements for the test of sturdiness). All towers that pass the test should be placed on a table side by side to identify the tallest one.

Next, ask each student to fill out the group process questionnaire (next page) or ask each group to do it collectively. Even if the questionnaire is filled out by individual students, it is desirable to have each team meet for 10 minutes to conduct an afteractivity review. Ask a representative from each team to provide a brief (2 minute) summary of what was done well and what could be done better.

Below is a recommended list of materials to be provided to each group. The materials can be varied somewhat if it seems likely one class will pass on their solutions to successive ones. In addition to the construction materials, a can of food (1–2 pounds) is necessary for testing the towers after they are completed.

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List of Construction Materials • large, heavy cardboard base (square and approximately 10 inches on each side) • small, heavy cardboard platform (square and approximately 3.5 to 4 inches wide) • one half roll of masking tape (3/4 inch wide) • 12 paper cups (7 oz. or 9 oz.)

• 12 paper plates (9 inch in diameter, very thin paper with no plastic coating) • 8 popsicle sticks (or similar object made of wood or plastic) Rules and Requirements for Tower Exercise • The objective is to build the highest tower that will pass the test for sturdiness.

• The can must rest on the small platform, and the height of the tower will be measured from the base to the top of the can.

• In the test for sturdiness, the tower must hold the can on top for 30 seconds without collapsing or tipping over (any additional requirements such as resistance to wind and earthquakes will be specified).

• The tower must be fastened to the base so that it is portable, and no part of the tower can be below the base.

• The group can use only the materials that were provided (except the tape spool or plastic bag), but it is not necessary to use all of the materials.

• The paper plates and cups can be pierced or modified into any shape, but they cannot be cut or into smaller pieces; the popsicle sticks cannot be broken.

• Each group can request the can once (for 1 minute) to test their tower.

• Before beginning each team should select a group name, write it on a piece of tape (or name card, if provided), and attach it to the base of the tower.

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Questions for Tower Exercise Student name:

Group name:

1. To what extent did your group have a clear objective, and what was it?

2. How much time did the group take to plan how to do the task before beginning to work on it?

3. How was the group organized (were there specialized roles)?

4. Did some people have more influence than others? Did a leader emerge, or were leadership functions shared by members?

5. How much disagreement was there among members, and how were disagreements resolved?

6. How motivated was the group? Explain your answer and cite evidence.

7. What things were done well by the group?

8. What things were done poorly by the group? What could be done to make the group more effective in performing a similar task?

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Role Play Exercises Description of the Exercises This part of the manual contains role exercises that can be used in the classroom to facilitate learning and make the course more interesting.

1. Save-Mart: This exercise allows students to practice guidelines for delegation presented in Chapter 4.

2. Union Chemicals: This exercise allows students to practice the meeting leadership guidelines described in Chapter 11.

3. KB Sportswear: This exercise allows students to practice the meeting leadership guidelines described in Chapter 11.

Some of the cases in the book can be used also as the basis for role playing. As noted earlier, other role play exercises can be found in several books on management skills. An example is the book by Stephen Robbins entitled: “Training in Interpersonal Skills” (published by Prentice Hall).

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Guidelines for Using Role Play Exercises in Classrooms with Movable Chairs 1. Before role plays are used in the class, take the time to explain why they are used and what students are expected to do. Make sure students know that when used properly role plays provide an opportunity to build their skills. Remind students that role plays are not a game, but rather a serious learning method that is widely used in workshops for managers.

2. Encourage students who are hesitant by saying that the roles do not require special acting skills; anyone in the class is capable of doing them. Students should try to have enough emotional involvement to make the role play seem real, but not so much that it becomes more than an experiential exercise. In other words, avoid becoming defensive or angry when playing the roles.

3. Encourage students to help each other learn from the exercises rather than being overly critical. Remind students that providing constructive feedback is a skill they need to become effective as managers, and this skill can be practiced after each role play, regardless of whether the student is a player or observer.

4. When role plays are used for skill practice, it is helpful to have students review relevant behavioral guidelines beforehand. For example, show an overhead listing the guidelines, or ask volunteers to write guidelines on the board.

5. Before the role play exercise begins, form small groups and provide a copy of the role play materials to each group. To avoid confusion, tell students in advance what they are expected to do, explain how the roles will be assigned, start all of the groups at the same time, and set clear time limits for ending the role play.

6. Tell students they should learn the key facts in their designated roles beforehand and plan in a general way what they will say. During the role plays, students should convey all information orally. It is more realistic if students do not read from their role descriptions in a mechanical manner. Students should not show their written roles to each other either before or during the role play.

7. Ask students to play their roles the way a real employee would react in that situation.

Students may add information to embellish the role but should not make up facts that change the situation in a significant way. Remind students it is okay to change one's position when it is reasonable to expect someone to do so after getting additional information.

8. Vary the composition of the groups used for role plays and case discussions during the course to ensure that students are exposed to different points of view and they have a chance to play the key leader role.

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Save-Mart Role Play Guidelines for Using the Exercise The purpose of this role play is to allow students to practice the guidelines in Chapter 5 for delegating effectively. For this role play, it is necessary to form threeperson groups and determine for each group who will play the role of the boss, who will play the role of the subordinate, and who will serve as the observer. Any students who are left over may be used as extra observers.

After roles are assigned, give students copies of the materials relevant for their part in the role play exercise. All students should be given a copy of the general instructions and background information. Students selected to be managers should get a copy of their respective roles. Students selected to be observers should get a copy of the instructions for observers, the boss role, and the form for taking notes on the meeting.

These notes will be the basis for feedback to the student playing the role of boss.

Before beginning the role play, allow time for students to read their materials and plan what to say. Remind students not to look at the role or materials for any other person, either before or during the role play. Information should be communicated only orally during the role play, and students should not show their printed role sheets to each other.

When the role playing is finished, reconvene the larger class to discuss what was learned. Ask observers for examples of especially effective behavior they witnessed.

Identify the major difficulties faced by the managers in delegating to subordinates.

The total time for this exercise is about 50 minutes. It takes 5 minutes to explain the exercise and form triads. It takes about 10 minutes for students to read their materials and prepare for the role play. It takes about 15 minutes to do the actual role play, and another 5 minutes for feedback from the observer. The class discussion takes another 15 minutes.

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Save-Mart Role Play Exercise Instructions for Students The purpose of this role play is to provide an opportunity to practice guidelines for delegating effectively. This role play involves a meeting between the Vice President for Operations and one of the store managers who report to the VP. If you are selected to play the role of one of these managers, you will be provided with a description of your role. Before the role play begins, read the background information (see below) and study the description of your role. Try to imagine how the person would actually feel in that situation, and act accordingly during the role play.

One or more observers will be assigned to each group. Students selected to be observers should read their instructions and the observer form for taking notes on the meeting. These notes will be the basis for giving feedback to the student who plays the role of the boss. Your instructor will provide additional information on procedures and time limits for the role play.

Background Information Save-Mart is a retail discount chain with 20 stores in five states. The company was founded ten years ago and has been expanding rapidly. The stores are all identical in appearance and layout, and most of the stores are located in suburban areas.

Merchandise is selected and purchased in large quantities by the headquarters buyers and stockpiled in the company's two warehouses. Each store receives an initial shipment of each item, then orders replacements as needed. All prices are set by headquarters marketing staff, and they also do the planning for all promotions and sales. Thus, all stores have the same prices and promotions going on simultaneously.

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Role for Vice President of Operations at Save-Mart You are the Vice President of Operations for Save-Mart. Top management has recently decided to experiment with decentralization of some important operating decisions. They feel that this change will improve sales and profits and reduce bureaucratic problems such as promotions that some stores do not need or are not prepared to handle. A few stores have been selected to participate in this trial because they have managers who appear to have the personality and ability required for an expanded managerial role. If after one year the changes appear successful, they will be instituted in all the Save-Mart stores. At that time, a program of bonuses based on store profits will be instituted for store managers.

You are about to meet with one of your subordinates, who is the manager of store number 17. The purpose of the meeting is to explain how more authority for decisions will be delegated to him or her. The following changes will be made: 1. The manager of store #17 will be given responsibility for pricing decisions and will be able to adjust prices upward or downward on all items in his/her store. Prices can be increased by up to 25% above the list price recommended by the headquarters Merchandise Department, and they can be reduced down to the base cost of an item.

2. Store #17 will still receive shipments of standard items, but the manager will be given authority to spend up to 20% of his/her merchandise replacement budget on items purchased from other suppliers rather than from the list of items available from SaveMart warehouses. This flexibility will allow the store to sell items that have special appeal in its local area. Monthly sales reports on special items must be submitted to the Merchandise Vice President.

3. The manager of Store #17 will be able to conduct promotions campaigns and special sales in addition to the ones initiated by headquarters. A promotions budget will be provided to pay for the cost of local advertising in newspapers and on radio and television. The size of this budget will be determined next week. Headquarters should be informed in advance of local promotions and sales, to allow coordination with storewide promotions.

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Role for Manager of Save-Mart Store #17 You are about to meet with your boss, the Vice President of Store Operations. You have heard through the grapevine that some major changes are in the works to decentralize operating decisions to the level of the store managers. You are very excited about this change, because you believe that your store could increase sales and profits if you had more discretion about store operations. You have been hampered in competing with other stores in the same area by lack of control over prices and choice of items to sell. You do not have much expertise about advertising campaigns and would need some instruction and advice from the experts at headquarters to help you learn how to plan promotions campaigns. You are hoping that greater responsibility for profits will also mean greater opportunity to earn bonuses based on store profits. You enjoy working for Save-Mart, but you have an opportunity to take a job in another company with more responsibility and higher pay. You want to find out whether SaveMart is going to provide the opportunity to earn what you think you are worth.

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Instructions for Observers Your job is to observe the role play and take notes on how well the student playing the role of the boss follows the guidelines for effective delegation that are listed on the observer form. Indicate whether the "boss" does each step and note examples of effective and ineffective behavior. In preparation for the role play, read the background information and a copy of the role for the boss, so you can understand what information the boss should communicate to the subordinate.

Observer Form 1. Specifies responsibilities and authority clearly.

Notes:

__ Yes __ No

2. Checks for comprehension.

Notes

__ Yes __ No

3. Specifies reporting requirements.

Notes:

__ Yes __ No

4. Ensures subordinate acceptance of responsibilities.

Notes:

__ Yes __ No

5. Offers support, assistance, and resources.

Notes:

__ Yes __ No

6. Other observations.

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Union Chemicals Role Play Guidelines for Using the Exercise The purpose of this role play is to allow students to practice the guidelines for leading decision groups (described in Chapter 11). The exercise gives students an opportunity to experience the difficulties in making a group decision when there are many uncertainties and strong pressure to reach a quick consensus. The role play involves a meeting of the CEO with five executives. Even when the group is not highly cohesive, the role play creates conditions that discourage adequate assessment of the preferred solution.

After introducing the role play exercise, form six-person groups (composed of five managers and an observer) and identify a leader for each group by asking for volunteers or appointing somebody. Then assign the other four roles and select an observer. Any extra students left over after the groups are formed can serve as additional observers. Give each student a copy of the general instructions (including background information). Give students selected to be managers the descriptions of their roles. Remind students not to look at the materials for any other person, either before or during the role play. Give observers copies of the observer instructions, the observer key, and the observer form. Remind observers not to talk during the role play itself.

After the groups are formed, allow students time to study their roles and prepare for them. Remind students that they can interpret and embellish their roles as long as they do not introduce any factual information that changes the nature of the decision problem. Also, during the course of the discussion, they can change their position if it would be realistic to expect that they would do so in a real job situation. When students are ready, tell them that they have 30 minutes to make their decision, and start all of the groups at the same time.

After the groups have reached their decisions, reconvene the class to discuss the role play. Ask each observer to report the group decision and briefly evaluate how rational and systematic it was.

Total time for the exercise is a little more than an hour. It takes 5 minutes to form the groups, assign roles, and distribute materials; 5 minutes for students to study their written materials and prepare for the role play; 25 minutes for the role play, 10 minutes for feedback from observers, and 15 minutes for class discussion to debrief the exercise.

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Union Chemicals Instructions for Students The purpose of this role play is to provide an opportunity for you to experience what it is like to participate in a group that must make an important managerial decision. The role play also provides an opportunity to practice and strengthen skills that determine whether a decision group will be productive.

The role play involves a meeting of the five-member executive team. Students will formed into groups, and each member of a group will be assigned a different role. If you are selected to be a manager, you will be given a description of your role. Before the role play begins, read the background information (below) and study the description of your role. Try to imagine how the person would actually feel in that situation and act accordingly during the role play. You may refer to your printed materials during the role play, if necessary, but do not show them to other people in the group. Please do not look at the materials for any role other than the one you are assigned.

One or more observers will be assigned also to record the decision processes of each group. Observers should not talk to group members during the role play. An observer form will be provided to take notes that can be used to provide feedback to the group after the role play is completed. Your instructor will give you more information about procedures and time limits for this exercise.

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Union Chemicals Role for Company President Union Chemicals is a large manufacturing company that makes chemicals, solvents, and various kinds of compounds. The company is financially sound, but sales have leveled off in the last few years and competition is increasing. The Product Research Department has developed a new bonding agent, and the executive group is meeting now to decide whether to begin marketing and production of the new product. The executive team includes the President and the four vice presidents (research, production, marketing, finance).

You have been President of Union Chemicals for three years. Under your leadership the company has been turned around from a condition of falling profits to one of modest but stable profits. You have aggressively encouraged expansion of research and development so that the company can remain competitive in an era of rapid technological change. Future growth for the company is dependent on sales of new or improved products, since demand for existing products is not increasing much and there is considerable foreign competition.

You have called the meeting for today to evaluate the prospects for a new bonding agent developed by Union’s research scientists. The company holds patents on the basic process used to make the bonding agent. The specialized equipment needed to produce the new compound is available for purchase. The testing device necessary for quality control is made only by Eureka Corporation, one of your competitors, but you do not anticipate any problem in leasing their test device. You hope that the executive team will be able to reach a decision on the best course of action to follow.

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Union Chemicals Role for VP-Research Union Chemicals is a large manufacturing company that makes chemicals, solvents, and various kinds of compounds. The company is financially sound, but sales have leveled off in the last few years and competition is increasing. The Product Research Department has developed a new bonding agent, and the executive group is meeting now to decide whether to begin marketing and production of the new product. The executive team includes the President and the four vice presidents (research, production, marketing, finance).

You have been Vice President of the Research and Development Department at Union Chemicals for ten years. Until the last few years the Research department was hampered by inadequate budgets. The company did not invest enough of its profits in development of new products, and this was a major reason for loss of sales to domestic and foreign competitors. However, of the several research projects currently underway, the new bonding agent is farthest along toward final development. Product testing research has been going on for several months, and the results show that the new bonding agent is superior to any existing product on the market. In fact, the bonding agent is so strong and versatile it can be used to bond materials that formerly had to be welded or fastened together mechanically. Nevertheless, just this week one of your junior scientists ran some tests that indicated the new compound may break down after a period of time when subjected to very high or low temperatures, especially if the compound contains any impurities not detected and removed during production. More research is underway to determine the exact conditions under which problems may occur. You are hopeful about the prospects, because a successful new product would help your department get the larger research budgets you believe are necessary for the company to remain competitive in coming years.

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Union Chemicals Role for VP-Production Union Chemicals is a large manufacturing company that makes chemicals, solvents, and various kinds of compounds. The company is financially sound, but sales have leveled off in the last few years and competition is increasing. The Product Research Department has developed a new bonding agent, and the executive group is meeting now to decide whether to begin marketing and production of the new product. The executive team includes the President and the four vice presidents (research, production, marketing, finance).

You have been VP of the Production Department for six years, during which time you have been very effective in minimizing production costs in order to keep the company competitive. The bonding agent developed by the Research Department is the first new product to come along in several years. In your opinion, going ahead with production would create some technical problems, but nothing insurmountable.

Production of the bonding agent would require purchase of some new equipment which could not be used for existing products. It would take 6 to 8 weeks to install the production equipment after it arrives. A special quality control device to test for impurities could be leased from Eureka Corporation. Some new production employees would need to be hired, and anyone involved in making the new bonding agent would have to be trained to safely handle the extremely hazardous chemicals involved in the production process, in order to avoid accidents or an explosion. You enjoy the challenge of bringing a new product into regular production, and you are looking forward to getting started with the planning as soon as possible.

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Union Chemicals Role for VP-Marketing Union Chemicals is a large manufacturing company that makes chemicals, solvents, and various kinds of compounds. The company is financially sound, but sales have leveled off in the last few years and competition is increasing. The Product Research Department has developed a new bonding agent, and the executive group is meeting now to decide whether to begin marketing and production of the new product. The executive team includes the President and the four vice presidents (research, production, marketing, finance).

You have been VP for Marketing for two years, having been promoted to the position when your predecessor left for another job. You have been anxious to show what you can do to improve sales, but you have been frustrated by unfavorable market conditions and the lack of exciting new products. Now it looks like the company has finally come up with a winner. The new bonding agent could be sold to a variety of different industries, including home appliances, automobiles, building construction, aircraft construction, and military weapons systems. Your staff has projected a rapid sales growth for the new product, and it could become one of Union Chemical's most important products within a few years. You have just learned from reliable sources that Eureka Corporation, one of your competitors, is working on a similar product based on a different compound. You are concerned that any delay would mean losing the advantage of being first on the market with a new kind of product. You would like to begin planning a major marketing campaign for the new product as soon as possible.

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Union Chemicals Role for VP-Finance Union Chemicals is a large manufacturing company that makes chemicals, solvents, and various kinds of compounds. The company is financially sound, but sales have leveled off in the last few years and competition is increasing. The Product Research Department has developed a new bonding agent, and the executive group is meeting now to decide whether to begin marketing and production of the new product. The executive team includes the President and the four vice presidents (research, production, marketing, finance).

You have been the VP for finance at Union Chemicals for five years and have worked for the company for nearly twenty years. Union badly needs a successful new product. Sales have leveled off in recent years, and competition keeps getting more intense. Just before this meeting, your staff gave you the financial projections for the current year, and profits are expected to decline by 10 percent. If the new bonding agent could be put on the market quickly, profits could be up again by the end of next year. You have already investigated the cost of purchasing new equipment to produce the bonding agent. The specialized production equipment would be very expensive, and the company would have to increase its long-term debt in order to finance the purchase.

However, you are convinced that it would be an excellent investment. Production costs for the new product would be slightly higher than for other compounds currently made by the company, but because it is a unique product with no competitors, it could be sold at a premium price, yielding large profits. You strongly favor going ahead with marketing and production of the new product.

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Union Chemicals Background Information Union Chemicals is a large manufacturing company that makes chemicals, solvents, and various kinds of compounds. The company is financially sound, but sales have leveled off in the last few years and competition is increasing. The Product Research Department has developed a new bonding agent, and the executive group is meeting now to decide whether to begin marketing and production of the new product. The executive team includes the President and the four vice presidents (research, production, marketing, finance).

Instructions for Observers Your assignment in this role play is to observe the group process and evaluate how effective it is. Before the role play begins, read the background information and the observer key. During the role play, pay particular attention to how well the group leader conducts the meeting. Use the Observer Form to take notes on effective and ineffective behavior by the group leader and other members. Use these notes to provide feedback to the leader and the group after the role play is completed.

Effective leaders encourage careful evaluation of the potential benefits and costs of selling the new product. Various members of the group have information about some serious risks associated with putting the new compound into immediate production. The potential risks should be identified and weighed carefully against the potential benefits to determine if the company should market the new product on a large scale, market it for limited (safe) applications only, or wait until further testing before going ahead with production and marketing. The leader should make sure dissenters have ample opportunity to be heard, and should encourage careful consideration of all potential problems. It is helpful for the leader to list pros and cons on a flip chart, blackboard, or summary sheet for group members to see.

A careful and systematic evaluation of pros and cons usually results in a cautious decision, such as continuing product testing to identify safe applications, or marketing the product only for limited use in low risk situations, perhaps with special clients who will experiment with it and help to evaluate its applications and limitations. Groups that do not use an effective decision process usually make a quick decision to proceed immediately with full scale production and unlimited marketing. Sometimes a cohesive group will exhibit the symptoms of groupthink; negative information is suppressed, ignored, or discounted, and anybody who expresses a dissenting opinion is pressured to go along with the majority position.

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Observer Key Summary of Potential Benefits: • Sales prospects are excellent due to many product applications and the uniqueness of the product.

• Profits would be large due to a high price and moderate costs.

• Production could be initiated in a relatively short period of time.

• The company needs a new product to boost sales and profits, which are beginning to lag.

• The new product would create enthusiasm and boost morale.

Summary of Potential Risks: • Cost of equipment is expensive and long-term debt would be increased.

• The equipment could not be used for other purposes if production were delayed or interrupted.

• Some applications may not be feasible because the bonding agent will break down under very high or very low temperatures, subjecting the company to adverse publicity and expensive lawsuits.

• The new product requires handling of hazardous materials which could result in accidents or explosions, especially if production is rushed and employees are not properly trained.

• The competitor (Eureka Corporation) that is developing a similar product may split the market, making the compound less profitable than initially assumed.

• Because Eureka's is a likely competitor, they may refuse to allow Union Chemicals to license the test equipment necessary for quality control, thereby forcing delays in production until an alternative quality control process is developed. Even if Eureka is willing to lease the equipment, the cost may be so high that it will cut into profits from the new compound.

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Observer Form 1. What did the company president do to facilitate the decision process?

2. What actions by the president (if any) hindered the group?

3. What effective or ineffective behaviors did other members exhibit?

4. Identify and evaluate the processes used to reach a decision.

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KB Sportswear Role Play Guidelines for Using the Exercise The purpose of this role play is to allow students to practice the guidelines for leading decision groups described in Chapter 11. The exercise gives students an opportunity to experience the difficulties in making a group decision when there are many uncertainties and underlying conflicts between subordinates. The role play involves a meeting of the company president with two functional vice presidents. The person playing the role of company president has an opportunity to practice skills required for conducting meetings and resolving conflicts.

For this role play exercise, it is necessary to form groups of four students and determine who will play each role or serve as the observer. Extra students may be assigned as additional observers. After responsibilities are assigned, give students copies of the materials relevant for their part in the role play exercise. Each student should be given a copy of the general instructions and background information. In addition, students selected to be executives should get a copy of their respective roles.

Students selected to be observers should get a copy of the instructions for observers, the observer sheet, and the key on ways to reduce causes of the conflict.

Before beginning the role play, students should read the instructions and background information and study their roles. Students selected to be observers should study the special instructions for observers and the form for taking notes on the meeting. These notes will be the basis for providing feedback to the group. Remind students not to look at the materials for any other person, either before or during the role play. During the role play, information should be communicated orally, and students should not show their printed role sheets to each other.

After the role play, reconvene the class to discuss it. Ask the observers to report on examples of especially effective behavior by students who played the role of the KB president.

The total time for the exercise is about an hour. It takes about 5 minutes to introduce the exercise, form groups, and distribute copies of the materials. Students need 5 minutes to read their materials and prepare for the role play. Allow about 20 minutes for the role play itself, and another 10 minutes for feedback from the observer.

The class discussion to debrief the exercise takes about 15 minutes.

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Instructions for Students: The role play involves three parties: the president of KB Sportswear, the Vice President for Sales, and the Vice President for Production. If you are selected to play the role of one of these executives, read the background information and study your role. Try to imagine how the person would actually feel, then act accordingly during the role play.

Background Information: KB Sportswear is a small company that manufactures clothing used in sports and recreational activities, including ski apparel, jogging outfits, swim wear, tennis outfits, and clothing for hunting and fishing. The company's sportswear is manufactured at two small plants just across the border in Mexico. KB sells its sportswear to a variety of department stores, sporting goods stores, and clothing stores, including small, individually owned stores as well as large chain stores.

The sportswear markets serviced by the company are increasingly dominated by fads and fashion trends. Items such as ski jackets and jogging outfits are often purchased for general use, not just for use in a sports activity. In any given year, some styles and patterns for a particular type of sportswear are likely to be more popular than others. The stores typically order only a limited quantity of various items, then place follow-up orders for particular styles that are selling well. Since most sportswear is seasonal and fashions change each year, it is important for stores to receive quick delivery on reorders or they will lose profitable sales and be stuck with items that can only be sold at low prices during post-season sales. In the last two years the average delivery time for reorders increased from 3 weeks to 6 weeks.

The company has a sales force of twenty sales representatives, each with a different territory. The sales representatives work on a commission basis. Since one basis for making sales is the promise of quick delivery, there is intense pressure from the sales representatives to get a reorder filled quickly. Orders made by the stores are placed with the sales representatives or sent by mail directly to the headquarters sales office in Los Angeles. Reorders are usually called in to the sales office by the sales reps or the retail stores. A credit check is made by the sales office before an order is sent to the headquarters production office, and a retailer with weak credit may be required to pay in advance for an order. By the time most reorders come in, the plants are usually in the middle of production runs for the next season. If this production is disrupted, the line of sportswear for the next season may not be ready on time.

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KB Sportswear

Role for President

You have been the President of KB Sportswear for the last five years. The company has been growing steadily in sales, and its lines of sportswear are now being sold in most parts of the United States. However, the problem of delivery delays on reorders threatens to cut into sales, and may have done so already. You believe that the company has enough plant capacity to produce all of the sportswear that it can sell this year if the production scheduling problems can be worked out.

There are several constraints on solving the problem. The company cannot afford to maintain large inventories of items if it is going to be stuck with many unpopular lines that do not sell. KB cannot afford to build or buy another plant at the present time, although in another year or two it may be feasible. If absolutely necessary it is possible to subcontract some work to other companies. However, subcontracting production would increase costs, which are now at minimum levels, and would not necessarily guarantee any faster delivery of reorders.

You have called a meeting with the sales and production vice presidents to discuss these issues and decide how to reduce delays in delivery of reorders.

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Role for VP-Sales at KB Sportswear You are glad that this meeting is being held so that you can express your growing frustration with the production people. Don't they understand that without sales there wouldn't be any company? Nearly half of KB's sales are accounted for by reorders. You are proud of your record in increasing sales over the last two years, but the same kind of increase will not be possible in the next two years if there are long delays in deliveries of reorders. Even now, some potential sales are being lost to other companies who guarantee faster delivery. Once a company gets a bad reputation about late deliveries, it becomes difficult to obtain any business from the large stores that are your most important customers.

Several of the sales reps have complained to you that the production people are uncooperative. When the sales reps try to find out about an order, they usually can't get a definite answer. How can they make sales if it is impossible to tell a retailer how long it will take to get a reorder? You heard through the grapevine that one of your sales reps stopped in at the plant last week to check on a special order and was told never to come back.

You believe that production is entirely at fault for the problem of slow deliveries on reorders. All they seem to care about is saving a few dollars on production costs. The production scheduling doesn't seem to make any sense. Sometimes a sales rep has to wait six weeks for a reorder, and other times the same type of order is filled in two weeks. Why can't production fill all of the reorders in two or three weeks? You wonder why things are so screwed up in production. Are the managers in those Mexican plants are taking too many siestas?

In addition, your sales reps complain that production doesn't seem to have any sense of priorities. A reorder for a small store is sometimes filled before a reorder for a major department store chain. If production cannot do all of the reorders quickly, then they should expedite reorders for the major customers and let the less important customers wait longer.

You believe that the production mess can be straightened out with better management. If it is not possible to speed up deliveries with the present facilities, then the company should build another plant or subcontract the reorders to other companies.

Most of KB's lines could be made anywhere in the world, such as in Korea or China.

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99

Role for VP-Manufacturing at KB Sportswear You have been looking forward to this meeting, because it is about time something was done about the sales representatives. All they seem to care about is making fat commissions. They make unrealistic promises of fast delivery to stores, then they expect miracles from production to bail them out. They have become especially obnoxious lately in pestering the plant managers or anybody else they can talk to about reorders. Production people are constantly getting telephone calls from one sales rep or another checking on reorders. Some sales reps attempt to influence a plant manager to give them favorable treatment. You heard that last week one sales rep even came to the plant and offered a bribe for doing his order first. The manager threw him out and told him never to show his face in that plant again!

You are proud that production of sportswear by KB has been increased substantially, while keeping unit costs below the industry average. It is this success that allows the company to remain competitive in its pricing of sportswear. However, you cannot keep production costs down if you have to keep interrupting the high-volume work on next season's lines to make a small batches of reorder items. Why don't the sales reps understand that you can't shut down regular production every time they have some little ski shop in Vermont that wants a dozen ski jackets? If the sales people could tell you sooner which items are selling well, rather than waiting for actual reorders, you could build up larger inventories of the "hot" items.

You are aware that the delivery time on reorders has gotten worse, but it is not your fault. As sales have increased in the last two years, the two plants have come close to full capacity, making the scheduling of production for reorders even more difficult than before. Your plant managers usually delay production on reorders until there is enough volume of a particular type of item to make it economical to interrupt the regular production. Only very large reorders that don't have to be combined with other orders get processed quickly.

Delays in delivery of reorders are due also to the tougher requirements for credit checks instituted last year by the headquarters sales office. Before you can fill a reorder you must wait for a credit check on the retailer to be completed, even for major department stores worth many times more than KB Sportswear. Relaxing these requirements would help speed up deliveries on some of the reorders.

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KB Sportswear Observer Your assignment is to observe and evaluate the group process. Before the role play begins, read the background information and the observer key. During the role play, pay particular attention to how well the group leader conducts the meeting. Use the Observer Form to take notes on effective and ineffective behavior by the group leader and other members. Use these notes to provide feedback to the leader and the group after the role play is completed.

Observer Key What the Sales VP Can Do: • Prohibit sales reps from calling anyone in production except a designated production scheduling person to find out about delivery dates.

• Instruct sales reps not to promise deliveries that are unrealistic.

• The Sales VP can work with the sales reps to develop a better information system to detect sales trends early and report this information to production scheduling.

• Revise the credit check system. Maintain timely records for important, regular customers so that reorders from these stores can be processed quickly.

• Conduct a study to estimate future sales and the implications of delivery time for lost sales and canceled orders.

What the Production VP Can Do: • Reorganize the production scheduling office to handle all orders, reorders, and inquiries from sales reps more efficiently.

• When information about sales trends is provided by the Sales VP, plan larger runs of popular items to build up inventories of these items.

• Establish a priority system to give favorable treatment to regular customers who place large orders. The Sales VP would identify them before each season.

• Explore the possibility that production scheduling would be facilitated and production costs reduced if all of the reorders were produced at one plant.

• Evaluate options for the future such as new or expanded plants, or outsourcing the production of some standard items in order to increase capacity for filling reorders quickly.

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Observer Form 1. What did the company president do to facilitate the decision process?

2. What actions by the president (if any) hindered the group?

3. What effective or ineffective behaviors did other members exhibit?

4. Identify and evaluate the processes used to reach a decision.

.

Leadership in Organizations Ninth Edition

Chapter 1 Introduction: The Nature of Leadership

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Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 1.1 Understand the different ways leadership has been defined.

1.2 Understand the major types of leadership theories that have been studied.

1.3 Understand the different ways leadership effectiveness is determined.

1.4 Understand what aspects of leadership have been studied the most.

1.5 Understand the organization of this book.

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Definition of Leadership “Always, it seems, the concept of leadership eludes us or turns up in another form to taunt us again with its slipperiness and complexity. So we have invented an endless proliferation of terms to deal with it…and still the concept is not sufficiently defined.”

-Bennis (1959)

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Leader-Member Exchange Theory (1 of 3) Table 1.1 Definitions of Leadership

• Leadership is “the behavior of an individual … directing the activities of a group toward a shared goal” (Hemphill & Coons, 1957, p. 7).

• Leadership is “the influential increment over and above mechanical compliance with the routine directives of the organization” (Katz & Kahn, 1978, p. 528).

• Leadership is “the process of influencing the activities of an organized group toward goal achievement” (Rauch & Behling, 1984, p. 46).

• “Leadership is about articulating visions, embodying values, and creating the environment within which things can be accomplished” (Richards & Engle, 1986, p. 206).

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Leader-Member Exchange Theory (2 of 3) Table 1.1 Definitions of Leadership (continued)

• “Leadership is a process of giving purpose (meaningful direction) to collective effort, and causing willing effort to be expended to achieve purpose” (Jacobs & Jaques, 1990, p.

281).

• Leadership “is the ability to step outside the culture … to start evolutionary change processes that are more adaptive” (Schein, 1992, p. 2).

• “Leadership is the process of making sense of what people are doing together so that people will understand and be committed” (Drath & Palus, 1994, p. 4).

• Leadership is “the ability of an individual to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the organization …” (House et al., 1999, p. 184).

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Leader-Member Exchange Theory (3 of 3) Table 1.1 Definitions of Leadership (continued)

• “Leadership is a formal or informal contextually rooted and goal-influencing process that occurs between a leader and a follower, groups, of followers, or institutions” (Antonakis & Day, 2018, p. 5).

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Controversies Over Leadership Definitions 1. Specialized role or shared influence process 2. Type of influence process 3. Purpose of influence attempts 4. Influence based on reason or emotions 5. Direct and indirect leadership 6. Leadership versus management

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Our Definition of Leadership “Leadership is the process of influencing others to understand and agree about what needs to be done and how to do it, and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives.”

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Ways Leaders Can Influence Organizational Effectiveness Table 1.2 What Leaders Can Influence

• • • • • • • • • •

The choice of objectives and strategies to pursue The motivation of members to achieve the objectives The mutual trust and cooperation of members The organization and coordination of work activities The allocation of resources to activities and objectives The development of member skills and confidence The learning and sharing of new knowledge by members The enlistment of support and cooperation from outsiders The design of formal structure, programs, and systems The shared beliefs and values of members Copyright © 2020, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Indicators of Leadership Effectiveness 1. Immediate and delayed outcomes Figure 1.1 Causal Chain of Effects from Two Types of Leader Behavior

• What criteria to use Copyright © 2020, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Methods for Studying Leadership Effectiveness 1. Surveys 2. Observation 3. Experiments

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Major Perspectives in Leadership Theory 1. Characteristics of the Leader 2. Characteristics of the Follower 3. Characteristics of the Situation

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Major Perspectives in Leadership Theory (1 of 4) Table 1.3 Key Variables in Leadership Theories

Characteristics of the Leader • Traits (motives, personality) • Values, integrity, and moral development • Confidence and optimism • Skills and expertise • Leadership behavior • Influence tactics • Attributions about followers • Affect (e.g., emotions and moods) and affective displays • Mental models (beliefs and assumptions) Copyright © 2020, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Major Perspectives in Leadership Theory (2 of 4) Table 1.3 Key Variables in Leadership Theories (continued)

Characteristics of the Followers • Traits (needs, values, self-concepts) • Confidence and optimism • Skills and expertise • Attributions about the leader • Identification with the leader • Affect (e.g., emotions and moods) and affective displays • Task commitment and effort • Satisfaction with job and leader • Cooperation and mutual trust Copyright © 2020, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Major Perspectives in Leadership Theory (3 of 4) Table 1.3 Key Variables in Leadership Theories (continued)

Characteristics of the Situation • Type of organizational unit • Size of organizational unit • Position power and authority of leader • Task structure and complexity • Organizational culture • Environmental uncertainty and change • External dependencies and constraints • National cultural values • Temporal factors Copyright © 2020, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Major Perspectives in Leadership Theory (4 of 4) Figure 1.2 Causal Relationships Among the Primary Types of Leadership Variables

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Perspectives in Leadership Theory and Research 1. Trait Approach 2. Behavior Approach 3. Power-Influence Approach 4. Situational Approach 5. Values-Based Approach

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Level of Conceptualization (1 of 6) 1. Intra-individual process 2. Dyadic process 3. Group process 4. Organizational process 5. Multi-level theories

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Level of Conceptualization (2 of 6) Figure 1.3 Levels of Conceptualization for Leadership Processes

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Level of Conceptualization (3 of 6) Table 1.4 Research Questions at Different Levels of Conceptualization

Intra-Individual Theories • How leader traits and values influence leadership behavior • How leader skills are related to leader behavior • How leaders make decisions • How leaders manage their time • How leaders are influenced by role expectations and constraints • How leaders react to feedback and learn from experience • How leaders experience and display affect (e.g., emotions and moods) • How leaders form leadership identities • How leaders can use self-development techniques Copyright © 2020, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Level of Conceptualization (4 of 6) Table 1.4 Research Questions at Different Levels of Conceptualization (continued)

Dyadic Theories • How a leader influences subordinate motivation and task commitment • How a leader facilitates the work of a subordinate • How a leader interprets information about a subordinate • How a leader develops a subordinate’s skills and confidence • How a leader influences subordinate loyalty and trust • How a leader uses influence tactics with a subordinate, peer, or boss • How a leader and a subordinate influence each other • How a leader develops a cooperative exchange relationship with a subordinate • How a leader influences a follower to identify with the leader • How a leader elicits and impacts follower emotions and vice versa

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Level of Conceptualization (5 of 6) Table 1.4 Research Questions at Different Levels of Conceptualization (continued)

Group-Level Theories •

How different leader–member relations affect each other and team performance

•

How leadership is shared in the group or team

•

How leaders organize and coordinate the activities of team members

•

How leaders influence cooperation and resolve disagreements in the team or unit

•

How leaders influence collective efficacy and optimism for the team or unit

•

How leaders influence collective learning and innovation in the team or unit

•

How leaders influence collective identification of members with the team or unit

•

How leaders influence the shared mental models of team members

•

How unit leaders obtain resources and support from the organization and other units Copyright © 2020, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Level of Conceptualization (6 of 6) Table 1.4 Research Questions at Different Levels of Conceptualization (continued)

Organizational-Level Theories •

How top executives influence members at other levels

•

How leaders are selected at each level (and implications of process for the firm)

•

How leaders influence organizational culture

•

How leaders influence the efficiency and the cost of internal operations

•

How leaders influence human relations and human capital in the organization

•

How leaders make decisions about competitive strategy and external initiatives

•

How conflicts among leaders are resolved in an organization

•

How leaders influence innovation and major change in an organization

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Other Bases for Comparing Leadership Theories 1. Leader-centered versus follower-centered 2. Descriptive versus prescriptive 3. Universal versus contingency

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Organization of the Book 1. Type of leadership variable 2. Leadership context 3. Amount and scope of available theory

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Copyright

This work is protected by United States copyright laws and is provided solely for the use of instructors in teaching their courses and assessing student learning. Dissemination or sale of any part of this work (including on the World Wide Web) will destroy the integrity of the work and is not permitted. The work and materials from it should never be made available to students except by instructors using the accompanying text in their classes. All recipients of this work are expected to abide by these restrictions and to honor the intended pedagogical purposes and the needs of other instructors who rely on these materials.

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Leadership in Organizations Ninth Edition

Chapter 2 Leadership Behavior

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Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 2.1 Understand the different ways leader behavior has been described and examined.

2.2 Understand the major types of leader behavior in leadership theory and research.

2.3 Understand why task and relations behaviors are both important for leadership.

2.4 Understand how specific types of tasks and relations behaviors can be used effectively.

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Ways for Describing Leadership Behavior 1. Behavior categories are abstractions 2. Different levels of abstraction 3. Diverse development methods

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Types of Leadership Behavior (1 of 5) 1. Task-oriented behavior 1. primarily concerned with accomplishing the task in an efficient and reliable way.

2. Relations-oriented behavior 1. primarily concerned with increasing mutual trust, cooperation, job satisfaction, and identification with the team or organization.

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Types of Leadership Behavior (2 of 5) Table 2.1 Similar Broadly Defined Behaviors in Early Leadership Research

Task-Oriented

Relations-Oriented

Initiating Structure

Consideration

Concern for Production

Concern for People

Instrumental Leadership

Supportive Leadership

Goal Emphasis; Work

Supportive Leadership

Facilitation Performance Behavior

Interaction Facilitation Maintenance Behavior

Source Fleishman (1953); Halpin & Winer (1957) Blake & Mouton (1964) House (1971) Bowers & Seashore (1966); Taylor & Bowers (1972) Misumi & Peterson (1985)

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Types of Leadership Behavior (3 of 5) 1. Change-oriented behavior 1. communicating an appealing vision of what could be changed 2. proposing specific changes 3. implementing a change 4. encouraging innovation

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Types of Leadership Behavior (4 of 5) 1. Empowering and Participative Leadership 1. Specific types of empowering decision procedures include consultation, joint decisions, and delegation.

2. Transformational Leadership

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Types of Leadership Behavior (5 of 5) 1. External Leadership Behaviors 1. Networking 2. External monitoring 3. Representing 2. Proactive Influence Tactics

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Specific Task-Oriented Leader Behavior (1 of 8) 1. Planning Work Activities 1. making decisions about objectives, priorities, strategies, organization of the work, assignment of responsibilities, scheduling of activities, and allocation of resources among different activities according to their relative importance

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Specific Task-Oriented Leader Behavior (2 of 8) Table 2.2 Guidelines for Action Planning

• • • •

Identify necessary action steps.

Identify the optimal sequence of action steps.

Estimate the time needed to carry out each action step.

Determine starting times and deadlines for each action step.

• Estimate the cost of each action step.

• Determine who will be accountable for each action step.

• Develop procedures for monitoring progress.

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Specific Task-Oriented Leader Behavior (3 of 8) 1. Clarifying Roles and Objectives 1. Clearly explain an assignment 2. Explain the reason for the assignment 3. Check for understanding of the assignment 4. Provide any necessary instruction in how to do the task 5. Explain priorities for different objectives or responsibilities 6. Set specific goals and deadlines for important tasks

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Specific Task-Oriented Leader Behavior (4 of 8) Table 2.3 Guidelines for Clarifying Roles and Objectives

• • • • • •

Clearly explain an assignment.

Explain the reason for the assignment.

Check for understanding of the assignment.

Provide any necessary instruction in how to do the task.

Explain priorities for different objectives or responsibilities.

Set specific goals and deadlines for important tasks.

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Specific Task-Oriented Leader Behavior (5 of 8) • Monitoring Operations and Performance – Identify and measure key indicators of performance – Monitor key processes as well as outcomes – Measure progress against plans and budgets – Develop independent sources of information – Conduct progress review meetings at appropriate times – Observe operations directly – Ask specific questions – Encourage reporting of problems and mistakes – Use information from monitoring to guide other behaviors Copyright © 2020, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Specific Task-Oriented Leader Behavior (6 of 8) Table 2.4 Guidelines for Monitoring Operations

• • • • • • • • •

Identify and measure key performance indicators.

Monitor key process variables as well as outcomes.

Measure progress against plans and budgets.

Develop independent sources of information about performance Conduct progress review meetings at appropriate times.

Observe operations directly when it is feasible.

Ask specific questions about the work.

Encourage reporting of problems and mistakes.

Use information from monitoring to guide other behaviors.

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Specific Task-Oriented Leader Behavior (7 of 8) • Solving Operational Problems – Anticipate operational problems and prepare for them – Learn to recognize early warning signs for an impending problem – Quickly identify the cause and scope of the problem – Look for connections among problems – Direct the response to the problem in a confident and decisive way – Keep people informed about the problem and what is being done to resolve it – Be willing to explore innovative solutions Copyright © 2020, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Specific Task-Oriented Leader Behavior (8 of 8) Table 2.5 Guidelines for Solving Operational Problems

• Anticipate operational problems and prepare for them.

• Learn to recognize early warning signs for an impending problem.

• Quickly identify the cause and scope of the problem.

• Look for connections among problems.

• Direct the response to the problem in a confident and decisive way.

• Keep people informed about the problem and what is being done to resolve it.

• Be willing to explore innovative solutions Copyright © 2020, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Specific Relations-Oriented Leader Behaviors (1 of 6) 1. Supportive Leadership 1. Show acceptance and positive regard 2. Show interest in the person as an individual 3. Provide sympathy and support when the person is anxious or upset 4. Bolster the person’s self-esteem and confidence 5. Be willing to help with personal problems

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Specific Relations-Oriented Leader Behaviors (2 of 6) Table 2.6 Guidelines for Supporting

• Show acceptance and positive regard.

• Show interest in the person as an individual • Provide sympathy and support when the person is anxious or upset.

• Bolster the person’s self-esteem and confidence.

• Be willing to help with personal problems.

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Specific Relations-Oriented Leader Behaviors (3 of 6) • Developing Subordinate Skills – Show concern for each person’s development – Help the person identify ways to improve performance – Be patient and helpful when providing coaching – Provide helpful career advice – Encourage attendance at relevant training activities – Provide opportunities to learn from experience – Encourage coaching by peers when appropriate – Promote the person’s reputation

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Specific Relations-Oriented Leader Behaviors (4 of 6) Table 2.7 Guidelines for Developing Subordinates

• • • • • • • • •

Show concern for each person’s development.

Help the person identify ways to improve performance.

Be patient and helpful when providing coaching.

Provide helpful career advice.

Help the person prepare for a job change.

Encourage attendance at relevant training activities.

Provide opportunities to learn from experience.

Encourage coaching by peers when appropriate.

Promote the person’s reputation.

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Specific Relations-Oriented Leader Behaviors (5 of 6) • Providing Praise and Recognition – Recognize a variety of contributions and achievements – Actively search for contributions to recognize – Recognize improvements in performance – Recognize commendable efforts that failed – Do not limit recognition to high-visibility jobs – Do not limit recognition to a few best performers – Provide specific recognition – Provide timely recognition – Use an appropriate form of recognition Copyright © 2020, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Specific Relations-Oriented Leader Behaviors (6 of 6) Table 2.8 Guidelines for Recognizing

• • • • • • • • •

Recognize a variety of contributions and achievements.

Actively search for contributions to recognize.

Recognize improvements in performance.

Recognize commendable efforts that failed.

Do not limit recognition to high-visibility jobs.

Do not limit recognition to a few best performers.

Provide specific recognition.

Provide timely recognition.

Use an appropriate form of recognition.

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Copyright

This work is protected by United States copyright laws and is provided solely for the use of instructors in teaching their courses and assessing student learning. Dissemination or sale of any part of this work (including on the World Wide Web) will destroy the integrity of the work and is not permitted. The work and materials from it should never be made available to students except by instructors using the accompanying text in their classes. All recipients of this work are expected to abide by these restrictions and to honor the intended pedagogical purposes and the needs of other instructors who rely on these materials.

Copyright © 2020, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Leadership in Organizations Ninth Edition

Chapter 3 The Leadership Situation and Adaptive Leadership

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Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 3.1 Understand how aspects of the situation can influence leader behavior.

3.2 Understand how aspects of the situation can enhance or diminish effects of leader behavior.

3.3 Understand how to adapt leader behavior to the situation.

3.4 Understand how to deal with demands, constraints, and role conflicts.

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Different Ways Situations Affect Leaders 1. Situation Directly Influences Leader Behavior.

2. Situation Moderates Effects of Leader Behavior.

3. Situation Directly Affects Outcomes or Mediators.

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Stewart Model of Situational Determinants • • • • • • •

Demands Constraints Choices Pattern of Relationships Work Patterns Exposure Leader Discretion

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Other Situational Determinants of Leader Behavior 1. Level of Management 2. Size of Organizational Unit 3. External Dependencies 4. Extreme Contexts

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Guidelines for Coping with Demands and Constraints (1 of 2) • • • • • • • • • • •

Learn the reasons for demands and constraints Expand the range of available choices Determine what you want to accomplish Manage external relationships Analyze how you use your time Plan daily and weekly activities Avoid unnecessary activities Conquer procrastination Take advantage of reactive activities Make time for reflective analysis and planning Plan for extreme events Copyright © 2020, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Guidelines for Coping with Demands and Constraints (2 of 2) Table 3.1 General Guidelines for Coping with Demands and Constraints

• • • • • • • • • •

Learn the reasons for demands and constraints.

Expand the range of available choices.

Determine what you want to accomplish.

Analyze how you use your time.

Plan daily and weekly activities.

Avoid unnecessary activities.

Conquer procrastination.

Take advantage of reactive activities.

Make time for reflective analysis and planning.

Plan and prepare for extreme events.

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Early Contingency Theories of Effective Leader Behavior 1. Path-Goal Theory 2. Leadership Substitutes Theory

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Multiple-Linkage Model (1 of 7) Mediating Variables 1. Interact with each other to determine the effectiveness of a group or organizational subunit 1. Task commitment 2. Ability and role clarity 3. Organization of the work 4. Cooperation and mutual trust 5. Resources and support 6. External coordination

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Multiple-Linkage Model (2 of 7) 1. Situational Variables 1. Directly influence mediating variables and can make them either more or less favorable

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Multiple-Linkage Model (3 of 7) 1. Short-Term Actions to Correct Deficiencies 1. A basic proposition of the model is that leader actions to correct any deficiencies in the mediating variables that determine group performance.

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Multiple-Linkage Model (4 of 7) Table 3.2 Types of Specific Actions for Improving Weak Performance Determinants

Low subordinate task commitment or confidence • Set challenging goals and express confidence they can be achieved.

• Articulate an appealing vision of what the group can accomplish.

• Use influence tactics to influence task commitment.

• Offer more incentives for goal attainment.

Low subordinate task knowledge and skills • Make clear assignments.

• Provide more direction and clarification of procedures.

• Provide instruction and coaching when needed.

• Find skilled people to do difficult tasks.

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Multiple-Linkage Model (5 of 7) Table 3.2 Types of Specific Actions for Improving Weak Performance Determinants (continued)

Low coordination and inefficient procedures for the work • Find ways to make better use of members, resources, and equipment.

• Identify and eliminate inefficient or unnecessary activities.

• Provide clear, decisive direction of activities.

• Develop better plans for achieving task objectives.

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Multiple-Linkage Model (6 of 7) Table 3.2 Types of Specific Actions for Improving Weak Performance Determinants (continued)

Inadequate resources to do the work • Find more reliable or alternative sources of resources.

• Request more resources from the organization.

• Identify ways to avoid wasted sources.

• Find more efficient ways to use resources.

Weak external coordination • Develop better plans to avoid external coordination problems.

• Improve external relations with interdependent units.

• Consult more often with interdependent units to coordinate actions.

• Monitor closely to detect external coordination problems quickly.

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Multiple-Linkage Model (7 of 7) Long-term actions to Improve the Situation 1. Gain more access to resources needed for the work by cultivating better relationships with suppliers, finding alternative sources, and reducing dependence on unreliable sources.

2. Gain more control over the demand for the unit’s products and services by finding new customers, opening new markets, advertising more, and modifying the products or services to be more acceptable to clients and customers.

3. Initiate new, more profitable activities for the work unit that will make better use of personnel, equipment, and facilities.

4. Initiate long-term improvement programs to upgrade equipment, and facilities in the work unit (e.g., replace old equipment, implement new technology).

5. Improve selection procedures to increase the level of employee skills and commitment.

6. Modify the formal structure of the work unit to solve chronic problems and reduce demands on the leader for short-term problem solving.

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Evaluation of Research on the Contingency Theories 1. The evidence supporting contingency theories of effective leadership is limited, and the findings are difficult to interpret.

2. The complexity, ambiguity, and conceptual problems in the theories make them more difficult to test.

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Guidelines for Flexible, Adaptive Leadership • Understand your leadership situation and try to make it more favorable.

• Learn how to use a wide range of relevant behaviors.

• Identify effective behaviors for your objectives and situation.

• Use more planning for a long, complex task.

• Provide more direction to people with interdependent roles.

• Monitor a critical task or unreliable person more closely.

• Provide more instruction and coaching to an inexperienced subordinate.

• Be more supportive to someone with a highly stressful task.

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Copyright

This work is protected by United States copyright laws and is provided solely for the use of instructors in teaching their courses and assessing student learning. Dissemination or sale of any part of this work (including on the World Wide Web) will destroy the integrity of the work and is not permitted. The work and materials from it should never be made available to students except by instructors using the accompanying text in their classes. All recipients of this work are expected to abide by these restrictions and to honor the intended pedagogical purposes and the needs of other instructors who rely on these materials.

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Leadership in Organizations Ninth Edition

Chapter 4 Decision Making and Empowerment by Leaders

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Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 4.1 Understand different forms of participative and empowering leadership.

4.2 Understand the major findings in research on consequences of participative and empowering leadership.

4.3 Understand the situations in which participative and empowering leadership are most likely to be effective.

4.4 Understand empowerment programs and psychological empowerment.

4.5 Understand when and how to use consultation and delegation.

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Decision Making by Managers 1. Emotions and Intuition Are Often Involved 2. Important Decisions Are Disorderly and Political 3. Many Decisions Are Informal and Adaptive 4. Routine Decisions Are Different

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Participative Leadership (1 of 6) 1. Types of Decisions Procedures 1. Autocratic Decision 2. Consultation 3. Joint Decision 4. Delegation

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Participative Leadership (2 of 6) Figure 4.1 Continuum of Decision Procedures

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Participative Leadership (3 of 6) Potential Benefits of Participative Leadership 1. Decision Quality 2. Decision Acceptance 3. Satisfaction with the Decision Process 4. Development of Participant Skills

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Participative Leadership (4 of 6) Figure 4.2 Causal Model of Participative Leadership

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Participative Leadership (5 of 6) Objectives for Different Participants 1. Downward consultation may be used to increase the quality of decisions by drawing on the knowledge and problem-solving expertise of subordinates.

2. Lateral consultation with people in different subunits may be used to increase decision quality when peers have relevant knowledge about the cause of a problem and likely solutions.

3. Upward consultation by a manager makes it possible to draw on the expertise of the boss, which may be greater than the manager’s expertise.

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Participative Leadership (6 of 6) Research on Effects of Participative Leadership The Threshold Effect of Participative Leadership Findings in Participation Research 1. Overall, the results from research on the effects of participative are not sufficiently strong and consistent to draw any firm conclusions.

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Normative Decision Model (1 of 9) Table 4.1 Decision Procedures in Normative Decision Model

•

A-1 – You solve the problem or make the decision yourself, using information available to you at the time.

• A - II – You obtain the necessary information from your subordinates, then decide the solution to the problem yourself. You may or may not tell your subordinates what the problem is in getting the information from them.

The role played by your subordinates in making the decision is clearly one of providing necessary information to you, rather than generating or evaluating alternative solutions.

•

C-1 – You share the problem with the relevant subordinates individually, getting their ideas and suggestions, without bringing them together as a group.

Then you make the decision, which may or may not reflect your subordinates’ influence.

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Normative Decision Model (2 of 9) Table 4.1 Decision Procedures in Normative Decision Model (continued)

•

C-1 – You share the problem with your subordinates as a group, obtaining their collective ideas and suggestions. Then you make the decision, which may or may not reflect your subordinates’ influence.

• G - II – You share the problem with your subordinates as a group. Together you generate and evaluate alternatives and attempt to reach agreement (consensus) on a solution. Your role is much like that of chairman. You do not try to influence the group to adopt your preferred solution, and you are willing to accept and implement any solution that has the support of the entire group.

Based on Vroom & Yetton, 1973, p. 13.

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Normative Decision Model (3 of 9) Decision Acceptance and Quality 1. Decision acceptance is the degree of commitment to implement a decision effectively.

2. Acceptance is important whenever a decision must be implemented by subordinates or has implications for their work motivation.

3. Decision quality refers to the objective aspects of the decision that affect group performance aside from any effects mediated by decision acceptance.

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Normative Decision Model (4 of 9) Situational Variables Figure 4.3 Causal Relationships in the Normative Decision Model

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Normative Decision Model (5 of 9) Decision Rules

Table 4.2 Decision Rules in the Normative Decision Model 1. When the decision is important and subordinates possess relevant information lacked by the leader, an autocratic decision (A - 1, A - II) is not appropriate, because an

important decision would be made without all of the relevant, available information.

2. When decision quality is important and subordinates do not share the leader's concern for task goals, a group decision (G - II) is not appropriate, because these procedures would give too much influence over an important decision to uncooperative or even hostile people.

3. When decision quality is important, the decision problem is unstructured, and the leader does not possess the necessary information and expertise to make a good decision, then the decision should be made by interaction among the people who have the relevant information (C - II, G - II).

4. When decision acceptance is important and subordinates are unlikely to accept an autocratic decision, then an autocratic decision (A - 1, A - II) is not appropriate, because the decision may not be implemented effectively.

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Normative Decision Model (6 of 9) Table 4.2 Decision Rules in the Normative Decision Model (continued) 5. When decision acceptance is important and subordinates are likely to disagree among themselves about the best solution to an important problem, autocratic procedures (A1, A1-1) and individual consultation (C-1) are not appropriate, because they do not provide the opportunity to resolve differences through discussion and negotiation among subordinates and between the subordinates and the leader.

6. When decision quality is not important but acceptance is important and unlikely to result from an autocratic decision, then the only appropriate procedure is a group decision (G - II), because acceptance is maximized without risking quality.

7. When decision acceptance is important and not likely to result from an autocratic decision, and subordinates share the leader's task objectives, subordinates should be given equal partnership in the decision process (G - II), because acceptance is maximized without risking quality.

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Normative Decision Model (7 of 9) Table 4.3 Simplified Version of the Normative Decision Model

Subordinate Acceptance of Decision Decision Quality

Not Important or Assured with Autocratic Decision

Important and Not Assured with Autocratic Decision

Not Important Important, the leader has sufficient information, and members share leader’s goals Important, the leader has sufficient information, but members do not share the leader’s goals

AUTOCRATIC

GROUP

AUTOCRATIC

GROUP

AUTOCRATIC

CONSULTATION

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Normative Decision Model (8 of 9) Table 4.3 Simplified Version of the Normative Decision Model (continued)

Subordinate Acceptance of Decision (continued) Decision Quality

Important, the leader lacks essential information, and members share leader goals Important and the leader lacks essential information, but members don’t share leader goals

Not Important or Assured with Autocratic Decision

Important and Not Assured with Autocratic Decision

CONSULTATION

GROUP

CONSULTATION

CONSULTATION

Based on Yukl (1990).

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Normative Decision Model (9 of 9) Evaluation of the Theory 1. The normative decision model is probably the best supported of the contingency theories of effective leadership.

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Guidelines for Participative Leadership (1 of 3) Determining the Feasibility of Participation 1. Evaluate how important the decision is 2. Identify people with relevant knowledge or expertise 3. Evaluate likely cooperation by participants 4. Evaluate likely acceptance without participation 5. Evaluate whether it is feasible to hold a meeting

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Guidelines for Participative Leadership (2 of 3) Table 4.4 Guidelines for Participative Leadership

How to Diagnose Decision Situations: • Evaluate how important the decision is.

• Identify people with relevant knowledge or expertise.

• Evaluate likely cooperation by participants.

• Evaluate likely acceptance without participation.

• Evaluate whether it is feasible to hold a meeting.

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Guidelines for Participative Leadership (3 of 3) Table 4.4 Guidelines for Participative Leadership (continued)

How to Encourage Participation: • Keep people informed.

• Encourage people to express their concerns.

• Describe a proposal as tentative.

• Record ideas and suggestions.

• Look for ways to build on ideas and suggestions.

• Be tactful in expressing concerns about a suggestion.

• Listen to dissenting views without getting defensive.

• Try to utilize suggestions and deal with concerns.

• Show appreciation for suggestions.

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Delegation (1 of 4) Varieties of delegation 1. Delegation involves assignment of new and different tasks or responsibilities to a subordinate

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Delegation (2 of 4) Potential Benefits from Delegation Table 4.5 Percent of Managers Who Rated a Reason for Delegating As Moderately or Very Important Blank

Percentage

Develop subordinate skills and confidence.

97%

Enable subordinates to deal with problems quickly.

91%

Improve decisions by moving them close to the action.

89%

Increase subordinate commitment to a task.

89%

Make the job more interesting for subordinates.

78%

Reduce your workload to manage time better.

68%

Satisfy superiors who want you to delegate more.

24%

Get rid of tedious tasks you don’t want to do.

23%

Adapted from Yukl & Fu (1999).

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Delegation (3 of 4) Reasons for Lack of Delegation Table 4.6 Percentage of Managers Who Rated a Reason for Not Delegating As Moderately or Very Important Blank

Percentage Keep decisions involving confidential information.

87%

Keep tasks and decisions that are very important.

76%

Keep tasks and decisions central to your role.

73%

Keep tasks for which mistakes are highly visible.

58%

Keep tasks you can do better than subordinates.

51%

Keep tasks that are difficult to explain to subordinates.

43%

Keep tasks that are difficult to monitor.

39%

Keep tasks that are interesting and enjoyable.

24%

Adapted from Yukl & Fu (1999).

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Delegation (4 of 4) Research on Consequences of Delegation 1. Less empirical research is available on leader delegation than on leader consultation with individuals or a group

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Guidelines for Delegating (1 of 4) What to Delegate 1. Delegate tasks that can be done better by a subordinate 2. Delegate tasks that are urgent but not high priority 3. Delegate tasks that are relevant to a subordinate’s career 4. Delegate tasks of appropriate difficulty 5. Delegate both pleasant and unpleasant tasks 6. Delegate tasks not central to the manager’s role

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Guidelines for Delegating (2 of 4) Table 4.7 Guidelines for What to Delegate

1. Tasks that can be done better by a subordinate 2. Tasks that are urgent but not high priority 3. Tasks relevant to a subordinate’s career 4. Tasks of appropriate difficulty 5. Both pleasant and unpleasant tasks 6. Tasks not central to the manager’s role

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Guidelines for Delegating (3 of 4) How to Delegate • • • • • • • • •

Specify responsibilities clearly Provide adequate authority and specify limits of discretion Specify reporting requirements Ensure subordinate acceptance of responsibilities Inform others who need to know Monitor progress in appropriate ways Arrange for the subordinate to receive necessary information Provide support and assistance, but avoid reverse delegation Make mistakes a learning experience

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Guidelines for Delegating (4 of 4) Table 4.8 Guidelines for How to Delegate

• Specify responsibilities clearly.

• Provide adequate authority and specify limits of discretion.

• Specify reporting requirements.

• Ensure subordinate acceptance of responsibilities.

• Arrange for the subordinate to get necessary information.

• Provide support and assistance, but avoid reverse delegation.

• Monitor progress in appropriate ways.

• Make mistakes a learning experience.

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Psychological Empowerment Theories of psychological empowerment help to explain when and why efforts to empower people are likely to be successful.

1. Four defining elements 1. Meaning 2. Self-determination 3. Self-efficacy 4. Impact

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Empowerment Programs Leaders Selection and Assessment Formal Decision Procedures Shared Leadership Responsibilities Information Sharing Example of a Creative Empowerment Program

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Benefits of Empowering Leadership and Programs (1 of 3) Table 4.9 Conditions Facilitating Psychological Empowerment

Condition

Unfavorable

Favorable

Organization structure

High centralization and formalization

Very decentralized, low formalization

Competitive strategy

Low-cost, standard product or service

Customized, highly Differentiated product/service

Task design and technology

Simple, repetitive task and reliable technology

Complex, nonroutine task, unreliable technology

Duration of relation with customers/clients

Brief transactions during a short time interval

Repeated interaction in a continuing relationship

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Benefits of Empowering Leadership and Programs (2 of 3) Table 4.9 Conditions Facilitating Psychological Empowerment (continued)

Condition

Unfavorable

Favorable

Dominant cultural values in the organization

Reliable, efficient operations without any mistakes

Flexibility, learning, and participation

Employee traits

Low achievement motivation, external locus of control, and emotional stability

High need for achievement, internal locus of control, and emotional stability

Employee ability

Unskilled, inexperienced

Highly skilled professional

Employee tenure

Temporary employee

Regular, continuing employee

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Benefits of Empowering Leadership and Programs (3 of 3) Table 4.9 Conditions Facilitating Psychological Empowerment (continued)

Condition

Unfavorable

Favorable

Employee ownership and rewards for success

None or very little

Employees are shareholders or co-owners

Employee involvement programs

None

Extensive programs strongly supported by top management

Mutual trust

None

High

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Copyright

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Leadership in Organizations Ninth Edition

Chapter 5 Leading Change and Innovation

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Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 5.1 Understand reasons for resisting change.

5.2 Understand the psychological processes involved in making major changes.

5.3 Understand how to develop an appealing vision for the organization.

5.4 Understand how to implement a major change in an organization.

5.5 Understand how leaders can increase learning and innovation.

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Types of Change in Teams and Organizations 1. Roles or Attitudes 2. Technology 3. Strategy 4. Economies or People 5. Developmental, Transitional, or Transformational Change

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Change Process 1. Stages in the Change Process 2. Stages in Reaction to a Change 3. Prior Experience and reactions to Change

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Reasons for Accepting or Rejecting Change • • • • • • • •

The Proposed Change Is Not Necessary The Proposed Change Is Not Feasible The Proposed Change Is Not Cost Effective The Proposed Change Would Cause Personal Losses The Proposed Change Is Inconsistent with Values The Leaders Are Not Trusted Organizational Cynicism About Change Alternative Reasons for Resistance

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Implementing Change 1. Determining What to Change 2. Understanding Systems Dynamics 3. Responsibility for Implementing Major Change 4. The Pace and Sequencing of Changes

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Guidelines for Implementing Change (1 of 4) • Creating a sense of urgency about the need for change.

• Communicate a clear vision of the benefits to be gained from change.

• Identify likely supporters, opponents, and reasons for resistance.

• Build a broad coalition to support the change.

• Use task forces to guide implementation of changes.

• Fill key positions with competent change agents.

• Empower competent people to help plan and implement the change.

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Guidelines for Implementing Change (2 of 4) • Make dramatic, symbolic changes that affect the work.

• Prepare people for change by explaining how it will affect them.

• Help people deal with the stress and difficulties of major change.

• Provide opportunities for early successes to build confidence.

• Monitor the progress of change and make any necessary adjustments.

• Keep people informed about the progress of change.

• Demonstrate optimism and continued commitment to the change.

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Guidelines for Implementing Change (3 of 4) Table 5.1 Guidelines for Implementing a Major Change

• Create a sense of urgency about the need for change.

• Communicate a clear vision of the benefits to be gained.

• Identify likely supporters, opponents, and reasons for resistance.

• Build a broad coalition to support the change.

• Fill key positions with competent change agents.

• Use task forces to guide the implementation of changes.

• Empower competent people to help plan and implement change.

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Guidelines for Implementing Change (4 of 4) Table 5.1 Guidelines for Implementing a Major Change (continued).

• Make dramatic, symbolic changes that affect the work.

• Prepare people for change by explaining how it will affect them.

• Help people deal with the stress and difficulties of major change.

• Provide opportunities for early successes to build confidence.

• Monitor the progress of change and make any necessary adjustments.

• Keep people informed about the progress of change.

• Demonstrate continued optimism and commitment to the change.

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How Visions Influence Change (1 of 3) 1. Desirable Characteristics for a Vision 2. Elements of a Vision 1. Value statement 2. Slogans 3. Strategic objectives 4. Project objectives 3. Research of Effects of Visions

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How Visions Influence Change (2 of 3) •

Guidelines for Developing a Vision

Table 5.2 Decision Rules in the Normative Decision Model 1. When the decision is important and subordinates possess relevant information lacked by the leader, an autocratic decision (A - I, A - II) is not appropriate, because an important decision would be made without all of the relevant, available information.

2. When decision quality is important and subordinates do not share the leader’s concern for task goals, a group decision (G - II) is not appropriate, because these procedures give too much influence over an important decision to uncooperative or even hostile people.

3. When decision quality is important, the decision problem is unstructured, and the leader does not possess the necessary information and expertise to make a good decision, then the decision should be made by interaction among the people who have the relevant information (C - II, G - II).

4. When decision acceptance is important and subordinates are unlikely to accept an autocratic decision, then an autocratic decision (A - I, A - II) is not appropriate, because the decision may not be implemented effectively.

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How Visions Influence Change (3 of 3) Table 5.2 Decision Rules in the Normative Decision Model (continued)

5. When decision acceptance is important and subordinates are likely to disagree among themselves about the best solution to an important problem, autocratic procedures (A - I, A - I) and individual consultation (C - I) are not appropriate, because they do not

provide the opportunity to resolve differences through discussion and negotiation among subordinates and between the subordinates and the leader.

6. When decision quality is not important but acceptance is important and unlikely to result from an autocratic decision, then the only appropriate procedure is a group decision (G - II), because acceptance is maximized without risking quality.

7. When decision acceptance is important and not likely to result from an autocratic decision, and subordinates share the leader's task objectives, subordinates should be

given equal partnership in the decision process (G - II), because acceptance is maximized without risking quality.

Based on Vroom & Yetton, 1973.

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Collective Learning and Innovation 1. Internal Creation of New Knowledge 2. External Acquisition of New Knowledge 3. Integrating Exploration and Exploitation of Learning Processes 4. Knowledge Diffusion and Application 5. Learning Organizations

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Guidelines for Enhancing Learning and Innovation (1 of 2) • • • • • • • •

Recruit talented, creative people and empower them to be innovative.

Encourage appreciation for flexibility and innovation.

Encourage and facilitate learning by individuals and teams.

Help people improve their mental models.

Evaluate new ideas with small scale experiments.

Leverage learning from surprises and failures.

Encourage and facilitate sharing of knowledge and ideas.

Preserve past learning and ensure continued use of relevant knowledge.

• Set innovation goals.

• Reward entrepreneurial behavior.

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Guidelines for Enhancing Learning and Innovation (2 of 2) Table 5.3 Simplified Version of the Normative Decision Model Subordinate Acceptance of Decision Decision Quality

Not Important or Assured with Autocratic Decision

Important and Not Assured with Autocratic Decision

Not Important

AUTOCRATIC

GROUP

Important, the leader has sufficient information, and members share leader’s goals

AUTOCRATIC

GROUP

Important, the leader has sufficient information, but members do not share the leader’s goals

AUTOCRATIC

CONSULTATION

Important, the leader lacks essential information, and members share leader goals

CONSULTATION

GROUP

Important and the leader lacks essential information, CONSULTATION but members don’t share leader goals

CONSULTATION

Based on Yukl (1990)

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Copyright

This work is protected by United States copyright laws and is provided solely for the use of instructors in teaching their courses and assessing student learning. Dissemination or sale of any part of this work (including on the World Wide Web) will destroy the integrity of the work and is not permitted. The work and materials from it should never be made available to students except by instructors using the accompanying text in their classes. All recipients of this work are expected to abide by these restrictions and to honor the intended pedagogical purposes and the needs of other instructors who rely on these materials.

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Leadership in Organizations Ninth Edition

Chapter 6 Power and Influence Tactics

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Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

6.1 Understand how power is acquired or lost in organizations.

6.2 Understand how power is related to leadership effectiveness.

6.3 Understand how to use power effectively.

6.4 Understand the different types of influence tactics.

6.5 Understand effective ways to use the influence tactics.

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Sources of Power • • • • • • •

Position and Personal Power Legitimate Power Reward Power Coercive Power Referent Power Expert Power Information Power

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How Power Is Gained or Lost 1. Social Exchange Theory 2. Strategic Contingency Theory 3. Institutionalization of Power

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Consequences of Power 1. Studies on the consequences of leader power are inconclusive, but findings indicate that 1. effective leaders have more expert and referent power than less effective leaders 2. effective leaders rely on their personal power more than on their position power 2. Several of the power studies also indicate that it is beneficial for leaders to have at least a moderate amount of position power 3. The amount of necessary power for a leader will depend on what needs to be accomplished and on the leader’s skill in using the available power Copyright © 2020, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Guidelines for Using Power (1 of 6) 1. Legitimate Power Table 6.1 Guidelines for Using Legitimate Authority

• Make polite, clear requests.

• Explain the reasons for a request.

• Don’t exceed your scope of authority.

• Verify authority if necessary.

• Follow proper channels.

• Follow up to verify compliance.

• Insist on compliance if appropriate.

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Guidelines for Using Power (2 of 6) 1. Reward Power Table 6.2 Guidelines for Using Reward Power

• Offer the type of rewards that people desire.

• Offer rewards that are fair and ethical.

• Don’t promise more than you can deliver.

• Explain the criteria for giving rewards and keep it simple.

• Provide rewards as promised if requirements are met.

• Use rewards symbolically (not in a manipulative way).

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Guidelines for Using Power (3 of 6) 1. Reward Power Table 6.3 Guidelines for Using Coercive Power to Maintain Discipline

1. Explain rules and requirements, and ensure that people understand the serious consequences of violations.

2. Respond to infractions promptly and consistently without showing any favoritism to particular individuals.

3. Investigate to get the facts before using reprimands or punishment, and avoid jumping to conclusions or making hasty accusations.

4. Except for the most serious infractions, provide sufficient oral and written warnings before resorting to punishment.

5. Administer warnings and reprimands in private, and avoid making rash threats.

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Guidelines for Using Power (4 of 6) 1. Reward Power Table 6.3 Guidelines for Using Coercive Power to Maintain Discipline (continued)

6. Stay calm and avoid the appearance of hostility or personal rejection.

7. Express a sincere desire to help the person comply with role expectations and thereby avoid punishment.

8. Invite the person to suggest ways to correct the problem, and seek agreement on a concrete plan.

9. If noncompliance continues after warnings have been made, use punishments that are legitimate, fair, and commensurate with the seriousness of the infraction.

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Guidelines for Using Power (5 of 6) 1. Expert Power Table 6.4 Ways to Use and Maintain Expert Power

• Explain the reasons for a request or proposal and why it is important.

• Provide evidence that a proposal will be successful.

• Don’t make rash, careless, or inconsistent statements.

• Don’t lie, exaggerate, or misrepresent the facts.

• Listen seriously to the person’s concerns and suggestions.

• Act confident and decisive in a crisis.

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Guidelines for Using Power (6 of 6) 1. Referent Power Table 6.5 Ways to Gain and Use Referent Power

• Show acceptance and positive regard.

• Be supportive and helpful.

• Use sincere forms of ingratiation.

• Keep promises and commitments.

• Make self-sacrifices to benefit others.

• Lead by example (use role modeling).

• Explain the personal importance of a request.

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Influence Tactics and Outcomes (1 of 2) 1. General Types of Influence Tactics 1. Impression Management Tactics 2. Political Tactics 3. Proactive Tactics

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Influence Tactics and Outcomes (2 of 2) 2. Influence Outcomes for Proactive Tactics 1. Commitment 2. Compliance 3. Resistance

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Types of Proactive Influence Tactics (1 of 3) Table 6.6 Definition of the 11 Proactive Influence Tactics

Rational Persuasion: The agent uses logical arguments and factual evidence to show a proposal or request is feasible and relevant for attaining important task objectives.

Apprising: The agent explains how carrying out a request or supporting a proposal will benefit the target personally or help advance the target person’s career.

Inspirational Appeals: The agent makes an appeal to values and ideals or seeks to arouse the target person’s emotions to gain commitment for a request or proposal.

Consultation: The agent encourages the target to suggest improvements in a proposal or to help plan an activity or change for which the target person’s support and assistance are desired.

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Types of Proactive Influence Tactics (2 of 3) Table 6.6 Definition of the 11 Proactive Influence Tactics (continued)

Collaboration: The agent offers to provide relevant resources and assistance if the target will carry out a request or approve a proposed change.

Ingratiation: The agent uses praise and flattery before or during an influence attempt, or expresses confidence in the target’s ability to carry out a difficult request.

Personal Appeals: The agent asks the target to carry out a request or support a proposal out of friendship, or asks for a personal favor before saying what it is.

Exchange: The agent offers an incentive, suggests an exchange of favors, or indicates willingness to reciprocate at a later time if the target will do what the agent requests.

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Types of Proactive Influence Tactics (3 of 3) Table 6.6 Definition of the 11 Proactive Influence Tactics (continued)

Coalition Tactics: The agent seeks the aid of others to persuade the target to do something, or uses the support of others as a reason for the target to agree.

Legitimating Tactics: The agent seeks to establish the legitimacy of a request or to verify authority to make it by referring to rules, policies, contracts, or precedent.

Pressure: The agent uses demands, threats, frequent checking, or persistent reminders to influence the target to carry out a request.

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Indicators of Leadership Effectiveness Figure 6.1 Relationships Among Agent Power, Influence Behavior, and Influence Outcomes

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Effectiveness of Proactive Tactics (1 of 3) Table 6.7 Summary of Findings for Proactive Influence Tactics

Influence Tactic

Directional Use of Tactic

Sequencing Results

Rational Persuasion

Widely used in all directions

Used more for initial request

Inspirational Appeal

More down than up or lateral

No difference

Consultation

More down and lateral than up

No difference

Collaboration

More down and lateral than up

Not studied

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Effectiveness of Proactive Tactics (2 of 3) Table 6.7 Summary of Findings for Proactive Influence Tactics (continued)

Influence Tactic

Directional Use of Tactic

Sequencing Results

Used Alone or in Combination

General Effectiveness

Apprising

More down than lateral or up

Not studied

Used most with other tactics

High

Ingratiation

More down and lateral than up

Used more for initial request

Used most with other tactics

Moderate

Exchange

More down and lateral than up

Used most for quick follow-up

Used both ways equally often

Moderate

Personal Appeal

More lateral than down or up

Used more for initial request

Used both ways equally often

Low/Moderate

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Effectiveness of Proactive Tactics (3 of 3) Table 6.7 Summary of Findings for Proactive Influence Tactics (continued)

Influence Tactic

Directional Use of Tactic

Sequencing Results

Used Alone or in Combination

General Effectiveness

Coalition Tactic

More lateral and up than down

Used most for delayed follow-up

Used both ways equally often

Low/Moderate

Legitimating Tactic

More down and lateral than up

Used most for quick followup

Used most with other tactics

Low/Moderate

Pressure

More down than lateral or up

Used most for delayed follow-up

Used both ways equally often

Low

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Guidelines for Using Proactive Influence Tactics (1 of 11) 1. Rational Persuasion 1. Explain the reason for a request or proposal.

2. Provide evidence that your proposal is feasible.

3. Explain why your proposal is better than competing ones.

4. Explain how likely problems or concerns would be handled.

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Guidelines for Using Proactive Influence Tactics (2 of 11) 2. Inspirational Appeals 1. Appeal to the person’s ideals and values.

2. Link the request to the person’s self-image.

3. Link the request to a clear and appealing vision.

4. Use a dramatic, expressive style of speaking.

5. Use positive, optimistic language.

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Guidelines for Using Proactive Influence Tactics (3 of 11) 3. Consultation 1. State your objective and ask what the person can do to help.

2. Ask for suggestions on how to improve a tentative proposal.

3. Involve the person in planning how to attain an objective.

4. Respond to the person’s concerns and suggestions.

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Guidelines for Using Proactive Influence Tactics (4 of 11) 4. Collaboration 1. Offer to show the person how to perform a requested task.

2. Offer to provide necessary resources.

3. Offer to help the person solve problems caused by a request.

4. Offer to help the person implement a proposed change.

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Guidelines for Using Proactive Influence Tactics (5 of 11) Table 6.8 Ways to Use the Other Tactics

Apprising • Explain how the person could benefit from carrying out a requested task.

• Explain how the task you want the person to do would help his/her career.

• Explain why a proposed activity or change would be good for the person.

• Explain how a proposed change would solve some of the person’s problems.

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Guidelines for Using Proactive Influence Tactics (6 of 11) Table 6.8 Ways to Use the Other Tactics (continued)

Exchange • Offer something the person wants in exchange for providing help on a task or project.

• Offer to do a specific task or favor in return for compliance with a request.

• Promise to do something for the person in the future in return for his/her help now.

• Offer to provide an appropriate reward if the person carries out a difficult request.

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Guidelines for Using Proactive Influence Tactics (7 of 11) Table 6.8 Ways to Use the Other Tactics (continued)

Ingratiation • Say that the person has the special skills or knowledge needed to carry out a request.

• Praise the person’s past achievements when asking him/her to do another task.

• Show respect and appreciation when asking the person to do something for you.

• Say that there is nobody more qualified to do a task.

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Guidelines for Using Proactive Influence Tactics (8 of 11) Table 6.8 Ways to Use the Other Tactics (continued)

Legitimating • Explain that your request or proposal is consistent with official rules and policies.

• Point out that your request or proposal is consistent with a prior agreement or contract.

• Use a document to verify that a request is legitimate (e.g., a policy manual, contract, charter).

• Explain that a request or proposal is consistent with prior precedent and established practice.

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Guidelines for Using Proactive Influence Tactics (9 of 11) Table 6.8 Ways to Use the Other Tactics (continued)

Personal Appeal • Ask the person to do a favor for you as a friend.

• Ask for his/her help as a personal favor.

• Say that you are in a difficult situation and would really appreciate the person’s help.

• Say you need to ask for a favor before telling the person what it is.

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Guidelines for Using Proactive Influence Tactics (10 of 11) Table 6.8 Ways to Use the Other Tactics (continued)

Pressure • Keep asking the person in a persistent way to say yes to a request.

• Insist in an assertive way that the person must do what you ask.

• Repeatedly check to see if the person has carried out a request.

• Warn the person about the penalties for not complying with a request.

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Guidelines for Using Proactive Influence Tactics (11 of 11) Table 6.8 Ways to Use the Other Tactics (continued)

Coalition • Mention the names of others who endorse a proposal when asking the person to support it.

• Get others to explain to the person why they support a proposed activity or change.

• Bring someone along for support when meeting with the person to make a request or proposal.

• Ask someone with higher authority to help influence the target person.

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Copyright

This work is protected by United States copyright laws and is provided solely for the use of instructors in teaching their courses and assessing student learning. Dissemination or sale of any part of this work (including on the World Wide Web) will destroy the integrity of the work and is not permitted. The work and materials from it should never be made available to students except by instructors using the accompanying text in their classes. All recipients of this work are expected to abide by these restrictions and to honor the intended pedagogical purposes and the needs of other instructors who rely on these materials.

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Leadership in Organizations Ninth Edition

Chapter 7 Leader Traits and Skills

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Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 7.1 Understand how leader traits and skills are related to effective leadership.

7.2 Understand what traits and skills are most relevant for effective leadership.

7.3 Understand what traits and skills best predict success in a managerial career.

7.4 Understand how the relevance of a trait or skill depends on the situation.

7.5 Understand the limitations of the trait approach.

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Different Types of Leader Attributes 1. A variety of individual attributes have been examined in the leadership research, including aspects of personality, temperament, needs, motives, and values.

1. Personality traits are relatively stable dispositions to behave in a particular way, and some examples are self-confidence, extroversion, emotional maturity, and energy level.

2. Social needs and motives are also important traits, because they influence a person's attention to information and events, and they guide, energize, and sustain behavior.

2. Values are internalized attitudes about what is right and wrong, ethical and unethical, moral and immoral.

3. Self-concepts, self-identities, and social identities involve values and beliefs about a person’s occupation, relationships to others, and worthwhile roles and activities.

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Types of Research on Leader Traits and Skills 1. Several types of research have been used to learn how leader traits and skills are related to measures of leadership effectiveness, such as subordinate satisfaction and performance, unit performance, or ratings of leader effectiveness by bosses.

2. Many studies examine how the traits and skills for leaders in similar managerial or administrative positions are related to measures of their leadership effectiveness.

3. Some longitudinal studies compare managers who advanced successfully to top management position to managers who initially advanced but then “derailed” in their careers because they were dismissed, took early retirement, or simply reached a “plateau” without any chance of further advancement.

4. Some other studies have attempted to determine the extent to which leader traits and skills are the result of heredity or learning.

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Overview of Findings in the Research 1. Some traits and skills increase the likelihood that a person will be selected or elected to fill a leadership position.

2. Some traits and skills increase the effectiveness of a leader, but they do not guarantee it.

3. A leader with certain traits can be effective in one situation but ineffective in a different situation.

4. The pattern of traits and skills that best predicts leader effectiveness also varies somewhat for different outcomes, such as leader selection, advancement, performance by the leader's work unit, and subordinate satisfaction.

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Personality Traits and Effective Leadership (1 of 3) Table 7.1 Specific Traits Related to Leadership Effectiveness

• • • • • • • • •

High energy level and stress tolerance Internal locus of control orientation Emotional stability and maturity High core self-evaluations Personal integrity Socialized power motivation Moderately high achievement orientation Moderately high self-confidence Moderately low need for affiliation Copyright © 2020, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Personality Traits and Effective Leadership (2 of 3) • • • • • • • • • • •

Energy Level and Stress Tolerance Self-Confidence Internal Locus of Control Emotional Stability and Maturity Core Self-Evaluation Power Motivation Personal Integrity Narcissism Achievement Orientation Need for Affiliation The Big Five Personality Traits Copyright © 2020, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Personality Traits and Effective Leadership (3 of 3) Table 7.2 Correspondence of the Big Five Traits with Specific Traits Big Five Personality Traits

Specific Traits

Surgency

Extroversion (outgoing) Energy/Activity Level

Need for Power (assertive) Conscientiousness

Dependability Personal Integrity Need for Achievement

Agreeableness

Cheerful and Optimistic Nurturance (sympathetic, helpful) Need for Affiliation

Adjustment

Emotional Stability Self-Esteem Self-Control

Intellectance

Curious and Inquisitive Open Minded Learning Oriented

Based on Hogan, Curphy, & Hogan (1994).

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Skills and Effective Leadership (1 of 2) Table 7.3 Three-Factor Taxonomy of Broadly Defined Skills

Technical Skills: Knowledge about methods, processes, procedures, and techniques for conducting a specialized activity, and the ability to use tools and equipment relevant to that activity Interpersonal Skills: Knowledge about human behavior and interpersonal processes, ability to understand the feelings, attitudes, and motives of others from what they say and do (empathy, social sensitivity), ability to communicate clearly and effectively (speech fluency, persuasiveness), and ability to establish effective and cooperative relationships (tact, diplomacy, listening skill, knowledge about acceptable social behavior) Conceptual Skills: General analytical ability, logical thinking, proficiency in concept formation and conceptualization of complex and ambiguous relationships, creativity in idea generation and problem solving, ability to analyze events and perceive trends, anticipate changes, and recognize opportunities and potential problems (inductive and deductive reasoning) Copyright © 2020, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Skills and Effective Leadership (2 of 2) 1. Technical Skills 2. Conceptual Skills 3. Interpersonal Skills 4. Political Skill

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Managerial Competencies 1. Emotional Intelligence 2. Social Intelligence 3. Learning Ability

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Situational Relevance of Traits and Skills 1. Levels of Management 2. Type of Organization 3. Stress on the Leader 4. External Environment

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Evaluation of the Trait Approach (1 of 3) 1. Considerable progress has been made in identifying traits and skills relevant for managerial effectiveness and advancement.

2. Nevertheless, this line of research has been hindered by some methodological and conceptual limitations.

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Evaluation of the Trait Approach (2 of 3) Table 7.4 Negative Aspects of Very Low or Very High Trait Scores Self-confidence •

Too little: indecisive, avoids risks, and does not seek to influence others

•

Too much: arrogant, acts too quickly, and takes too many risks

Need for Esteem •

Too little: does not seek recognition or build a reputation for high expertise and reliability

•

Too much: preoccupied with reputation and status, exaggerates achievements, covers up mistakes and failures or blames others

Need for Affiliation •

Too little: does not try to form strong relationships or build a social support network

•

Too much: overly concerned about being liked and accepted by others, overuses ingratiation, and will not risk popularity by asking for sacrifices or insisting on better performance

Need for Independence •

Too little: dependent on others for direction, rule oriented, avoids taking initiative

•

Too much: resents authority, too quick to ignore rules and standard procedures Copyright © 2020, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Evaluation of the Trait Approach (3 of 3) Table 7.4 Negative Aspects of Very Low or Very High Trait Scores (continued) Altruism (value) •

Too little: selfish, indifferent about the needs of others, may exploit them for personal gain

•

Too much: overly generous and forgiving, unable to ask for sacrifices or maintain discipline

Performance Orientation (value) •

Too little: accepts weak performance and does not push for improvement

•

Too much: is a perfectionist and is overly demanding and never satisfied

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Guidelines for Leaders (1 of 2) Table 7.5 Guidelines for Understanding and Improving Relevant Competencies

• Learn about your strengths and weaknesses.

• Maintain self-awareness.

• Identify and develop skills relevant for a future leadership position.

• Remember that a strength can become a weakness.

• Compensate for weaknesses.

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Guidelines for Leaders (2 of 2) 1. Learn about your strengths and weaknesses.

2. Maintain a high level of self-awareness.

3. Identify and develop skills relevant for a future leadership position.

4. Remember that a strength can become a weakness.

5. Compensate for weaknesses.

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Copyright

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Leadership in Organizations Ninth Edition

Chapter 8 Charismatic and Transformational Leadership

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Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 8.1 Understand similarities and differences for charismatic and transformational leadership.

8.2 Understand how leaders, followers, and the situation affect attributions of charisma.

8.3 Understand the traits, behaviors, and influence processes included in each type of leadership.

8.4 Understand the benefits and costs of charismatic leadership for followers and the organization.

8.5 Understand how to inspire more follower commitment and optimism.

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Charismatic Leadership (1 of 4) Charisma is a Greek word that means “divinely inspired gift,” such as the ability to perform miracles or predict future events.

1. Behavior of Charismatic Leaders 1. A Novel and Appealing Vision 2. Emotional Appeals to Values 3. Expression of Confidence and Optimism 4. Self-Sacrifice 5. Unconventional Behavior and Methods 6. Demonstrate Exceptional Abilities

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Charismatic Leadership (2 of 4) 1. Influence Process and Mediating Variables 1. Personal Identification 2. Social Identification 3. Internalization 4. Self-efficacy and Collective Efficacy 5. Impression Management 6. Emotional Contagion 2. Traits and Values of Charismatic Leaders

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Charismatic Leadership (3 of 4) 1. Positive and Negative Characteristics Table 8.1 Dysfunctional Attributes of a Narcissistic Charismatic Leader • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Fails to manage important details for the success of a project Pays too much attention to superficial aspects of the job Informal, impulsive leader actions create chaos and confusion Autocratic decisions fail to use available expertise from others Controlling style of managing creates excessive dependence by others Creates disruptive rivalries among favored and unfavored groups of employees Makes exaggerated claims of unique personal expertise and commitment Makes exaggerated claims for the success of leader decisions or actions Claims credit for successful ideas and outcomes produced by others Emphasizes positive events to distract attention from failing programs Limits access to negative information about leader weaknesses and failures Devalues and demeans critics and opponents of the leader Uses unconventional, dysfunctional behavior that alienates some people Is often absent from managing operations (too many nonrelevant activities)

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Charismatic Leadership (4 of 4) 1. The Leadership Situation 1. Crisis Situations 2. Attributional Ambiguity 3. Follower Characteristics 4. Interaction with the Leader

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Effects of Charismatic Leaders (1 of 4) 1. Types of Research on Charismatic Leaders 1. Different types of research methods have been used to study how charismatic leaders influence followers and the leader's organization or institution.

2. The research methods include the analysis of biographical information about famous charismatic leaders, intensive case studies of an individual charismatic leader, survey studies with behavior questionnaires, and experiments in laboratory or field settings.

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Effects of Charismatic Leaders (2 of 4) 1. Findings from Research on Effects of Charismatic Leaders Table 8.2 Some Negative Consequences of Charismatic Leaders

• • • • • • • • • •

Being in awe of the leader reduces good suggestions by followers.

Desire for leader acceptance inhibits criticism by followers.

Adoration by followers creates delusions of leader infallibility.

Excessive confidence and optimism blind the leader to real dangers.

Denial of problems and failures reduces organizational learning.

Risky, grandiose projects are more likely to fail.

Taking complete credit for successes alienates some key followers.

Impulsive, nontraditional behavior creates enemies as well as believers.

Dependence on the leader inhibits development of competent successors.

Failure to develop successors creates an eventual leadership crisis.

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Effects of Charismatic Leaders (3 of 4) 1.

Learning Charismatic Leadership

Table 8.3 Charismatic Leadership Tactics Verbal Tactics • Metaphors are figures of speech that directly refer to an object or action by mentioning another similar object or action for rhetorical effect. They are effective persuasive devices because they stir emotion, simplify the message, aid recall, and invoke symbolic meanings.

• Stories and anecdotes make a message understandable and memorable while inducing identification with the protagonist(s).

• Expressions of moral conviction communicate that the leader is a person of high moral fiber.

• Statements that reflect the sentiments of the group align followers with the leader by indicating that the leader shares their interests and values.

• Setting high goals serves as a catalyst for follower motivation.

• Conveying confidence that goals can be achieved increases follower self-efficacy.

• Rhetorical questions (to encourage engagement), three-part lists (to distill a message into key takeaways, provide a pattern, and instill a sense of completeness), and contrasts (pitting one’s position against another for dramatic effect) are used to engage followers and distill the leader’s message.

Nonverbal Tactics • Body gestures are signals for listeners (e.g., pointing, waving a hand, or pounding a table can draw attention; a fist can reinforce power, confidence, and certitude).

• Animated voices can convey emotion such as surprise, happiness, passion, and excitement.

• Facial expressions reinforce the leader’s message by conveying associated emotions.

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Effects of Charismatic Leaders (4 of 4) 1. Implications for Organizations 1. Although research on effects of charismatic chief executives is limited, the available results suggest that charisma is not an essential attribute for their success and may even be detrimental for most of them.

2. Despite the adverse consequences found for charismatic leaders, they are not all doomed to fail.

3. Success is possible when the leaders have the expertize to make good decisions, the political skill to maintain power, and the good luck to be in a favorable situation.

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Transformational Leadership Transformational leadership theory describes how effective leaders inspire and transform followers by appealing to their ideals and emotions.

1. Leader Behaviors 2. Influence Processes 3. Leadership Situations

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Comparison of Charismatic and Transformational Leadership (1 of 2) 1. One of the most important issues for leadership scholars is the extent to which transformational leadership and charismatic leadership are similar and compatible.

1. Some theorists treat the two types of leadership as essentially equivalent, whereas other theorists view them as distinct but overlapping processes.

2. Even among theorists who view the two types of leadership as distinct processes, there remains disagreement about whether it is possible to be both transformational and charismatic at the same time.

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Comparison of Charismatic and Transformational Leadership (2 of 2) 1. Charismatic, Ideological, and Pragmatic Leaders 1. Each type of leader can be effective, but they differ in terms of their traits, behavior, and influence processes.

1. The charismatic and ideological leaders are more effective in situations where there is a high level of political and ideological conflict, whereas pragmatic leaders are more effective when there is little political conflict and more emphasis on constructive problem solving.

2. Ideological leaders are more likely to emerge when there is a strong culture of shared values, and they can articulate a vision that embodies these values.

3. The charismatic leaders appeal to emotions and articulate a vision that builds confidence that the leader can show followers how to resolve a crisis and overcome obstacles to desirable objectives.

4. The pragmatic leaders are more likely to emerge when they are perceived by followers to have the expertize and commitment necessary to guide the process of strategy formation and crisis management.

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Evaluation of the Theories 1. The available evidence supports many of the key propositions of the major theories of charismatic and transformational leadership.

2. Collectively, the theories appear to make an important contribution to our understanding of leadership processes.

1. They provide an explanation for the exceptional influence some leaders have on followers, a level of influence not adequately explained by earlier theories.

2. Specific contributions include more attention to the importance of emotional reactions by followers, the importance of symbolic behavior, and the role of the leader in making ambiguous events meaningful for followers.

3. Earlier leadership theories did not recognize that symbolic processes and management of meaning are as important as management of things.

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Guidelines for Inspirational Leadership (1 of 2) 1. Articulate a clear and appealing vision 2. Explain how the vision can be attained 3. Act confident and optimistic 4. Express confidence in followers 5. Use dramatic, symbolic actions to emphasize key values 6. Lead by example

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Guidelines for Inspirational Leadership (2 of 2) Table 8.4 Guidelines for Inspirational Leadership Table 8.4 • Articulate a clear and appealing vision.

• Explain how the vision can be attained.

• Act confident and optimistic.

• Express confidence in followers.

• Use dramatic, symbolic actions to emphasize key values.

• Lead by example.

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Copyright

This work is protected by United States copyright laws and is provided solely for the use of instructors in teaching their courses and assessing student learning. Dissemination or sale of any part of this work (including on the World Wide Web) will destroy the integrity of the work and is not permitted. The work and materials from it should never be made available to students except by instructors using the accompanying text in their classes. All recipients of this work are expected to abide by these restrictions and to honor the intended pedagogical purposes and the needs of other instructors who rely on these materials.

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Leadership in Organizations Ninth Edition

Chapter 9 Values-Based and Ethical Leadership

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Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 9.1 Understand different conceptions of ethical leadership.

9.2 Understand the difficulties in defining and assessing ethical leadership.

9.3 Understand the individual and situational influences on ethical leadership.

9.4 Understand theories of transforming, servant, spiritual, and authentic leadership.

9.5 Understand the consequences of ethical leadership for followers and the organization.

9.6 Understand how to promote ethical behavior and oppose unethical practices.

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Conceptions of Ethical Leadership (1 of 2) 1. Defining Ethical Leadership 1. Ethical leadership has been defined in many different ways.

2. When asked to describe ethical leaders in one study, executives identified several behaviors, values, and motives (e.g., honest, trustworthy, altruistic, fair).

3. A key characteristic was the leader’s efforts to influence the ethical behavior of others.

2. Personal Integrity and Ethical Leadership 1. In cross-cultural research on the essential traits for effective leadership, integrity is near the top of the list in all cultures that have been studied.

2. The most basic definition of integrity emphasizes honesty and consistency between a person’s espoused values and behavior.

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Conceptions of Ethical Leadership (2 of 2) 3. Dilemmas to Assessing Ethical Leadership 1. It is easier to evaluate ethical leadership when the interests of the leader, the followers, and the organization are congruent and can be attained by actions that do not involve much risk or cost.

2. However, in many situations the influence process may involve (1) creating enthusiasm for a risky strategy or project, (2) inducing followers to change their underlying beliefs and values, and (3) influencing decisions that will benefit some people at the expense of others.

3. Each type of influence involves ethical dilemmas.

4. Multiple Stakeholders and Competing Values 1. The difficulties in evaluating the effectiveness of leaders include multiple criteria with complex trade-offs and stakeholders with partially conflicting interests.

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Determinants and Consequences of Ethical Leadership 1. Individual Determinants of Ethical Leadership 1. Most of the traits related to effective leadership are also related to ethical leadership.

2. Situational Influences on Ethical Leadership 1. Ethical behavior occurs in a social context, and it can be strongly influenced by aspects of the situation.

3. Consequences of Ethical and Unethical Leadership 1. In many cases leader decisions do not have consistent effects for different criteria or for different stakeholders.

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Theories of Value-based Leadership (1 of 3) 1. Transforming Leadership 2. Servant Leadership 3. Spiritual Leadership 4. Authentic Leadership

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Theories of Value-based Leadership (2 of 3) Table 9.1 Explanation of Values Emphasized in Theories of Ethical leadership

Integrity: Communicates in an open and honest way, keeps promises and commitments, acts in ways that are consistent with espoused values, admits and accepts responsibility for mistakes, does not attempt to manipulate or deceive people Altruism: Enjoys helping others, is willing to take risks or make sacrifices to protect or benefit others, puts the needs of others ahead of own needs, volunteers for service activities that require extra time and are not part of the formal job requirements Humility: Treats others with respect, avoids status symbols and special privileges, admits limitations and mistakes, is modest about achievements, emphasizes the contributions by others when a collective effort is successful Copyright © 2020, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Theories of Value-based Leadership (3 of 3) Table 9.1 Explanation of Values Emphasized in Theories of Ethical leadership (continued)

Empathy and healing: Helps others cope with emotional distress, encourages acceptance of diversity, acts as a mediator or peacemaker, encourages forgiveness and reconciliation after a divisive conflict Personal growth: Encourages and facilitates the development of individual confidence and ability, even when not important for the current job; provides learning opportunities despite a risk of mistakes; provides mentoring and coaching when needed; helps people learn from mistakes.

Fairness and justice: Encourages and supports fair treatment of people, speaks out against unfair and unjust practices or policies, opposes attempts to manipulate or deceive people or to undermine or violate their civil rights Empowerment: Consults with others about decisions that will affect them, provides an appropriate amount of autonomy and discretion to subordinates, shares sensitive information with them, encourages them to express concerns or dissenting views without becoming defensive

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Comparison and Evaluation of Theories (1 of 2) 1. Comparison to Transformational and Charismatic Leadership Table 9.2 Suggested Criteria for Evaluating Ethical Leadership Criterion

Ethical Leadership

Unethical Leadership

Use of leader power and influence Handling diverse interests and integrating them Development of a vision for the organization

To serve followers and the organization Attempts to balance and who offers the most benefits Develops a vision based on follower input about their needs, values, and ideas Acts in a way that is consistent with espoused values Is willing to take personal risks and actions to accomplish mission or achieve the vision Makes a complete and timely disclosure of information about events, problems, and actions Encourages critical evaluation to find better solutions Uses coaching, mentoring, and training to develop followers

To satisfy personal needs and career objectives Favors coalition partners of the multiple stakeholders Attempts to sell a personal vision as the only way for the organization to succeed

Integrity of leader Behavior Risk-taking in leader decisions and actions Communication of relevant information Response to criticism and dissent by Followers Development of follower skills and self Confidence

Does what is expedient to attain personal objectives Avoids necessary decisions or actions that involve personal risk to the leader Uses deception and distortion to bias follower perceptions about problems and progress Discourages and suppresses any criticism or dissent De-emphasizes development to keep followers weak and dependent on the leader

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Comparison and Evaluation of Theories (2 of 2) 1. Evaluation of Theories 1. While considerable research has been devoted in recent years to the ethical leadership theories described in this chapter, they are still at a relative early stage of development, and like most new theories there is some conceptual ambiguity.

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Guidelines for Ethical Leadership (1 of 4) 1. Ways for Leaders to Promote Ethical Practices.

2. Set clear standards for ethical conduct.

3. Model ethical behavior in your own actions.

4. Help people find fair and ethical ways to resolve problems and conflicts.

5. Oppose unethical practices in the organization.

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Guidelines for Ethical Leadership (2 of 4) Table 9.3 Guidelines for Ethical Leadership

• Set clear standards of ethical conduct.

• Model ethical behavior in your own actions.

• Help people find fair and ethical ways to resolve problems and conflicts.

• Oppose unethical practices in the organization.

• Implement and support programs to promote ethical behavior

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Guidelines for Ethical Leadership (3 of 4) 1. Programs to Promote Ethical Behavior 1. Many large organizations have ethical programs, and they often involve both an attempt to strengthen relevant internal values, and features to enforce compliance with ethical guidelines and policies.

2. The use of ethical programs in an organization is also influenced by environmental pressures, such as media attention for ethical failures and corporate scandals.

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Guidelines for Ethical Leadership (4 of 4) 1. Cultural Values, Laws, and Professional Standards 1. Ethical leadership is also influenced by cultural values, social norms, legal requirements, and professional standards in countries where an organization is located.

2. It is much easier for managers to oppose unethical practices when there is strong and explicit support for such opposition and the standards for unacceptable behavior are clear rather than ambiguous.

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Copyright

This work is protected by United States copyright laws and is provided solely for the use of instructors in teaching their courses and assessing student learning. Dissemination or sale of any part of this work (including on the World Wide Web) will destroy the integrity of the work and is not permitted. The work and materials from it should never be made available to students except by instructors using the accompanying text in their classes. All recipients of this work are expected to abide by these restrictions and to honor the intended pedagogical purposes and the needs of other instructors who rely on these materials.

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Leadership in Organizations Ninth Edition

Chapter 10 Dyadic Relations and Followers

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Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 10.1 Understand why different dyadic relationships develop between a leader and subordinates.

10.2 Understand how leaders are influenced by attributions about subordinates.

10.3 Understand appropriate ways to manage a subordinate with performance deficiencies.

10.4 Understand how leaders and followers attempt to manage impressions.

10.5 Understand how attributions and implicit theories influence follower perception of a leader.

10.6 Understand how followers can have a more effective relationship with their leader.

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Leader-Member Exchange Theory (1 of 2) 1. Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory describes the role-making processes between a leader and each individual subordinate and the exchange relationship that develops over time.

2. The basic premise of the theory is that leaders develop an exchange relationship with each subordinate as the two parties mutually define the subordinate’s role.

1. Most leaders develop a high-exchange relationship with a small number of trusted subordinates who function as assistants, lieutenants, or advisors.

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Leader-Member Exchange Theory (2 of 2) 1. Research on LMX 2. Determinants and Consequences of LMX 3. Evaluation of LMX Theory

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Leader Attributions about Subordinates How a leader acts toward a subordinate varies depending on whether the subordinate is perceived as competent and loyal, or incompetent and untrustworthy.

1. Two-Stage Attribution Model 2. Other Determinants of Leader Attributions 3. Relational Attributions

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Guidelines for Correcting Performance Deficiencies (1 of 3) 1. Gather information about the performance problem.

2. Try to absorb attribution bias.

3. Provide corrective feedback promptly.

4. Describe the deficiency briefly in specific terms.

5. Explain the adverse impact of ineffective behavior.

6. Stay calm and professional.

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Guidelines for Correcting Performance Deficiencies (2 of 3) 1. Mutually identify the reasons for inadequate performance.

2. Ask the person to suggest remedies.

3. Express confidence that the person can improve.

4. Express a sincere desire to help the person.

5. Research agreement on specific action steps.

6. Summarize the discussion and verify the agreement.

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Guidelines for Correcting Performance Deficiencies (3 of 3) Table 10.1 Guidelines for Correcting Performance Deficiencies

• • • • • • • • • • • •

Gather information about the performance problem.

Try to avoid attribution biases.

Provide corrective feedback promptly.

Describe the deficiency briefly in specific terms.

Explain the adverse impact of ineffective behavior.

Stay calm and professional.

Mutually identify the reasons for inadequate performance.

Ask the person to suggest remedies.

Express confidence that the person can improve.

Express a sincere desire to help the person.

Reach agreement on specific action steps.

Summarize the discussion and verify agreement.

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Follower Attributions and Implicit Theories Just as leaders make attributions about follower competence, followers make attributions about leader competence and intentions.

1. Determinants of Follower Attributions about Leaders 2. Implications of Follower Attributions about Leaders 3. Implicit Leadership Theories

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Impression Management by Leaders and Followers (1 of 2) Impression management is the process of influencing how others perceive you.

1. Impression management tactics that seem especially relevant for the study of leadership in dyads are: 1. Exemplification 2. Ingratiation 3. Self-Promotion

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Impression Management by Leaders and Followers (2 of 2) 2. Impression management by Followers 2. Most studies on impression management have examined how followers attempt to influence bosses.

3. Impression Management by Leaders 2. Many leaders attempt to create the impression that they are important, competent, and in control of events.

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Followership Followers can contribute to the effectiveness of a group by maintaining cooperative working relationships, providing constructive dissent, sharing leadership functions, and supporting leadership development.

1. Follower Identities and Behavior 2. Integrating Leader and Follower Roles

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Self-Management 1. Self-Management Strategies 1. Self-management includes both behavioral and cognitive strategies.

1. The behavioral strategies include self-goal setting, self-monitoring, manipulation of cues, self-reward (or criticism), and rehearsal of planned actions.

2. The cognitive strategies include positive self-talk and mental imagery.

2. Effects of Self-Management 3. How Leaders Encourage Self-Management

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Guidelines for Followers (1 of 3) 1. Find out what you are expected to do.

2. Take the initiative to deal with problems.

3. Keep informed about your decisions.

4. Verify the accuracy of information you give to the boss.

5. Encourage the boss to provide honest feedback to you.

6. Support efforts to make necessary changes.

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Guidelines for Followers (2 of 3) 1. Show appreciation and provide recognition when appropriate.

2. Challenge flawed plans and proposals made by bosses.

3. Resist inappropriate influence attempts by the boss.

4. Provide upward coaching and counseling when appropriate.

5. Learn to use self-management strategies.

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Guidelines for Followers (3 of 3) Table 10.2 Guidelines for Followers

• • • • • • • • • • •

Find out what you are expected to do.

Take the initiative to deal with problems.

Keep the boss informed about your decisions.

Verify the accuracy of information you give the boss.

Encourage the boss to provide honest feedback to you.

Support efforts to make necessary changes.

Show appreciation and provide recognition when appropriate.

Challenge flawed plans and proposals made by bosses.

Resist inappropriate influence attempts by the boss.

Provide upward coaching and counseling when appropriate.

Learn to use self-management strategies.

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Copyright

This work is protected by United States copyright laws and is provided solely for the use of instructors in teaching their courses and assessing student learning. Dissemination or sale of any part of this work (including on the World Wide Web) will destroy the integrity of the work and is not permitted. The work and materials from it should never be made available to students except by instructors using the accompanying text in their classes. All recipients of this work are expected to abide by these restrictions and to honor the intended pedagogical purposes and the needs of other instructors who rely on these materials.

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Leadership in Organizations Ninth Edition

Chapter 11 Leadership in Teams and Decision Groups

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Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 11.1 Understand the processes that determine group performance.

11.2 Understand how leaders can influence group processes and improve performance.

11.3 Understand the types of subgroups and their effects on group processes and performance.

11.4 Understand the leadership challenges for different types of teams.

11.5 Understand effective procedures for leading teams.

11.6 Understand the primary leadership functions in decision groups.

11.7 Understand procedures for leading successful meetings.

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Introduction (1 of 2) 1. The word team is correctly used to describe an interacting group that is small and has members with a common purpose, interdependent roles, and complementary skills.

2. A growing trend in organizations is to give more responsibility for important activities to teams, and in some cases they are empowered to make decisions formerly made by individual managers.

1. Several distinct types of teams can be found in organizations, including functional work teams, crossfunctional teams, self-managed teams, and top executive teams.

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Introduction (2 of 2) Table 11.1 Common Characteristics of Four Types of Teams

Defining Functional Autonomy to determine mission and objectives Autonomy to determine work procedures Authority of the internal Leader Duration of existence for the team Stability of the Membership Diversity of members in functional background

CrossFunctional Team Low Low to Moderate High High High Low

Self-Managed Operating Team Low to Moderate

Top Executive Team Low to Moderate

High

High

High

Low

High

High

High

High

High

Low

High

Low to Moderate Low to Moderate High Low to Moderate High

Characteristic Team High

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Determinants of Team Performance (1 of 3) 1. Commitment to task Objectives and Strategies 2. Member Skills and Role Clarity

3. Internal Organizations and Coordination 4. External Coordination 5. Resources and Political Support 6. Cooperation and Mutual Trust

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Determinants of Team Performance (2 of 3) 1. Collective Efficacy and Potency

2. Accurate, Shared Mental Models 3. Member Diversity 4. Group Process Dichotomies

5. Subgroups in Work Teams

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Determinants of Team Performance (3 of 3) Table 11.2 Determinants of Team Performance

• • • • • • • • • •

Commitment to task objectives and strategies Member skills and role clarity Internal organization and coordination External coordination Resources and political support Mutual trust, cohesiveness, and cooperation Accurate, shared mental models Collective efficacy and potency Collective learning Member diversity Copyright © 2020, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Functional and Cross-Functional Work Teams (1 of 5) 1. Functional Work Teams Table 11.3 Leader Behaviors Influencing Performance Determinants for Teams Leadership Behavior

Performance Determinant

Visioning, expressing confidence, celebrating progress

Task commitment, collective efficacy

Recruiting and selecting competent team members

Member skills, collective efficacy

Coaching, training, and clarifying role expectations and priorities

Member skills and role clarity, individual and collective efficacy

Planning and organizing team activities and projects

Efficiency and internal coordination, collective efficacy

Facilitating collective learning by the team

Adaptation to change, performance quality (e.g., strategies, collective efficacy)

Team building and conflict resolution

Mutual trust and cooperation, member identification with the team

Networking and external monitoring

Adaptation to change, external coordination, quality of performance strategies

Representing (promoting, lobbying, negotiating)

Resources and political support, external coordination

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Functional and Cross-Functional Work Teams (2 of 5) 1. Cross-Functional Work Teams 1. Cross-functional teams are being used increasingly in organizations to improve coordination of interdependent activities among specialized subunits.

2. Many organizations have reported great success with cross-functional teams.

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Functional and Cross-Functional Work Teams (3 of 5) 1. Leadership in Cross-Functional Work Teams Table 11.4 Skills Required for Leading Cross-Functional Project Teams Technical expertise: The leader must be able to communicate about technical matters with team members from diverse functional backgrounds.

Project management skills: The leader must be able to plan and organize the project activities, select qualified members of the team, and handle budgeting and financial responsibilities.

Interpersonal skills: The leader must be able to understand the needs and values of team members, influence them, resolve conflicts, and build cohesiveness.

Cognitive skills: The leader must be able to solve complex problems that require creativity and systems thinking, and must understand how the different functions are relevant to the success of the project.

Political skills: The leader must be able to develop coalitions and gain resources, assistance, and approvals from top management and other relevant parties.

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Functional and Cross-Functional Work Teams (4 of 5) Table 11.5 Leadership Behaviors Needed in Cross-Functional Teams Envisioning • Articulating strategic objectives or a vision that inspires commitment by team members • Helping the team understand and improve their assumptions and mental models regarding the relationships among task variables • Suggesting creative ideas and encouraging the team to consider innovative performance strategies Organizing • Planning and scheduling team activities to achieve coordination and meet project deadlines • Helping the team establish standards and methods for assessing progress and performance • Arranging and conducting meetings to solve problems and make decisions in a systematic way Social Integrating • Encouraging mutual trust, acceptance, and cooperation among team members • Facilitating open communication, equal participation, and tolerance of dissenting views • Mediating conflicts among members and helping them find integrative solutions External Spanning • Monitoring the external environment of the team to identify client needs, emerging problems, and political processes that will affect the team • Promoting a favorable image of the team among outsiders • Influencing people outside the team to provide adequate resources, approvals, assistance, and cooperation Copyright © 2020, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Functional and Cross-Functional Work Teams (5 of 5) 1. Virtual Teams 1. In virtual teams, the members are geographically separated and they seldom if ever meet face-to-face.

1. Most of the communication among members relies on computer and telecommunications technology (e.g., e-mail, texting, videoconferencing, groupware, cellular phones).

2. The lack of frequent face-to-face contact makes it more difficult to monitor the performance of members, to influence members, and to develop mutual trust and collective identification.

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Self-Managed Work Teams (1 of 3) 1. In self-managed work teams (sometimes called semiautonomous work groups), much of the responsibility and authority usually vested in a manager’s position is turned over to the team members.

1. Self-managed teams are used most often for manufacturing work or process production, but they are finding increasing application to service work.

2. The parent organization usually determines the mission, scope of operations, and the budget for selfmanaged teams.

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Self-Managed Work Teams (2 of 3) 1. Benefits and Limitations of Self-Managed Teams Table 11.6 Facilitating Conditions for Self-Managed Teams

• • • • • • • • •

Clearly defined, shared objectives Complex and meaningful tasks Small size and stable membership Members can determine work processes Members have relevant skills Member access to relevant information Appropriate recognition and rewards Strong support by top management Competent external leader Copyright © 2020, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Self-Managed Work Teams (3 of 3) 1. Leadership in Self-Managed Teams 1. When describing leadership in self-managed teams, it is helpful to differentiate between internal and external leadership roles.

1. The internal leadership role involves management responsibilities assigned to the team and shared by group members.

2. The role of an external leader involves managerial responsibilities not delegated to the team.

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Guidelines for Leading Teams (1 of 3) • Emphasize common interests and values.

• Use ceremonies, rituals, and symbols to develop collective identification.

• Encourage and facilitate social interaction.

• Inform people about group activities and achievements.

• Conduct process analysis sessions.

• Increase incentives for mutual cooperation.

• Hold practice sessions under realistic conditions.

• Use after-activity reviews to facilitate collective learning by the team.

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Guidelines for Leading Teams (2 of 3) Table 11.7 Guidelines for Leading Teams

• Emphasize common interests and values.

• Use ceremonies, rituals, and symbols to develop collective identification.

• Encourage and facilitate social interaction.

• Inform people about group activities and achievements.

• Conduct process analysis sessions.

• Conduct alignment sessions.

• Increase incentives for mutual cooperation.

• Hold practice sessions under realistic conditions.

• Use after-activity reviews to facilitate collective learning by the team.

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Guidelines for Leading Teams (3 of 3) Table 11.8 Guidelines for Leading an After-Activity Review Session

1. Near the beginning, make a self-critique that acknowledges shortcomings.

2. Encourage feedback from others and model nondefensive acceptance of it.

3. Ask members to identify effective and ineffective aspects of team performance.

4. Encourage members to examine how group processes affected team performance.

5. Keep the discussion focused on behaviors rather than on individuals.

6. If necessary, provide your own assessment of team performance.

7. Recognize improvements in team performance.

8. Ask members for suggestions on how to improve team performance.

9. Propose improvements not already included in the team’s suggestions Based on Tannenbaum, Smith-Jentsch, and Behson (1998).

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Leading Decision Groups (1 of 2) 1. Task-Oriented Functions 2. Group Maintenance Functions 3. Who Should Perform the Leadership Functions

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Leading Decision Groups (2 of 2) Table 11.9 Major Types of Leadership Behavior in Decision Groups

Task Function 1. Process Structuring 2. Stimulating communication 3. Clarifying communication 4. Summarizing 5. Consensus testing

Specific Objective Guide and sequence discussion.

Increase information exchange.

Increase comprehension.

Check on understanding and assess progress.

Check on agreement.

Group Maintenance 1. Gatekeeping 2. Harmonizing 3. Supporting 4. Standard setting 5. Process analyzing

Specific Objective Increase and equalize participation.

Reduce tension and hostility.

Prevent withdrawal and reduce tension.

Regulate behavior.

Discover and resolve process problems.

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Guidelines for Leading Meetings (1 of 3) 1. Inform people about necessary preparations for a meeting.

2. Share essential information with group members.

3. Describe the problem without implying the cause or solution.

4. Allow ample time for idea generation and evaluation.

5. Separate idea generation from idea evaluation.

6. Encourage and facilitate participation.

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Guidelines for Leading Meetings (2 of 3) 1. Encourage positive restatement and idea building.

2. Use systematic procedures for solution evaluation.

3. Encourage members to look for an integrative solution.

4. Encourage efforts to reach consensus when feasible.

5. Clarify responsibilities for implementation.

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Guidelines for Leading Meetings (3 of 3) Table 11.10 Guidelines for Leading Decision Group Meetings

• • • • • • • • • • •

Inform people about necessary preparations for a meeting.

Share essential information with group members.

Describe the problem without implying the cause or solution.

Allow ample time for idea generation and evaluation.

Separate idea generation from idea evaluation.

Encourage and facilitate participation.

Encourage positive restatement and idea building.

Use systematic procedures for solution evaluation.

Look for an integrative solution.

Encourage efforts to reach consensus when feasible.

Clarify responsibilities for implementation.

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Copyright

This work is protected by United States copyright laws and is provided solely for the use of instructors in teaching their courses and assessing student learning. Dissemination or sale of any part of this work (including on the World Wide Web) will destroy the integrity of the work and is not permitted. The work and materials from it should never be made available to students except by instructors using the accompanying text in their classes. All recipients of this work are expected to abide by these restrictions and to honor the intended pedagogical purposes and the needs of other instructors who rely on these materials.

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Leadership in Organizations Ninth Edition

Chapter 12 Strategic Leadership in Organizations

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Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 12.1 Understand what organizational processes determine a company’s performance.

12.2 Understand how top executives can influence organizational processes and performance.

12.3 Understand constraints on strategic leadership and conditions that make it more important.

12.4 Understand the potential advantages of executive teams and how to use them effectively.

12.5 Understand why it is important to monitor the external environment and how to do it.

12.6 Understand the procedures that can be used to formulate a good competitive strategy.

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Introduction 1. Much of the early leadership literature was concerned with supervisors or middle managers in organizations, but in more recent years there has been increased interest in “strategic leadership” by top executives.

2. The shift in focus reflects an increased interest in understanding how executives can transform their companies to cope with globalization, increasing international competition, and rapid technological and social change.

1. Two important responsibilities for top executives are monitoring the external environment to identify threats and opportunities, and formulating strategy for the future survival and prosperity of the organization.

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Determinants of Organizational Performance (1 of 3) 1. Adaptation to the Environment 2. Efficiency and Process Reliability 3. Human Capital and Strategic Human Resource Management 4. Competitive Strategy 5. Management Programs, Systems, and Structures

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Determinants of Organizational Performance (2 of 3) Table 12.1 Management Programs, Systems, and Structures for Improving Performance Efficiency and Process Reliability • • • • •

Performance management and goal setting programs (e.g., MBO, zero defects) Process and quality improvement programs (quality circles, TQM, Six Sigma) Cost-reduction programs (downsizing, outsourcing, just-in-time inventory) Structural forms (functional specialization, formalization, standardization) Appraisal, recognition, and reward systems focused on efficiency and process reliability

Human Capital and Strategic Human Resource Management • • • • • • •

Quality of work-life programs (flextime, job sharing, child care, fitness center) Employee benefit programs (health care, vacations, retirement, sabbaticals) Socialization and teambuilding (orientation programs; ceremonies and rituals; social events and celebrations) Employee development programs (training, mentoring, 360 feedback, education subsidies) Human resource planning (succession planning, assessment centers, recruiting programs) Empowerment programs (self-managed teams, employee ownership, industrial democracy) Recognition and reward programs focused on loyalty, service, or skill acquisition

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Determinants of Organizational Performance (3 of 3) Table 12.1 Management Programs, Systems, and Structures for Improving Performance (continued) Innovation and Adaptation •

Competitor and market analysis programs (market surveys, focus groups, consumer panels, comparative product testing, benchmarking of competitor products and processes)

•

Innovation programs (entrepreneurship programs, quality circles, innovation goals)

•

Knowledge acquisition (consultants, joint ventures, importing best practices from others)

•

Organizational learning (knowledge management systems, after-activity reviews, joint ventures)

•

Temporary groups for implementing change (steering committee, task forces)

•

Growth and diversification programs (mergers and acquisitions, franchises, joint ventures)

•

Structural forms (research departments, small product divisions, product managers, cross-functional product development teams)

•

Appraisal, recognition, and reward systems focused on innovation and customer satisfaction

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How Leaders Influence Organizational Performance 1. Trade-Offs and Synergies 2. Coordinating Leadership Across Levels and Subunits

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Situations Affecting Strategic Leadership 1. Constraints on Top Executives 2. Environmental Uncertainty and Crises

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Organizational Culture 1. Functions of Culture 2. Culture and Organizational Performance 3. Leader Influence on Culture 4. Difficulty of Culture Change

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Research on Effects of Strategic Leadership 1. Studies of CEO Succession 2. Descriptive Studies of CEO Decisions and Actions 3. Survey Studies on CEO Leadership 4. Evaluation of Research on Strategic Leadership

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Executive Teams 1. Potential Advantages 2. Facilitating Conditions 3. Leadership of Executive Teams 4. Example of a Study on Executive Teams

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Other Conceptions of Organizational Leadership 1. Shared and Distributed Leadership 2. Relational Leadership 3. Complexity Theory of Leadership

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External Monitoring and Strategy Formulation (1 of 5) 1. Two key functions for top executives in business organizations are to monitor the external environment and formulate a competitive strategy.

1. External monitoring is needed to detect threats and opportunities for the organization, and competitive strategy guides the organization’s response to threats and opportunities.

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External Monitoring and Strategy Formulation (2 of 5) 1. External Monitoring Table 12.2 Questions for External Monitoring

1. What do clients and customers need and want?

2. What is the reaction of clients and customers to the organization’s current products and services?

3. Who are the primary competitors?

4. What strategies are they pursuing (e.g., pricing, advertising and promotions, new products, customer service, etc.)?

5. How do competitors’ products and services compare to those of the manager’s organization?

6. What events affect the acquisition of materials, energy, information, and other inputs used by the organization to conduct its operations?

7. How will the organization be affected by new legislation and by government agencies that regulate its activities (e.g., labor laws, environmental regulations, safety standards, tax policies, etc.)?

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External Monitoring and Strategy Formulation (3 of 5) Table 12.2 Questions for External Monitoring (continued)

8. How will new technologies affect the organization’s products, services, and operations?

9. How will the organization be affected by changes in the economy (employment level, interest rates, growth rates)?

10. How will the organization be affected by changing population demographics (e.g., aging, diversity)?

11. How will the organization be affected by international events (e.g., trade agreements, import restrictions, currency changes, wars and revolutions)?

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External Monitoring and Strategy Formulation (4 of 5) 1. External Monitoring Table 12.3 Guidelines for External Monitoring

• • • • •

Identify relevant information to gather.

Use multiple sources of relevant information.

Learn what clients and customers need and want.

Learn about the products and activities of competitors.

Relate environmental information to strategic plans.

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External Monitoring and Strategy Formulation (5 of 5) 1. Developing Competitive Strategy 2. Some examples of possible competitive strategies include the following: 1. selling a product or service at the lowest price 2. having superior quality, customer service, or the most innovative products and services 3. providing a unique product or service in a segment of the market ignored by competing organizations (“niche” strategies) 4. being the most flexible about customizing products or services to meet each client’s needs Copyright © 2020, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Guidelines for Strategic Leadership (1 of 2) Table 12.4 Guidelines for Formulating Strategy

• • • • • • •

Determine long-term objectives and priorities.

Assess current strengths and weaknesses.

Identify core competencies.

Evaluate the need for a major change in strategy.

Identify promising strategies.

Evaluate the likely outcomes of a strategy.

Involve other executives in selecting a strategy.

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Guidelines for Strategic Leadership (2 of 2) • • • • • • • • •

Determine long-term objectives and priorities.

Learn what clients and customers need and want.

Learn about the products and activities of competitors.

Assess current strengths and weaknesses.

Identify core competencies.

Evaluate the need for a major change in strategy.

Identify promising strategies.

Evaluate the likely outcomes of a strategy.

Involve other executives in selecting a strategy.

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Copyright

This work is protected by United States copyright laws and is provided solely for the use of instructors in teaching their courses and assessing student learning. Dissemination or sale of any part of this work (including on the World Wide Web) will destroy the integrity of the work and is not permitted. The work and materials from it should never be made available to students except by instructors using the accompanying text in their classes. All recipients of this work are expected to abide by these restrictions and to honor the intended pedagogical purposes and the needs of other instructors who rely on these materials.

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Leadership in Organizations Ninth Edition

Chapter 13 Cross-cultural Leadership and Diversity

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Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 13.1 Understand why cross-cultural research on leadership is important.

13.2 Understand the difficulties of studying cross-cultural leadership.

13.3 Understand how cultural values are related to leader behavior.

13.4 Understand the essentials for effective global leadership.

13.5 Understand how gender issues have been studied and the limitations of this research.

13.6 Understand the findings in research on gender differences in leadership.

13.7 Understand how to manage diversity and provide equal opportunities.

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Introduction 1. Globalization and changing demographic patterns are making it more important for leaders to understand how to influence and manage people with different values, beliefs, and expectations.

2. The diversity of people in leadership positions is also increasing, and there is strong interest in studying whether the ability to provide effective leadership is related to a person’s gender, age, race, ethnic background, national origin, religion, sexual preference, physical handicaps, or physical appearance (height, weight, attractiveness).

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Cross-cultural and Global Leadership (1 of 2) 1. In recent years, a distinction has been made between cross-cultural and global leadership.

1. Cross-cultural leadership research examines the direct or moderating influence of culture on leadership practices, processes, and effects. As such, it is primarily a comparative approach that considers how leadership values and practices that emerge in one culture apply within other cultures.

2. In contrast, the field of global leadership is much more applied and focuses on the practical challenges that confront the leaders of multinational organizations.

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Cross-cultural and Global Leadership (2 of 2) 1. Types of Cross-cultural Studies 2. Cultural Influences on Leadership Behavior 3. Cross-cultural Research on Behavior Differences 4. Cross-cultural Research on Effects of Leader Behavior 5. The GLOBE Project

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Cultural Values and Leadership (1 of 6) • • • • • • •

Power Distance Uncertainty Avoidance Individualism (versus Collectivism) Gender Egalitarianism Performance Orientation Humane Orientation Culture Clusters

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Cultural Values and Leadership (2 of 6) Table 13.1 GLOBE Culture Clusters •

•

•

Eastern Europe – Albania – Georgia – Greece – Hungary – Kazakhstan – Poland – Russia – Slovenia Latin America – Argentina – Bolivia – Brazil – Colombia Costa Rica – Ecuador – El Salvador – Guatemala – Mexico – Venezuela

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Cultural Values and Leadership (3 of 6) Table 13.1 GLOBE Culture Clusters (continued) •

•

•

Latin Europe – France – Israel – Italy – Portugal – Spain – Switzerland (French) Anglo – Australia – Canada – Ireland – New Zealand – South Africa (white) – United Kingdom – USA Nordic Europe – Denmark – Finland – Sweden

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Cultural Values and Leadership (4 of 6) Table 13.1 GLOBE Culture Clusters (continued)

•

•

•

Germanic Europe – Austria – Germany – Netherlands – Switzerland Middle East – Egypt – Kuwait – Morocco – Qatar – Turkey Sub-Saharan Africa – Namibia – Nigeria – South Africa (black) – Zambia – Zimbabwe

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Cultural Values and Leadership (5 of 6) Table 13.1 GLOBE Culture Clusters (continued)

•

• •

Confucian Asia – China – Hong Kong – Japan – Singapore South Korea – Taiwan Southern Asia – India – Indonesia – Iran – Malaysia – Philippines

Based on Gupta and Hanges (2004).

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Cultural Values and Leadership (6 of 6) • Evaluation of Cross-cultural Research Table 13.2 Examples of Relevant Questions for Cross-Cultural Research 1. How does actual behavior of leaders differ across cultural value clusters and for different countries?

2. How are leader values and behaviors jointly influenced by personality (and developmental experiences), company culture, and national culture?

3. What types of leadership traits, skills, and developmental experiences are most useful to prepare someone for a leadership assignment in a different culture?

4. How useful is the distinction between actual and ideal cultural values for understanding implicit theories of leadership and patterns of leadership behavior?

5. What are the implications for leaders when a global organization’s values are inconsistent with the social values in some countries where the organization has facilities?

6. What is necessary for effective leadership in a multi-national team with members who differ in their cultural values?

7. How fast are cultural values changing in developing countries, and how are the culture changes relevant for leadership?

8. How much agreement is there across cultures with regard to the essential requirements for ethical leadership, and what are the points of disagreement?

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Guidelines for Global Leadership 1. Understand your global employees.

2. Understand the layers of complexity in your organization.

3. Understand yourself.

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Gender and Leadership • • • • • • • •

Sex-based Discrimination Theories of Male Advantage Theory of Feminine Advantage Explanations for the Glass Ceiling and Glass Cliff Findings in Research on Gender Differences Limitations of Research on Gender Differences Identifying Causes and Reducing Discrimination Summary of Leader Gender Research

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Managing Diversity and Inclusion (1 of 3) 1. Diversity can take many forms, including differences in race, ethnic identity, age, gender, education, physical appearance, socio-economic level, sexual orientation, and differences associated with a person's generation (e.g., millennials).

2. Diversity in the workforce is increasing in the United States and Europe.

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Managing Diversity and Inclusion (2 of 3) 1. Fostering Appreciation and Tolerance Table 13.3 Guidelines for Managing Diversity and Promoting Inclusion Table 13.3 Encourage Tolerance and Appreciation

•

Set an example in your own behavior of appreciation for diversity.

•

Encourage respect for individual differences.

•

Promote understanding of different values, beliefs, and traditions.

•

Explain the benefits of diversity for the team or organization.

•

Encourage and support others who promote tolerance of diversity.

Discourage Intolerance and Discrimination •

Discourage the use of stereotypes to describe people.

•

Identify biased beliefs and role expectations for women or minorities.

•

Challenge people who make prejudiced comments.

•

Speak out to protest against unfair treatment based on prejudice.

•

Take disciplinary action to stop harassment of women or minorities.

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Managing Diversity and Inclusion (3 of 3) 1. To make full use of the talent represented by the diverse members of the organization, it is essential to eliminate constraints that prevent qualified people from selection for important positions.

2. Unfair discrimination can be reduced by the use of selection criteria based on relevant skills rather than biased conceptions.

1. The assessments used for selection and promotion decisions will be more accurate if the raters who make them are trained or otherwise helped to reduce biases caused by racial, ethnic, or gender role stereotypes.

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Copyright

This work is protected by United States copyright laws and is provided solely for the use of instructors in teaching their courses and assessing student learning. Dissemination or sale of any part of this work (including on the World Wide Web) will destroy the integrity of the work and is not permitted. The work and materials from it should never be made available to students except by instructors using the accompanying text in their classes. All recipients of this work are expected to abide by these restrictions and to honor the intended pedagogical purposes and the needs of other instructors who rely on these materials.

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Leadership in Organizations Ninth Edition

Chapter 14 Developing Leadership Skills

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Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 14.1 Understand the importance of leadership training and development in organizations.

14.2 Understand the benefits and limitations of different methods for leadership development.

14.3 Understand the individual and organizational factors that facilitate leadership training and development.

14.4 Understand how leaders can encourage and facilitate leadership development.

14.5 Understand how gender issues have been studied and the limitations of this research.

14.6 Understand some ways for leaders to develop their own skills.

14.7 Understand why leader development should be consistent with strategic planning.

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Introduction 1. Leadership competencies can be developed in a number of ways, including formal training, developmental activities, and self-development activities.

1. Most formal training occurs during a defined time period, and it is usually conducted away from the manager’s immediate work site by training professionals.

2. Developmental activities are usually embedded within operational job assignments or conducted in conjunction with those assignments.

1. The developmental activities can take many forms, including coaching by the manager's boss or an outside consultant, mentoring by someone at a higher level in the organization, and special assignments that provide new challenges and opportunities to learn relevant skills.

3. Self-development activities are carried out by individuals on their own initiative.

1. Examples include reading books, viewing videos, listening to audiotapes, and using interactive computer programs for skill building.

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Leadership Training Programs (1 of 3) 1. Types of Leadership Training Programs 1. Leadership training can take many forms, from short workshops that last only a few hours and focus on a narrow set of skills to programs that last for a year or more and cover a wide range of skills.

2. A number of training programs are based on the application of a particular leadership theory.

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Leadership Training Programs (2 of 3) 1. Design of Leadership Training Table 14.1 Desirable Features for Training Programs

• Specific learning objectives • Conduct a needs analysis • Clear, meaningful content • Appropriate sequencing of content • Appropriate mix of training methods • Opportunity for active practice • Relevant, timely feedback • Build trainee self-confidence • Multiple delivery methods • Multiple training sessions across regular time intervals Copyright © 2020, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Leadership Training Programs (3 of 3) 1. Effects of Leadership Training 1. Criteria for assessing the effectiveness of formal training programs include: 1. Participants’ attitudinal reactions (i.e., ratings of training utility and satisfaction with the training/instructors); 2. Learning in the form of knowledge and skill acquisition; 3. Transfer of learning whereby trainees utilize acquired skills and abilities to improve performance; 4. Results in the form of positive organizational outcomes such as lower costs, increased profits, and reduced absenteeism and turnover.

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Learning from Experience 1. Amount of Challenge 2. Variety of Tasks or Assignments 3. Accurate, Relevant, Feedback

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Developmental Activities (1 of 2) • • • • • • •

Multisource Feedback Programs Developmental Assessment Centers Developmental Assignments Mentoring Executive Coaching Simulations Personal Growth Programs

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Developmental Activities (2 of 2) Table 14.2 Activities for Facilitating Leadership Development

• Multi-source feedback workshops • Developmental assessment centers • Special assignments • Mentoring • Executive coaching • Personal growth programs

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Facilitating Leadership Development (1 of 5) 1. Developmental Readiness 1. Developmental readiness is a function of a person's ability and motivation to develop.

2. People are more prepared for leadership development when they are able to: 1. Reflect upon and understand their personal strengths and weaknesses, values, motives, emotions, and personality; 2. Process both positive and negative feedback about their current and potential competencies; 3. Reflect on how their thought patterns and self-insights can be leveraged to learn from new experiences.

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Facilitating Leadership Development (2 of 5) 1. Support by the Boss Table 14.3 Ways to Support Leadership Training of Subordinates

Before the Training: • Inform subordinates about opportunities to get training.

• Explain why the training is important and beneficial.

• Ask others who received the training to explain how it was useful.

• Change the work schedule to make it easier to attend training.

• Give a subordinate time off if necessary to prepare for the training.

• Support preparation activities such as distribution of questionnaires.

• Tell subordinates they will be asked to report on what was learned.

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Facilitating Leadership Development (3 of 5) Table 14.3 Ways to Support Leadership Training of Subordinates (continued)

After the Training: • Meet with the person to discuss what was learned how it can be applied.

• Jointly set specific objectives and action plans to use what was learned.

• Make assignments that require use of the newly learned skills.

• Hold periodic review sessions to monitor progress in applying learning.

• Provide praise for applying the skills.

• Provide encouragement and coaching when difficulties are encountered.

• Include application of new skills in performance appraisals.

• Set an example for trainees by using the skills yourself.

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Facilitating Leadership Development (4 of 5) 1. Learning Climate 1. The amount of management training and development that occurs in an organization depends in part on prevailing attitudes and values about development, sometimes referred to as the “learning climate.”

2. More leadership development is likely when individual learning is regarded as highly important for organizational effectiveness.

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Facilitating Leadership Development (5 of 5) 1. Criteria for Developmental Assignments 1. At present, most organizations do not make job assignments that explicitly provide adequate developmental opportunities and a logical progression of learning.

2. The idea of using job assignments for leadership development is somewhat at odds with the traditional approach to selection and placement in an organization, which seeks a good match between manager skills and job requirements.

3. Assigning a challenging job to someone who does not already possess all of the necessary skills can increase development, but there is also a risk of serious mistakes and failure.

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Systems Perspective on Leadership Development (1 of 2) 1. Relationships Among Approaches 2. Integrating Developmental Activities 3. Leadership Development for the Organization 4. Guidelines for Self-Development

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Systems Perspective on Leadership Development (2 of 2) Table 14.4 Guidelines for Self-Development of Leadership Skills

• Develop a personal vision of career objectives.

• Seek appropriate mentors.

• Seek challenging developmental assignments.

• Use social networks to learn about developmental opportunities.

• Improve self-monitoring.

• Seek relevant feedback.

• Learn from mistakes.

• Learn to view events from multiple perspectives.

• Be skeptical of easy answers.

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Managing Diversity and Inclusion (1 of 4) 1. Diversity can take many forms, including differences in race, ethnic identity, age, gender, education, physical appearance, socio-economic level, sexual orientation, and differences associated with a person's generation (e.g., millennials).

2. Diversity in the workforce is increasing in the United States and Europe.

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Managing Diversity and Inclusion (2 of 4) 1. Fostering Appreciation and Tolerance Table 13.3 Guidelines for Managing Diversity and Promoting Inclusion.

Encourage Tolerance and Appreciation • Set an example in your own behavior of appreciation for diversity.

• Encourage respect for individual differences.

• Promote understanding of different values, beliefs, and traditions.

• Explain the benefits of diversity for the team or organization.

• Encourage and support others who promote tolerance of diversity.

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Managing Diversity and Inclusion (3 of 4) Table 13.3 Guidelines for Managing Diversity and Promoting Inclusion (continued).

Discourage Intolerance and Discrimination • Discourage the use of stereotypes to describe people.

• Identify biased beliefs and role expectations for women or minorities.

• Challenge people who make prejudiced comments.

• Speak out to protest against unfair treatment based on prejudice.

• Take disciplinary action to stop harassment of women or minorities.

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Managing Diversity and Inclusion (4 of 4) 1. To make full use of the talent represented by the diverse members of the organization, it is essential to eliminate constraints that prevent qualified people from selection for important positions.

2. Unfair discrimination can be reduced by the use of selection criteria based on relevant skills rather than biased conceptions.

1. The assessments used for selection and promotion decisions will be more accurate if the raters who make them are trained or otherwise helped to reduce biases caused by racial, ethnic, or gender role stereotypes.

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Copyright

This work is protected by United States copyright laws and is provided solely for the use of instructors in teaching their courses and assessing student learning. Dissemination or sale of any part of this work (including on the World Wide Web) will destroy the integrity of the work and is not permitted. The work and materials from it should never be made available to students except by instructors using the accompanying text in their classes. All recipients of this work are expected to abide by these restrictions and to honor the intended pedagogical purposes and the needs of other instructors who rely on these materials.

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Leadership in Organizations Ninth Edition

Chapter 15 Overview and Integration

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Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 15.1 Summarize major findings about leadership traits, skills, behavior, and influence processes.

15.2 Understand key points of convergence in findings from the different perspectives.

15.3 Understand similar explanatory processes in dyadic, group, and organizational theories.

15.4 Understand what progress has been made in the research on effective leadership.

15.5 Understand how the methods used to study leadership affect what is learned about it.

15.6 Understand what type of research is most useful for learning about effective leadership.

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Major Findings About Effective Leadership 1. The Leadership Situation 2. Leadership Behavior 3. Power and Influence 4. Traits and Skills 5. Integration of Diverse Perspectives About Effective Leadership

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Multi-Level Explanatory Processes (1 of 2) • • • • • • • •

Motivation and Commitment Social Identification Trust and Cooperation Knowledge and Skills Specialization Perceived Efficacy and Optimism Empowerment Collective Learning and Innovation

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Multi-Level Explanatory Processes (2 of 2) Table 15.1 Similar Explanatory Constructs at Three Levels of Conceptualization Dyad

Group or Team

Organization

Subordinate task commitment

Member commitment to group goals

Mission commitment by all members and subunits

Internalized values and beliefs for subordinates

Group norms and values, shared mental models

Corporate culture and core values for the organization

Subordinate trust and cooperation with leader

Trust and cooperation among members

Integration among subunits, trust of top management

Personal identification with the leader

Collective identification with the team or unit

Collective identification with the organization

Subordinate knowledge and skills

Level and diversity of team member skills

Human capital and employee talent

Role specialization for subordinate

Role specialization in the team or department

Differentiation among subunits of the organization

Subordinate self-efficacy and self-confidence

Collective efficacy or potency for the team

Shared optimism and hope among organization members

Subordinate autonomy and empowerment

Team or unit autonomy and empowerment

Decentralization and power sharing in the organization

Creativity and learning by individual subordinates

Creative problem solving, collective learning by team

Organizational learning, and innovation

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Ways to Improve Leadership Research (1 of 3) 1. Qualitative Versus Quantitative Methods 2. Survey Studies Versus Experiments 3. Level of Analysis 4. Limitations in Behavior Studies 5. Other Methodological issues

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Ways to Improve Leadership Research (2 of 3) Table 15.2 Common and Uncommon Features in Leadership Studies Feature

Common

Uncommon

Type of research method Research objective Level of processes Time frame Causality Criterion variables Mediating variables Data sources Sample Level of leader

Survey study Replication Individual or dyadic Short-term Unidirectional One or two Few or none Single Convenience Supervisor

Experiment, or multiple methods Explore new issues Group or organizational Longitudinal Reciprocal Several Several Multiple Systematic selection Executive

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Ways to Improve Leadership Research (3 of 3) 1. Summary of Research Limitations 1. Even though many different methods of collecting information and analyzing it are available, most of the leadership research during the past half century has relied on weak methods such as survey studies with questionnaires filled out by leaders or their subordinates at one point in time.

2. It is important to select methods that are appropriate for the type of knowledge sought, rather than merely using the most convenient methods.

3. The research question should dictate the methodology and choice of samples, not the other way around.

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General Guidelines for Effective Leadership 1. Help interpret the meaning of events.

2. Create alignment on objectives and strategies.

3. Build commitment and optimism.

4. Build mutual trust and cooperation.

5. Strengthen collective identity.

6. Organize and coordinate activities.

7. Encourage and facilitate collective learning.

8. Obtain necessary resources and support.

9. Develop and empower people.

10.Promote social justice and morality.

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The State of the Field 1. Progress in understanding leadership has been slower than expected from the large volume of publications and the immense amount of effort expended on leadership research.

2. Fortunately, in recent years there has been an increase in the richness of research questions and the variety of approaches used to study them, and the field appears to be undergoing an accelerating pace of discovery.

3. With such a vital subject, it is imperative that we continue to upgrade the quality of leadership research and theory.

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Copyright

This work is protected by United States copyright laws and is provided solely for the use of instructors in teaching their courses and assessing student learning. Dissemination or sale of any part of this work (including on the World Wide Web) will destroy the integrity of the work and is not permitted. The work and materials from it should never be made available to students except by instructors using the accompanying text in their classes. All recipients of this work are expected to abide by these restrictions and to honor the intended pedagogical purposes and the needs of other instructors who rely on these materials.

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