Journey of Adulthood, 8E Barbara R Bjorklund Solution Manual

INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCE MANUAL Melanie M. Arpaio Sussex County Community College

TEST BANK Julie McIntyre Russell Sage College

THE JOURNEY OF ADULTHOOD EIGHTH EDITION Barbara R. Bjorklund Florida Atlantic University

Table of Contents Introduction to Adult Development

1

Physical Changes

22

Health and Health Disorders

51

Cognitive Abilities

68

Social Roles

86

Social Relationships

104

Work and Retirement

120

Personality

136

The Quest for Meaning

154

Stress, Coping, and Resilience

169

Death and Bereavement

185

The Successful Journey

199

..

iii

INTRODUCTION This manual is intended to serve as a resource for instructors who are using Bjorklund’s The Journey of Adulthood (8th ed.). This edition draws some material from an earlier edition, which was developed by Ralph Brockett and Susan Stockdale. I would like to thank those authors for setting the groundwork for the 6th edition Instructor’s Resource Manual, which was the first one I authored. The manual consists of two parts: the main Instructor’s Resource Manual, which will provide supplemental information you can use in your teaching practice; and a Test Item File (Test Bank), consisting of multiple choice, true/false, short answer, and essay questions for relevant assessment of student learning. Each chapter is organized as follows: ❖ Chapter Outline: an outline of each chapter, including major headings and subheadings; tertiary headings have been added to this edition to provide greater depth ❖ Bookshelf: a list of general resources, with an introductory comment, that will supplement or expand on ideas presented in the text; interestingly, some of these books are available in (or only in) electronic e-reader versions, adding emphasis to the author’s writings about how technology is affecting our adult lives ❖ Topics for Discussion or Review: topics that may need further elaboration, or may offer interesting issues or perspectives extending beyond what is presented in the text; this book has vastly changed and expanded from the last edition ❖ Selected References: a list of references cited in each chapter of this manual ❖ Selected Key Terms and Definitions: a concise list of key terms from each chapter, with definitions corresponding to their use in the textbook Throughout this Instructor’s Resource Manual, I have offered suggestions on how you might engage your students in deeper discussion on various topics. I do not intend to suggest to you how you should structure your presentation of any given topic; we all have different teaching styles, and our students learn in a variety of ways. The ideas I present are on a wide range of topics from each chapter; pick and choose those you believe will enhance your own teaching methodology.

USING THE TEXT This text can be used in either a semester-long or quarter-long course, and the length of the book (and number of distinct chapters) lends itself appropriately to either a semester or a quarter.

Certain chapters work well when combined and covered during the same week. Chapters 2 and 3, for instance, cover Physical Changes and Health & Health Disorders; Chapters 5 and 6 cover Social Roles and Social Relationships; Chapters 8 and 9, covering Personality and The Quest for Meaning, also work well when presented in conjunction with one another. These are only suggestions. You may want to structure the assignments around how you prefer to cover the course material.

ABOUT THE CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS The textbook includes a set of critical thinking questions in sidebars throughout the margins of each chapter. The major purpose of these questions is to encourage students to think actively ..

iv

about what they have read; this is a process that educators know will increase learning. You might also use these questions in a number of different ways, including: • • • • •

You could recommend to your students that they do the mental exercises suggested.

You could assign some of these questions as written exercises each week.

You could use some of the questions as the basis for discussions in class, either in small or large groups.

You could use these questions as a research tool, asking students to find popular publication articles of current relevance to add to in-class discussions.

You could use these critical thinking questions in online discussions, if your class utilizes a web-based instructional tool.

In any case, the critical thinking questions are intended to help students pull together main ideas and to raise questions in their own minds about the concepts presented in the text.

GENERAL BOOKSHELF Literature on adult development and aging has proliferated and become increasingly specialized.

You will have little trouble finding both scholarly and popular treatments of most topics to supplement material covered in the text. Here are a few general books that I especially recommend: Binstock, R. H., George, L. K., Cutler, S. J., Hendricks, J., & Schulz, J. H. (Eds.) (2006).

Handbook of aging and the social sciences (6th ed.). San Diego: Academic Press.

Birren, J. E., & Schaie, K. W. (Eds.) (2005). Handbook of the psychology of aging (6th ed.). San Diego: Academic Press.

Dulmus, C. N., & Rapp-Paglicci, L. A. (Eds.) (2005). Handbook of preventive interventions for adults. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hulbert, K. D., & Schuster, D. T. (Eds.) (1993). Women’s lives through time: Educated American women of the twentieth century. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

This is an intriguing collection of papers about longitudinal studies of women. This volume includes a report on the Terman study of women, the Mills College study, and a whole range of other data sets. The book is organized by cohort studied, and includes a number of reasonably recent groups with whom your students might feel some kinship. Virtually all the samples described are college women, so these are not nationally representative groups.

Hurd, H. (2010). Facing age: Women growing older in an anti-aging culture. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

Mackenzie, E. R., & Rakel, B. (Eds.) (2006). Complementary and alternative medicine for older adults: Holistic approaches to healthy aging. New York: Springer.

..

v

Masoro, E., & Austed, S. (Eds.) (2010). Handbook of the biology of aging (7th ed.). San Diego: Academic Press.

Turner, B. F., & Troll, L. E. (Eds.) (1994). Women growing older. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

This book contains an excellent collection of chapters, focused on women, but touching on many universal issues. The text includes yet another paper

by Helson on the Mills College study, and papers by Turner, Troll, Labouvie-Vief, and Huyck.

Vaillant, G. E. (2003). Aging well: Surprising guideposts to a happier life from the landmark Harvard study of adult development. Boston: Little, Brown & Co. The theorist responsible for an aging theory related to adaptation, Vaillant details several longitudinal studies of adult development conducted at and through Harvard University. Based on three research projects that followed participants from their adolescence into old age, Vaillant concludes that healthy aging is primarily dependent upon choices such as moderate exercise, healthy diet, and a lifestyle that shuns alcohol, tobacco, and drug abuse.

Weil, A. (2007). Healthy aging: A lifelong guide to your physical and spiritual well-being. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf.

Scientifically grounded, this book offers a plethora of factual information about the aging process and the use of spirituality and complementary medicine to help readers accept the aging process as a natural part of life.

Spiritualism becomes an integral part of life as we grow older and seek meaning; Weil’s book will offer supplementary information that can be easily integrated into your coursework.

..

vi

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO ADULT DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER OUTLINE • •

•

•

• •

Basic Concepts in Adult Development Sources of Change o Normative Age-Graded Influences o Biology ▪ Biological Clock o Shared Experiences ▪ Social Clock ▪ Ageism o Internal Change Processes o Normative History-Graded Influences ▪ Culture o Nonnormative Life Events Sources of Stability o Genetics ▪ Behavior Genetics ▪ Twin Studies o Environment o Interactionist View ▪ Epigenetic inheritance A Word about “Age” o Chronological Age o Biological Age o Psychological Age o Social Age o Functional Age Setting the Course: Some Guiding Perspectives o Life-Span Developmental Psychology Approach o Bioecological Model of Development Developmental Research o Methods ▪ Cross-Sectional Study ▪ Longitudinal Study ▪ Sequential Study o Measures ▪ Personal Interview ▪ Survey Questionnaire ▪ Standardized Tests o Analyses ▪ Comparison of Means ▪ Correlational Analysis ▪ Meta-analysis o Designs ▪ Experimental Design ..

1

• • • •

▪ Descriptive Research ▪ Qualitative Research ▪ Quantitative Research A Final Word Summary Key Terms Suggested Reading

BOOKSHELF Several scholarly research articles are mentioned in the text as exemplars of the different research methodologies. I list these here as resources toward which you can direct your students.

Cross-Sectional Cleary, P. D., Zaborski, L. B., & Ayanian, J. Z. (2004). Sex differences in health over the course of midlife. In O. G. Brim, C. D. Ryff, & R. C. Kessler (Eds.), How healthy are we?: A national study of well-being at midlife (pp. 37–63). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Longitudinal Galambos, N. L., Barker, E. T., & Krahn, H. J. (2006). Depression, self-esteem, and anger in emerging adulthood: Seven-year trajectories. Developmental Psychology, 42(2), 350–365.

Sequential Whitbourne, S. K., Zuschlag, M. K., Elliot, L. B. & Waterman, A. S. (1992). Psychosocial development in adulthood: A 22-year sequential study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63(2), 260–271.

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION OR REVIEW First chapters always include many topics that require review. At a minimum, it will be important to go over the following topics in this opening chapter: ❖ Cross-sectional versus Longitudinal Designs. Discuss the pros and cons of each. In particular, students tend to have trouble understanding what selective attrition does to results. Two additional problems with longitudinal research may be worth some discussion: 1) Repeated measurement of the same individuals creates some difficulty. The very fact that a person has answered these questions before, or taken this cognitive test before, alters the responses to some degree. 2) Research agendas change over time. When you begin a study, you naturally measure the things you think are important and interesting, using the best techniques available at that time. However, ten or twenty years later, you may wish that you had measured something differently, or used a different instrument. Wouldn't it be wonderful, for example, if we had data on attachment security status for the Mills College sample, or for the Grant study men, or for any of the other long-term longitudinal samples? Because this is such a problem, many people involved in long-term studies have moved to the use of Q-sorts or expert ratings in reanalyzing their data. It is a way to try to use whatever one has and convert it into something of interest today. ..

2

❖ Sequential Designs. Pages 22 and 23 of the textbook, Figures 1.5 and 1.6 (shown below), provides graphical explanation of the Whitbourne, Zuschlag, Elliot, & Waterman (1992) study.

Figure 1.5 Model of a sequential study in which two cohorts were followed beginning at age twenty. One cohort was followed for twenty years, the other for eleven years. Note ages and number of participants (N). Source: Adapted from Whitbourne, Zuschlag, Elliot, et al., (1992).

Figure 1.6 Results from sequential study of two cohorts tested at three ages and at three different points in time. Comparing longitudinal results, Cohort 1 shows a sharper increase in industry scores between twenty and thirty-one years of age than does Cohort 2, though both have similar scores at age thirty-one. Crosssectional results suggest that the normative history-graded influences (Vietnam War, Civil Rights issues) lowered the young adults’ scores in 1966.

Source: Adapted from Whitbourne, Zuschlag, Elliot, et al., (1992). ❖ Social Clock and Biological Clock. These concepts are not difficult, but it is worth your while to give some further examples. What is the social clock for today’s cohort of twenty-yearolds? How does that compare to the social clock of those who turned twenty in 1950? In the latter case, for instance, the age of marriage was typically younger, and the number of children was higher. ❖ Ageism. One topic that is briefly included in this first chapter is ageism. A book by Palmore (1990) would be very helpful here. He emphasizes that there are both negative and positive elements of ageism. On the negative side are prejudices toward or discrimination against the elderly simply because they are old; some of these come from simple misinformation. It might be helpful to use Palmore’s (1988) Facts on Aging Quiz here, in order to give students some sense of what misconceptions they may have about aging. This quiz is reproduced below (with permission of the publisher) so that you might copy it and use it in class. Scoring the quiz is simple: alternating pairs of items are true or false. Items 1 and 2 are true, 3 and 4 are false, 5 and 6 are true, and so forth. Item 25 is true. (Note: Item 21 has been altered to make it true according to 1990 census data.)

Ageism is often a part of our cultural belief systems. To the extent that we perceive the process of aging as one of decline, naturally we will perceive older adults as having already ..

3

declined. Most Western cultures appear to share such a belief. For example, a study by Heckhausen & Krueger (1993) in Germany shows that young, middle-aged, and older adults all expect desirable attributes to decline with age, and undesirable attributes to increase. The crossover point—the point at which these groups think the undesirable will exceed the desirable—is about age sixty. Interestingly, among the older adults in this study, the crossover point was somewhat later: about age seventy for their perception of their own attributes. Another culture, in which major increases in wisdom are attributed to the elderly, has a different social construction and a different set of beliefs about the process of aging.

In recent years, a kind of positive ageism has become a prominent theme in gerontological literature as well. Psychologists of this stripe, such as Paul Baltes (e.g., Baltes & Baltes, 1990), argue that most scientists have exaggerated the size of the declines in mental or physical functioning in old age. They point to the capacity for training and improvement for successful aging. In a previous edition of this manual, Helen Bee raised some concerns with this perspective: I have a lot of difficulty with this perspective, on a number of grounds.

First of all, I am convinced that there really is good evidence of real, inevitable, decline. To be sure, the decline is perhaps smaller than we thought 20 years ago, and begins later, but I think it is utter foolishness to talk as though there were no physical or mental change past the age of 70 or 75. Second, I greatly dislike the phrase “successful aging,” because it carries with it the implication that if one is not happy, healthy, and active until death, one has somehow “failed” to age “correctly.” Perhaps we might speak of optimal aging, thereby conveying the impression, which I think is correct, that there are certain conditions that delay the onset of losses, or reduce the rate of loss. And some of those conditions are in the partial control of the individual.

It is important to talk about these issues in your early lectures, trying in the process to sensitize your students to their own beliefs about the process of aging. It might then be good to come back to these questions in your final lecture(s) to see if the students’ attitudes have changed as a result of what they have learned in the class. ❖ Normative vs Nonnormative Influences and Life Events. One suggestion which allows students to explore the difference between these is to have students write two “journal” entries. One would be written from the perspective of a person experiencing a life change that is normative; the other would be from the perspective of an individual who is experiencing a nonnormative life event. After writing the entries, ask students to compare and contrast the two, using “what if” scenarios to explore alternate outcomes. ❖ Various Ways to Define “Age”. A fun in-class assignment for helping students understand the difference between chronological, biological, psychological, social, and functional age is to provide small groups with a vignette in which various fictitious family members (of varying “ages”) interact in a scenario. Have the groups work together to label each fictitious family member according to two or more types of “age,” and then have each group share with the class. ❖ Research Methods. A logical, hands-on way that enables students to understand the pros and cons of the three main research methods is to engage the entire class in the creation of mock experiments using each of the three methods: cross-sectional, longitudinal, and sequential. ..

4

The pros will be evident, and the cons will emerge when discussing confounding variables that affect the mock outcomes.

SELECTED REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER ONE Colcombe, S. J., & Kramer, A. F. (2003). Fitness effects on the cognitive function of older adults.

Psychological Science, 14, 125–130.

Friedman, H. S., & Martin, L. R. (2012). The longevity project:Surprising discoveries for health and long life from the landmark eight-decade study. New York: Plume.

Galambos, N. L., Barker, E. T., & Krahn, H. J. (2006). Depression, self-esteem, and anger in emerging adulthood: Seven-year trajectories. Developmental Psychology, 42(2), 350–365.

Neugarten, B. L. (1979). Time, age and the life cycle. American Journal of Psychiatry, 136, 887– 894.

Whitbourne, S. K., Zuschlag, M. K., Elliot, L. B. & Waterman, A. S. (1992). Psychosocial development in adulthood: A 22-year sequential study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63(2), 260–271.

SELECTED KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS FOR CHAPTER ONE Ageism: a type of discrimination in which opinions are formed and decisions are made about others based solely on the fact that they are in a particular age group Bioecological model: the approach that states that development must take place within biological, psychological, and social contexts that change over time, and that these various influences are in constant interaction Biological age: a measure of how an adult’s physical condition compares with others Cross-sectional study: a study that is based on data gathered at one time from groups of participants who represent different age groups, in which each subject is measured or tested only once Descriptive research: a type of research that aims to tell the current state of the participants on some measure of interest Developmental psychology: the field of study that deals with the behavior, thoughts, and emotions of individuals as they go through various parts of the life span Epigenetic inheritance: the process by which the genes one receives at conception are modified by subsequent environmental events that occur during the prenatal period and throughout the life span Functional age: the measure of how well a person is functioning as an adult compared to others

..

5

Interactionist view: the viewpoint in which one’s genetic traits determine how one interacts with the environment Life-span developmental psychology approach: the approach that states development is lifelong, multidimensional, plastic, contextual, and has multiple causes Longitudinal study: a study in which a researcher follows the same group of people over a period of time, taking measurements of some behavior of interest at regular intervals Normative age-graded influences: influences that are linked to age and experienced by most adults of every generation as they grow older Normative history-graded influences: experiences that result from historical events or conditions Psychological age: the measure of how an adult’s ability to deal effectively with the environment compares to others Qualitative research: the type of research that includes case studies, interviews, participant observations, direct observations, and exploring documents, artifacts, and archival records Sequential study: a study in which a series of longitudinal studies are begun at different points in time Social age: the expected roles a person takes on at specific points in his or her life

..

6

FACTS ON AGING QUIZ Mark each item as “T” for true or “F” for false.

(See “ageism” on page 3 for scoring.)

1. A person’s height tends to decline in old age.

2. More older persons (over 65) have chronic illnesses that limit their activity than younger persons.

3. Older persons have more acute (short-term) illness than persons under 65.

4. Older persons have more injuries in the home than persons under 65.

5. Older workers have less absenteeism than younger workers.

6. The life expectancy of blacks at age 65 is about the same as whites.

7. The life expectancy of men at age 65 is about the same as women.

8. Medicare pays over half of the medical expenses for the aged.

9. Social Security benefits automatically increase with inflation.

10. Supplemental Security income guarantees a minimum income for needy aged.

11. The aged do not get their proportionate share of the nation’s income.

12. The aged have higher rates of criminal victimization than persons under 65.

13. The aged are more fearful of crime than are persons under 65.

14. The aged are the most law-abiding of all adult groups according to official statistics.

15. There are two widows for each widower among the aged.

16. More of the aged vote than any other age group.

17. There are proportionately more older persons in public office than in the total population.

18. The proportion of blacks among the aged is growing.

19. Participation in voluntary organizations (churches and clubs) tends to decline among the healthy aged.

20. The majority of the aged live alone.

21. A smaller percentage of the elderly live below the poverty line than do those younger than 65.

22. The rate of poverty among aged blacks is about three times as high as among aged whites. ..

7

23. Older persons who reduce their activity tend to be happier than those who remain active.

24. When the last child leaves home, the majority of parents have serious problems adjusting to their “empty nest.”

25. The proportion widowed is decreasing among the aged.

..

8

Test Bank Chapter 1 QUICK QUIZ 1-1. (factual-5-6) In explaining adult development, psychologists must ______. a. explain both changes with age and continuities b. focus primarily on explaining changes with age c. focus primarily on explaining continuities with age d. deal most centrally with individual differences in responses to life problems 1-2. (applied-7-8) Which of the following timing/experience combinations would be likely to create the LEAST stress and disruption, according to the shared experience/social clock model? a. the death of your father when you are 60 years old b. retirement because of ill health at age 50 c. being fired from your job when you are 40 years old d. becoming a parent for the first time when you are 16 years old 1-3. (conceptual-7-8) In U.S. culture, adults in their early 20s are expected to marry, start families, establish themselves in jobs or careers, and settle themselves in separate households; 45-year-olds are expected to be launching their children into independence, to be reaching the peak of their careers, and to be caring for their own aging parents. Such expectations illustrate which concept? a. cohorts b. generations c. shared experiences d. cross-sectional comparisons 1-4. (factual-8–9) Which of the following groups would be described as a “cohort”? a. all adults presently with middle-class jobs b. all unemployed adults c. all adults who exercise regularly d. all adults born between 1970 and 1975 1-5. (factual-9) Which of the following is a common characteristic of U.S. adults who were young children during the Great Depression of the 1930s, according to Elder’s research? a. negative effects in adulthood b. a large number of children c. stable careers d. late marriage 1-6. (conceptual-19-20) Which of the following is a major argument in favor of cross-sectional research designs in the study of adulthood? a. They allow researchers to collect information about age differences on some variable quite rapidly. b. They allow researchers to answer questions about individual continuity over time. c. They unconfound age and cohort. d. They clarify the relationship between age and family life cycle. ..

9

1-7. (factual-19-23) Of the following research methods, select the one that studies the same subjects over a period of time, observing whether their responses remain the same or change in systematic ways? a. sequential b. experimental c. cross-sectional d. longitudinal 1-8. (applied-18-20) If a researcher interviews a group of 20-year-olds, a group of 40-year-olds, and a group of 60-year-olds about their gender role attitudes, this would be an example of which sort of research design? a. cross-sectional b. longitudinal c. time-sequential d. sequential 1-9. (factual-24) A good standardized test has validity, which means_______. a. it measures what it claims to measure b. it measures results consistently c. it provides a comparison of means d. it provides a solid positive correlation 1-10. (conceptual-27-29) Which of the following research designs would be the least useful when using a sample population of a typical college freshman class to make comparisons of preretirement and postretirement exercise regimen on positive outlooks? a. experimental design b. quasi-experimental design c. correlational design d. surveys

..

10

ANSWER KEY: Chapter 1 QUICK QUIZ 1. Answer: a Page in text: 5-6 Topic: Basic Concepts in Adult Development Question type: factual; Difficulty level: moderate 2. Answer: a Page in text: 7-8 Topic: Sources of Change Question type: applied; Difficulty level: moderate 3. Answer: c Page in text: 7-8 Topic: Sources of Change Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: difficult 4. Answer: d Page in text: 8–9 Topic: Sources of Change Question type: factual; Difficulty level: easy 5. Answer: a Page in text: 9 Topic: Sources of Change Question type: factual; Difficulty level: moderate 6. Answer: a Page in text: 19-20 Topic: Developmental Research Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: moderate 7. Answer: d Page in text: 19-23 Topic: Developmental Research Question type: factual; Difficulty level: easy 8. Answer: a Page in text: 18-20 Topic: Developmental Research Question type: applied; Difficulty level: easy 9. Answer: a Page in text: 24 Topic: Developmental Research Question type: factual; Difficulty level: easy 10. Answer: a Page in text: 27-29 Topic: Developmental Research Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: moderate ..

11

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO ADULT DEVELOPMENT MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1-1. (factual-4) According to the text, emerging adulthood begins in the age decade of _______. *a. the 20s b. the 30s c. the 40s d. the 50s 1-2. (factual-5-6) In explaining adult development, psychologists must ______. *a. explain both changes with age and continuities b. focus primarily on explaining changes with age c. focus primarily on explaining continuities with age d. deal most centrally with individual differences in responses to life problems 1-3. (conceptual-7-8) According to the theory about the impact of the social clock of adult life events, which of the following individual patterns is associated with the most upheaval or disruption or personal difficulty—at least for current cohorts? *a. having your parents both die when you are in your 20s b. having a first child at age 30 c. receiving your last work promotion at age 40 d. retiring at age 65 1-4. (conceptual-7) Biologically influenced changes in adulthood occur _______. a. at the same age in all adults *b. at varied ages but in a similar sequence c. at varied ages and in varied sequences d. at the same age and in the same sequence 1-5. (conceptual-7) Which shared developmental change is most likely to be universal? a. retirement at age 65 b. negative ageism *c. reduced muscle mass in old age d. young adults leaving home at age 18 1-6. (applied-7-8) Which of the following timing/experience combinations would be likely to create the LEAST stress and disruption, according to the shared experiential/social clock model? *a. the death of your father when you are 60 years old b. retirement because of ill health at age 50 c. being fired from your job when you are 40 years old d. becoming a parent for the first time when you are 16 years old

1-7. (conceptual-7) Which of the following is an example of a potential shared, “agegraded” change in adulthood?

..

12

*a. a loss of fitness (e.g., aerobic capacity) beginning in the 30s and 40s and continuing into old age b. a decrease in the frequency of contact with siblings between middle age and old age c. a lower average number of years of education among current 25-year-olds than among current 65-year-olds d. a lesser susceptibility to disease among current 65-year-olds than among current 30year-olds 1-8. (factual-7) Experiences linked to age and occurring with most adults are called _______. a. tribalizations *b. normative age-graded influences c. age periods d. cohorts 1-9. (conceptual-7-8) In U.S. culture, adults in their early 20s are expected to marry, start families, establish themselves in their jobs or careers, and settle into separate households; 45year-olds are expected to be launching their children into independence, to be reaching the peak of their careers, and to be caring for their own aging parents. Such expectations illustrate which concept? a. cohorts b. generations *c. shared experiences d. cross-sectional comparisons 1-10. (factual-7–10) Which is NOT a major category of influence that helps to explain both the ways we tend to be alike and the ways we tend to be different in our adult journeys? *a. biologically influenced change b. unique experiences c. cultural-cohort effects d. shared, age-graded change 1-11. (factual-8) What is the term used to describe large social environments where development takes place? a. cohorts b. generations *c. cultures d. age periods 1-12. (factual-18, 23-24) One of the most common instruments to gather data is a personal interview. Which of the following questions/statements might a researcher ask in a structured interview? a. If you could have the perfect job, what would it be? b. Describe a time when you communicated some unpleasant news or feelings to a friend.

What happened? *c. Would your spouse describe you as a warm fuzzy or a cold prickly? d. Think of a day when you had many things to do and describe how you scheduled your time.

1-13. (conceptual-8–10) For which of the following cross-sectional research findings would you be MOST likely to suspect a “cohort effect” as the primary explanation? a. lower bone density among 70-year-olds than among 35-year-olds ..

13

b. faster recall of lists of words by 20-year-olds than by 60-year-olds *c. higher percentage of blue-collar workers among 50-year-olds than among 30-yearolds d. a lower rate of marital satisfaction among couples in their 30s than among couples in their 50s 1-14. (factual-8–9) Which of the following groups would be described as a “cohort”? a. all adults presently with middle-class jobs b. all unemployed adults c. all adults who exercise regularly *d. all adults born between 1970 and 1975 1-15. (factual-8–9) Which of the following groups would be described as a “cohort”? a. everyone who was once a preschooler with a working mother *b. everyone born during the Great Depression of the 1930s c. everyone in whose mother was named Anna d. everyone who lives in the western hemisphere 1-16. (factual-9) Which of the following is a common characteristic of U.S. adults who were young children during the Great Depression of the 1930’s, according to Elder’s research? *a. negative effects in adulthood b. a large number of children c. stable careers d. late marriage 1-17. (applied-10) Which of the following scenarios is MOST likely a nonnormative life event? a. A couple in their 20s first marry then have a child. b. A grandfather of two retires at age 65. *c. Two nursing home residents marry at ages 80 and 82. d. A young woman graduates with a bachelor’s degree at age 22.

1-18. (factual-12) Which of the following is a major research technique used in “behavior genetics”? a. comparisons of individuals from different ethnic groups *b. comparisons of identical and fraternal twins c. comparisons of young and old subjects d. comparisons of males and females 1-19. (conceptual-17–21) If I want to know whether IQ scores tend to remain constant in individuals over the adult years, which of the following research designs should I use to study the question? *a. longitudinal b. experimental c. a survey questionnaire d. qualitative 1-20. (applied-18-20) If a researcher interviews a group of 20-year-olds, a group of 40-year-olds, and a group of 60-year-olds about their gender role attitudes at one point in time, this would be an example of which sort of research design? *a. cross-sectional b. longitudinal ..

14

c. time-sequential d. cross-sequential 1-21. (factual-18-20) The large-scale research project known as the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) National Survey included questions pertaining to personal health that was sent out to 7000 participants between the ages of 25 and 74. This type of study in which data is gathered at one time from groups of participants who represent different age groups is an example of what general type of research design? *a. cross-sectional b. longitudinal c. sequential d. panel 1-22. (factual-18-20) When researchers compare the behavior or responses of adults in different phases of the family life cycle, this is most like which type of research design? *a. cross-sectional b. sequential c. longitudinal d. correlational 1-23 (factual-18-20) Of the following research methods, select the one that studies the same subjects over a period of time, observing whether their responses remain the same or change in systematic ways? a. sequential b. experimental c. cross-sectional *d. longitudinal 1-24. (applied-18–20) After doing a large-scale cross-sectional study, a researcher finds that each successively older group does slightly less well on a test of memory for 10-digit telephone numbers. Which of the following is the best interpretation of this result? *a. A basic biological change underlies the observed steady reduction of memory skill. b. The differences can be explained by gender of the participants. c. The difference has nothing to do with practice of memory skills. d. No interpretation can be made using this result.

1-25. (factual-20) If, every five years, I study the gender-role attitudes of the same group of individuals, this would be an example of what kind of research design? a. cross-sectional b. sequential *c. longitudinal d. correlational 1-26. (conceptual-19). Some cross-sectional studies do not use age groups. Instead, they use stages in life. Which cross-sectional study would be the most suitable using stages in life? *a. comparing young couples without children to couples who have already had their first child to see the effects of parenthood on marriage b. comparing answers to survey questions from men and women aged 35–44 years old c. comparing a freshman and senior high school student grade point average and athletic ability d. comparing twins’ personality inventories every five years ..

15

1-27. (applied-16) Although Alex’s biological mother used crack cocaine during her pregnancy, Alex was adopted at birth into a loving home with parents who did the best that they could to give her every opportunity possible. She ended up graduating from high school and is now beginning a culinary program at a local community college. Alex’s scenario best exemplifies: a. contextualism. *b. plasticity. c. normative history-graded influences. d. the multidisciplinary nature of development.

1-28. (factual-20) If I select one sample of 30-year-olds and follow them over a decade, interviewing or testing them repeatedly, this would be an example of what kind of research design? a. cross-sectional b. sequential *c. longitudinal d. correlational 1-29. (conceptual-20) Which of the following is a major argument AGAINST the use of crosssectional research designs in studying adult development? a. They require too much time to collect data. b. They typically involve non-representative samples. *c. They confound age and cohort. d. They do not allow comparisons of sub-groups, such as middle-class and working-class, or black and white.

1-30. (factual-20) If a researcher begins a study of a group of 20-year-olds and then a few years later continues the study on the same group, this would be an example of what type of research design? a. cross-sectional b. time-sequential *c. longitudinal d. cohort-sequential 1-31. (applied-19-20) Using a standard treadmill test, I observe that today’s 30-year-olds are more aerobically fit than are today’s 60-year-olds. Which of the following is the LEAST plausible explanation of this observation? a. Fitness is more highly valued in today’s society, so the younger cohort exercises more regularly than the older cohort does now or did when they were 30. b. In U.S. society, jobs and lifestyles become more and more sedentary as adults get older. The observed difference thus reflects a genuine change with age, but not an inevitable one. c. Inevitable physical changes associated with basic biological aging lie behind the observed difference. *d. It is more difficult to test the aerobic capacity of 60-year-olds, so the findings are probably misleading.

1-32. (conceptual-20) A researcher finds in a longitudinal study that her subjects are significantly more open to new experiences at age 50 than they were at 30. This change most likely reflects _______.

a. a cohort difference b. the classic nature nurture dichotomy ..

16

*c. a developmental change d. attrition 1-33. (conceptual-22) If I want to know whether successive cohorts show the same pattern of decline in frequency of close friendships in their 30s, which research design should I use? a. time-lag *b. sequential c. longitudinal d. cross-sectional 1-34. (conceptual-20-22) What would be the very best research design to determine whether middle-aged adults are really more psychologically “mature” than young adults? a. a longitudinal design, with a large representative sample studied from 20 to 45 b. a cross-sectional study in which a large, representative sample of adults of each age from 20 to 45 (e.g., 20-year-olds, 25-year-olds, etc.) is studied once c. the same cross-sectional design as in b, but repeated at 10-year intervals *d. a sequential design in which each age interval is studied longitudinally in more than one cohort 1-35. (factual-21) A researcher selects a sample of 65-year-olds and interviews and tests them every two years for 14 years. Over these years, some of the subjects die or drop out of the study. This phenomenon is referred to as _______. *a. attrition b. terminal drop c. longitudinal loss d. selective bias 1-36. (factual-20) If I were to select a sample of 30-year-olds, another sample of 40-year-olds, and a third sample of 50-year-olds, test or interview them once, and then test or interview them again 10 years later, this would be an example of what kind of research design? a. cross-sectional *b. sequential c. longitudinal d. correlational 1-37. (factual-22) A sequential research design _______. a. is more commonly used than cross-sectional designs because they take less time *b. includes two or more longitudinal comparisons taken at different times c. is carried out at one point in time d. includes one cohort studied over time 1-38. (applied -19-20) Which of the following scenarios best represents a cross-sectional research design? *a. A study examines individual political views across a life span. The researcher’s hypothesis is that as individuals age, they become more conservative. The researcher randomly selects a sample from various age cohorts, to examine their political views on capital punishment, immigration, and federal spending. b. A study examines individual political views across a life span. The researcher’s hypothesis is that as individual’s age, they become more conservative. The researcher randomly selects a sample from selected high school population and follows them for 50 years. ..

17

c. A study examines the relationship of individual political views and the amount of education they have completed. The researcher’s hypothesis is that there is a positive relationship between education and liberal political views. d. A study examines how individual political views change between 1981–1991 and 2001–2011.

1-39. (applied-25) Suppose I am interested in knowing whether adults who are very introverted at age 20 are still highly introverted at age 50. Which of the following statistical analyses will I be most likely to use? a. a comparison of average introversion scores for a sample of adults aged 20 and another sample aged 50 b. a comparison of average introversion scores at age 20 and age 50 for the same adults assessed longitudinally c. an analysis of the average amount in introversion between any two measurements of the same people over time *d. a calculation of the correlation between scores on the key variable at two time points in a group of subjects studied longitudinally between age 20 and age 50 1-40. (factual-25) Which of the following correlation coefficients shows the strongest relationship between the two variables entered into the correlation? a. –.35 b. +.70 *c. – 82 d. +.55 1-41. (applied-25) Three groups of males take a timed reaction test. All the males in Group 1 are aged 20. The males in Group 2 are all aged 40. The males in the last group (Group 3) are all aged 60. The statistic reported to describe the differences in reaction times between groups is each group’s mean score. However, this mean score does NOT identify _______. a. which group has the fastest reaction times b. a trend for reaction times based on age *c. any individual’s reaction time d. the group that would include the best candidates for a job requiring excellent reaction times 1-42. (applied-25) There is a significant positive correlation between IQ scores and academic performance (grades). Given this statistic, we can reasonably conclude that _______. a. low IQ scores and low grades are not at all related *b. high IQ scores are a predictor of good grades c. high IQ scores are the only established cause of high grades d. low IQ scores are a result of neglectful parenting.

1-43. (applied-7–10, 19–20) Suppose a researcher, using a cross-sectional design, finds that the incidence of depression is highest among young adults and lowest among the elderly. Which of the following is a possible valid interpretation of this result? a. It reflects a basic, shared biological change with age. b. It reflects a shared, “age-graded” change resulting from common adult tasks and family life cycles. c. It reflects cohort differences; current young adults experience more stress than the previous generation did. ..

18

*d. any of the above.

1-44. (applied-27) Dr. Schwebel combined data from 30 studies to examine the link between optimism and health. This is an example of a(n): *a. meta-analysis b. quasi-experimental design c. experiment d. survey

..

19

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1-45. What is a meta-analysis and why would a researcher choose to do it?

1-46. A researcher reports that adults in their forties have fewer close friends than do adults in their twenties. List briefly at least two (three if you can manage it) broad types of explanations for this finding.

1-47. Describe and discuss at least two categories of shared, age-graded experiences that can shape adult development.

1-48. Briefly describe two of the significant problems with longitudinal design.

1-49. There are at least three factors or processes that produce age-graded changes. Briefly list and describe them.

ESSAY QUESTIONS 1-50. Explain briefly why differences in the average level of education between older and younger adults might affect our interpretation of age differences in such variables as intellectual performance or work satisfaction.

1-51. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of cross-sectional and longitudinal research designs.

1-52. Suppose you wanted to know whether adults become more religious in their forties and fifties than they were at earlier adult ages. Briefly describe a study you would design to answer this question.

1-53. Describe two different types of sequential research designs and give an example of each— either an example of an actual study, or one you make up.

1-54. Design an experiment to test the proposition that older adults gain less (learn less in a given amount of time) from training in some new skill than do younger adults.

1-55. What are the advantages of a sequential study compared to a cross-sectional study?

1-56. How can we tell the difference between a cohort effect and a genuine developmental pattern? What kind of evidence do we need to make the distinction?

1-57. Describe the major adult age strata present in U.S. culture, and describe the major expectations and responsibilities associated with each stratum.

1-58. Describe the difference between shared and non-shared events. Include examples of each.

1-59. Explore the concepts of individual difference in terms of stability and change, using either an example from your family or one that you make up from imagination, providing definitions in your own words and applied examples.

..

20

1-60. Give an example of a research question that you think would lend itself best to a qualitative approach. Explain why you might want to use this type of analysis rather than a quantitative analysis.

1-61. Evaluate the impact of stability and change during your developmental process. Explain, with at least one example each, how the concept of change and stability manifest in your life, and whether you envision a stable theme throughout your life.

1-62. Explain in what ways a person’s social age will impact his or her activity level in public places if his or her chronological age is between 60–70 years old. Provide an example that illustrates this impact.

..

21

CHAPTER 2 PHYSICAL CHANGES CHAPTER OUTLINE •

•

•

•

• •

Theories of Primary Aging o Oxidative Damage ▪ Free Radicals ▪ Antioxidants o Genetic Limits ▪ Replicative Senescence ▪ Hayflick Limit ▪ Telomeres o Caloric Restriction o A Word on Theories of Primary Aging Physical Changes during Adulthood o Outward Appearance ▪ Weigh and Body Composition ▪ Skin and Hair o The Senses ▪ Vision ▪ Hearing ▪ Taste and Smell o Bones and Muscles ▪ Osteoporosis ▪ Osteoarthritis o Cardiovascular and Respiratory Systems o Brain and Nervous System ▪ Neurogenesis o Immune System ▪ B Cells ▪ T Cells o Hormonal System ▪ Climacteric Changes in Physical Behavior o Athletic Abilities o Stamina, Dexterity, and Balance o Sleep ▪ Sleep Apnea ▪ Insomnia o Sexual Activity ▪ Erectile Dysfunction ▪ Sexual Desire Individual Differences in Primary Aging o Genetics o Lifestyle o Race, Ethnicity, and Socioeconomic Group ▪ Food Deserts Can We “Turn Back the Clock” of Primary Aging?

An Overview of Physical Changes in Adulthood ..

22

• • •

Summary Key Terms Suggested Reading

Suggested Reading BOOKSHELF Doll, G. A. (2011). Sexuality & long-term care : Understanding and supporting the needs of older adults. Baltimore, MD: Health Professions Press.

This book addresses the very real need for information about how to respect the sexuality of elderly residents of long-term care facilities.

Edelman, S. (2010). Change your age: Using your body and brain to feel younger, stronger, and more fit. Cambridge, MA: De Capo Press.

Dr. Edelman is a psychologist who uses CBT as a self-help tool, and in this book encourages movement and exercise of the brain as a means to feel forever young.

Markides, K. S. & Miranda, M. (Eds.). (2007). Minorities, aging, and health. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

This text examines the needs of special populations among the elderly.

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION OR REVIEW ❖ Oxidative Damage and Aging. We cannot turn on the television or go to a grocery store without being bombarded with claims of “powerful antioxidant” properties. But do our students understand the concept of what free radicals are and what they do? An in-class review and discussion of the scholarly literature and scientific experimentation that demonstrates oxidative damage would help make the point in a meaningful manner. ❖ Theories of Primary Aging. The newer work on telomeres seems very exciting, as does the research on free radicals. Both lines of work offer at least the eventual possibility of genetic engineering to extend the life span still further. An interesting assignment is to have students research the moral and practical ramifications of extending the life span by 20 or 30 percent, in terms of overall health, socioeconomic status, support services, and relationships with family members. ❖ Sports and Aging. As our population ages and continues in relative good health, we are led to consider the motivation that older adults have for remaining physically active at an extreme, competitive level. Dionigi’s research (2006), published in the Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, investigates the motivation of older athletes in masters age groups, which can begin at age 30. The research focuses on those age 55 and older and calls attention to the need for further inquiry in this area. A corollary assignment is to ask students to interview an older adult who is physically active in some way – across a spectrum from daily walking to something as challenging as ice climbing – and ask them firsthand their motivation for engaging in their sport, and what the psychological benefits may be.

..

23

❖ Eyesight and Aging. Trying to convince students of the fragile and deteriorating condition of their own visual acuity is an amusing exercise. After all, aging is something affects the elderly. Table 2.3 on page 46 of the text lists the risk factors for the three main conditions that affect eyesight as we age.

Here’s a literal eye-opening exercise for your students: Have them pose two simple questions to friends and relatives across the aging spectrum (perhaps someone in each decade starting with the 30’s). The first question is: Has your eyesight worsened in the past ten years?

Second: Do you know anyone who has cataracts, glaucoma, or age-related macular degeneration? The answers will surprise them, and can lead to honest and engaging class discussion. ❖ Changes in Sexual Activity. Delameter and Moorman (2007) used AARP’s Modern Maturity Sexuality Survey to study the spectrum of sexual activity, and specifically looked at some of the factors involved in varying levels of activity, namely physical ability, sexual desire, and nontraditional ways of being sexually intimate. For younger college students, who don’t like to think that anyone over the age of 30 experiences sexual desire, this is a necessary conversation, though admittedly they will be resistant to engaging in sincere discussion about adult sexuality. Press on; it’s worth it. ❖ Socioeconomic Impact on Aging. As we concentrate more on issues of diversity, and attempt to insert diversity discussions into every course we teach, please engage your students in the important discussion about how different the aging process is for the population that is economically disadvantaged. What factors contribute to this disadvantage, and how does lower socioeconomic status affect health, lifestyle, and longevity?

SELECTED REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER TWO American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. (2011a). Retrieved May 5, 2012, from http://orthoinfo.aaos.org/topic.cfm?topic=A00389

..

24

American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. (2011b). Retrieved May 5, 2012, from http://orthoinfo.aaos.org/topic.cfm?topic=A00377 DeLamater, J., & Moorman, S. M. (2007). Sexual behavior in later life. Journal of Aging and Health, 19, 921–945.

Dionigi, R. (2006). Competitive Sport and Aging: The need for qualitative sociological research.

Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 14, 365-379.

Klempin, F., & Kempermann, G. (2007). Adult hippocampus neurogenesis and aging. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 257, 271–280.

Laumann, E. O., Das, A., & Waite, L. J. (2008). Sexual dysfunction among older adults: Prevalence and risk factors from a nationally representative sample of men and women 57–85 years of age. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 5, 2300–2311.

SELECTED KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS FOR CHAPTER TWO B cells: cells produced in bone marrow that make antibodies Body mass index (BMI): an evaluation of body composition which compares height to weight at a given age Climacteric: the reduction of hormones that results in loss of reproductive ability Cyclic GMP: a substance that is released by the brain during sexual arousal, allowing the penis to become engorged and erect by acting to increase blood flow to the penis Hayflick limit: number of divisions a species will undergo before reaching replicative senescence Macular degeneration: an age-related disorder of the retina, causing central vision loss Neurogenesis: growth of new neurons Osteoarthritis: a condition that occurs when the soft cartilage that covers the ends of the bones wears away with use and age Osteoporosis: a condition marked by severe loss of bone mass Presbyopia: reduced acuity and loss of near vision Primary aging: the gradual, inevitable changes that will happen to most of us as we go through adulthood Replicative senescence: the point at which the body’s cells cease replication Secondary aging: aging as a result of changes that happen more suddenly and that are usually the result of disease, injury, or some environmental event Sensorineural hearing loss: the type of hearing loss marked by the loss of loud-soft discrimination ..

25

T cells: cells produced in the thymus gland that reject and consume harmful or foreign cells, such as bacteria and transplanted organs

..

26

Test Bank Chapter 2 QUICK QUIZ 2-1. (factual-36-38) Beta-carotene and vitamin E are examples of________. a. telomeres b. resveratrol c. free radicals d. antioxidants 2-2. (conceptual-37) The number of divisions a species will undergo before reaching replicative senescence is known as its_______. a. resistance limit b. telomere limit c. oxidative limit d. Hayflick limit 2-3. (factual-60) Research on sexual activity of older adults shows that a. the four stages of sexual response are a little slower and a little less intense compared to their younger counterparts. b. the lack of desire is by far the most common complaint of men. c. the desire to have sex is highest in middle adulthood. d. sexual desire is driven by testosterone for men, but not for women.

2-4. (conceptual-36) Which of the following is the CLEAREST example of primary aging? a. the decline in neuronal speed with age b. the increase in the rate of heart disease with age c. the increase in the rate of cancer with age d. the loss of muscle tissue with age as a result of a sedentary life style 2-5. (conceptual-36) When some body change is linked to age but appears to be the product of environmental influences or health habits, it is an example of _______. a. maturation b. the impact of free radicals c. primary aging d. secondary aging 2-6. (applied-45) Your 70-year-old father recently mentioned to you that he no longer enjoys driving at night because of glare from the headlights of oncoming traffic. Having taken this course, you are not surprised. Based on the information in the text, what other activities may prove problematic for him? a. reading road signs at night b. finding a seat at the afternoon softball game c. ordering at McDonald’s d. all of the above

..

27

2-7. (factual-46–47) Research on hearing has shown that a. hearing loss typically begins in the 30s. b. hearing loss is more noticeable for lower tones. c. sensorineural hearing loss is caused by damage to the hammer and anvil. d. by age 65, about 10% of adults have some significant hearing impairment.

2-8. (factual-48) The loss of calcium in the bones that occurs in many adults with aging is called _______. a. osteopathy b. osteoporosis c. calcification d. climacteric 2-9. (factual-58–59) Which of the following is NOT a change in sleep patterns with increasing age in adulthood? a. reduction in the number of hours of deep sleep b. reduction in the total number of hours of sleep needed c. increase in breathing disturbances d. waking earlier in the morning 2-10. (applied-45) Bernice is suffering from __________, the most common eye disorder found in adulthood. a. cataracts b. glaucoma c. macular degeneration d. a detached retina

..

28

ANSWER KEY: Chapter 2 QUICK QUIZ 1. Answer: d Page in text: 36-38 Topic: Theories of Primary Aging Question type: applied; Difficulty level: moderate 2. Answer: c Page in text: 37 Topic: Theories of Primary Aging Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: moderate 3. Answer: a Page in text: 60 Topic: Changes in Physical Behavior Question type: factual; Difficulty level: difficult 4. Answer: a Page in text: 36 Topic: Theories of Primary Aging Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: difficult 5. Answer: d Page in text: 36 Topic: Theories of Primary Aging Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: moderate 6. Answer: d Page in text: 45 Topic: Physical Changes During Adulthood Question type: applied; Difficulty level: moderate 7. Answer: a Page in text: 46–47 Topic: Physical Changes During Adulthood Question type: factual; Difficulty level: moderate 8. Answer: b Page in text: 48 Topic: Physical Changes During Adulthood Question type: factual; Difficulty level: easy 9. Answer: b Page in text: 58–59 Topic: Changes in Physical Behavior Question type: factual; Difficulty level: easy 10. Answer: a Page in text: 45 Topic: Physical Changes During Adulthood Question type: applied; Difficulty level: moderate ..

29

CHAPTER 2 PHYSICAL CHANGES MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 2-1. (conceptual-36) The aging process has been a matter of interest and a subject of research for centuries. This research has established a(n) _______. a. empirically documented single theory of aging *b. diversity of current propositions about the aging process, most supported by some empirical evidence c. diversity of empirical evidence, all pointing to 4 primary theories of aging d. unified theory of aging at the cellular level 2-2. (conceptual- 36) Fruits and vegetables that contain beta carotene, vitamin E, and vitamin C are recommend because they are high in ________. *a. antioxidants b. antiradicals c. telomeres d. resveratrol 2-3. (factual-37) Cells of different species, when observed in nutrient solutions, are seen to divide varying numbers of times, with cells of the most long-lived species dividing more times than the cells of short-lived species. The total number of divisions for any given species is sometimes referred to as _______. a. species replicability b. the Shock limit c. the dividing limit *d. the Hayflick limit 2-4. (conceptual-38-39) One explanation of aging cites our dietary habits as connected to the aging process. Which statement below is NOT consistent with this theory? *a. What we eat is the most significant contributor to aging. b. To receive the maximum benefits of caloric restriction, humans would have to reduce their caloric intake by 30%.. c. Animal research supports an association between reduced caloric intake and increased longevity. d. “Natural” human studies suggest that individuals on restricted diets may live longer.

2-5. (applied-37-38) Which of the following individuals would you expect to have the longest telomeres? *a. Johanna, who exercises regularly for fun. b. Marnie, who is obese c. Emanuel, who experiences a lot of stress at work and worries he will be layed off. d. Albert, who has heart disease, but has recently begun to eat healthier and exercise.

2-6. (factual-37) Telomeres are: a. shortened as a result of caloric restriction and aerobic exercise. *b. lengths of repeating DNA found at the tips of chromosomes. c. mutated free radicals that shorten the life span. ..

30

d. only found in males.

2-7 (factual 37) The suggested mechanism behind the genetic limits theory of aging comes from the discovery that chromosomes in many human body cells (and those of some other species, too) have, at their tips, lengths of repeating DNA called _____________. a. chromosomal lids b. pelorames c. genetic signalers *d. telemores 2-8. (conceptual-36) Which of the following is the CLEAREST example of primary aging? a. the decline in neuronal speed with age b. the increase in the rate of heart disease with age c. the increase in the rate of cancer with age d. the loss of muscle tissue with age as a result of a sedentary life style 2-9. (conceptual-36) When some body change is linked to age but appears to be the product of environmental influences or health habits, it is an example of _______. a. maturation b. the impact of free radicals c. primary aging *d. secondary aging 2-10. (conceptual-36) One indication that some commonly observed physical change linked to age is a product of secondary aging is that _______. a. it occurs to some degree in all adults *b. it does not occur in all adults c. it is strongly linked to age d. it is associated with known genetic processes 2-11. (factual-36) A normal chemical process in the body, resulting from exposure to sunlight, Xrays, and food, creates molecules or atoms that possess an unpaired electron. These atoms and molecules are called _______. a. cross-linkages b. DNA breakages *c. free radicals d. antioxidants 2-12. (factual-40) In which parts of the body do fat deposits INCREASE in middle age and old age (past the age of about 50)? a. the face and the upper arm b. the chest and the belly *c. the belly and the upper arm d. the face and the chest 2-13. (factual-40) In which of the following age ranges is the average weight at its peak? a. 20–29 *b. 50–59 c. 60–69 d. 80–89 2-14. (factual-44-45) The thickening of the lens of the eye that results in loss of visual acuity in ..

31

middle and older age is part of a process called _______. a. presbycusis *b. presbyopia c. nearsightedness d. macular degeneration 2-15. (factual-44-45) At about what age does a significant loss of visual acuity begin to be measurable for most adults? a. age 30 *b. age 45 c. age 60 d. age 70 2-16. (conceptual-45-46) Glaucoma is the second leading cause of blindness for all people in the United States. Which statement below does NOT accurately describe glaucoma? *a. Two million people in the United States have glaucoma, but most seek medical attention after noting the early warning signs of the disease. b. Untreated glaucoma can destroy the optic nerve and lead to blindness. c. Glaucoma is the leading cause of blindness for African Americans. d. Successful treatment for glaucoma may be as simple as the application of eye drops in certain patients.

2-17. (applied-44-45) You notice that your mother, who is 61 years old, begins to complain about her difficulty seeing while night driving, with the size of the print on her PC screen, with blurry street signs, and with the dimness of the house living and kitchen lights. She may be experiencing loss of visual acuity due to ____________. a. presbyopia b. dark adaption c. cataracts *d. all of the above 2-18. (factual-46–47) The gradual loss of hearing resulting from wear and tear on the auditory nerves and inner ear structures is called _______. *a. sensorineural hearing loss b. presbyopia c. loud-soft discrimination deficits d. tone deafness 2-19. (conceptual-44-45, 47) What are the relative ages at which significant losses of vision and hearing occur, on average, in adulthood? a. Both changes occur at roughly the same time. b. Significant loss of hearing occurs earlier, on average. *c. Significant loss of vision occurs earlier, on average. d. Both changes occur in only some adults, at widely varying ages.

2-20. (factual-48) Which of the following changes in our senses appears to be a normal part of aging? a. an increase in the number of odor receptors which interfere with the ability to smell b. an increase in the ability to taste salty and sweet flavors, causing older people to gain weight more quickly than they did earlier in the lifespan *c. a decline in the amount of saliva secreted ..

32

d. an increase in the total number of taste buds 2-21. (factual-48) Osteoporosis is the term used to describe _______. *a. loss of calcium in the bones b. loss of estrogen at menopause c. a disease of the joints caused from wear and tear d. normal hearing loss that occurs with old age 2-22. (factual-48) The loss of calcium in the bones that occurs in many adults with aging is called _______. a. osteopathy *b. osteoporosis c. calcification d. climacteric 2-23. (factual-48-49) Which of the following is NOT a correct statement about the pattern of osteoporosis with age for men and women? a. It begins in the 30s and continues thereafter. b. It is greater for women than for men. c. Among women, it is accelerated by menopause. *d. It accelerates in men in their 60s.

2-24. (applied-48-50) More women than men in the United States are diagnosed with _______. a. cardiovascular problems b. glaucoma *c. hip fractures d. hearing loss 2-25. (applied-49–51) Which of the following individuals is LEAST LIKELY to have osteoarthritis? a. Charlene, an obese middle-age woman who has recently begun an exercise regimen. b. Anita, a 65-year-old woman. c. Kyle, a 14-year-old who plays competitive basketball. *d. Shaniqua, a high school student who has not been involved in sports beyond exposure in gym class.

2-26. (conceptual-52) Scientific evidence regarding the effects of aging on the nervous system seems to have changed over the last decade. Which statement below would NOT be supported by today’s evidence? a. Neurons are capable of changing with age. *b. After a person reaches the age of 8, his or her neurons do not grow dendrites to make new connections. c. Some neuron pruning in old age may serve the same purpose as pruning in infancy. d. Scientists’ estimates of daily neuron loss in old age have declined significantly in the last 20 years.

2-27. (factual-52) The finding that neurons are capable of making changes with age demonstrates _______. a. replicative senescence b. the Hayflick limit c. redundancy ..

33

*d. plasticity 2-28. (factual-53) The gland that is the key element in the immune system is the _______. a. pituitary b. ovaries or testes c. thalamus *d. thymus 2-29. (factual-55) Which therapy provides perimenopausal and postmenopausal women with the hormones once produced by their ovaries that sharply reduce the symptoms of the climacteric? a. growth hormone therapy (GH) b. DHEA therapy *c. hormone replacement therapy (HRT) d. HGH treatment therapy 2-30. (factual-50) Which of the following is NOT a major risk factor for severe osteoporosis? a. being light in weight for height b. being female c. early menopause *d. drinking lots of coffee 2-31. (factual-55) The average age at which women go through menopause about _______. a. 40 *b. 51 c. 55 d. 60 2-32. (factual-54) The general term used to describe the loss of reproductive capacity among both sexes in middle and later life is _______. *a. climacteric b. menopause c. testosterone loss d. desexualization 2-33. (factual-54) Current evidence on age-related changes in levels of testosterone in men indicates that _______. a. there is a large and steady decline beginning at about age 40 b. there is a large decline, but it begins only after about age 60 c. there is no decline at all *d. there is a small and gradual decline from midlife onward 2-34. (factual-54) According to research on normal adult men, which of the following is NOT a major change in the reproductive system with age? *a. a major decline in testosterone levels b. a diminished production of sperm c. a longer time required to achieve erection d. shrinkage of the testes 2-35. (factual-54) Premenopausal and menopausal changes in women are triggered by a significant reduction in the production of which hormone? ..

34

a. testosterone b. androgen c. thyroxin *d. estrogen 2-36. (factual-55) The most common symptom associated with menopause is _______. a. anxiety b. depression *c. hot flashes d. headaches 2-37. (conceptual-60) Which of the following is found only in men? a. HGH. *b. cyclic GMP c. aldosterone. d. DHEA. 2-38. (factual-58–59) Which of the following is NOT a change in sleep patterns with increasing age in adulthood? a. a reduction in the number of hours of deep sleep *b. fewer daily naps because of less physical activity c. an increase in breathing disturbances d. waking earlier in the morning 2-39. (conceptual-59) Which of the following is TRUE of insomnia? a. It decreases in middle age and later adulthood when stress levels decline for most. b. It is more common in men. *c. It can be caused by the use of blue-screen electronic devices before bedtime. d. It is caused by a constriction of the airway.

2-40. (conceptual-60) One major shortcoming of most of the research on sexual activity is that it a. focuses primarily on quality of sexual relations at different ages. b. focuses primarily on many types of sexual expression besides intercourse. c. focuses only on males. *d. focuses primarily on frequency counts of sexual activity.

2-41. (factual-60) Medina (1996) suggests that changes in older men’s and women’s sexual responses are generally _______. *a. a little slower and a little less intense b. a little slower, but with no change in intensity c. a little less intense, but with no change in arousal speed d. NOT positively affected by an end to concerns about pregnancy 2-42. (conceptual-62) A reasonable inference from the information presented in this unit regarding the availability of sexual partners for older adults suggests that which older person would have the LEAST problem locating a sexual partner? a. an independent single female b. a female living with her adult children *c. an independent single male d. a single male living in a nursing home ..

35

2-43. (factual-60) A problem with the results from cross-sectional and longitudinal research on the sexual activity of adults in the United States is that ___________. a. the majority are no longer sexually active after midlife b. the majority are most sexually active in late adulthood, but many die before this part of the life span *c. it reduces a complex human interaction to a simple frequency count d. the data do not allow us to determine the answer to sexual frequency 2-44. (conceptual-64-66) Which statement is FALSE? a. Some environments may retard the aging process. b. Some environments may speed up the aging process. c. The old adage “use it or lose it” seems true when applied to older individuals’ physical and mental activities. *d. Twin studies show that rate of aging is highly heritable; only about 5% of aging is caused by other factors.

2-45. (conceptual-63) Which of the following is the best statement about individual differences in the rate or pattern of physiological aging? a. The maturational sequences are very powerful; virtually all adults follow the same sequences at the same rates. b. There are significant maturational sequences, although there is room for individual variation within relatively narrow limits. *c. There are significant underlying maturational sequences, but there are very wide individual variations in rate and pattern. d. There are no shared underlying maturational sequences.

..

36

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 2-46. List two changes that occur in the cardiovascular system with age and two changes that occur in the nervous system with age.

2-47. Define the following terms: climacteric menopause osteoporosis 2-48. Discuss two factors that affect the probability of sexual relations in older people.

2-49. For each of the following changes with age, indicate whether the change is most likely primary aging or secondary aging and why you think so.

• the reduction in efficiency of the immune system • the accumulation of pigmented material in the eye, leading to nearsightedness • very noticeable facial wrinkles in a forty-year-old woman.

2-50. List and discuss several factors that appear to contribute to the wide individual variations in rate of physical aging in middle and late adulthood.

2-51. Discuss one study that has examined telomere length..

2-52. Name one age-related visual condition and at least one risk factor associated with the condition.

ESSAY QUESTIONS 2-53. There is an old adage to the effect that if a married couple put a bean in a jar for each time they have intercourse during the first year of marriage and take out a bean for every time they have intercourse in each year after the first, the jar will never become empty. Given the evidence on sexual activity in adulthood presented in the book, do you think this is true or not? Give specific support for your position.

2-54. Discuss osteoporosis and osteoarthritis and whether there are treatments available for these conditions.

2-55. One of the common assumptions about midlife is that most (if not all) women experience major physical and psychological upheaval at menopause. Design a study to examine this assumption.

2-56. Discuss one theory of primary aging and explain whether there is evidence that supports it.

2-57. Discuss the following statement: “There are such wide variations in individual rates and patterns of aging that it doesn’t make any sense to talk about ‘normal aging.’ There is no such thing.”

..

37

2-58. We observe a loss of muscle tissue, with accompanying loss of strength, over the years of adulthood. What explanations of this phenomenon have been offered? What kind of evidence exists for and against each explanation? What conclusion do you come to?

2-59. Discuss the two types of hormone replacement therapy that both men and women seem to benefit from.

2-60. Compare and contrast the climacteric for men and women. Make sure you describe the physiological changes as well as possible treatments.

2-61. Discuss the impact of socioeconomic status and ethnicity on aging .

2-62. Describe the physical changes of an aging adult, fictitious or real, including height, weight, bone structure, skin/hair, the senses, and internal systems. Be thorough, and use terminology from your textbook.

2-63. Compare and contrast two real-life or fictitious adults at age seventy in terms of primary aging. In your comparison, what factors account for the differences that you portray in your example?

2-64. Primary aging is affected by many individual differences. Illustrate how certain genetic predispositions might affect your aging process; use at least one member of your family as a comparative example.

..

38

Chapter 2 QUICK QUIZ 2-1. (factual-36-38) Beta-carotene and vitamin E are examples of________. a. telomeres b. resveratrol c. free radicals d. antioxidants 2-2. (conceptual-37) The number of divisions a species will undergo before reaching replicative senescence is known as its_______. a. resistance limit b. telomere limit c. oxidative limit d. Hayflick limit 2-3. (factual-60) Research on sexual activity of older adults shows that a. the four stages of sexual response are a little slower and a little less intense compared to their younger counterparts. b. the lack of desire is by far the most common complaint of men. c. the desire to have sex is highest in middle adulthood. d. sexual desire is driven by testosterone for men, but not for women.

2-4. (conceptual-36) Which of the following is the CLEAREST example of primary aging? a. the decline in neuronal speed with age b. the increase in the rate of heart disease with age c. the increase in the rate of cancer with age d. the loss of muscle tissue with age as a result of a sedentary life style 2-5. (conceptual-36) When some body change is linked to age but appears to be the product of environmental influences or health habits, it is an example of _______. a. maturation b. the impact of free radicals c. primary aging d. secondary aging 2-6. (applied-45) Your 70-year-old father recently mentioned to you that he no longer enjoys driving at night because of glare from the headlights of oncoming traffic. Having taken this course, you are not surprised. Based on the information in the text, what other activities may prove problematic for him? a. reading road signs at night b. finding a seat at the afternoon softball game c. ordering at McDonald’s d. all of the above

..

39

2-7. (factual-46–47) Research on hearing has shown that a. hearing loss typically begins in the 30s. b. hearing loss is more noticeable for lower tones. c. sensorineural hearing loss is caused by damage to the hammer and anvil. d. by age 65, about 10% of adults have some significant hearing impairment.

2-8. (factual-48) The loss of calcium in the bones that occurs in many adults with aging is called _______. a. osteopathy b. osteoporosis c. calcification d. climacteric 2-9. (factual-58–59) Which of the following is NOT a change in sleep patterns with increasing age in adulthood? a. reduction in the number of hours of deep sleep b. reduction in the total number of hours of sleep needed c. increase in breathing disturbances d. waking earlier in the morning 2-10. (applied-45) Bernice is suffering from __________, the most common eye disorder found in adulthood. a. cataracts b. glaucoma c. macular degeneration d. a detached retina

..

40

ANSWER KEY: Chapter 2 QUICK QUIZ 1. Answer: d Page in text: 36-38 Topic: Theories of Primary Aging Question type: applied; Difficulty level: moderate 2. Answer: c Page in text: 37 Topic: Theories of Primary Aging Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: moderate 3. Answer: a Page in text: 60 Topic: Changes in Physical Behavior Question type: factual; Difficulty level: difficult 4. Answer: a Page in text: 36 Topic: Theories of Primary Aging Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: difficult 5. Answer: d Page in text: 36 Topic: Theories of Primary Aging Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: moderate 6. Answer: d Page in text: 45 Topic: Physical Changes During Adulthood Question type: applied; Difficulty level: moderate 7. Answer: a Page in text: 46–47 Topic: Physical Changes During Adulthood Question type: factual; Difficulty level: moderate 8. Answer: b Page in text: 48 Topic: Physical Changes During Adulthood Question type: factual; Difficulty level: easy 9. Answer: b Page in text: 58–59 Topic: Changes in Physical Behavior Question type: factual; Difficulty level: easy 10. Answer: a Page in text: 45 Topic: Physical Changes During Adulthood Question type: applied; Difficulty level: moderate ..

41

CHAPTER 2 PHYSICAL CHANGES

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 2-1. (conceptual-36) The aging process has been a matter of interest and a subject of research for centuries. This research has established a(n) _______. a. empirically documented single theory of aging *b. diversity of current propositions about the aging process, most supported by some empirical evidence c. diversity of empirical evidence, all pointing to 4 primary theories of aging d. unified theory of aging at the cellular level 2-2. (conceptual- 36) Fruits and vegetables that contain beta carotene, vitamin E, and vitamin C are recommend because they are high in ________. *a. antioxidants b. antiradicals c. telomeres d. resveratrol 2-3. (factual-37) Cells of different species, when observed in nutrient solutions, are seen to divide varying numbers of times, with cells of the most long-lived species dividing more times than the cells of short-lived species. The total number of divisions for any given species is sometimes referred to as _______. a. species replicability b. the Shock limit c. the dividing limit *d. the Hayflick limit 2-4. (conceptual-38-39) One explanation of aging cites our dietary habits as connected to the aging process. Which statement below is NOT consistent with this theory? *a. What we eat is the most significant contributor to aging. b. To receive the maximum benefits of caloric restriction, humans would have to reduce their caloric intake by 30%.. c. Animal research supports an association between reduced caloric intake and increased longevity. d. “Natural” human studies suggest that individuals on restricted diets may live longer.

2-5. (applied-37-38) Which of the following individuals would you expect to have the longest telomeres? *a. Johanna, who exercises regularly for fun. b. Marnie, who is obese c. Emanuel, who experiences a lot of stress at work and worries he will be layed off. d. Albert, who has heart disease, but has recently begun to eat healthier and exercise.

2-6. (factual-37) Telomeres are: a. shortened as a result of caloric restriction and aerobic exercise. *b. lengths of repeating DNA found at the tips of chromosomes. ..

42

c. mutated free radicals that shorten the life span. d. only found in males.

2-7 (factual 37) The suggested mechanism behind the genetic limits theory of aging comes from the discovery that chromosomes in many human body cells (and those of some other species, too) have, at their tips, lengths of repeating DNA called _____________. a. chromosomal lids b. pelorames c. genetic signalers *d. telemores 2-8. (conceptual-36) Which of the following is the CLEAREST example of primary aging? a. the decline in neuronal speed with age b. the increase in the rate of heart disease with age c. the increase in the rate of cancer with age d. the loss of muscle tissue with age as a result of a sedentary life style 2-9. (conceptual-36) When some body change is linked to age but appears to be the product of environmental influences or health habits, it is an example of _______. a. maturation b. the impact of free radicals c. primary aging *d. secondary aging 2-10. (conceptual-36) One indication that some commonly observed physical change linked to age is a product of secondary aging is that _______. a. it occurs to some degree in all adults *b. it does not occur in all adults c. it is strongly linked to age d. it is associated with known genetic processes 2-11. (factual-36) A normal chemical process in the body, resulting from exposure to sunlight, Xrays, and food, creates molecules or atoms that possess an unpaired electron. These atoms and molecules are called _______. a. cross-linkages b. DNA breakages *c. free radicals d. antioxidants 2-12. (factual-40) In which parts of the body do fat deposits INCREASE in middle age and old age (past the age of about 50)? a. the face and the upper arm b. the chest and the belly *c. the belly and the upper arm d. the face and the chest 2-13. (factual-40) In which of the following age ranges is the average weight at its peak? a. 20–29 *b. 50–59 c. 60–69 d. 80–89 ..

43

2-14. (factual-44-45) The thickening of the lens of the eye that results in loss of visual acuity in middle and older age is part of a process called _______. a. presbycusis *b. presbyopia c. nearsightedness d. macular degeneration 2-15. (factual-44-45) At about what age does a significant loss of visual acuity begin to be measurable for most adults? a. age 30 *b. age 45 c. age 60 d. age 70 2-16. (conceptual-45-46) Glaucoma is the second leading cause of blindness for all people in the United States. Which statement below does NOT accurately describe glaucoma? *a. Two million people in the United States have glaucoma, but most seek medical attention after noting the early warning signs of the disease. b. Untreated glaucoma can destroy the optic nerve and lead to blindness. c. Glaucoma is the leading cause of blindness for African Americans. d. Successful treatment for glaucoma may be as simple as the application of eye drops in certain patients.

2-17. (applied-44-45) You notice that your mother, who is 61 years old, begins to complain about her difficulty seeing while night driving, with the size of the print on her PC screen, with blurry street signs, and with the dimness of the house living and kitchen lights. She may be experiencing loss of visual acuity due to ____________. a. presbyopia b. dark adaption c. cataracts *d. all of the above 2-18. (factual-46–47) The gradual loss of hearing resulting from wear and tear on the auditory nerves and inner ear structures is called _______. *a. sensorineural hearing loss b. presbyopia c. loud-soft discrimination deficits d. tone deafness 2-19. (conceptual-44-45, 47) What are the relative ages at which significant losses of vision and hearing occur, on average, in adulthood? a. Both changes occur at roughly the same time. b. Significant loss of hearing occurs earlier, on average. *c. Significant loss of vision occurs earlier, on average. d. Both changes occur in only some adults, at widely varying ages.

2-20. (factual-48) Which of the following changes in our senses appears to be a normal part of aging? a. an increase in the number of odor receptors which interfere with the ability to smell b. an increase in the ability to taste salty and sweet flavors, causing older people to gain ..

44

weight more quickly than they did earlier in the lifespan *c. a decline in the amount of saliva secreted d. an increase in the total number of taste buds 2-21. (factual-48) Osteoporosis is the term used to describe _______. *a. loss of calcium in the bones b. loss of estrogen at menopause c. a disease of the joints caused from wear and tear d. normal hearing loss that occurs with old age 2-22. (factual-48) The loss of calcium in the bones that occurs in many adults with aging is called _______. a. osteopathy *b. osteoporosis c. calcification d. climacteric 2-23. (factual-48-49) Which of the following is NOT a correct statement about the pattern of osteoporosis with age for men and women? a. It begins in the 30s and continues thereafter. b. It is greater for women than for men. c. Among women, it is accelerated by menopause. *d. It accelerates in men in their 60s.

2-24. (applied-48-50) More women than men in the United States are diagnosed with _______. a. cardiovascular problems b. glaucoma *c. hip fractures d. hearing loss 2-25. (applied-49–51) Which of the following individuals is LEAST LIKELY to have osteoarthritis? a. Charlene, an obese middle-age woman who has recently begun an exercise regimen. b. Anita, a 65-year-old woman. c. Kyle, a 14-year-old who plays competitive basketball. *d. Shaniqua, a high school student who has not been involved in sports beyond exposure in gym class.

2-26. (conceptual-52) Scientific evidence regarding the effects of aging on the nervous system seems to have changed over the last decade. Which statement below would NOT be supported by today’s evidence? a. Neurons are capable of changing with age. *b. After a person reaches the age of 8, his or her neurons do not grow dendrites to make new connections. c. Some neuron pruning in old age may serve the same purpose as pruning in infancy. d. Scientists’ estimates of daily neuron loss in old age have declined significantly in the last 20 years.

2-27. (factual-52) The finding that neurons are capable of making changes with age demonstrates _______. a. replicative senescence ..

45

b. the Hayflick limit c. redundancy *d. plasticity 2-28. (factual-53) The gland that is the key element in the immune system is the _______. a. pituitary b. ovaries or testes c. thalamus *d. thymus 2-29. (factual-55) Which therapy provides perimenopausal and postmenopausal women with the hormones once produced by their ovaries that sharply reduce the symptoms of the climacteric? a. growth hormone therapy (GH) b. DHEA therapy *c. hormone replacement therapy (HRT) d. HGH treatment therapy 2-30. (factual-50) Which of the following is NOT a major risk factor for severe osteoporosis? a. being light in weight for height b. being female c. early menopause *d. drinking lots of coffee 2-31. (factual-55) The average age at which women go through menopause about _______. a. 40 *b. 51 c. 55 d. 60 2-32. (factual-54) The general term used to describe the loss of reproductive capacity among both sexes in middle and later life is _______. *a. climacteric b. menopause c. testosterone loss d. desexualization 2-33. (factual-54) Current evidence on age-related changes in levels of testosterone in men indicates that _______. a. there is a large and steady decline beginning at about age 40 b. there is a large decline, but it begins only after about age 60 c. there is no decline at all *d. there is a small and gradual decline from midlife onward 2-34. (factual-54) According to research on normal adult men, which of the following is NOT a major change in the reproductive system with age? *a. a major decline in testosterone levels b. a diminished production of sperm c. a longer time required to achieve erection d. shrinkage of the testes

..

46

2-35. (factual-54) Premenopausal and menopausal changes in women are triggered by a significant reduction in the production of which hormone? a. testosterone b. androgen c. thyroxin *d. estrogen 2-36. (factual-55) The most common symptom associated with menopause is _______. a. anxiety b. depression *c. hot flashes d. headaches 2-37. (conceptual-60) Which of the following is found only in men? a. HGH. *b. cyclic GMP c. aldosterone. d. DHEA. 2-38. (factual-58–59) Which of the following is NOT a change in sleep patterns with increasing age in adulthood? a. a reduction in the number of hours of deep sleep *b. fewer daily naps because of less physical activity c. an increase in breathing disturbances d. waking earlier in the morning 2-39. (conceptual-59) Which of the following is TRUE of insomnia? a. It decreases in middle age and later adulthood when stress levels decline for most. b. It is more common in men. *c. It can be caused by the use of blue-screen electronic devices before bedtime. d. It is caused by a constriction of the airway.

2-40. (conceptual-60) One major shortcoming of most of the research on sexual activity is that it a. focuses primarily on quality of sexual relations at different ages. b. focuses primarily on many types of sexual expression besides intercourse. c. focuses only on males. *d. focuses primarily on frequency counts of sexual activity.

2-41. (factual-60) Medina (1996) suggests that changes in older men’s and women’s sexual responses are generally _______. *a. a little slower and a little less intense b. a little slower, but with no change in intensity c. a little less intense, but with no change in arousal speed d. NOT positively affected by an end to concerns about pregnancy 2-42. (conceptual-62) A reasonable inference from the information presented in this unit regarding the availability of sexual partners for older adults suggests that which older person would have the LEAST problem locating a sexual partner? a. an independent single female b. a female living with her adult children ..

47

*c. an independent single male d. a single male living in a nursing home 2-43. (factual-60) A problem with the results from cross-sectional and longitudinal research on the sexual activity of adults in the United States is that ___________. a. the majority are no longer sexually active after midlife b. the majority are most sexually active in late adulthood, but many die before this part of the life span *c. it reduces a complex human interaction to a simple frequency count d. the data do not allow us to determine the answer to sexual frequency 2-44. (conceptual-64-66) Which statement is FALSE? a. Some environments may retard the aging process. b. Some environments may speed up the aging process. c. The old adage “use it or lose it” seems true when applied to older individuals’ physical and mental activities. *d. Twin studies show that rate of aging is highly heritable; only about 5% of aging is caused by other factors.

2-45. (conceptual-63) Which of the following is the best statement about individual differences in the rate or pattern of physiological aging? a. The maturational sequences are very powerful; virtually all adults follow the same sequences at the same rates. b. There are significant maturational sequences, although there is room for individual variation within relatively narrow limits. *c. There are significant underlying maturational sequences, but there are very wide individual variations in rate and pattern. d. There are no shared underlying maturational sequences.

..

48

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 2-46. List two changes that occur in the cardiovascular system with age and two changes that occur in the nervous system with age.

2-47. Define the following terms: climacteric menopause osteoporosis 2-48. Discuss two factors that affect the probability of sexual relations in older people.

2-49. For each of the following changes with age, indicate whether the change is most likely primary aging or secondary aging and why you think so.

• the reduction in efficiency of the immune system • the accumulation of pigmented material in the eye, leading to nearsightedness • very noticeable facial wrinkles in a forty-year-old woman.

2-50. List and discuss several factors that appear to contribute to the wide individual variations in rate of physical aging in middle and late adulthood.

2-51. Discuss one study that has examined telomere length..

2-52. Name one age-related visual condition and at least one risk factor associated with the condition.

ESSAY QUESTIONS 2-53. There is an old adage to the effect that if a married couple put a bean in a jar for each time they have intercourse during the first year of marriage and take out a bean for every time they have intercourse in each year after the first, the jar will never become empty. Given the evidence on sexual activity in adulthood presented in the book, do you think this is true or not? Give specific support for your position.

2-54. Discuss osteoporosis and osteoarthritis and whether there are treatments available for these conditions.

2-55. One of the common assumptions about midlife is that most (if not all) women experience major physical and psychological upheaval at menopause. Design a study to examine this assumption.

2-56. Discuss one theory of primary aging and explain whether there is evidence that supports it.

2-57. Discuss the following statement: “There are such wide variations in individual rates and patterns of aging that it doesn’t make any sense to talk about ‘normal aging.’ There is no such thing.”

..

49

2-58. We observe a loss of muscle tissue, with accompanying loss of strength, over the years of adulthood. What explanations of this phenomenon have been offered? What kind of evidence exists for and against each explanation? What conclusion do you come to?

2-59. Discuss the two types of hormone replacement therapy that both men and women seem to benefit from.

2-60. Compare and contrast the climacteric for men and women. Make sure you describe the physiological changes as well as possible treatments.

2-61. Discuss the impact of socioeconomic status and ethnicity on aging .

2-62. Describe the physical changes of an aging adult, fictitious or real, including height, weight, bone structure, skin/hair, the senses, and internal systems. Be thorough, and use terminology from your textbook.

2-63. Compare and contrast two real-life or fictitious adults at age seventy in terms of primary aging. In your comparison, what factors account for the differences that you portray in your example?

2-64. Primary aging is affected by many individual differences. Illustrate how certain genetic predispositions might affect your aging process; use at least one member of your family as a comparative example.

..

50

CHAPTER 3 HEALTH AND HEALTH DISORDERS

CHAPTER OUTLINE • •

•

•

• •

• • •

Mortality Rates and Causes of Death Morbidity Rates, Illness, and Disability o Common Health Conditions o Disability ▪ Activities of Daily Living (ADLs) ▪ Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADLs) o Self-Ratings of Health Specific Diseases o Cardiovascular Disease ▪ Atherosclerosis o Cancer ▪ Epigenetic Inheritance o Diabetes o Alzheimer’s Disease ▪ Dementia ▪ Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE) o People Living with Age-Related Disease and Disability Mental Disorders o Anxiety Disorders o Mood Disorders ▪ Major Depression o Impulse Control Disorders o Substance Abuse Disorders o Treatment of Mental Health Disorders ▪ Complementary and Alternative Medicine Nonmedical Solutions o Assistive Technology o Assistance Animals Individual Differences in Health o Lifestyle o Gender o Socioeconomics, Race, and Ethnicity o Personality and Behavior Patterns o Genetics o Developmental Origins o The Road to Good Health Summary Key Terms Suggested Reading

BOOKSHELF

..

51

Deaton, A. (2013). The great escape: Health, wealth, and the origins of inequality. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Deaton is a developmental economist, and in this book examines issues of inequality in health care and other areas relevant to our aging population worldwide.

Genova, L. (2009). Still Alice. New York: Gallery Books.

This is a novel written by a neuroscientist, and though I don’t often recommend fiction, this piece about early-onset Alzheimer’s in a college professor is so accurate, I find it a fitting addition to a reading list about nonnormative events affecting cognitive aging.

Valliant, G. E. (2008). Aging well: Surprising guideposts to a happier life from the Landmark Study of Adult Development. New York: Little, Brown & Co. Valliant’s book uses data from the Landmark Study of Adult Development to offer suggestions for aging gracefully.

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION OR REVIEW ❖ Gender and Race Differences. It is always worthwhile to take class time to talk about the implications of gender differences in health patterns in old age: for example, that women live longer, but with more disease and disability. What does this mean for society? What does this mean for individual families? Are there implications for social policy? ❖ Socioeconomic Status and Adult Health. A particularly good review is contained in Adler et al. (1994), which also includes a discussion of several explanations that have been offered, including health habits, stress, and the effects of social ordering. Lee and Frongillo (2001) review the participation in and impact of food assistance programs available to indigent elderly. AgingStats.com is a website well worth visiting, particularly for the opportunity to view the Federal Interagency Forum on Aging Related Statistics’ 2006 report on the key indicators of well-being in older Americans. ❖ Health Conditions Compared to Cause of Death. That which makes older adults ill is not always that which ends their lives. I would suggest use of Table 3.1 on page 75 of the text (shown below), which shows the major causes of death by age group. Compare this with data in the chapter about the major chronic health conditions among the elderly; it provides a stepping stone to a fruitful discussion.

..

52

❖ Mental Health Changes. The chapter covers in some depth the complexities involved in studying age changes in mental health. An important point made in the chapter is that symptoms of depression often are also among those stereotypes mistakenly thought of as “normal aging.” The obvious problem here is the possibility that a very real case of depression could be dismissed simply as a part of the normal aging process. ❖ Health Habits and Risk Factors. The health hazards of being overweight are well known and accepted. Tables 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, and 3.5 list obesity as a contributor to cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, and Alzheimer’s disease. Since obesity is the only factor listed that can be prevented by individual behavioral changes, this warrants a discussion about the obesity statistics among younger adults.

SELECTED REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER THREE Adler, N., Stewart, J., Cohen, S., et al. (2007). Reaching for a healthier life: Facts on socioeconomic status and health in the U. S. Chicago: MacArthur Foundation.

Karel, M. J., Gatz, M., & Smyer, M. A. (2012). Aging and mental health in the decade ahead: What psychologists need to know. American Psychologist, 67, 184–198.

Storandt, M. (2008). Cognitive deficits in the early stages of Alzheimer’s disease. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 198–202.

Yamasaki, K., Uchida, K., & Katsuma, R. (2009). An intervention study of the effects of the coping strategy of “finding positive meaning” on positive affect and health. International Journal of Psychology, 44, 249–259.

SELECTED KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS FOR CHAPTER THREE Activities of daily living (ADLs): basic self-care activities, such as bathing, dressing, getting around inside the home, shifting from a bed to a chair, using the toilet, and eating

..

53

Atherosclerosis: the slow and dangerous accumulation of plaques, or fat-laden deposits, in the coronary arteries Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE): a type of dementia related to repeated chronic head injuries Comorbid: more than one psychological disorder occurring at the same time Complementary and alternative medicine providers: practitioners such chiropractors, acupuncturists, herbalists, or spiritualists, none of whose methods for treating mental health disorders have been supported by scientific data, but increasingly included in treatment plans Dementia: a category of conditions that involve global deterioration in intellectual abilities and physical function Epigenetic inheritance: environmental events that cause changes in gene expression Instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs): more complex everyday tasks, such as preparing meals, shopping for personal items, doing light housework, doing laundry, using transportation, handling finances, using the telephone, and taking medications Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): an emotional reaction experienced repeatedly to a traumatic event that happened in the past Type A behavior pattern: a behavior pattern associated with individuals who are achievementdriven, competitive, and involved in their jobs to excess, who can feel extreme urgency with time-related matters, and who are easily provoked to hostility

..

54

Test Bank Chapter 3 QUICK QUIZ 3-1. (factual-74) The probability of dying in any given year is called the _________ rate. a. morbidity b. prevalence c. mortality d. incidence 3-2. (factual-74) Which of the following is the most common cause of death in adults between ages 25and 44 in the U.S.? a. AIDS b. cancer c. accidents d. heart disease 3-3. (applied-74-75) John is a 22-year-old college student. Unlike his 70-year-old grandmother, John is most likely to die from ________. a. cancer *b. an accident c. suicide d. homicide 3-4. (conceptual-77) Which of the following is TRUE regarding cardiovascular disease? a. The death rate has been increasing over the past two decades. b. It is an inevitable part of aging. c. It is the leading cause of death for men in the U.S., but not for women. d. It is the leading cause of death and disability for men and women in the U.S. 3-5 (factual-81) The greatest risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease is ________. a. age b. cholesterol c. obesity d. tobacco use 3-6. (factual-80) The term used to describe any significant global deterioration in intellectual abilities in older adults is _______. a. Alzheimer’s disease b. dementia c. depression d. Parkinson’s disease 3-7. (factual-84) Across the adult years, the 12-month prevalence of most mental disorders increases from young adulthood to middle adulthood and then declines, with the lowest rates being ________________(Kessler, Berglund, Demler, et al., 2005). a. for teenagers who are between 17–19 years old b. for young adults who are 20–27 years old c. for middle age adults who are 45–55 years old d. for adults who are 60 years of age and older ..

55

3-8. (factual-90) Compared to men, women_______. a. contract fatal diseases (such as cancer or heart disease) at about the same average ages as men, but survive longer with such diseases. b. remain in good health much longer, without significant disability or disease. c. have more chronic health condition, but contract fatal diseases later in life. d. contract fatal diseases at later average ages and have decreased incidences of depression and anxiety.

3-9. (factual-93) Which group of adults has the worst health and the lowest life expectancy in the U.S.? a. Asian Americans b. Hispanic Americans c. American Indians and Alaskan Natives d. African Americans 3-10. (factual-85) It is estimated that 20 percent of the elderly have pathological levels of anxiety.

Which of the following is NOT an anxiety disorder? a. phobias b. agoraphobia c. dysthymic disorder d. PTSD

..

56

ANSWER KEY: Chapter 3 QUICK QUIZ 1. Answer: c Page in text: 74 Topic: Mortality Rates and Causes of Death Question type: factual; Difficulty level: moderate 2. Answer: c Page in text: 74 Topic: Mortality Rates and Causes of Death Question type: factual; Difficulty level: moderate 3. Answer: b Page in text: 74-75 Topic: Morbidity Rates, Disease, and Disability Question type: applied; Difficulty level: moderate 4. Answer: d Page in text: 77 Topic: Specific Diseases Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: difficult 5. Answer: a Page in text: 81 Topic: Specific Diseases Question type: factual; Difficulty level: moderate 6. Answer: b Page in text: 80 Topic: Specific Diseases Question type: factual; Difficulty level: easy 7. Answer: d Page in text: 84 Topic: Mental Disorders Question type: factual; Difficulty level: moderate 8. Answer: c Page in text: 90 Topic: Individual Differences in Health Question type: factual; Difficulty level: moderate 9. Answer: c Page in text: 93 Topic: Individual Differences in Health Question type: factual; Difficulty level: moderate 10. Answer: c Page in text: 85 Topic: Mental Disorders Question type: factual; Difficulty level: difficult ..

57

CHAPTER 3 HEALTH AND HEALTH DISORDERS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 3-1. (factual-74) The probability of contracting an illness is called the _________ rate. a. incidence b. prevalence c. mortality *d. morbidity 3-2. (factual-74) The probability of dying in any given year in the United States is best described as _______. a. increasing with age, and increasing for females more quickly than males *b. less than 20 percent for males and females over the age of 85 c. 1 percent for adult males aged 15–24 d. greater for females across all age groupings 3-3. (factual-74-75) Which of the following is the most common cause of death in adults between ages 25and 44 in the U.S.? a. AIDS b. cancer *c. accidents d. heart disease 3-4. (factual-74-75) Which of the following diseases is the leading cause of death in late adulthood in the United States and other developed countries? a. cancer b. accidents *c. heart disease d. pneumonia 3-5. (factual-74-75) Which of the following are the 2 leading causes of death among adults in their 40s and 50s in the U.S.? a. cancer and AIDS b. accidents and heart disease *c. heart disease and cancer d. AIDS and accidents 3-6. (factual-74-75) What is the age-related pattern of acute and chronic diseases over adulthood? *a. Acute illness declines with age, while chronic illness increases. b. Chronic illness declines with age, while acute illness increases. c. Both chronic and acute illness increase with age. d. Both chronic and acute illness decline with age.

3-7. (conceptual-74-75) Which of the following is TRUE? *a. Those over 65 years of age are more likely than younger adults to suffer from chronic conditions. b. The mortality rate for adults in the U.S. rises sharply between ages 45 and 50. c. Across all age groups, the number one killer is accidents. ..

58

d. Those over 65 and young adults are equally likely to suffer from acute conditions, such as the common cold or the flu.

3-8. (applied-75) After falling on the ice and breaking three of her ribs, Kathleen is having trouble with ADLs. Which of the following is an example of an ADL? *a. bathing b. dusting c. paying bills d. preparing meals 3-9. (factual-75) Dressing yourself, bathing, walking a short distance, using a toilet, and eating without assistance are all examples of what gerontologists call _______. a. self-help skills *b. activities of daily living c. grooming skills d. daily behaviors 3-10. (applied-76) Raymond is a 69-year-old male who lives in the south. It is most likely that he lives: a. in a nursing home. b. in a skilled care facility. *c. in a community dwelling. d. in an assisted living facility.

3-11. (factual-76) When researchers ask young, middle-aged, and older adults to rate their own health, what age pattern do they find? a. The percentage who describe their health as excellent or very good declines rapidly with age; by age 65, only a very small number choose such a description. *b. The percentage who describe their health as excellent declines with age, but 2/3 of those over 75 still rate their health as at least good. c. There is little change with age in the percentage who describe their health as excellent, but a substantial rise among those over 65 who describe their health as poor. d. Self-rated health remains essentially constant over age, because older adults adjust their standards of “excellent” or “good.”

3-12. (conceptual-76) The results from older adults’ self-reports (surveys) of their health found that _______. a. there is no longer a need for objective measures of health because they measure the same thing. *b. only about 40% of adults over 75 rate their health as good to excellent. c. young adults were less likely than older adults to rate their health as excellent. d. the overwhelming majority of adults over 65 rate their health as fair or poor.

3-13. (factual-77) The term used to describe a disease of the arteries in which there is a gradual build-up of fat-laden deposits is _______. a. high blood pressure *b. atherosclerosis c. cholesterol d. heart attack

..

59

3-14. (conceptual-77) Which of the following is the most accurate description of the relationship of atherosclerosis to aging? a. It is an inevitable part of aging. All adults show some atherosclerotic change, and these changes are irreversible. b. It is an inevitable part of aging, but early changes are reversible by improvement in health habits. c. It is a disease occurring only in some adults; all changes due to the disease are curable or reversible. *d. It is a disease occurring only in some adults, but some disease processes are reversible by improvement in health habits.

3-15. (factual-77) Which of the following is NOT a risk factor for heart disease? *a. sexually transmitted diseases b. high blood pressure c. high cholesterol d. smoking 3-16. (factual-74-75) Which of the following is NOT one of the top three causes of death for individuals between the ages of 15 and 24? a. accidents *b. cancer c. homicide d. suicide 3-17. (factual-79) Which of the following is NOT a well-established risk factor for one or more types of cancer? a. smoking *b. high blood pressure c. a family history of cancer d. being overweight 3-18. (factual-77, 79) Which of the following poor health habits increases a person’s risk of both heart disease and cancer? a. low-fiber diet *b. smoking c. insufficient sleep d. skipping breakfast 3-19. (conceptual-78) After examining the evidence regarding cardiovascular disease and gender, Bjorklund concluded that _______. a. the first symptoms of a heart attack for men are usually fatigue and nausea. b. the symptoms of a heart attack for women are often the same as those of men. c. the majority of females who die suddenly of cardiovascular disease have had previous symptoms, especially crushing chest pain. *d. heart attacks are just as dangerous for women as for men.

3-20. (applied-78) Kara, a 40-year-old female who lives in the U.S., is most likely to die from _____ cancer. a. lung b. colon *c. breast ..

60

d. pancreatic 3-21. (factual-78) When people reach the age 55, the top cancer killer is _____ cancer, which remains through the rest of their life.”

*a. lung b. colon c. brain d. pancreatic 3-22. (factual-78) __________ refer(s) to genetic characteristics that are the result of environmental influences during the prenatal period or during the lifespan that affect how existing genes are expressed. a. Intergenerational effects b. The developmental origins hypothesis *c. Epigenetic inheritance d. Comorbid 3-23. (applied-79) Juan is suffering from a disease wherein his body is not able to metabolize insulin. Juan most likely has: a. the human papillomavirus *b. diabetes c. chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) d. cancerous plaques 3-24. (conceptual -79-80) Which of the following is TRUE of diabetes? a. The two types of diabetes are both preventable. b. The incidence of type 2 diabetes has decreased in recent years. *c. Diabetes is a major cause of blindness, kidney disease, and amputations of feet and legs. d. Type 1 diabetes is related to obesity and lack of exercise.

3-25. (factual -80-81) Dementia caused by ____________ is the most prevalent type of dementia. a. Parkinson’s disease b. multiple small strokes c. multiple concussions *d. Alzheimer’s disease

3-26. (factual-80) The term used to describe any significant global deterioration in intellectual abilities in older adults is _______. a. Alzheimer’s disease *b. dementia c. depression d. Parkinson’s disease 3-27. (conceptual-80) Alzheimer’s disease is one form of _______. *a. dementia b. depression c. coronary heart disease d. immune system breakdown 3-28. (conceptual-80–81) The last few decades have seen advances in identifying genes ..

61

associated with Alzheimer’s disease. The gene_______ increases one’s risk for Alzheimer’s disease. a. BN4 b. OB2 c. PS4 *d. APOEE4 3-29. (conceptual-81) The greatest risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease is: *a. age b. having a first-degree relative with Alzheimer’s. c. exhibiting visuospatial deficits d. smoking marijuana 3-30. (conceptual-81) Which of the following is TRUE of Alzheimer’s disease? a. Alzheimer’s disease is an extreme form of normal aging. b. There are new medications that cure Alzheimer’s disease. *c. People with Alzheimer’s disease show senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in their brain upon autopsy. d. Early-onset and late-onset Alzheimer’s diseases are equally common and are determined by the same genes.

3-31. (factual-84) Across the adult years, the 12-month prevalence of most mental

disorders increases from young adulthood to middle adulthood and then declines, with the lowest rates being ________________(Kessler, Berglund, Demler, et al., 2005). a. for teenagers who are between 17-19 years old b. for young adults who are 20-27 years old c. for middle age adults who are 45-55 years old *d. for adults who are 60 years of age and older 3-32. (conceptual-86-87) Which of the following is most accurate about depressive symptoms among older adults? *a. Rates of depression are significantly lower for older adults than young adults and middle-aged adults. b. Rates of depression are about the same for middle-aged, younger adults, and older adults. c. Rates of depression are the same when using DSM criteria and depressive symptoms from the CES-D10. d. Symptoms of depression using checklists such as the CES-D 3-33. (factual-85) Which form of mental health disorder shows the highest prevalence in adulthood? a. mood disorders *b. anxiety disorders c. impulse control disorders d. substance abuse disorders 3-34. (factual-84) At what median age do adults in the United States show the onset of substance abuse? *a. 20 years of age ..

62

b. 30 years of age c. 40 years of age d. 50 years of age 3-35. (factual-84) At what median age do adults in the United States show the onset of mood disorders? a. 10 years of age b. 15 years of age c. 20 years of age *d. 30 years of age

3-36. (factual-85) It is estimated that 20 percent of the elderly have pathological levels of anxiety.

Which of the following is NOT an anxiety disorder? a. phobias b. agoraphobia *c. dysthymic disorder d. PTSD 3-37. (factual-90-91) One major sex difference in health experiences over adulthood is that _______. *a. women have higher rates of nearly all chronic diseases b. men have higher rates of nearly all chronic diseases c. when women contract a fatal disease, they die more quickly d. men report higher rates of daily health problems at all ages 3-38. (factual-90-91) Women, when compared to men, _______. a. contract fatal diseases (such as cancer or heart disease) at about the same average ages as men, but survive longer with such diseases b. remain in good health much longer, without significant disability or disease *c. have a higher incidence of disabilities, but contract fatal diseases later in life d. contract fatal diseases at later average ages and have decreased incidences of depression and anxiety 3-39. (factual-91) Which of the following is NOT more common in adult women than adult men? a. mood disorders b. anxiety disorders *c. substance abuse d. schizophrenia 3-40. (factual-90) Which group of adults shows a pattern of short life expectancy and high rates of chronic illness throughout adulthood? *a. men b. women c. the poor d. the middle class 3-41. (factual-92) Among adults, which ethnic group in the U.S. seems to have the best health? a. Caucasians b. African Americans *c. Asian Americans ..

63

d. Hispanics 3-42. (factual-93) Which of the following diseases or health problems is more common among African Americans than among non-Hispanic whites? a. osteoporosis b. anorexia c. AIDS *d. high blood pressure 3-43. (factual-92-93) Which of the following is TRUE? *a. Hispanics who were born in other countries and came to the United States as immigrants tend to be in better health than Hispanic Americans who were born in the United States. b. Respondents at every age who had higher income levels reported more symptoms of depression. c. Economic conditions in neighborhoods do not contribute to the health of the people who live there; only education and income are correlated with health. d. Socioeconomic status has an effect on physical health, but not on mental health.

3-44. (conceptual-94) A good deal of research supports a link between Type A behavior pattern and increased risk of: a.diabetes *b.coronary artery disease c. cancer d. suicide 3-45. (conceptual -94-95) Which of the following is an example of a direct link between Type A and coronary heart disease? a. Type As create more stress for themselves because of their personality. b. Type As seeking out stressful situations. c. Type As cause others to be more hostile toward them. *d. Type As have an increased stress reaction and lower immune reaction.

3-46. (conceptual-95) Optimism: *a. has been shown to have only positive outcomes on health and health behaviors. b. has been shown to have positive health outcomes only for European Americans. c. has been shown to have positive health outcomes only in the U.S. d. has been shown to correlate negatively with serious physical illness and premature death.

3-47. (conceptual -96) Which of the following is TRUE? a. Most diseases are determined by a single gene. *b. Genetic information can affect individual responses to different treatments. c. Cancer and depression are transmitted by a single gene. d. Genes can have detrimental effects, but not protective effects on health.

3-48. (conceptual -96) The developmental origins hypothesis states that a. people of certain ethnic backgrounds have a genetic make up that makes them less vulnerable to illness than others. b. downregulation is the cause of most genetic disorders. *c. growth during the fetal period, infancy, and early childhood is a significant factor in ..

64

adult health. d. some illnesses are caused by problems during adolescence; others are caused by problems during later parts of the lifespan.

3-49. (conceptual-97) Researchers who examined 18th century medical records in Sweden found that the ____________ was/were the strongest factor in determining adult longevity. a. APOEE4 gene b. level of optimism c. level of hostility *d. infant infections 3-50. (applied-97) Marika’s parents earned a combined income that placed them below the poverty level and she grew up in poverty until late adolescence. Based on recent research, one can predict that: a. she has a Type A personality. *b. she is obese. c. she suffers from PTSD. d. she is low in optimism.

..

65

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 3-51. Briefly describe the differences between chronic diseases and disabilities.

3-52. List three risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease.

3-53. Define the following terms: atherosclerosis dementia Alzheimer’s disease 3-54. Describe our current information about the relationship between depression and age in adulthood. List and describe what factors make it difficult to draw clear conclusions about this relationship.

3-55. The DSM defines ten criteria for an individual to be diagnosed with “depression”. List five of these criteria.

3-56. Discuss one mental disorder that is more common in men and one that is more common in women.

3-57. Briefly describe why there are such marked differences between socio-economic classes in the aging process.

3-58. Discuss how the symptoms of heart attack look different for women than for men.

ESSAY QUESTIONS 3-59. Describe how someone could score “depressed” on one measure and not on another.

3-60. Briefly list the major sex/gender differences in physical and mental health among adults of various ages. What are some possible explanations for these differences?

3-61. Describe one example of a nonmedical solution to disease or disability..

3-62. Do health practices play more of a role in predicting rate of death than age, gender, or race?

If so, discuss how. Use relevant research to back up your claims.

3-63. Picture yourself growing older, and—acknowledging that you will most likely be affected by some sort of age-related disease—choose one from the list of possible suspects. Describe the disease and how it will affect you, and end by describing possible preventative measures you can take to prevent or ward off this disease.

3-64. Picture yourself growing older, and recall the types of mental disorders which can frequently occur in during aging. Now imagine that you are afflicted with one mental disorder. Of those described in our text, choose one and provide a full explanation of how it could affect your daily functioning. End by describing possible measures you can take to avert this mental disorder.

3-65. Compare and contrast two real-life or fictitious adults at age sixty-five in terms of their physical and mental health. In your comparison, what factors account for the differences you ..

66

portray in your example?

3-66. You have been asked to be a motivational speaker for a 5000k American Heart Association walk in your town. And there is a lot to cheer on your neighbors. Identify at least three reasons that the rate of cardiovascular disease is declining in the United States, and illustrate your points with generic examples or personal narratives.

3-67. Imagine that you are a psychiatric social worker at a local mental health facility. You will be trying to interpret recent research on depression to a multi-generational family that is living under one roof, and that you are meeting for the first time. The question of whether older adults more than younger adults suffer from depression seems like an easy one, but it is not. Choose at least one causal factor in depression that is different as it manifests in young versus older adults.

Sketch out different everyday scenarios so the family may have a better understanding.

3-68. Two risk factors appear for cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and Alzheimer’s diseases: sedentary lifestyle and obesity. When Bjorklund discussed Individual Differences in Health, she covered age-linked patterns for various physical diseases and mental health conditions. Within these age patterns are a variety of individual differences. Select one of the individual differences factors (i.e., gender, socioeconomic, racial, and ethnic differences; personality differences; and even genetic variation) and describe how sedentary lifestyle and obesity figure in each group.

3-69. Drawing upon research, describe one personality variable that impacts health.

3-70. Explain how growth during the fetal period, infancy, and the early years of childhood can have a significant impact on adult health. Cite findings of two studies in your response.

..

67

CHAPTER 4 COGNITIVE ABILITIES

CHAPTER OUTLINE •

•

• •

•

• • • •

Intelligence o Age Changes in Overall Intelligence o Components of Intelligence ▪ Crystallized Intelligence ▪ Fluid Intelligence o Reversing Declines in Intellectual Abilities Memory o Short-Term and Working Memory o Declarative and Nondeclarative (Procedural) Memory ▪ Semantic Memory ▪ Episodic Memory o Prospective Memory o Slowing Declines in Memory Abilities o Memory in Context ▪ Stereotype Threat Decision Making and Problem Solving o Socioemotional Selectivity Theory Individual Differences in Cognitive Change o Health ▪ Vision and Hearing ▪ Chronic Disease ▪ Medication o Genetics ▪ Heritability Scores o Demographics and Sociobiographical History o Schooling o Intellectual Activity o Physical Exercise o Subjective Evaluation of Decline Cognitive Assistance o Medical Adherence o Social Networking o E-Readers and Electronic Games o Safe Driving ▪ Useful Field of View Review of Cognitive Changes over the Adult Years and a Search for Balance Summary Key Terms Suggested Reading

Suggested Reading

BOOKSHELF This is a fast-growing area of research, now that many of our talented neuropsychologists are at ..

68

or approaching the age of potential cognitive decline.

Cabeza, R., Nyberg, L., & Park, D. (Eds.) (2009). Cognitive neuroscience of aging: Linking cognitive and cerebral aging. New York: Oxford University Press USA. Hall, S. S. (2010). Wisdom: From philosophy to neuroscience. New York: Knopf.

Stokes, A. (2012). Is this thing on? A computer handbook for late bloomers, technophobes, and the kicking and screaming. New York: Workman.

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION OR REVIEW ❖ Making Comparisons. As professors, we are accustomed to mental weightlifting. Our students, too, rely heavily on fluid intelligence, while we also rely heavily on crystallized intelligence. Try to make room for a discussion on the comparison between ourselves and “normal” cognitive aging, and compare ourselves now to our past-selves. What seems normal to someone who does not use their mind for a living can seem extremely distressing to a college professor or a lifelong learner. ❖ IQ Measures. It may be worthwhile to discuss IQ tests in this section in part due to the old adage “An IQ test measures how well you do on IQ tests.” The problems of IQ tests being racially and socio-economically biased are well known; however, one of the reviewers of a past edition of the text suggested that Bee and Bjorklund add a section emphasizing the cultural relativity of IQ tests and the fact that they do not measure basic competence. In a previous edition of this manual, Helen Bee offered the following response: I tried to find a way to do that without going off too far on a tangent, but eventually decided that I would have to leave that discussion to other courses in psychology, or to your lectures. My own feeling is that the pattern of age changes in IQ is probably not greatly influenced by limits, inadequacies, or cultural biases of current IQ tests. To be sure, there is no literature that I know of to address this question, but we do know that the validity of the tests is roughly the same within ethnic groups as it is among all groups combined. Thus, while the average score for different groups may be affected by bias of some kind in the tests, and the tests may well not measure some of the important aspects of cognitive functioning, the tests are measuring something significant, and that “something” declines with age. ❖ Multiple Factors of Intelligence. There have been some important developments centered on the notion that instead of a single factor, intelligence is comprised of several components or types. If you would like to supplement your class lectures and discussions on intelligence, this is an interesting area to explore. Foremost in this view are the works of Robert Sternberg and Howard Gardner. Sternberg’s triarchic theory holds that in addition to analytical intelligence (which is reflected in IQ scores), creative and practical intelligences are also important to success in life. There are literally hundreds of publications by Sternberg and his colleagues related to this theory. A rather accessible treatment of the topic can be found in his 1996 book.

Howard Gardner has proposed the notion of multiple intelligences. At present, Gardner ..

69

(1999) proposes eight different intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist. Like Sternberg, Gardner has written widely on his theory. A recent, readable treatment of the theory is offered in Gardner’s 1999 book. ❖ Longitudinal Data. Clearly, Schaie’s work (e.g., 1994) is a seminal contribution to longitudinal research on intelligence. Schaie’s body of work using longitudinal methodology is worth covering in some detail. Ronnlund, Nyberg, Backman, et al. (2005) have been involved in a longitudinal study that focuses on systematic decline in semantic and episodic memory, spanning from age 35 to age 85. Figure 4.4 on page 113 of your text (shown here) illustrates the steadily declining curve. Have your students provide concrete and specific examples illustrating the proficiency or lack of proficiency in semantic and episodic memory, using several time points in the life span.

Figure 4.4 Estimated agerelated changes in semantic and episodic memory abilities. Semantic memory abilities show increases over middle adulthood and a slow decline in older age, whereas episodic abilities display a sharper decline in the mid-60s.

Source: Rönnlund, Nyberg, Bäckman, et al. (2005).

❖ Strategies to Improve Memory Performance. It appears that two separate questions are being addressed in the data from training studies: (1) Can older adults improve their cognitive skills with appropriate training?

(2) Does training eliminate the age difference?

Probably not completely. But maybe so. A fairly new web-based tool which uses online brain games, found at Lumosity.com, proposes to improve memory and fluidity. Free trial accounts are available, and provide data about how the “player” has improved in several key areas, and how they compare to others in their age group and in other age groups. Try it.

Have your students try it. I guarantee lively discussion and a little friendly competition. ❖ The Role of Experience. While expertise or skill in an area does not seem to have much explanatory power, experience plays an important role. As is discussed in the text, crystallized intelligence, which is linked to education and experience, remains stable or ..

70

actually increases with age.

If you are interested in exploring the importance of experience in your lectures, you might look at the work of Jack Mezirow (e.g., 1991, 2000). Mezirow’s notion of “transformative learning” is build largely on people’s experiences and how they make sense of these experiences. Another excellent general discussion on the role of experience can be found in Merriam and Caffarella (1999). ❖ Biological Explanations. A good source is Finkel & McGue (1993). They report data for ninety-three monozygotic and sixty-seven dizogotic pairs of twins aged sixty to eighty-eight, all of whom had been part of the Minnesota Twin Study. In this particular paper, they report on 4 measures of memory (word recall, immediate text recall, delayed text recall, and figure memory) and conclude that 55 percent of the variance is attributable to genetic factors. In addition, they have data on lifestyle, physical activity, and other factors.

The frontal lobe seems to help explain age differences. As the aging process apparently affects at least the ability to process and organize contextual information, thus affecting episodic memory, we are left to wonder why there is a selective detriment occurring only in some areas of memory. There appears to be consensus that something is happening in the aging process that produces an age-related decline in several areas of memory functioning (Salthouse, 1991; Lindenberger & Baltes, 1994). It has been suggested that this detriment is the result of age-related neuronal change within the frontal lobe (Nyberg et al., 1996; Parkin & Walter, 1992). Parkin and Walter (1992) suggest that this observable age deficit in memory tasks is due to a problem initiating retrieval operations because of frontal dysfunction. It is for this reason that if there indeed exists an age-related effect on the frontal lobe as researchers suspect, then detriments in source monitoring and processing situational information are observable.

SELECTED REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER FOUR Ackerman, P. L. (2008). Knowledge and cognitive aging. In F. I. M. Craik & T. A. Salthouse (Eds.), The handbook of aging and cognition (3rd ed., pp. 445–489). New York: Psychology Press.

Gottfredson, L. S., & Deary, I. J. (2004). Intelligence predicts health and longevity, but why?

Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13, 1–4.

Ornstein. P. A., & Light, L. L. (2010). Memory development across the lifespan. In R. M. Lerner (Series Ed.) & W. F. Overton (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of life-span development: Vol. 1.

Biology, cognition, and methods across the life span. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Schaie, K. W., & Zanjani, F. (2006). Intellectual development across adulthood. In C. Hoare (Ed.), Oxford handbook of adult development and learning (pp. 99–122). New York: Oxford University Press.

Tulving, E. (1985). Memory and consciousness. Canadian Psychology, 26, 1–12.

Tulving, E. (2005). Episodic memory and autonoesis: Uniquely human? In H. S. Terrace & J. Metcalfe (Eds.), The missing link in cognition: Origins of self-reflective consciousness (pp. 3–56). New York: Oxford University Press. ..

71

Weatherbee, S. R., & Allaire, J. C. (2008). Everyday cognition and mortality: Performance differences and predictive utility of the Everyday Cognition Battery. Psychology and Aging, 23, 216–221.

SELECTED KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS FOR CHAPTER FOUR Crystallized intelligence: a type of intelligence dependent upon education and experience; a the set of skills and bits of knowledge that we each learn as part of growing up in a given culture Digit-span task: a measure of primary memory, in which an examiner reads a series of randomly arranged digits at a rate of about one per second, and at the end of the list the person must repeat them back in exact order Executive function: the processes involved in regulating attention and in determining what to do with information just gathered or retrieved from long-term memory Fluid intelligence: a type of intelligence that requires a basic set of abilities believed to be more under the influence of biological processes, in which it is easier to acquire novel information that is not aided by prior education or learning Flynn effect: the phenomenon that average IQ has increased steadily over time, mainly due to changes in modern life, such as advances in education, increased use of technology, and jobs that are more intellectually demanding Prospective memory: the ability to remember to do something in the future Psychometrics: the field of psychology that studies the measurement of human abilities such as intelligence Socioemotional selectivity theory: Carstensen’s theory that older adults view time as more limited and as a result “direct attention to emotionally meaningful aspects of life, such as the desire to lead a meaningful life, to have emotionally intimate social relationships, and to feel socially interconnected.”

Stereotype threat: the anxiety that is experienced when members of a group are aware of a negative stereotype that is widely held about their group, if they are put into a position that might confirm the stereotype Useful field of view: the area of the visual field that can be processed in one glance

..

72

Test Bank Chapter 4 QUICK QUIZ 4-1. (applied-104–105) A longitudinal sample of adults is followed over 30 years. All of the following findings are hypothesized EXCEPT _________. a. the average IQ of the whole group remains the same b. no decline in cognitive functioning occurs c. decline occurs, but it is not extreme d. adults compensate for declines 4-2. (conceptual-105) What is the major explanation offered to account for the differences in the pattern of IQ stability or decline over adulthood shown in cross-sectional versus longitudinal studies? a. cohort differences b. terminal drop c. subject attrition d. unrepresentative samples 4-3. (factual-104) The latest version of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale provides a Full Scale IQ based on four separate indexes: _____________ each of which consists of a number of different subtests. a. Verbal Comprehension, College Algebra, Science, and Music b. Verbal Comprehension, Scientific Knowledge, Working Memory, and Processing Speed c. Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual Reasoning, Working Memory, and Processing Speed d. Working Memory, Processing Speed, Generic Reasoning, and Word Problems 4-4. (applied-106-107) Which of the following would be considered a test of “fluid” abilities? a. vocabulary b. response speed c. social skills d. reading comprehension 4-5. (factual-109–110) What is the term used to describe the amount of information we can hold in mind while performing some type of operation on it? a. storage b. sensory memory c. recognition d. working memory 4-6. (applied-114) Chiante is an older adult who was taught the memory strategy of forming an image in her mind of the people’s faces she met at the party and their names. This is an example of _______. a. list making b. an external memory aid c. an IQ aid d. an internal memory aid ..

73

4-7. (conceptual-118) The latest research on age-related changes in judgment and decisionmaking suggests that older adults utilize less information and take less time to make their choices (when compared to younger adults). However, there were NO differences in the choices made. The authors suggest that this is because _______. a. older adults utilize better inductive reasoning b. older adults better utilize deductive reasoning skills c. younger adults base their decisions on intuition d. younger adults better utilize their procedural memories 4-8. (applied-122–125) Which individual is most likely to have an advantage in cognitive functioning into old age? a. an unmarried female who elects to return to school for her GED after 15 years of factory work b. a married female who completed college on the G.I. Bill and is now engaged as a personal trainer c. a divorced male college professor who devotes 16 hours a day to his solitary research d. a 24-year-old single male welfare recipient 4-9. (factual-125) Exercise has ________ effect on intellectual skill. a. a negative b. a minimal c. no measurable d. a positive 4-10. (conceptual-125) What is the key flaw in studies of the effect of exercise on mental abilities in which comparisons are made between regular exercisers and sedentary adults? a. The exercisers use so many different forms of exercise that we can’t be sure what works. b. Sedentary subjects may actually exercise somewhat but not report it. c. Those who choose to exercise may be different in other significant ways from those who choose to be sedentary. d. The samples of exercisers are normally younger than the samples of sedentary adults to whom they are compared.

..

74

ANSWER KEY: Chapter 4 QUICK QUIZ 1. Answer: b Page in text: 104–105 Topic: Intelligence Question type: applied; Difficulty level: moderate 2. Answer: a Page in text: 105 Topic: Intelligence Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: difficult 3. Answer: c Page in text: 104 Topic: Intelligence Question type: factual; Difficulty level: easy 4. Answer: b Page in text: 106-107 Topic: Intelligence Question type: applied; Difficulty level: easy 5. Answer: d Page in text: 109–110 Topic: Memory Question type: factual; Difficulty level: easy 6. Answer: d Page in text: 114 Topic: Memory Question type: applied; Difficulty level: moderate 7. Answer: b Page in text: 118 Topic: Decision Making and Problem Solving Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: difficult 8. Answer: b Page in text: 122-125 Topic: Individual Differences in Cognitive Change Question type: applied; Difficulty level: moderate 9. Answer: d Page in text: 125 Topic: Individual Differences in Cognitive Change Question type: factual; Difficulty level: easy 10. Answer: c Page in text: 125 Topic: Individual Differences in Cognitive Change Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: easy ..

75

CHAPTER 4 COGNITIVE ABILITIES MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 4-1. (factual-104) Many definitions of intelligence include the global abilities to _______. a. act purposefully b. think rationally c. deal effectively *d. all of the above 4-2. (applied-104–105) A longitudinal sample of adults is followed over 30 years. All of the following findings are hypothesized EXCEPT ________. a. the average IQ of the whole group remains the same *b. no decline in cognitive functioning occurs c. decline occurs, but it is not extreme d. adults compensate for declines 4-3. (applied-104-105) Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) scores produce a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. This suggests that 2/3 of all adults obtain a score between _______. a. 70–130 *b. 85–115 c. 100–115 d. 85–100 4-4. (factual-106–107) On which of the following types of tests do adults retain the most skill well into old age? *a. unspeeded and crystallized b. crystallized and speeded c. fluid and non-verbal d. fluid and verbal 4-5. (conceptual-105) What is the major explanation offered to account for the differences in the pattern of IQ stability or decline over adulthood shown in cross-sectional versus longitudinal studies? *a. cohort differences b. terminal drop c. subject attrition d. unrepresentative samples 4-6. (conceptual-105) Which of the following best describes the conclusions about changes in average IQ with age drawn from cross-sectional versus longitudinal studies? a. Both longitudinal and cross-sectional findings show similar significant declines in IQ scores beginning at about age 40 or 45. b. Both longitudinal and cross-sectional findings show similar maintenance of IQ through old age. c. Cross-sectional findings indicate maintenance of IQ scores well into old age, while longitudinal data indicate a decline in IQ beginning at about age 50. *d. Cross-sectional findings point to a decline in IQ beginning at about age 35, while longitudinal data point to much longer maintenance of IQ. ..

76

4-7. (conceptual-105-106) Which of the following is the most probable explanation for the difference in the apparent pattern of decline in IQ from cross-sectional and longitudinal studies? *a. Older cohorts in cross-sectional studies have less education than do younger cohorts. b. The older samples in cross-sectional studies include more ill subjects. c. Declines in midlife were only observed in the cohort born between 1910 and 1920. d. The longitudinal samples have been more representative of the overall population than have the samples studied in the major cross-sectional studies.

4-8. (applied-106) Which of the following would be considered a measure of fluid intelligence? a. a test of vocabulary b. a test of comprehension of paragraph meaning *c. an abstract reasoning test d. a measure of social skills 4-9. (factual -106) The finding that average IQ has increased steadily over the 20th century is referred to as the _______ . a. cohort effect b. sequential effect *c. Flynn effect d. positivity bias 4-10. (factual-106) According to Cattell and Horn’s theory of intelligence, which type of intelligence is thought to reflect the more basic, physiologically based type of ability? *a. fluid intelligence b. crystallized intelligence c. verbal intelligence d. memory 4-11. (applied-106) An experimenter reads a series of numbers and requires the subject to repeat those numbers back in the order given. This is a test of what kind of intelligence? a. crystallized intelligence *b. fluid intelligence c. dialectical intelligence d. practical intelligence 4-12. (applied-106-107) Which of the following would be considered a “fluid” ability? a. vocabulary *b. response speed c. social skills d. reading comprehension 4-13. (conceptual-106-107) Several different distinctions among types of intellectual tests have been suggested. Which set of subtypes appears to be similar in content? a. speeded, verbal, crystallized *b. speeded, fluid, performance c. unspeeded, fluid, verbal d. unspeeded, crystallized, performance 4-14. (applied-106) Which of the following would be considered a measure of crystallized intelligence? ..

77

*a. a vocabulary test b. a test of spatial ability c. an analogies test d. a measure of abstract reasoning 4-15. (conceptual-105–107) Suppose you hear someone say, “Intellectual skill is maintained, with no psychologically significant loss, until about age 60 or 65, after which there is a small decline.” You are convinced that this is an overly optimistic view. Which of the following statements would be your most potent counterargument? a. Cross-sectional data show a decline much earlier than age 60 or 65. *b. In longitudinal studies, earlier declines appear for tests that measure speeded or fluid abilities. c. Studies of terminal drop indicate that declines occur only within 5 years of death. d. Declines begin earlier than this for adults with significant health problems.

4-16. (conceptual-106) Research has shown that IQ, from childhood into older adulthood: *a. is very stable. b. is moderately variable. c. is extremely variable.. d. can not be studied because it is not possible to compare IQ scores in childhood to those in adulthood.

4-17. (applied-106-107) You recently compared your mother’s recent IQ scores with those from the test she took 10 years ago. What combination of changes in crystallized or fluid subscale scores would you MOST likely find? *a. mild increase in crystallized tasks, mild decrease in fluid tasks b. no change in crystallized, no change in fluid c. no change in crystallized tasks, moderate increase in fluid tasks d. moderate decrease in crystallized tasks moderate increase in fluid tasks 4-18. (conceptual-107) At least 50% of adults aged 80 complete fluid and crystallized tests of intelligence and performance at rates similar to young people. This statement suggests _______. *a. extensive variability within age groups b. that at least half of older adults have had increases in their IQ scores over time c. that at least half of younger adults have higher IQ scores than the older adults d. all of the above are suggested 4-19. (factual-106) When speaking of the type of intelligence based on education and experience, Horn and Cattell refer to _______. a. fluid intelligence *b. crystallized intelligence c. spatial intelligence d. deductive reasoning and long-term working memory

..

78

4-20. (factual-109) Short-term memory is also referred to as ________. *a. primary memory b. prospective memory c. declarative d. working memory 4-21. (factual-109) __________ refers to the initial step as information is picked up by the senses and processed briefly by the perceptual system. *a. The sensory store b. Short-term memory c. Semantic memory d. Procedural memory 4-22. (applied-109-111) Clarissa is walking through the grocery store and realizes that they only take cash or a debit card. She does not have a debit card, so she starts to add up the cost of her groceries to determine if she has enough money. She is using her ________. a. declarative memory b. semantic memory *c. working memory d. prospective memory 4-23. (applied-109–110) When you look up a phone number and say it over to yourself once so that you can dial the whole number without having to check it again, what part of the memory sequence are you using? a. retrieval *b. short-term memory c. encoding d. sensory memory 4-24. (factual-109-110) On which type of memory test do adults show the MOST loss of skill with age? a. short-term memory *b. working memory c. procedural memory d. sensory memory 4-25. (factual-109–110) You are introduced to someone new, and say his name over to yourself so that you will remember it a minute later when you will have to introduce this new person to someone else. Where is the new name likely to be “located” in your memory system? a. sensory memory *b. short-term memory c. long-term memory d. procedural memory 4-26. (factual-109–112) Which pair of memory systems demonstrates the largest decline with age? a. sensory and primary b. semantic and primary c. episodic and semantic *d. working and episodic

..

79

4-27. (applied-111–112) Your 78-year-old grandfather recently attended his 60th high school reunion, and although he could describe the old gym where he and his teammates won the basketball championship, he had difficulty recalling his teammates’ names. This is an example of age-related changes in ________. a. procedural memory b. working memory *c. semantic memory d. none of the above 4-28. (applied-111) Vernice is working on a task that requires her to regulate her attention and to determine what to do with information just gathered. These abilities are referred to as: a. episodic memory. *b. executive function. c. semantic memory. d. “g”.

4-29. (applied-112) Roderick arrived at the lab to participate in a study in which he was given two tasks: to remember a list of words and to remember the details of a story. The cognitive psychologist conducting this experiment was measuring his ________. a. IQ b. prospective memory c. nondeclarative memory *d. episodic memory 4-30. (applied-112-113) On which of the following kinds of “everyday” memory tasks is an older adult likely to do as well as younger adults? a. recalling whether she turned off the stove before she left the house *b. recalling whether she voted in the last election c. recalling the names of all the major streets of the town in which she lives d. remembering to take medication a specified number of times each day 4-31. (conceptual- 113) Word-finding failure and name-retrieval failures are both examples of tasks that require ________. *a. semantic memory b. prospective memory c. episodic memory d. psychometrics 4-32. (conceptual-118) The latest research on age-related changes in judgment and decisionmaking suggests that older adults utilize less information and take less time to make their choices (when compared to younger adults). However, there were NO differences in the choices made. The authors suggest that this is because _______. a. older adults utilize better inductive reasoning *b. older adults better utilize deductive reasoning skills c. younger adults base their decisions on intuition d. younger adults better utilize their procedural memories 4-33. (conceptual-112–118) Which of the following is TRUE? a. The more related the practical problems are to the older participant’s interests and areas of expertise, the better they do solving the problems. b. Younger adults do better than older adults on traditional problem-solving tasks as ..

80

measured in a lab. c. When the “memory” part of the study is de-emphasized, older adults perform better. *d. All of the above are true.

4-34. (conceptual-117) Older adults’ reduced performance on declarative memory tasks when they are reminded of the negative age stereotype is probably the result of such reminders: a. decreasing the positivity bias. b. taxing their prospective memory. c. decreasing the Flynn effect *d. consuming more working memory capacity.

4-35. (applied-119) Mr. Rodriguez, a 75-year-old male, was a participant in a study that required him to look at different types of advertisements. These ads featured three types of appeals: emotional, knowledge-related, and neutral. Based on research, it is most likely that: a. Mr. Rodriguez will remember all the ads equally well. b. Mr. Rodriguez will remember the neutral items the best. *c Mr. Rodriguez will remember the emotional ads the best. d. Mr. Rodriguez will remember the knowledge-related ads the best.

4-36. (conceptual- 120) In general, older adults are more emotionally ________ than younger adults. a. negative *b. positive c. neutral d. unstable 4-37. (conceptual -120) Socioemotional selectivity theory provides an explanation for *a. older people’s positivity bias. b. older people’s greater vulnerability to stereotype threats involving memory. c. the Flynn effect. d. the contextual perspective.

4-38. (conceptual-122-123) Which of the following is a valid statement relating to research concerning genetic influence on cognitive abilities? a. Fraternal twins have higher correlations on scores of cognitive functioning than do monozygotic twins. b. Different types of cognitive abilities are influenced to the same extent by genetics. c. For general cognitive ability, heritability decreases with age. *d. Meta-analyses of variance in IQ scores among twins suggest that 50% of the variance can be explained by genetic differences.

4-39. (applied-122–125) Which individual is most likely to have an advantage in cognitive functioning into old age? a. an unmarried female who elects to return to school for her GED after 15 years of factory work *b. a married female who completed college on the G.I. Bill and is now engaged as a personal trainer c. a divorced male college photographer who devotes 16 hours a day to his work. d. a 24-year-old single male welfare recipient 4-40. (factual-125) Exercise has ____ effect on intellectual skill. ..

81

a. a negative b. a minimal c. no measurable *d. a positive 4-41. (factual-123) Which of the following is TRUE regarding the link between educational attainment and rate of cognitive decline with age? *a. People with fewer years of schooling show more cognitive decline. b. People with more years of schooling show more cognitive decline. c There is no correlation between number of years of formal schooling and cognitive decline. d. No researchers have examined this question because so few people in late adulthood went to college.

4-42. (factual-123-124) Which of the following is TRUE? a. Men have a slight advantage over women in episodic memory, verbal tasks, and maintaining brain weight. *b. The rate of decline in cognitive abilities is the same, regardless of how privileged individuals have been in terms of income, professional prestige, and social position. c. Living with a spouse who is functioning at a high cognitive level is no more likely to ward off cognitive decline than living with one whose cognitive level is low. d. Reading books, traveling, and attending cultural events do not have any impact on intellectual functioning as people age 4-43. (applied-122–125) Which of the following persons is most likely to maintain good intellectual functioning into old age? a. Sarah, of average intelligence, who does the crossword puzzle every day and takes a brisk one-hour walk each morning b. Jim, who has a high IQ and reads regularly, but rarely exercises c. Paul, who has a high IQ, runs three miles each day, and plays handball regularly, but doesn’t read even the daily paper *d. We do not have enough information to make a prediction.

4-44. (conceptual-125) What is the key flaw in studies of the effect of exercise on mental abilities in which comparisons are made between regular exercisers and sedentary adults? a. The exercisers use so many different forms of exercise that we can’t be sure what works. b. Sedentary subjects may actually exercise somewhat but not report it. *c. Those who choose to exercise may be different in other significant ways from those who choose to be sedentary. d. The samples of exercisers are normally younger than the samples of sedentary adults to whom they are compared.

4.45. (conceptual- 128-129) When it comes to new technologies a. older adults prefer e-readers to traditional hard copy books. b. older adults read much slower and comprehend less reading e-books compared to traditional books. *c. older adults showed significant gains in physical fitness and cognitive health after electronic exergame training with the Wii. d. only men seem to benefit cognitively and physically from electronic exergames.

..

82

4-46. (factual-129) Which of the following is TRUE regarding research on driving? a. 20-year-olds have much higher rates of two-vehicle crashes than 70-year-olds. b. Useful field of view is a constant perceptual ability; it stays the same even when attending to other activities. *c. Older adults’ failure to scan at intersections is a bad habit that can be modified by simulator training. d. Even after training, older adults do not show increases in useful field of view.

4-47. (factual-132) Dixon suggests the cognitive changes that take place as we age should be examined in terms of “gains and losses.” What is one area of gain? a. increased useful field of view b. increased traditional problem-solving skills *c. increased compensatory skills d. increased working memory

..

83

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 4-48. Bjorklund noted that “cognitive processes are preserved in later adulthood for people who exercise those processes regularly.” Discuss research evidence highlighting the benefits of intellectual activity in late adulthood.

4-49. A newspaper reporter asks you for a brief summary statement about the relationship between age and intellectual skill in adulthood. Write a two or three sentence summary.

4-50. What explanation(s) can you offer for the differences in the findings from longitudinal and cross-sectional studies of IQ change over adulthood?

4-51. Briefly summarize the findings on the link between physical health and the maintenance or decline of mental abilities over the adult years.

4-52. What is positivity bias and how do researchers measure it?

4-53. What does it mean to say that the correlation between 2 sets of IQ scores obtained 20 years apart in adulthood is .80?

4-54. What do results on stereotype threat tell us about memory processes in late adulthood?

ESSAY QUESTIONS 4-55. Why would researchers get dramatically differing scores for IQ measures depending on whether their design was cross-sectional or longitudinal?

4-56. If you were going to give advice to a friend about what lifestyle or habits to follow in order to maximize the likelihood of maintaining intellectual skill well into old age, what specific items would you list? For which of these pieces of advice do you have the best support?

4-57. Briefly summarize what we know about the relationship (if any) between mental or physical exercise and maintenance of mental skill in old age. What sort of additional research do we need to clarify the relationship more fully?

4-58. Baltes (1993) argues that cognition is like a computer; the hardware becomes less efficient and the software can be maintained. Argue for or against this position and use research to support your position.

4-59. Many studies show that better-educated adults retain their intellectual skills better and later into old age than is true for less well-educated adults. Provide at least one explanation for this finding.

4-60. Create a fictitious individual, male or female, and compare and contrast that individual’s memory functions at age forty and at age seventy. Please be thorough and include explanations of the causes for the changes in function. What, if anything, would you suggest to help your seventy-year-old retain or reclaim memory functions?

..

84

4-61. Choose a game [e.g. concentration with images of travel destinations), and provide the rationale using background information on cognition and memory from your text, that would be a fun, memory training game for the AARP website.

4-62. With memory, the contextual perspective considers the adaptive nature of cognition,

the idea that as we age our lives change, and that successful aging depends on how we adapt our cognitive styles to fit those changes. Consider yourself, choose a circumstance or an example that illustrates how you remember things or events now that is different from when you were younger.

..

85

CHAPTER 5 SOCIAL ROLES CHAPTER OUTLINE: • • •

•

• •

• • • •

Social Roles and Transitions o Biological Clock o Social Clock Gender Roles and Gender Stereotypes o Learning-Schema Theory o Social Role Theory Social Roles in Young Adulthood o Leaving (and Returning) Home o Becoming a Spouse or Partner ▪ Gender Roles in Early Partnerships ▪ Marital Status and Health o Becoming a Parent ▪ Parenthood and Marital Happiness Social Roles in Middle Adulthood o The Departure of the Children: The Empty Nest o Gender Roles at Midlife ▪ Crossover of Gender Roles o Becoming a Grandparent ▪ Grandfamilies o Caring for an Aging Parent ▪ Gender and Caregiving ▪ The Impact of Caregiving Social Roles in Late Adulthood o Living Alone o Becoming a Care Receiver Social Roles in Atypical Families o Lifelong Singles o The Childless o Divorced (and Remarried) Adults The Effect of Variations in Timing o Social Timing Summary Key Terms Suggested Reading

Suggested Reading

BOOKSHELF Comer, J. (2006). When roles reverse: A guide to parenting your parents. Newburyport, MA: Hampton Roads Publishing.

An intimate look at a middle-aged man faced with a role-reversal few of us are well-equipped to handle.

Hareven, T. K. (Ed.) (1992). Aging and generational relations over the life course: A historical ..

86

and cross-cultural perspective. Berlin, Germany: Walter de Gruyter.

In 1992, the University of Delaware hosted the International Conference on Aging and Generational Relations over the Life Course. The results of this conference, as edited by Tamara Hareven, are presented in this wellinformed, scholarly text.

Trafford, A. (2010). As time goes by: Boomerang marriages, serial spouses, throwback couples, and other romantic adventures in an age of longevity. New York: Basic Books.

A factual and humorous look at the romantic possibilities over the age of 50.

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION OR REVIEW ❖ Social Roles and the Social Clock. The important point that needs to be underlined with your students is that entrances and exits from particular roles create the framework for adult life.

Early adulthood is complicated because it involves mostly entrances; middle and late adulthood involve more exits, although redefinition is also a crucial part of midlife.

Remember, too, that there is a new social age category that is neither “young old” nor “middle aged.” ❖ Gender Stereotype Roles. Table 5.1 on page 141 of the text gives examples of stereotypes that are labeled communal (feminine) or instrumental (masculine). See below. A fun exercise is to pick some random YouTube videos with central “actors” of various ages, and a mix of male and female. Ask your students to assign the characteristics they feel fit the main “actor” in each of several videos, then share this list of stereotypes with them. Discuss! You’ll find a vast difference between generational stereotypes.

..

87

❖ Generational Squeeze. The textbook discusses the midlife issue of becoming caregiver to your own parents, and also the identity crisis involved with become the cared-for instead of the caregiver. This role reversal is difficult for the adult children and their elderly parents, and something with which most students in class will have firsthand experience. A frank and sensitive discussion about similar issues in their own extended families will make this part of the chapter very real and relevant to them. ❖ Further Thoughts on Caregiving. It is also important to point out in class that the elderly often care for each other. When both spouses are still living, the person most likely to care for a frail elder is the spouse, often for many years. Middle-aged children, in such cases, provide backup care or assistance. So the role of caregiver is not unique to middle-aged adults. But in both middle-age and old age, caregiving is more often performed by the woman than the man.

In the chapter, the author points out that with regard to the middle-aged, there is a demographic reason for this as well as a psychological one; more mothers survive late into old age, often alone, and they are more likely to be helped by daughters. Similarly, the fact that such caregiving is more common among aging women than aging men has a demographic explanation as well—women most often marry men older than themselves.

SELECTED REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER FIVE

..

88

Goldberg, A. E., & Perry-Jenkins, M. (2007). The division of labor and perceptions of parental roles: Lesbian couples across the transition to parenthood. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 24, 297–318.

Hawkins, D. N., & Booth, A. (2005). Unhappily ever after: Effects of long-term, low quality marriages on well-being. Social Forces, 84, 451–471.

Liu, H., Reczek, C., & Brown, D. (2013). Same-sex cohabitors and health: The role of raceethnicity, gender, and socioeconomic status. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 54, 25–45.

Phelan, K. (2005). Generativity and psychological well-being in middle-age adults. Dissertation Abstracts International:Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 65, 4323.

Sayer, L. C. (2006). Economic aspects of divorce and relationship dissolution. In M. A. Fine & J. H. Harvey (Eds.), Handbook of divorce and relationship dissolution (pp. 385–406).

Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Martin, J. A., Hamilton, B. E., Ventura, S. J., et al. (2012). Births: Final data for 2010. National Vital Statistics Report. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved March 18, 2013, from http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr61/nvsr61_01.pdf\#table01 University of Michigan Institute for Social Research. (2009). Chore wars: Men, women, and housework. Retrieved May 20, 2009, from http://www.nsf.gov/discoveries/disc_summ.jsp?cntn_id=111458 U.S. Census Bureau. (2011a). Census bureau reports 55 percent have married one time. Retrieved March 18, 2013, from http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/ marital_status_living_arrangements/cb11-90.html Zhang, Z., & Hayward, M. D. (2001). Childlessness and the psychological well-being of older persons. Journals of Gerontology: Psychological and Social Sciences, 56, 311–320.

SELECTED KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS FOR CHAPTER FIVE Communal qualities: qualities that surround a female stereotype, such as being sympathetic, nurturing, caring, and intuitive Economic exchange theory: this theory states that men and women function as a couple to exchange goods and services Egalitarian roles: equal roles for men and women in relationships Emerging adulthood: the time of transition between late adolescence and full-fledged adulthood, roughly between the ages of 18 and 25, as proposed by psychologist Jeffrey Jensen Arnett (2000) Grandfamilies: families in which grandparents have taken their grandchildren into their homes and assumed parental responsibility for them

..

89

Instrumental qualities: qualities that surround a male stereotype, such as being competitive, adventurous, and physically strong Marital crisis effect: the theory stating that married people are healthier because they have not endured the crisis of being divorced or widowed Marital resources effect: the theory stating that being married gives people more advantages in terms of financial resources, social support, and healthier lifestyles Marital selection effect: the theory stating that people in poor mental and physical health are not as likely to marry as those who are better off Parental imperative: the concept that gender roles in parenting are a hard-wired genetic imperative Parental investment theory: the theory that holds that women and men evolved different gender role behaviors and interests because they differ in how much time and resources they invest in each child

..

90

Test Bank Chapter 5 QUICK QUIZ 5-1. (applied-138) A woman’s youngest child starts first grade and she begins working part time.

This is an example of a change in a(n) _______. a. social role b. biological role c. gender role d. age stratum 5-2. (applied-138) After dating her boyfriend for only three weeks, thirty-eight-year-old Carla was excited that she was getting married, despite the fact that a few days before, she was not sure if they had much in common. Carla’s decision seems to be ________. a. an example of the parental imperative b. evidence of crossover of gender roles c. dictated by the social clock d. an example of the marital selection effect 5-3. (conceptual-140) Research in different cultures has led to the following conclusion: a. gender roles are the same for males and females regardless of where they live. b. gender roles are dynamic. c. traditional gender roles are the most adaptive. d. societal changes only affect gender roles in the U.S. 5-4. (applied-139) Imagine that you are a business executive and you are about to have a meeting with a rival executive whom you know to be a woman. You know nothing else about her, but you imagine that she must be less competitive than your male colleagues—probably more conciliatory. What process are you demonstrating with such thoughts? a. intellectualization b. stereotyping c. differentiation d. pragmatics 5-5. (factual-138) At which age in the life cycle are adults likely to add the greatest number of new roles? a. at 20–30 years old b. at 40–50 years old c. at 60–70 years old d. at 80–90 years old 5-6. (factual-142-144) Current research in the United States on leaving (and returning) home has shown that _______. a. more females than males aged 18–24 live with their parents b. the older they are when they move out, the more likely they are to return c. the proportion of young adults living in their parents homes has increased from 2005– 2011. d. more individuals aged 25 to 34 were living with their parents than those who were between 18 and 24 years of age

..

91

5-7. (conceptual-153-154) The role of grandparent _______. a. is less common today than it was in the past b. is experienced by most at the average age of 65 c. is one that most think they are doing an average job at, but regret not being able to play an important role in their grandchildren’s lives d. involves more intimacy for women than for men 5-8. (conceptual-153) Which of the following conclusions is the most reasonable statement of current data on gender role crossover at midlife? a. There is no evidence to support the concept of gender role crossover. b. There is reasonably strong evidence that men become more feminine, but no clear evidence that women become more masculine after midlife. c. There is clear evidence that women become more masculine, but little indication that men become more feminine after midlife. d. There is evidence for an expansion of gender role boundaries at midlife, but little indication of a full crossover.

5-9. (applied-162) Of the following individuals, who is LEAST LIKELY to remarry? a. Marshall, a European–American male b. Jennifer, an Hispanic American female c. Kim, an Asian–American female d. Vanessa, an African–American female 5-10. (factual-161-162) Which of the following best describes our current research on childlessness? a. Hispanic women are more likely to be childless than those of other races or ethnic groups. b. Childless women tend to have lower-level jobs and earn less money than their counterparts with children. c. The increase in the number of childless women is unique to the U.S.; most other developed countries have seen a decrease in childlessness. d. The number of childless women has increased since the 1970s.

..

92

ANSWER KEY: Chapter 5 QUICK QUIZ 1. Answer: a Page in text: 138 Topic: Social Roles and Transitions Question type: applied; Difficulty level: easy 2. Answer: c Page in text: 138 Topic: Social Roles and Transitions Question type: applied; Difficulty level: moderate 3. Answer: b Page in text: 140 Topic: Gender Roles and Gender Stereotypes Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: moderate 4. Answer: b Page in text: 139 Topic: Gender Roles and Gender Stereotypes Question type: applied; Difficulty level: moderate 5. Answer: a Page in text: 138 Topic: Social Roles and Transitions Question type: factual; Difficulty level: easy 6. Answer: c Page in text: 142-144 Topic: Social Roles in Young Adulthood Question type: factual; Difficulty level: moderate 7. Answer: d Page in text: 153-154 Topic: Social Roles in Middle Adulthood Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: moderate 8. Answer: d Page in text: 153 Topic: Social Roles in Middle Adulthood Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: difficult 9. Answer: d Page in text: 162 Topic: Social Roles in Atypical Families Question type: applied; Difficulty level: moderate 10. Answer: d Page in text: 161-162 Topic: Social Roles in Atypical Families Question type: factual; Difficulty level: moderate ..

93

CHAPTER 5 SOCIAL ROLES MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 5-1. (applied-138) A woman’s youngest child starts first grade and she begins working part time.

This is an example of a change in a(n) _______. *a. social role b. biological role c. gender role d. age stratum 5-2. (conceptual-138) Unlike today, early social role theory described adulthood in terms of: *a. the number of roles an individual occupied at different ages. b. the amount of time an individual spent in each of the different roles. c. the perceived quality of the roles occupied at different ages. d. the willingness of the person to transition from one role to another.

5-3. (conceptual-139) A brief definition of a gender role is _______. *a. a job description for being a male or a female b. a rigid stereotype of male and female behavior c. a typical position taken during sexual intercourse d. the degree of match between a gender stereotype and behavior 5-4. (factual-139) Gender stereotypes refer to sets of shared beliefs about how men and women should behave. This can be harmful when ________. a. the origins of the roles are studied b. males are considered equal to females *c. they are used to judge men and women d. U.S. males and females are similar to other cultures 5-5. (conceptual-139) Gender stereotypes a. in most countries involve instrumental qualities for females. b. have not been studies in other cultures because they do not assign roles based on one’s biological sex. c. are inconsistent across cultures. *d. are consistent across cultures.

5-6. (factual-139) Research on gender roles around the world shows that _______. a. gender roles are particularly evident in industrialized cultures b. gender roles are particularly evident in nonindustrialized cultures c. only about half the cultures in the world have clear gender roles *d. every culture has some form of gender roles 5-7. (applied-139) Proximal causes of the origins of gender roles means _______. a. exaggerated male/female differences b. minimal acceptance of gender stereotypes *c. factors present in the immediate environment d. undifferentiated gender schemas

..

94

5-8. (applied-139) An adult describes himself as adventurous, daring, independent, rude, stern, and wise. In Williams & Best typology, this individual would be classed as _______. a. feminine *b. masculine c. androgynous d. undifferentiated 5-9. (factual-139) Which of the following is NOT consistently part of the male gender role stereotype in Williams and Best’s cross-cultural studies? a. active b. independent *c. superstitious d. enterprising 5-10. (factual-139) The school of thought that explains gender roles as dispositional traits we are genetically predisposed to perform is known as _______. a. learning schema theory b. social role theory *c. evolutionary psychology d. none of the above 5-11. (factual-139) The term psychologists use to describe the typical collection of female stereotyped qualities is _______. a. agentic *b. communal c. instrumental d. emotional 5-12. (conceptual-140) In the U.S., the roles of men and women have changed over the past few decades. Which of the following best describes the relationship between male and female gender roles in our current culture? a. symmetrical *b. asymmetrical c. traditional d. none of the above 5-13. (conceptual-139) According to _________ children are taught to view the world and themselves through gender-polarized lenses that make artificial distinctions between what is masculine and what is feminine. a. social role theory *b learning schema theory c. the biosocial perspective d. evolutionary theory 5-14. (applied-139) Imagine that you are a business executive and you are about to have a meeting with a rival executive whom you know to be a woman. You know nothing else about her, but you imagine that she must be less competitive than your male colleagues—probably more conciliatory. What process are you demonstrating with such thoughts? a. intellectualization *b. stereotyping c. differentiation ..

95

d. pragmatics 5-15. (factual-140) During which age period is the highest density of shifts in social roles found? *a. young adulthood b. at the age-30 transition c. in middle adulthood d. in late adulthood 5-16. (factual-138) At which age in the life cycle are adults likely to add the greatest number of new roles? *a. at 20–30 years old b. at 40–50 years old c. at 60–70 years old d. at 80–90 years old 5-17. (conceptual-142) According to Arnett, which of the following is NOT a feature of emerging adulthood? a. the age of identity explorations *b. the age of settling down c. the age of feeling in-between d. the age of possibilities 5-18. (factual-142-144) Current studies in the United States on the leaving-home process have shown that: a. the proportion of young adults living in their parents’ homes has stayed stable since 2005. b. more 25 to 34-year-olds live with their parents than individuals of ages18 to 24. c. more females return to fill the empty nest than males. *d. the average age that young people leave their family home is 20.

5-19. (factual-144-145) Analyses of marriage and cohabitation rates in the United States over the past several decades suggest that among young people in their early 20s, ________. a. marriage rates have risen, and cohabitation rates have declined *b. marriage rates have declined, and cohabitation rates have risen c. marriage rates have remained about the same, and cohabitation rates have risen d. marriage rates and cohabitation rates have both risen 5-20. (applied-145) Who is most likely to be cohabiting? a. Oksana, from Russia *b. Sarah, from Sweden c. Karly, from the U.S. d. Marika, from Switzerland 5-21. (factual-146) Early gender roles in partnerships, before children are born, are more ______ than they will be when the partners are parenting. *a. egalitarian b. traditional c. male-oriented d. female-oriented

..

96

5-22. (conceptual-146) Miguel and Sara, who live in New York, have been together for six years and now have two children, aged 1 and 3. According to research, at what period in their relationship might they have had egalitarian gender roles, or equal gender roles?

a. before they began dating *b. at the beginning of a marriage or partnership, before children are born c. when they have at least one child d. American men and women are incapable of equal gender roles 5-23. (factual-147) According to the marital crisis effect: a. women benefit more from marriage than do men. b. people in poor mental and physical health are not as likely to marry as those who are better off. c. people seek out committed relationships more when they are experiencing stress in their lives. *d. it is not marriage that provides good health, but rather, the trauma of being widowed or divorced that brings poor health.

5-24. (factual-148) Which of the following groups showed poorer health outcomes such as, higher heart rates, blood pressure, and changes in immune function? a. couples who did not show emotion during discussions b. couples in which the man spoke more than the woman during discussions *c. couples who were high in conflict and hostility during discussion d. couples who used sarcasm and joking during heated discussions 5-25. (factual-149) David Gutmann refers to the magnification of gender role differences after the birth of the first child as _______. *a. the parental imperative b. a species-specific imperative c. a legacy from our distant ancestors d. sexual determinism 5-26. (applied-149) Before they married, Bill and Tanya were determined to have an egalitarian relationship, sharing household tasks and childcare. But after the birth of their first child, Jason, Tanya found herself doing the majority of the childcare, and Bill found himself working longer hours at his job than ever. This is an illustration of what theoretical principle or concept? a. androgyny *b. the parental imperative c. the biological clock d. gender-role crossover 5-27. (applied-149) Dion and Lucetta have just had their first child. According to Gutmann’s principle of the parental imperative, what effect (if any) will this new arrival have on Dion’s behavior? a. He will spend more time at home than he did before the child’s birth. *b. He will spend more time focused on his work than he did before the child’s birth. c. He will spend more time interacting with his own parents. d. It will have no effect.

5-28. (factual-149) Which of the following theories explains gender role differences among new ..

97

parents by saying that men and women function as a couple to swap goods and services? a. the parental investment theory b. the parental imperative theory *c. economic exchange theory d. social role theory.

5-29. (applied-150) Which of the following people is likely to spend the LEAST time on child care? a. gay parents *b. parents who work more hours outside the home c. lesbian parents d. parents who were raised by a working mothers 5-30. (applied-150-153) A researcher asks couples in their 70s to think back on their marriages and say which period had been the happiest in their married lives. Which period, on average, are these adults likely to say was the happiest? a. right after their first child was born b. when they had young children c. when their youngest child began kindergarten *d. when all the children left home 5-31. (factual-150) Which new adult role is accompanied by a decrease in marital happiness and satisfaction? a. engagement b. marriage *c. becoming parents d. becoming an empty nester 5-32. (factual-151) Based on Gottman’s interview research, which of the following is considered the glue that holds the marriage together for couples who experienced the transition to parenthood? a. passion *b. fondness and admiration spouses expressed for each other c. the expression of the commitment to stay together “no matter what” d. attraction and a sense of dependence on one another 5-33. (factual-153) The concept of gender role crossover suggests that at some point in the life cycle, men begin to take on aspects of the women’s role and women take on aspects of the men’s role. At what stage does Gutmann think this occurs? a. newlywed couples b. young couples with infants c. couples with school-aged children *d. couples in midlife 5-34. (factual-152-153) Which of the following is the most commonly acquired new role in the postparental period? a. regular care of aging parent b. community volunteer *c. grandparent d. mentor

..

98

5-35. (factual-150-153) Which two groups, among families at different stages of the family life cycle, show the highest levels of marital satisfaction? a. couples with infants and couples at retirement age *b. newlywed couples without children and couples at retirement age c. newlywed couples without children and couples with adolescents d. couples with preschoolers and couples with adolescents 5-36. (conceptual-153) Which of the following conclusions is the most accurate statement of current data on gender roles at midlife? a. Expansion of gender roles has been found only among European–Americans. b. There is reasonably strong evidence that men become more feminine, but no clear evidence that women become more masculine after midlife. c. There is clear evidence that women become more masculine, but little indication that men become more feminine after midlife. *d. There is evidence for an expansion of gender role boundaries at midlife.

5-37. (conceptual-152–153) Which of the following hypothetical or actual pieces of evidence would provide the best support for the existence of a gender role crossover in midlife? a. cross-sectional comparisons of young and middle aged adults showing higher levels of androgyny among middle-aged men and women b. cross-sectional comparisons of levels of independence in women showing that women in their 50s are more independent than women in their 20s c. longitudinal analysis of men’s work roles showing that some men acquire the role of mentor at midlife *d. longitudinal analysis of behavior in married couples between age 30 and age 50 showing women becoming more assertive and men becoming more passive.

5-38. (conceptual-155) Which of the following is most accurate in regard to research on grandparents as surrogate parents? *a. One of the major areas of stress came from problems with the grandchildren’s parents. b. Surrogate parenting is decreasing among white and Hispanic families. c. African-American surrogate parents report more difficulties with this role than white surrogate parents. d. There is no research on surrogate grandfathers; all the research is on surrogate grandmothers..

5-39. (factual-155-156) Which of the following is TRUE regarding recent national survey data on unpaid caregivers of aging parents? a. More men than women are now taking care of their parents because of more women entering the work force. *b. The average age of caregivers was 48. c. The age of caregivers has decreased in the past five years. d. The age of care receivers has decreased in the past five years.

5-40. (factual-157) _______ who provide care for elderly relatives are less apt to experience caregiver burden and depression than ________ . a. Hispanic-American family caregivers; White caregivers *b. African American; White caregivers c. Women; men d. High SES individuals; Middle SES individuals ..

99

5-41. (applied-155-156) Gretta is 81 and has four children. Her husband, Ronald, recently died.

When asked who would be most likely to care for her if she became disabled or ill, she would most likely: *a. name her daughter. b. say that it would be the adult child who was most available to help. c. say that it would be the child who had not helped as much in the past because she would not want to burden those who have already helped her a lot. d. say that she did not know who she would ask for help.

5-42. (conceptual-157) In the final stage of the family life cycle, roles become _______. a. more clearly defined and more dominant b. more clearly defined but less dominant c. less clearly defined and more dominant *d. less clearly defined and less dominant 5-43. (applied-158) The proportion of 65 years or older living with relatives other than spouses depends on: a. type of chronic illness. *b. ethnic background. c. socioeconomic status. d. personality traits of the elderly individual.

5-44. (factual-158) Most elderly individuals without a spouse in the U.S. prefer to: *a. live alone. b. live with another elderly woman. c. live with their son. d. live with their daughter.

5-45. (applied-158) Seventy-six-year-old Elizabeth, a white woman in the U.S., has been recently widowed. She is thinking about her choices of living arrangements. What is her first choice most likely to be? a. to live with her daughter b. to live with her son c. to move in with her sister *d. to live alone 5-46. (applied-160) In the U.S., which of the following individuals over the age of 65 is most likely to be single and never married? *a. Loreto, a Hispanic-American male. b. Jerry, a European-American male. c. Jon, an Asian-American male. d. Jim, a Native-American male.

5-47. (applied-161-162) Kirsten is a 40-year-old, married, childless woman. What reasonable guess might you make about other facets of Kirsten’s life? a. she has been a full-time housewife since her marriage b. she has struggled with depression for most of the past 20 years *c. she has had a strong commitment to a career d. she is the oldest child in her family

..

100

5-48. (factual-161-162) In comparison to women with children, childless women are _______. a. less work committed *b. more work committed c. happier in old age d. less happy in old age 5-49. (factual-162) Which of the following is TRUE? *a. Men are more likely to remarry than women. b. African–American women are more likely to remarry than European–American women. c. Women with more children are more likely to remarry than women with fewer children. d. Less than 10% of people who remarry eventually divorce.

5-50. (factual-164) Heckhausen’s theory of social timing suggests that the stronger the correlation between people’s social role sequence and developmental norms, a. the larger their friendship network is likely to be. b. the better chances they will have of remarrying. c. the higher their socioeconomic status is likely to be. *d. the less stress they will have in life.

..

101

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 5-51. Describe briefly the series of role changes that is likely to occur for a woman, and for a man, following a divorce.

5-52. Describe two variables that play a role in the likelihood that a person will remarry.

5-53. List at least seven characteristics that are part of the common cross-cultural male gender role stereotype and seven that are part of the female stereotype. Indicate briefly some of the consequences of these role stereotypes for adult development.

5-54. Describe briefly what happens to gender roles in couples after the birth of a child. What is David Gutmann’s explanation for this phenomenon?

5-55. Folklore has it that women are likely to experience serious upheaval and difficulty following the departure of their last child from home. What evidence is there for or against this expectation?

5-56. Jeffrey Arnett proposed the theory of emerging adulthood. Name and briefly describe two of the five features that he says makes this developmental period different from either adolescence or adulthood.

5-57. What are two different explanations for the finding that marital status has a significant affect on physical and mental health?.

ESSAY QUESTIONS 5-58. Compare and contrast the major family and gender roles of young adults and retired adults.

How can you best characterize the differences?

5-59. Researchers have consistently found that married adults are happier and less likely to show emotional disturbance than are unmarried adults. Describe two possible explanations for this pattern, and indicate which of the two you consider to be the better explanation and why.

5-60. More adults in the past few years have chosen to marry later, to have their children later, and/or to have fewer children. Cumulatively, what will be the effects of such changes on the life patterns of adults? What are the possible advantages? What are the possible disadvantages?

5-61. Explain the phenomenon of gender role crossover in midlife. What are some advantages to this phenomenon?

5-62. Describe the major age changes in social roles over the adult years in your own culture at this point in history.

5-63. Sociologist Thomas Leopold (2012) examined the experience of adult children who live with their parents in 14 countries in Europe. What did he find out about these “late leavers?”

5-64. Describe one or more types of study you would have to do in order to find out what proportion of middle-aged adults will take on the role of caring for an aging parent at some time in their adult lives.

..

102

5-65. What do we know about the adult lives of never-married adults? What kind of research would we need to do to add to our fund of information?

5-66. Discuss the research on adult children living with their parents in the U.S. What are some reasons for the sex difference?. Do you see this “full nest” situation as having more benefits or more potential problems? Explain.

5-67. What did Neugarten and colleagues (1965) mean by the “social clock.” Give at least two examples.

5-68. Bjorklund notes that the impact of multiple social roles in the lives of middle-aged adults depends on many factors. What are some of the factors that determine whether they experience these roles as fulfilling or a source of major stress?

5-69. Recall the traditional social roles of early, middle, and late adulthood. Now create a fictitious adult and mix up those roles, creating some that are on-time and some off-time.

Describe how changing the timing of traditional roles affects the lifestyle and choices of the fictitious adult, and how your adult copes with these effects.

5-70. People who are off-time with the social clock of their culture are more apt to have

difficulty in their roles and less apt to report high levels of life satisfaction. Using an example from a television sit-com, movies, or novel, illustrate a similar-themed fictional situation, whereby an individual is off-time with his or her social clock and struggles with his or her social roles.

..

103

CHAPTER 6 SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS

CHAPTER OUTLINE •

•

•

•

• • •

Theories of Social Relationships o Attachment Theory ▪ Internal Working Model ▪ Attachment Orientation o The Convoy Model o Socioemotional Selectivity Theory o Evolutionary Psychology Intimate Partnerships o Establishing an Intimate Relationship ▪ Lust ▪ Attraction ▪ Attachment o Successful Marriages o Cohabitation and Marriage ▪ Engaged Cohabitation ▪ Preengaged Cohabitation o Same-Sex Partnerships Relationships with Other Family Members o General Patterns of Family Interaction ▪ Nuclear Families ▪ Extended Families o Parent–Child Relationships in Adulthood ▪ Effects of Late-Life Divorce ▪ Problem Children in Adulthood o Grandparent–Grandchild Relationships ▪ Grandmother Effect o Relationships with Brothers and Sisters Friendships in Adulthood o Friendship Networks o Pets as Friends ▪ Anthropomorphizing o Facebook Friends Summary Key Terms Suggested Reading

BOOKSHELF Gottman, J. M. (2011). The Science of Trust: Emotional Attunement for Couples. New York: Norton.

..

104

Gottman’s book is based on his own counseling sessions, with a case study-like approach, and is aimed toward an audience of counselors and researchers.

Markman, H. J., Stanley, S. M., & Blumberg, S. L. (2010). Fighting for your marriage: A deluxe revised edition of the classic best-seller for enhancing marriage and preventing divorce.

San Francisco, CA: Wiley.

This is a veritable “how-to manual” based on the authors’ research.

McFedries, P. (2011). The Facebook guide for people over 50. New York: Wiley.

It’s a whole new world, and though a Facebook guide is outdated before it’s published, this is at least a starter manual for the new Facebook user (like my own mother, who opened her Facebook account when she was 85 years of age).

Sperling, M. B., & Berman, W. H. (1994). Attachment in adults: Clinical and developmental perspectives. New York: Guilford Press.

An excellent collection of papers: noteworthy contributions include a paper by Rothbard and Shaver examining the continuity of attachment over the life span, one on various strategies for assessing adult attachment

by Feeney et al., one on attachment in marital relations by Berman et al., and a paper by Antonucci in which she links the work on attachment with her concept of the convoy.

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION OR REVIEW ❖ Attachment. You might find it interesting to compare childhood attachment patterns to adult criteria for attachment: proximity, safe haven, and secure base. Here is a description of the four childhood categories, based on how the child behaves in the Strange Situation, the most common method of measuring the young child’s attachment model: 1) Securely Attached. Child shows low to moderate levels of proximity seeking to mother, does not avoid or resist contact if mother initiates it. When reunited with mother after absence, child greets her positively, or is easily soothed if upset. Clearly prefers mother to stranger.

2) Insecurely attached: detached/avoidant. Child avoids contact with mother, especially at reunion after an absence. Does not resist mother’s efforts to make contact, but does not seek much contact. Treats stranger and mother about the same throughout.

3) Insecurely attached: resistant/ambivalent. Greatly upset when separated from mother, but mother cannot successfully comfort child when she returns. Child both seeks and avoids contact at different times. May show anger toward mother at reunion, and resists both comfort from and contact with stranger.

4) Insecurely attached: disorganized/disoriented. Dazed behavior, confusion, or apprehension. Child may show contradictory behavior patterns simultaneously, such as moving toward mother while keeping gaze averted.

..

105

I tell my students that children’s attachment styles are echoed in their adult relationships. Do your students agree or disagree? What are some applied examples from their real lives that they can relate? ❖ Sternberg’s Work on Love. This author of the triarchic theory of intelligence has also done extensive work on theories of love and passion (Sternberg, 1986) furthered by Hatfield (1988). It’s good for our students to know that love isn’t all passion and roses, and that different types of love affairs can thrive and enhance our lives as we grow older. ❖ Mate Selection. The research by Buss (2009) and Shackleford, Schmitt, & Buss (2005) that is discussed in the text is interesting because it presents the argument that social relationships perhaps played a role in the evolution of the human mind. ❖ Risks for Marital Dissolution. Gottman and Notarius (2000) have research on dissolution predictors that is very important here and is worth some discussion in your classes. ❖ Social Networking. Traditional-age students seem to believe that social networking sites were custom-made for their needs. Yet, how many of us rely on Facebook, LinkedIn, and Twitter to keep in touch with distant family and friends from our past? A fun exercise is to have your students poll different age cohorts of Facebook users to find out their main purpose for using the social networking site. They may be surprised to find that as we age, our motivation to remain connected does not fall apart, and that many older adults actually use social networking as a means to stay in touch with a younger generation (thus feeling and acting younger themselves).

SELECTED REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER SIX Buss, D. M., & Kenrick, D. T. (1998). Evolutionary social psychology. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The Handbook of Social Psychology, Vol. 2 (4th ed., pp.

982–1026). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Cate, R. M., Levin, L. A., & Richmond, L. S. (2002). Premarital relationship stability: A review of recent research. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 19, 261–284.

Clausell, E., & Roisman, G. I. (2009). Outness: Big five personality traits and same-sex relationship quality. Journal of Social and Personality Relationships, 26, 211–226.

Clements, M. L., Stanley, S. M., & Markman, H. J. (2004). Before they say “I do”: Discriminating among marital outcomes over 13 years. Journal of Marriage and Family, 66, 613–626.

Finkel, E. J., Eastwick, P. W., Karney, B. R., et al., (2012). Online dating: A critical analysis from the perspective of psychological science. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 13, 3–66.

McGee, E., & Shevlin, M. (2009). Effect of humor on interpersonal attraction and mate selection.

Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 143, 67–77.

Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2009). An attachment and behavioral systems perspective on social support. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 26, 7–19. ..

106

Woods, L. N., & Emery, R. E. (2002). The cohabitation effect on divorce: Causation or selection?

Journal of Divorce and Remarriage, 37, 101–122.

SELECTED KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS FOR CHAPTER SIX Anthropomorphizing: projecting human thoughts, feelings, and motivations onto our pets Attachment: The strong affectional bond formed by an infant to his or her major caregiver Attachment orientation: patterns of expectations, needs, and emotions one exhibits in interpersonal relationships that extend beyond the early attachment figures Caregiving orientation: a pattern of behavior activated in adults who interact with infants and children, in which the adult responds with security, comfort, and protection Convoy model: a theory that describes the ever-changing network of social relationships that surrounds each of us throughout our adult lives Evolutionary psychology: a field of psychology based on the belief that human evolution played a central role in the design of the human mind; individuals who carried genes for cooperativeness, group loyalty, adherence to norms, and promotion of social inclusion were more apt to survive in the primal environment and pass on these genes to their descendants Exchange theory: a theory which states that we all have certain assets to offer in a relationship, and we try to make the best deal we can Filter theory: a theory which states that we begin with a large pool of potential mates and gradually filter out those who do not fit our specifications Grandmother effect: a hypothesis offered by evolutionary psychologists that suggests that the presence of grandmothers (especially maternal grandmothers) has been a predictor of children’s survival throughout recorded history Intergenerational solidarity theory: a theory which states that family relationships depend on six dimensions – associational solidarity, affectional solidarity, consensual solidarity, functional solidarity, normative solidarity, and intergenerational family structure Internal working model: set of beliefs and assumptions about the nature of all relationships

..

107

Test Bank Chapter 6 QUICK QUIZ 6-1. (factual-171) Theorists of attachment suggest that in childhood we each create a sort of template of relationships that is applied to later interactions. Such a template is called _______. a. an attachment model b. an insecure attachment c. a secure attachment d. an internal working model 6-2. (applied-174, 196-197) Bernice is a 68-year-old female who lives in the southeast near one of her three children and her only two grandchildren. It is most likely that: a. the size of her friendship network is about the same as it was in young adulthood. b. she has less contact with her friends than she did when she was younger. c. she has a smaller friendship network than her husband. d. she sees this part of her life as a time to seek information and new relationships.

6-3. (factual-172) What term does Antonucci use to describe the set of relationships with family and friends that surrounds each of us throughout our adult lives? a. cohort b. lineage c. convoy d. social support network 6-4. (applied-176) If you ask a group of young men which quality is most important to them in choosing a mate, which of the following qualities is likely to be ranked first? a. level of the woman’s education b. the social class of the woman’s family c. the woman’s attractiveness d. the woman’s social status 6-5. (conceptual-182–183) Your friends Jeff and Lucia are considering living together as a kind of trial run, to see if they want to get married. They know you are studying psychology, and ask you whether psychologists know anything about couples who live together. Which of the following would best describe the current information? a. Cohabitation before marriage is generally a good way to prepare for marriage; those who have cohabited later have more lasting and satisfying marriages. b. Cohabitation before marriage appears to be helpful for some couples, especially those with higher levels of education. c. Cohabitation appears to be most helpful for people who have experienced the divorce of their parents. d. Couples who are engaged before moving in together tend to have marriages as successful as those of couples who did not cohabit before marriage.

6-6. (factual-183-184) Research on same-sex partnerships shows that_________. a. more people in the U.S. now support same-sex marriages than oppose them b. same-sex partners take on “male” and “female” roles c. same-sex couples and different-sex couples are more different than alike ..

108

d. in the early years of the relationship, lesbian couples have more sex than do gay or heterosexual couples

6-7. (conceptual-187-188) Assuming that Shealeen is similar to other adult children, one would expect that she: a. has very different opinions from those of her parents. b. does not have much contact with her parents. c. feels emotionally close to her parents. d. has not receive any financial support from them since she graduated from high school.

6-8. (applied-195-196) Which of the following is TRUE regarding sibling relationships in the U.S.? a. The overwhelming majority of siblings reported becoming more emotionally distant from their siblings with time.. b. Brothers tend to be closer with one another than are sisters. c. People who are single tend to have stronger relationships with their siblings than those who are married. d. People who have children tend to have stronger relationships with their siblings than those who are childless.

6-9. (conceptual-196-197) Rebecca says that she is content with her current friendships and not motivated to add new relationships. Based on the research evidence, what would be the best guess about Rebecca’s age? a. 15–20 b. 20–30 c. 30–40 d. 40–50 6-10. (factual-197) Research has shown that people who attribute human thoughts, feelings, and motivations to their pets report ________ when compared to pet owners who do not do this. a. higher self-esteem b. higher levels of stress c. lower levels of depression d. lower perceived social support

..

109

ANSWER KEY: Chapter 6 QUICK QUIZ 1. Answer: d Page in text: 171 Topic: Theories of Social Relationships Question type: factual; Difficulty level: moderate 2. Answer: b Page in text: 174, 196-197 Topic: Theories of Social Relationships, Friendships in Adulthood Question type: applied; Difficulty level: moderate 3. Answer: c Page in text: 172 Topic: Theories of Social Relationships Question type: factual; Difficulty level: easy 4. Answer: c Page in text: 176 Topic: Intimate Partnerships Question type: applied; Difficulty level: easy 5. Answer: d Page in text: 182–183 Topic: Intimate Partnerships Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: difficult 6. Answer: a Page in text: 183-184 Topic: Intimate Partnerships Question type: factual; Difficulty level: difficult 7. Answer: c Page in text: 187-188 Topic: Relationships with Other Family Members Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: moderate 8. Answer: c Page in text: 195-196 Topic: Relationships with Other Family Members Question type: applied; Difficulty level: moderate 9. Answer: d Page in text: 196-197 Topic: Friendships in Adulthood Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: moderate 10. Answer: b Page in text: 197 Topic: Friendships in Adulthood Question type: factual; Difficulty level: easy ..

110

CHAPTER 6 SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 6-1. (factual-171) Theorists of attachment suggest that in childhood we each create a sort of template of relationships that is applied to later interactions. Such a template is called _______. a. an attachment model b. an insecure attachment c. a secure attachment *d. an internal working model 6-2. (conceptual-170-171) Which of the following behaviors toward another person would be LEAST LIKELY to be considered an attachment behavior? a. hugging *b. shaking hands c. writing a letter d. smiling 6-3. (conceptual-171) Adults with a secure attachment a. have a healthy skepticism and believe the world is an unsafe place. b. never feel discouraged. c. never feel threatened. *d. welcome life’s challenges 6-4. (factual-171) Which of the following is NOT a key underlying feature of attachment according to Weiss’s conceptualization? a. association of the attachment figure with feelings of security b. increased likelihood of attachment when the child is under stress or threat c. attempts to avoid, or to end, any separation from the attachment figure *d. pushing the attachment figure away to assert independence and sense of self 6-5. (applied-172) Although Justine considers herself an extravert, now that she is approaching 50, she is no longer interested in attending the girls’ night out her friend is planning. She would much rather spend her free time with a smaller group of close friends or members of her family. Justine’s preference supports a. intergenerational solidarity theory. *b. socioemotional selectivity theory. c. filter theory. d. exchange theory.

6-6. (factual-172-173) Carstensen’s “socioemotional selectivity theory” suggests that over adulthood, our relationships with friends should become _______. a. more frequent and more intimate *b. more selective and more intimate c. more frequent and less intimate d. more expanded 6-7. (conceptual-172) The limited data we have suggests that personal convoys _______ over time. ..

111

*a. contract gradually in size, but include more and more intimate relationships b. remain about the same size, with relationships becoming more intimate c. increase in size, with more friends added in each decade d. increase in size, but with fewer intimate relationships 6-8. (applied-172) Dr. Jennings is doing research that entails a mapping technique in which participants report on three levels of relationships. They are asked to write the names of people within three concentric circles. Dr. Jennings’ research is using the: a. internal working model. b. filter theory. *c. convoy model. d. exchange theory.

6-9. (factual-172) “A protective layer of individuals who surround a person and help in the successful negotiation of life’s challenges” is, according to Antonucci, a definition of _______. a. a family *b. a convoy c. a cohort d. a generation 6-10. (applied-172) If I ask you to make a list of all the people who are most important to you, including those you cannot imagine living without and those who are important but not quite that close, this list would describe your _______. *a. convoy b. family c. friends d. cohort 6-11. (conceptual-170–172, 177–179) Longitudinal research shows that an infant’s attachment classification _______. a. changes significantly until stabilizing in young adulthood b. is related to their siblings’ attachment classification c. is unrelated to attachments formed later in life with intimate partners *d. corresponds to their parents’ attachment classification 6-12. (conceptual-173) According to __________ theory, today’s members of our species have biological systems that foster the formation and maintenance of social relationships, and this is manifested in a universal “need to belong.” *a. evolutionary b. social learning c. internal working model d. intergenerational solidarity 6-13. (factual-175) Anthropologist Helen L. Fisher (2000, 2004) suggests that mate selection depends on three distinct emotional systems: __________, ___________, and _______________. a. attraction, closeness, and attachment b. attraction, friendship, and love c. lust, friendship, and love *d. lust, attraction, and attachment ..

112

6-14. (factual-175) Researchers showed participants a photo of their loved one and asked them to think about a pleasurable event that had occurred when they were together. As a control, they were shown a photo of a neutral person and asked to think about pleasurable events with that person. When viewing the loved one and thinking about pleasant interactions with them, regions of the brain that are rich in _______ were activated. a. AcH receptors *b. dopamine receptors c. gabba receptors d. GAMA receptors 6-15. (factual-176) Dr. Mendez was giving an invited address on the topic of dating among college students. She stated that people begin with a large pool of potential mates and gradually eliminate those who do not fit our specifications. She was clearly describing ________ of mate selection. a. the social convoy theory b. exchange theory *c. the filter theory d. evolutionary theory 6-16. (conceptual-176) Researchers have used a number of theories to explain the topic of what attracts one person to another or two people to each other. Which of the following theories below best exemplifies the trade-off we often make with intimate partners such as a sense of humor offsetting a physical unattractive trait, for example, being overweight. a. filter theory b. socioemotional theory c. evolutionary theory *d. exchange theory 6-17. (applied-176) If you ask a group of young men which quality is most important to them in choosing a prospective wife, which of the following qualities is likely to be ranked first? a. level of the woman’s education b. the social class of the woman’s family *c. the woman’s attractiveness d. the woman’s prospective earning power 6-18. (factual-178) When researchers measured adult attachment styles, they found that almost have rated themselves as ________. *a. secure b. dismissing c. fearful d. preoccupied 6-19. (conceptual-178) Which of the following is TRUE regarding adult romantic attachment styles? a. Two-year-olds who had a secure attachment to their mothers were no more likely to, at age 20 or 21 years, rebound from romantic relationship conflicts than their counterparts who were insecurely attached. b. Males almost always showed a more secure attachment style than females. c. The dismissing style was the most common adult attachment style overall. *d. Partners of securely attached 20-year-olds rebound faster from relationship conflicts ..

113

regardless of their own attachment history.

6-20. (applied-178) In his relationship with his wife, Clarence is often jealous, anxious about whether she returns his feelings, and generally unsure of himself. Such a pattern is characteristic of individuals with what kind of internal model of attachment? a. secure b. unstable *c. preoccupied d. distressed 6-21. (conceptual-179-180) Which of the following is TRUE regarding Markman and colleagues’ research on relationship quality? *a. Some risk factors for divorce can be changed. b. Those who eventually got divorce or experienced marital distress were overly complimentary to each other to hide their feelings of frustration. c. Their findings conflicted with those of other researchers because they did not find that negative interactions impacted the quality of marriage or whether people got divorced. d. It has been criticized for being cross-sectional and not including data from both members of the couple.

6-22. (factual-180) In Gottman’s research, he asks couples to “tell the story of us.” Based on _______, he found that the couple will almost certainly be together four years later. a. whether the couple uses sarcasm rather than being brutally honest *b. whether the positive outweighs the negative c. whether each person talked for an equal amount of time d. whether each person explicitly apologized for past transgressions 6-23. (factual-180) Which of the following is most likely to be a feature of the relationship or interaction pattern of partners in an unhappy or dissatisfying marriage? *a. high ratio of displeasing to pleasing interactions b. high levels of arguments c. low levels of self-disclosure d. low levels of “cross-complaining” 6-24. (factual-180) The key feature of unsuccessful marriages (those most likely to end in divorce), according to Gottman’s research, is _______. a. a high level of squabbles or disagreements b. a low level of laughter c. an inability to resolve conflicts by discussion or argument *d. a high ratio of displeasing to pleasing interactions 6-25. (conceptual-182) Research on cohabitation has shown that: a. people in the U.S. who cohabit before marriage have an increased likelihood of separation than those who do not cohabit, but this pattern has not been found in other countries. b. regardless of whether they are engaged before cohabiting, they are more likely to separate than those who do not cohabit. c. people in traditional cultures who cohabit before marriage have an increased likelihood of separation than those who do not cohabit, but this pattern has not been found in the U.S. *d. one factor in the success of cohabiting couples is how well it is accepted in one’s ..

114

culture.

6-26. (conceptual-182) Your friends Jeff and Lucia are considering living together as a kind of trial run, to see if they want to get married. They know you are studying psychology, and ask you whether psychologists know anything about couples who live together. Which of the following would best describe the current information? a. Cohabitation before marriage is generally a good way to prepare for marriage; those who have cohabited later have more lasting and satisfying marriages. b. Cohabitation before marriage appears to be helpful for some couples, especially those with higher levels of education. c. Whether cohabitation prepares people for later marriage depends on their ethnic background. *d. People who cohabit before marriage have an increased likelihood of separation than those who do not cohabit.

6-27. (conceptual-183-184) Research on same-sex partnerships shows that__________. *a. more people in the U.S. now support same-sex marriages than oppose them b. same-sex partners take on “male” and “female” roles c. same-sex couples and different-sex couples are more different than alike d. in the early years of the relationship, lesbian couples have more sex than do gay or heterosexual couples 6-28. (factual-185) _________ often have a more open partnership or nonexclusive agreement. a. Members of heterosexual couples *b. Men in same-sex relationships c. Lesbians in same-sex relationships d. Transgender women in same-sex relationships 6-29. (factual-185) One study showed that compared to their heterosexual siblings, gay and lesbian adults reported: a. higher earnings and higher prestige jobs over their lifetimes. *b. experiencing more violence over their lifetimes. c. happier romantic relationships. d. greater overall life satisfaction..

6-30. (conceptual-187-188) Assuming that Shealeen is similar to other adult children, one would expect that she: a. has very different opinions from those of her parents. b. does not have much contact with her parents. *c. feels emotionally close to her parents. d. has not receive any financial support from them since she graduated from high school.

6-31. (conceptual-188) African-American baby boomers give more assistance of all types to their parents compared to their white counterparts because a. African-American parents have more need. b. African-American parents have more disability. *c. of their personal beliefs about parent-child obligation. d. they are more emotionally close to their parents.

6-32. (conceptual-189-190) Based on existing research, which of the following is TRUE of adult children of divorce? ..

115

a. They are at less risk of divorce than those whose parents did not divorce. b. They are less reluctant to enter marriage than those whose parents did not divorce because they feel they have learned from their parents’ mistakes. c. The majority (90%) reported no change in their relationship with one or both parents. *d. They are as affected emotionally by parental divorce as young children.

6-33. (conceptual-190) Late-life divorce usually results in what change for the adult daughter? a. less contact with her mother *b. serving as “family social director” for her father c. serving as her father’s confidant. d. isolating herself from both of them for about a year until the situation got better.

6-34. (applied-191) Wayne is a married 71-year-old grandfather. Based on existing research, we can conclude that: a. Wayne spends more time with his grandchildren now that they are teenagers than when they were younger. *b. he has more interaction with his grandchildren than his widowed brother has with his grandchildren. c. he discusses more personal concerns with his grandchildren in middle school than he does with his grandchildren who have graduated from high school. d. being a playmate and advice giver benefits grandchildren’s mental health, but does not have a significant effect on his own mental health.

6-35. (applied-192) Nona, a college student, was asked to rank her grandparents according to the time she spent with them and the closeness she felt to them. Based on research, we would expect Nona to rank ________ the highest. *a. her mother’s mother b. her mother’s father c. her father’s mother d. her father’s father 6-36. (factual-194) The grandmother effect can be explained best by _______. a. social learning theory b. psychoanalystic theory *c. evolutionary psychology d. exchange theory 6-37. (factual-195-196) Which sibling relationships are the closest? *a. sisters b. brothers c. sisters and brothers d. sisters and brothers-in-law.

6-38. (factual-195–196) Sibling relationships are most significant _______. a. in childhood b. in adolescence c. in early adulthood *d. in late life 6-39. (factual-195–196) In what period of adulthood do siblings become more significant? a. early ..

116

b. middle *c. late d. There is no change in significance.

6-40. (factual-197-198) When it comes to Facebook,

a. men use it more than women. *b. older adults’ Facebook friends consist of more family members and fewer friends compared to their younger counterparts. c. a strong positive correlation has been found between amount of time spent on Facebook and clinical depression among emerging adults. d. less than 10% of those aged 65 and older use it.

..

117

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 6-41. Describe what Antonucci means by “convoy” and her mapping technique.

6-42. Researchers have consistently found that happiness or life satisfaction among adults in old age is unrelated to the degree of contact they have with their children. How might you explain this finding?

6-43. Describe one way that same-sex couples are similar to opposite-sex couples and one way that they are different from them.

6-44. List at least three ways in which happily married couples differ from unhappily married couples in their interactions with one another. Which of these features seems to you to be most amenable to change?

6-45. Describe the several varieties of stable/successful and unstable/unsuccessful marriages evident from Gottman’s research. What quality or qualities do all the stable/successful pairs share?

6-46. Drawing upon Fingerman and her colleagues’ work, briefly explain whether having a successful child caused an increase in well-being that matched the distress caused by a problem child.

6-47. Describe the findings from at least one study that shows the impact of grandparents on their grandchildren.

ESSAY QUESTIONS 6-48. Evaluate the effects of cohabitation before marriage. What explanation can you offer for this finding? What evidence can you muster in support of your explanation?

6-49. Evaluate the following statement in light of the theory and research described in the text: “The majority of adults remain strongly attached to their parents throughout their adult lives.”

6-50. What do theorists mean by an internal working model of attachment? How might such a model affect an adult’s relationships—with parents, with partner, with friends? Cite relevant data where available.

6-51. Theorists have disagreed about whether the relationship of a parent with her or his child should be called an attachment or not. Why is there a dispute about this? Describe the problem, give your own view, and justify that view if you can.

6-52. Describe the nature of the relationship between siblings across the life span.

6-53. Based on existing research, would you say that there are more benefits or more problems as a result of having a pet during adulthood. Cite research from the text to support your answer. ..

118

6-54. Create a fictitious couple of any sexual orientation and fully explain their intimate attachment in terms of one of the following theories: attachment theory, the convoy model, socioemotional selectivity theory, or evolutionary theory.

6-55. Bjorklund introduces four social development theories that have much in common: attachment, evolutionary, socioemotional, and convoy. Consider the technology and social networking possibilities available to many American households, illustrate how at least one of the social development theories presented, maybe with some adjustments, explains the recent phenomena of the addiction of social network sites.

6-56. Scientists have observed the need to belong and, according to Franz de Waal, an eminent primatologist, in many other primate social species such as apes, chimpanzees, and bonobos.

Evolutionary theorists suggest that our genetic makeup hardwires this primate “need to belong.”

Select an example or observation in your life that supports the evolutionary assumption on social development, fully explaining why you selected the instance, and how the event supports the theory that primates, including humans, have an innate drive to create social relationships and belong.

6-57. Socioemotional selectivity theory states that as we grow older, we tend to prefer more meaningful social relationships. In other words, the quantity of social relationships declines with age, but the overall quality remains the same (or even better). Using this theory, illustrate how your social relationships demonstrate this theory’s ideas.

6-58. Drawing upon recent research, compare and contrast the way older and younger adults in the U.S. use Facebook.

..

119

CHAPTER 7 WORK AND RETIREMENT

CHAPTER OUTLINE •

•

•

•

•

• • • •

The Importance of Work in Adulthood o Super’s Theory of Career Development ▪ Life-Span/Life-Space Theory o Gender Differences in Career Patterns Selecting a Career o Theories of Career Selection ▪ Vocational Interest ▪ Identity Achievement o The Effects of Gender ▪ Occupational Gender Segregation o Family Influences o The Role of Genetics Age Trends in Work Experience o Job Performance o Job Training and Retraining ▪ Career Recycling o Job Satisfaction Work and Personal Life o Work and the Individual o Work and Marriage o Work and Parenthood o Work and Caregiving for Adult Family Members o Household Labor Retirement o Preparation for Retirement o Timing of Retirement o Reasons for Retirement ▪ Finances ▪ Health ▪ Family ▪ Career Commitment ▪ Leisure-Time Interests o Effects of Retirement ▪ Changes in Income ▪ Changes in Residence o Alternatives to Full Retirement ▪ Gradual Retirement ▪ Volunteer Work ▪ Phased Retirement A Concluding Note Summary Key Terms Suggested Reading

..

120

BOOKSHELF Bolles, D. (2014). What color is your parachute? A practical manual for job-hunters and careerchangers. Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press.

A bestselling book that helps adults evaluate their abilities, ranked high on the list of life-changing books by readers.

Milne, D. (2013). The psychology of retirement: Coping with the transition from work. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.

Written by a clinical psychologist and based on case studies from his own practice. An easy read and a huge help to those thinking of retirement.

Szinovacz, M., Ekerdt, D. J., & Vinick, B. H. (Eds.) (1992). Families and retirement. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

This book includes papers on a range of issues concerning retirement.

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION OR REVIEW ❖ Super’s Theory of Career. Bjorklund gives considerable attention to Donald Super’s model of career development, as illustrated below in Table 7.1 and found on page 207 of your textbook. If you have students of different ages in your class, it would be especially interesting to see if there appear to be age differences in career stage among the students.

❖ Work-Family Linkages. Cheng and Chan (2008) discuss job loss and insecurity in the framework of age and family roles. This topic is especially relevant when viewed in terms of ..

121

recent economic turmoil in the United States. ❖ Impact of Retirement. If you want to engage your students in a discussion, break them into small groups and ask them to brainstorm a list of ways in which retirement can have an impact on the employee, the employee’s family, and the employer/place of employment.

Once students compile this list, ask them to go back and determine which items illustrate positive impact of retirement and which reflect negative impact. The National Alliance for Caregiving (2009) has a website with a plethora of information regarding caregiving and retirement. ❖ Household Division of Labor. Figure 7.3 on page 225 of the textbook, and found below, outlines the division of labor between men and women. Ask your students to contribute anecdotes from their own family life and/or family of origin, to see if this Pew Research Center data stands the test of real life. What duties do they think constitutes that large “Other” category?

Figure 7.3 Working mothers and fathers contribute differently to household labor, paid work, and child care, but the total time spent is almost the same.

Source: Pew Research Center (2013).

SELECTED REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER SEVEN Halpern, D. F. (2005). Psychology at the intersection of work and family: Recommendations for employers, working families, and policymakers. American Psychologist, 60, 397–409.

Bayard, K., Hellerstein, J., Neumark, D., et. al., (2003). New evidence on sex segregation and sex differences in wages from matched employee–employer data. Journal of Labor Economics, 21, 887–922.

Cheng, G. H. L., & Chan, D. K. S. (2008). Who suffers more from job insecurity? A metaanalytic review. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 57, 272–303.

Fouad, N. A., & Bynner, J. (2008). Work transitions. American Psychologist, 63, 241–251.

..

122

Heppner, M. J., & Heppner, P. P. (2009). On men and work: Taking the road less traveled.

Journal of Career Development, 36, 49–67.

Johnson, R. W. (2004). Trends in job demands among older workers, 1992–2002. Monthly Labor Review, July 2004, 48–56.

National Alliance for Caregiving. (2009). The economic downturn and its impact on family caregiving. Retrieved January 22, 2010, from www.caregiving.org/data/EVC_Caregivers_Economy_ReportFINAL_4-28-09.pdf Su, R., Rounds, J., & Armstrong, P. I. (2009). Men and things, women and people: A metaanalysis of sex differences in interests. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 859–884.

SELECTED KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS FOR CHAPTER SEVEN Bridge job: a post-retirement part-time job that is less stressful than the previous full-time employment Career recycling: the process of going through the stages in Super’s theory of career development later in life - growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, and disengagement Domestic migration: the process in which some retired adults engage, relocating their residence because they are no longer tied to a locale for employment Feminization of poverty: the phenomenon in which we find a larger proportion of women than men among the poor, especially among the elderly Life-span/life-space theory: Super’s theory that is based on the concept that individuals develop careers in stages, and that career decisions are not isolated from other aspects of their lives Occupational gender segregation: a social phenomenon of jobs stereotyped for men or for women Phased retirement: a way to gradually ease from full-time employment to retirement, for example by taking a part-time job with the same company Nontraditional student: a student who is who is over the age of 25 and engaged in career recycling Retirement-related value: a way of considering retirement versus continued work, taking into account personal wealth, including how much is in savings, investments, home equity, and other assets Seasonal migration: the practice of so-called “snow birds,” who migrate from south to north and back again, depending on the season, in order to avoid making a complete break from home

..

123

Work-related value: a way of considering continued work versus retirement, taking into account the worker’s salary, plus the increase in pension and Social Security benefits to be received later if he or she continues working

..

124

Test Bank Chapter 7 QUICK QUIZ 7-1. (factual-207-208) According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor (2013) a. women are more apt to work in full-time jobs than men. b. women stay in full-time jobs longer than men. c. The gap between the number of men and women who hold full-time jobs is becoming smaller. d. today, the average salary for women is finally equal to the average salary of men.

7-2. (conceptual-209-210) A major criticism of Holland’s theory of occupational choice and personality is that _______. a. occupation and personality type matches have not been found for African Americans b. Holland’s findings are based on limited research c. the theory does not predict job achievement d. the results from Asian-American populations do not match results from other populations 7-3. (conceptual-211) In which of the following occupations would you see the largest gap between the number of men and women? a. physician’s assistant b. engineering c. human resources director d. college professor 7-4. (factual-212) Based on the results of a recent meta-analytic study examining vocational preferences, women are more interested than men in working_______. a. with people b. with things c. with their hands d. with complex problems 7-5. (factual-206–208) Which pattern of work and non-work is associated with greatest work success or highest income among women? a. Work continuously. b. Work continuously except when children are infants. c. Begin work after all children are in school and then work continuously. d. Begin childbearing after a career is established, then pause for children, and then return to a career.

7-6 (conceptual -218) For the last 5 years, Aeysha, a single mom, has worked as a psychiatric nurse on a locked unit in a local public hospital. She has staffed the night shift for the last 18 months. The nursing supervisor has everyone penny-pinching to keep costs down, and everyone has been asked to do more with less. In fact, Aeysha doesn’t enjoy her job as she once did. She feels exhausted and drained, and is concerned that she is not giving her patients the personalized attention that she had given in the beginning of her career. Job stress can have negative effects on workers like Aeysha who suffer from ________________. a. job burnout b. underutilized talent ..

125

c. bridge jobs d. an ability/expertise trade-off 7-7 (applied-231-232) The feminization of poverty in old age flows from a whole string of gender differences that women have experienced over their lifetimes and that come home to roost in their later years. Consider gender differences in retirement income, of the following statements which is NOT likely? a. Women move in and out of the labor force more than men. b. Women typically invest more in pensions than men do. c, Women earn less than men. d. Women tend to work less years than men.

7-8. (factual-221–223) Jane and John are married and have three children. Based on current research we can conclude that: a. the number of children they have will not affect the number of years she spends in the workplace. b. John spends less time with his own children than his father spent with him. c. Both parents spend about an hour more a day with their children than parents did 25 years ago. d. Jane’s job will have a negative effect on her children’s well being, especially her daughter’s.

7-9. (applied-234) Mario is 68 years of age, retired three years ago and has been volunteering regularly at the local food pantry and his church. Which of the following statements is most accurate based on current research? a. The stress of losing the role of worker in retirement has made his health worse. b. His self-esteem and happiness have increased. c. His life satisfaction decreased. d. He is unlikely to receive any of the benefits that his counterparts in other countries such as Japan and Israel because our culture values the prestige of work much more 7-10. (conceptual-229) Which of the following groups of men are likely to retire the LATEST? a. those in poor health b. those who are self-employed c. those who belong to a pension program d. those who are unmarried

..

126

ANSWER KEY: Chapter 7 QUICK QUIZ 1. Answer: c Page in text: 207-208 Topic: The Importance of Work in Adulthood Question type: factual; Difficulty level: easy 2. Answer: c Page in text: 209-210 Topic: Selecting a Career Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: moderate 3. Answer: b Page in text: 211 Topic: Selecting a Career Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: moderate 4. Answer: a Page in text: 212 Topic: Selecting a Career Question type: factual; Difficulty level: easy 5. Answer: a Page in text: 206–208 Topic: The Importance of Work in Adulthood Question type: factual; Difficulty level: moderate 6. Answer: a Page in text: 218 Topic: Work and Personal Life Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: moderate 7. Answer: b Page in text: 231-232 Topic: Retirement Question type: applied; Difficulty level: moderate 8. Answer: c Page in text: 221–223 Topic: Work and Personal Life Question type: factual; Difficulty level: easy 9. Answer: b Page in text: 234 Topic: Retirement Question type: applied; Difficulty level: moderate 10. Answer: b Page in text: 229 Topic: Retirement Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: moderate ..

127

CHAPTER 7

WORK AND RETIREMENT MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 7-1. (conceptual -206-207) The life-span/life-space theory is based upon which of the following concepts? a. that individuals develop careers in stages b. career decisions are not isolated from other aspects of their lives c. work role is best perceived in terms of its importance relative to other roles an individual plays *d. all of the above 7-2. (factual-206) The author of the best-known theory of career development in the field of vocational psychology, the life-span/life-space theory, is _______. a. John Holland *b. Donald Super c. Diane Halpern d. Harriet Presser 7- 3. (conceptual-207) Life-span theory is divided into 5 distinct career stages, each with developmental tasks. Which stage is NOT matched correctly with the appropriate developmental task? a. establishment: stabilize in a job b. disengagement: decelerate workload *c. exploration: “try on” various occupations d. maintenance: hold achieved job 7-4. (applied-207) Alex is approaching his 50th birthday and works as an engineer. Based on Super’s theory, we can assume that he is in the ___________ stage. a. exploration b. disengagement c. cynicism *d. maintenance 7-5. (factual-207) What is one reason more women work part time than men do full time? a. Younger people don’t work as much as older people. b. Men tend to move in and out of full-time jobs more than women. *c. There are more older women than older men. d. They are more likely to be in the maintenance stage of career development.

7-6. (factual-208) According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor (2013), women earn salaries that average _____ percent of those earned by men. a. 35 b. 60 *c. 81 d. 95 7-7. (factual-206–208) Which pattern of work and non-work is associated with greatest work success or highest income among women? *a. Work continuously. ..

128

b. Work continuously except when children are infants. c. Begin work after all children are in school and then work continuously. d. Begin childbearing after a career is established, then pause for children, and then return to a career.

7-8. (factual-209) Which of the following is NOT among the 6 personality types studied by Holland in his research on personality and occupational choices? *a. intuitive b. enterprising c. investigative d. realistic 7-9. (applied-209) On which of Holland’s personality dimensions is a minister likely to score the highest? a. realistic b. conventional c. enterprising *d. social 7-10. (conceptual-210) Critics of Holland’s theory argue that those adults who find a job that matches their vocational interests _______. a. will be more successful at their jobs *b. discover that the match does not predict achievement c. discover that the match does not lead to greater job satisfaction d. discover that the match does predict staying in a job long term 7-11. (conceptual-210) A major criticism of Holland’s theory of occupational choice and personality is that _______. a. occupation and personality type matches have not been found for African Americans b. Holland’s findings are based on limited research *c. the theory does not predict job achievement d. the results from Asian-American populations do not match results from other populations 7-12. (conceptual-211) In which of the following occupations would you see the largest gap between the number of men and women? a. physician’s assistant b. human resources director *c. engineering d. doctor 7-13. (conceptual-213-214) Which of the following is most accurate about family influences on career choices of children? a. Virtually all young adults go into the same professions as their parents. b. Working-class parents are more likely than middle-class parents to encourage their children to attend college because they do not want them to struggle as much as they did. *c. Young women with working mothers have higher educational goals and aspirations toward more prestigious careers than their counterparts whose mothers do not work outside the home. d. Parents’ marital status is not correlated with level of financial support that their ..

129

emerging adult children receive.

7-14. (factual-212) Which of the following early family characteristics is common among women who choose unconventional (i.e., traditionally masculine) occupations? a. a particularly close mother–daughter relationship b. a father who works in an unconventional occupation *c. parents and mentors who encouraged them d. brothers who choose unconventional occupations 7-15. (factual-212) Based on the results of a recent meta-analytic study examining vocational preferences, women are more interested than men in working_______. a. with their hands b. with things *c. with people d. as investigators 7-16. (conceptual-214-215) Research on the effects of genetics on career choice (using a score based on occupational status) showed that a. genetics play no role in career choice. *b. environmental effects played a stronger role for women than for men. c. for males, the dizygotic twins’ occupational status scores correlated significantly higher than the scores for monozygotic twins. d. For both males and females, the environment did not play nearly as much of a role as genetics.

7-17. (factual-215-216) A classic study of typists between 19 and 72 years of age showed that *a. typing speed was the same regardless of age. b. older adults are not able to compensate for decreased reaction time. c. the older typists took less time to react to visual stimuli because they were really focused. d. the younger typists read ahead and were ready to type those words sooner than the older typists.

7-18. (applied-216) Chantel is a 62-year-old employee of a large manufacturing company. Based on the research, she will __________ compared to her co-workers in their 20s. a. be tardy more often b. engage in more on-the-job substance abuse c. have more voluntary absences from work *d. comply more to the norms of the workplace 7-19. (conceptual-217) Which of the following best describes the relationship between job satisfaction and age? a. Job satisfaction rises steadily with age for men but not for women. b. Job satisfaction rises steadily with age for women but not for men. *c. Job satisfaction rises steadily with age for both men and women. d. Job satisfaction declines somewhat with age for both men and women.

7-20. (conceptual-215-216) In which of the following occupations is age most likely to be negatively correlated with job performance? a. bookkeeper *b. air traffic controller ..

130

c. assembly line worker d. high school English teacher 7-21. (conceptual-216) For what type of jobs, if any, does job performance decline past midlife? *a. those requiring speed b. those requiring concentration c. those requiring analytic skills d. those requiring attention to detail 7-22. (conceptual -217) Which of the following individuals is likely to be considered nontraditional student? a. a 17-18 year high school graduate b. a twenty year old community college student *c. a 35 year old going back to school for nursing d. a 18-year-old college student studying computer science 7-23. (applied-218) Sharleen is experiencing job stress and burn out. She most likely ______. a. has an internal locus of control *b. feels a need to validate her self-worth by achieving on the job. c. is extremely dedicated and absorbed in her work. d. embraces changes going on in the work place to try to reinvigorate herself.

7-24. (applied-219) Of the following individuals, who is most likely to be unemployed in the U.S.? a. Arnold, a white male b. Cassie, a white female *c. Jerome, a black male d. Vanessa, a black female 7-25. (factual -219-220) Which of the following is TRUE? a. Workers who felt higher levels of job insecurity reported higher levels of job satisfaction because they were grateful to still have a job. b. men who have experienced job loss have higher rates of mental health problems than women in the same situation. *c. Even if they are still employed, workers exposed to layoffs among friends or coworkers experience higher levels of depression and more symptoms of poor health than workers not exposed to layoffs. d. the suicide rate in the U.S. remained the same after the recent economic recession, but it decreased in other European countries.

7-26. (conceptual-220-221). Shift work a. is becoming less common in the U.S. *b. increases the chances of divorce or separation. c. only seems to have negative effects for those from a lower socioeconomic status. d. seems to have more positive effects on the marriage if they have children.

7-27. (conceptual-223) There are numerous studies comparing the effects on children of mothers who work. What finding(s) was/were noted consistently? a. children have more egalitarian attitudes b. daughters consider more options when choosing careers c. sons are more apt to share in the household work when they marry ..

131

*d. All of the above have been noted 7-28. (applied-224-225) Marissa, a nurse, is married to Sean, a high school teacher. They have two children in middle school. Consistent with the most recent data, *a. Marissa spends more time on household labor than Sean. b. Sean spends more time on child care than Marissa because his job is less physically demanding. c. When combining time spent on house work, child care and paid work, Sean spends much more time overall on these tasks than Marissa. d. They spend equal time on paid work because they are both professionals.

7-29. (conceptual-224-225) Among American parents who are either married or living together and who have at least one child under the age of 18: *a. women spend more time on household labor. b. women and men spend the same amount to time on household labor. c. the total time spent on household labor, child care, and paid labor is much greater for men. d. the amount of time devoted to household labor, child care, and paid labor depends on where in the country the individuals live.

7-30. (factual -226) We tend to think of ___ as “retirement age” because that is the age at which people in the United States are able to start receiving full Social Security benefits. However, many people retire earlier, and many keep working past that age. a. 57 *b. 66 c. 70 d. 75 7-31. (factual-228) The strongest predictor of the timing of retirement is _______. a. caregiving responsibilities b. age c. health *d. finances 7-32. (factual-229) Which of the following groups of people are likely to retire the LATEST? a. those in poor health *b. those who are self-employed c. those who belong to a pension program d. those who are unmarried 7-33. (conceptual-230) Compared to 20 years ago, the elderly in the United States are economically _______. *a. better off today b. about the same c. somewhat worse off today d. considerably worse off today 7-34. (factual-229-230) For the average American retiring today, the largest single source of retirement income is from _______. a. pension benefits through a job b. private savings ..

132

*c. Social Security d. Supplemental Security Income 7-35. (applied-229) Al has incoming coming in every month from rental property he has owned for the last two decades. This source of income would be referred to as: a. his pension. *b. his asset income. c. his earnings. d. social security income.

7-36. (conceptual-229-230) What single change in the last several decades has had the largest positive effect on the average income of current elderly persons in the United States? a. More women have worked, and so earn retirement income. b. Men are living longer, so there are more couples earning the higher male retirement incomes. c. Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs) were created. *d. Social Security benefits have significantly increased.

7-37. (factual-230-231) Which group of older adults has the highest rate of poverty in the United States? a. white men b. white women c. African-American men *d. African-American women 7-38. (conceptual-231) Like other social ills, poverty in old age is not equally distributed across ethnic groups or gender. Of the following older individuals, who is more apt to live his/her Golden Years in poverty? a. Robert T., a 75-year old white retired musician b. Carmen R., a 68 year old Cuban-American hairdresser living with partner *c. Kaloni S., a 70 year old African-American woman who lives alone d. Mr. and Mrs. Jacob Kaufman, both 78 years old Mennonites, retired business owners 7-39. (conceptual-233) One nontraditional exit from the labor force is to retire and take a bridge job. Of the following selections, choose the one who is considered to be working a bridge job. a. Martha, a retired journalist, volunteers at a local hospital b. Duane, a salesman who went back to college at night after his company downsized and takes care of his two children after school. *c. Jorge, a retired county sheriff, took a part-time security guard position at a local Walmart d. Bertha, retired from Harley Davidson, so she could spend more time gardening 7-40. (applied-232) When Esther and Harold retired 10 years ago, they moved down to Arizona, away from their children. In Longino’s labeling system, their current move would be called a(an) _______. *a. amenity move b. compensatory migration c. institutional migration d. post-retirement migration 7-41. (factual-232) Most of the domestic migration in the U.S. and Europe can be explained by: ..

133

a. air and water quality. b. variety of cultural activities available. c. cost of living. *d. weather.

7-42. (applied-233) Leonard is 66 years of age and still in the labor force. Based on what you know about “retirement shunners” what would you guess his occupation to be? a. a police officer b. a fire fighter *c. a college professor d. an insurance salesman 7-43. (applied-232-233) Wanda is retired and enjoys the warm winters of the south and southwest but does not want to make a complete break from home. Which of the following is most likely to be true? a. She is likely in her early 60s and single. b. She is likely African American. *c. She is likely well-educated and owns her winter residence. d. She is making what Longino refers to as an institutional move.

..

134

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 7-45. Briefly describe three factors that influence a young person’s choice of a career or job.

7-46. Holland proposed six basic personality types with corresponding work environments.

Briefly list these personality types and include examples of corresponding occupational types.

7-47. Bjorklund notes that women have even more need than men to plan for retirement. What are two reasons for this assertion?

7-48. Describe how the effects of job insecurity compare to the effects of unemployment.

7-49. List and describe the key features that influence retirement decisions.

ESSAY QUESTIONS 7-50. Why would work satisfaction rise with age? Make sure to include relevant research.

7-51. Your father is nearing retirement and seems to be dreading it. His coworkers have told him that he will hate being retired. What can you tell him to reassure him, based on the evidence given in this chapter?

7-52. Current research suggests that in two-job families, women continue to be responsible for and perform most of the housework and childcare jobs. Why do you think that is the case? Give as many possible explanations as you can, drawing on both theory and research where possible.

7-53. Your friend tells you that she is planning to switch to night shifts so that she can save money on daycare. Her husband, who owns a successful business, is not so sure that this is a good idea. Drawing upon the research, what would you advise?

7-54. Analyze the following statement: “The apparent increase in job satisfaction with age, evident in cross-sectional studies, is really only a cohort difference in disguise.” Can you support or refute this statement? What relevant data can you utilize to support your answer?

7-55. Compare and contrast the effect of job loss on adult functioning.

7-56. In individual decisions about when to retire, the availability of pension benefits and health often exert opposite influences. Explain this.

7-57. Using a fictitious or real-life example, fully explore Super’s life-span/life-space theory of career development, explaining your individual’s progress through each stage in comparison to the theoretical model.

7-58. Use Holland’s theory relating to career selection and explore a single career choice by a man or a woman in terms of vocational interest, gender issues, genetics, and family influence.

Use a real or fictitious example in your answer.

7-59. Our jobs occupy a hefty portion of our time, our thoughts, and our emotions. They determine in large part where we live, how well we live, and with whom we spend time—even ..

135

after working hours. On another level, our jobs provide a good deal of our identity and selfesteem. If you could change one aspect of work in America, what would it be and provide a rationale for your choice.

..

136

CHAPTER 8 PERSONALITY

CHAPTER OUTLINE •

•

•

• • •

Personality Structures o Personality Traits and Factors ▪ Five-Factor Model (FFM) o Differential Continuity o Mean-Level Change o Intra-Individual Variability o Continuity, Change, and Variability Coexist o What Do Personality Traits Do? ▪ Personality and Relationships ▪ Personality and Achievement ▪ Personality and Health Explanations of Continuity and Change o Genetics o Environmental Influences ▪ Person-Environment Transactions o Evolutionary Psychology Explanations ▪ Reactive Heritability o Cultural Differences o Summing Up Personality Structure Theories of Personality Development o Psychosocial Development ▪ Identity ▪ Intimacy ▪ Generativity ▪ Ego Integrity o Ego Development o Mature Adaptation o Gender Crossover o Positive Well-Being ▪ Self-Actualization ▪ Self-Determination Theory Summary Key Terms Suggested Reading

Suggested Reading

BOOKSHELF Hetherton, T. F., & Weinberger, J. L. (Eds.). (1994). Can personality change? Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Within this book, the chapters by Costa & McCrae and by Helson & Stewart will likely be the most useful. But there are many others that you will want to look at—in particular, the McAdams chapter is a very nice synthesis, well worth bringing up in class; it is discussed below. As ..

137

explained in the text, there is clear evidence that personality is both consistent and changing; it is not an either/or question. But to look at it that way does require some concept like McAdams’s: namely, that personality exists at several levels simultaneously, some of which are constant and some of which are open to change.

Funder, D. C., Parke, R .D., Tomlinson-Keasey, C., & Widaman, K. (1993). Study lives through time: Personality development. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Another good general book: it includes a paper by Jack Block, the “father” of much of the longitudinal research on adult personality, in which he not only lays out the ideal longitudinal study but describes his own longitudinal data, which involves a sample followed from childhood into young adulthood. There is also a paper by Loevinger in which she contrasts type and stage theories, particularly in reference to the distinction between conformity and conscientiousness. A paper by Caspi explores the question of the persistence of maladaptive behaviors. The authors describe some of Caspi’s more recent work on the environmental sources of continuity.

Seligman, M. E. P. (2012). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being.

New York: Atria.

By one of the founders of the positive psychology movement, the author writes about how to enjoy life to its fullest by becoming fully engaged in all aspects of our lives.

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION OR REVIEW ❖ Personality Traits. A fun classroom exercise is to find a web-based version of the Big-Five personality test, and have students take the assessment and bring the results to class. Then you can all discuss the future implications of what those personality types mean for individuals as they age. This is particularly fun in a class where students have an open rapport. ❖ The Changes at Midlife. Helson and Wink’s 1992 article gives a particularly interesting look at the midlife period in the Mills College sample of women. In this analysis, they compare the women at forty-three and at fifty-two; both time points are within the period normally called midlife. They found that between ages forty-three and fifty-two there were significant changes on the following personality clusters: ▪ increase in responsibility, reflecting the use of a rational, analytic reflective mode of impulse regulation ▪ increase in self-control ▪ decrease in femininity ▪ increase in “norm favoring,” connoting conscientiousness and conventionality ▪ increase in dominance ▪ increase in self-confidence ▪ decrease in succorance ▪ decrease in abasement ▪ increase in the use of intellectuality and logical analysis as coping skills ..

138

The results suggest that these women were still moving toward what has been called individuation between forty-three and fifty-two. There is little sign here of the mellower personality processes that may be found in later life. Interestingly, none of these changes were linked to menopausal status, to whether there were children still at home, or to whether the woman was heavily involved in her role as daughter to an aging parent. Thus, role change and physiological changes could not account for the personality changes.

However, another analysis from this same study suggests that by age fifty-two, there is a reduction of anxiety or a sense of pressure to achieve or to define the self. In the age-fifty-two questionnaire, the researchers asked each woman to state whether each of a set of “feeling” statements was truer now or less true now than it had been when they were in their early forties. Helson and Wink do not have comparable data from age forty-three, so we’re looking here at the women’s perception of their change over the previous decade. These women said that the following were less true of themselves at fifty-two than at forty-three: ▪ searching for a sense of who I am ▪ anxious that I won’t live up to my potential ▪ excitement, turmoil about my impulses and potential ▪ coming near the end of one road and not finding another ▪ doing things for others and then feeling exploited ▪ feeling very much alone ▪ feelings of competition with other women ▪ feeling angry at men and at masculinity They also said the following things were truer of themselves at fifty-two than at forty-three: ▪ feeling established ▪ influence in my community or field of interest ▪ a new level of productivity ▪ feeling selective in what I do ▪ a sense of being my own person ▪ realizing larger patterns of meaning and relationship ▪ appreciating my complexity ▪ discovering new parts of myself ▪ more satisfied with what I have; less worried about what I won't get The feeling that one gets is that in their early forties, these women were still edgy—trying to create the individuality they sought—but were not there yet. By fifty-two, they were much more likely to feel they had arrived. They were not less enterprising or productive, but they sounded less driven, more relaxed, and more confident. ❖ Erikson and Marcia. Have students, in a discussion question or homework assignment, create a fictitious individual and write a vignette about their quest for identity. In this assignment, they must explore the relevant stages of Erikson’s theory as well as mesh their vignette with Marcia’s four statuses. ❖ Gender Crossover. Another informal interview assignment would involve requiring your students to query “empty nesters” about their roles within the house, work, and community.

Do they find that men are more willing to contribute to housework that their wives have traditionally done? Do they find that women are seeking to engage in roles typically seen as masculine, such as working with heavier yard machines or changing the oil?

..

139

SELECTED REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER EIGHT Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008b). Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation, development, and health. Canadian Psychology, 49, 182–185.

Helson, R., & Kwan, V. S. Y. (2000). Personality development in adulthood: The broad picture and processes in one longitudinal sample. In S. Hampson (Ed.), Advances in personality psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 77–106). London, England: Routledge.

McAdams, D. P. (1994). Can personality change? Levels of stability and growth in personality across the life span. In T. F. Hetherton & J. L. Weinberger (Eds.), Can personality change? (pp. 299–313). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

McAdams, D. P., de St. Aubin, E., & Logan, R. L. (1993). Generativity among young, midlife, and older adults. Psychology and Aging, 8, 221–230.

Roberts, B. W., & Mroczek, D. (2008). Personality trait change in adulthood. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 31–35.

Whitbourne, S. K., Sneed, J. R., & Sayer, A. (2009). Psychosocial development from college through midlife: A 34-year sequential study. Developmental Psychology, 45, 1328–1340.

SELECTED KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS FOR CHAPTER EIGHT Five-Factor Model (FFM): a model of personality traits, consisting of Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness, formed by McCrae and Costa Gender crossover: the relaxation of gender roles at midlife Generativity: the stage of personality development, according to Erikson, that is concerned with establishing and guiding the next generation Person–environment transactions: conscious or unconscious transactions that take the form of reactive, evocative, proactive, or manipulative transactions Positive psychology: the field of psychology concerned with well-being, contentment, satisfaction, optimism, and happiness Reactive heritability: process whereby individuals use the qualities they have inherited, such as strength or attractiveness, as a basis to determine strategies for survival and reproduction Self-actualization: the highest level of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs; individuals in this level have peak experiences – feelings of perfection and momentary separation from the self, feeling in unity with the universe Self-determination theory: concerned with the feelings of being connected to, cared about, and belonging with significant others in one’s life

..

140

Test Bank Chapter 8 QUICK QUIZ 8-1. (conceptual-242) How a person typically behaves in social situations, whether people are retiring or outgoing is an example of a ________. a. personality stage b. differential continuity c. personality Trait d. personality dilemma 8-2. (applied-244-245) Which person is likely to have the most stable and consolidated personality? a. Juan, age 25 b. Kareem, age 45 c. Mary, age 35 d. Migueal, age 55 8-3. (applied-248-249) Ravenna is a 52-year-old female who has been a participant in the Mills College study of personality characteristics. Ravenna scored very high in conscientiousness.

Which of the following is most likely TRUE of Ravenna? a. She got divorced after five years of marriage. b. She was highly successful in her career and eventually became a CEO. c. She took pride in her roles of wife and mother and did not pursue a career. d. She ended up living just above the poverty line because she did not utilize the skills she had learned in her college years.

8-4. (applied-256-257) An adult is preoccupied with a need to “make his mark” on the world by giving something back. Which of Erikson’s dilemmas (stages) is this adult grappling with? a. identity versus role confusion b. intimacy versus isolation c. generativity versus stagnation d. ego integrity versus despair 8-5. (factual-245-246) Which of the following was found to decrease with age? a. neuroticism b. social dominance c. agreeable d. conscientious 8-6. (factual-244) Differential continuity refers to: a. changes in a group’s average score. *b. the stability of individuals’ rank order within a group over time. c. intra-individual variability. d. The most dominant personality trait for most people in adulthood.

8-7. (conceptual-250-251) What evidence most clearly demonstrates a genetic component in personality consistency in adulthood? a. greater similarity in personality between parents and children than between fraternal ..

141

twins b. similarity of the personalities of adopted children in the same household c. greater similarity in the personalities of fraternal than of identical twins *d. greater similarity in the personalities of identical than of fraternal twins 8-8. (factual-260) Which is the highest level of development in Jane Loevinger’s theory? a. self-aware level b. conscientious stage c. individualistic stage d. autonomous stage 8-9. (factual-264) In Maslow’s theory of motives, which group of motives are said to be uniquely human? a. deficiency motives b. being motives c. physiological motives d. homeostatic motives 8-10. (factual-261) What does Vaillant call the stage he has added to Erikson’s model of development? a. career consolidation b. occupational achievement versus discouragement c. work striving d. early 30s transition

..

142

ANSWER KEY: Chapter 8 QUICK QUIZ 1. Answer: c Page in text: 242 Topic: Personality Structures Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: easy 2. Answer: d Page in text: 244-245 Topic: Personality Structures Question type: applied; Difficulty level: moderate 3. Answer: c Page in text: 248-249 Topic: Personality Structures Question type: applied; Difficulty level: moderate 4. Answer: c Page in text: 256-257 Topic: Theories of Personality Development Question type: applied; Difficulty level: moderate 5. Answer: a Page in text: 245-246 Topic: Personality Structures Question type: factual; Difficulty level: easy 6. Answer: b Page in text: 244 Topic: Personality Structures Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: difficult 7. Answer: d Page in text: 250-251 Topic: Explanations of Continuity and Change Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: moderate 8. Answer: d Page in text: 260 Topic: Theories of Personality Development Question type: factual; Difficulty level: moderate 9. Answer: b Page in text: 264 Topic: Theories of Personality Development Question type: factual; Difficulty level: moderate 10. Answer: a Page in text: 261 Topic: Theories of Personality Development Question type: factual; Difficulty level: moderate ..

143

CHAPTER 8 PERSONALITY MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 8-1. (factual-242) Enduring ways of thinking, feeling, and acting are referred to as _______. *a. personality traits b. personality structures c. personality dimensions d. personality affiliations 8-2. (applied-242) Juanita, a very extraverted female, just learned that her father’s cancer has spread. Weeks before, she had agreed to go with her friend to a party, but while she was there, she was very quiet and withdrawn. This short-lived pattern of being quiet and withdrawn would be considered a _____. *a. state b. factor c. trait d. disposition 8-3. (factual-243) Costa and McCrae have demonstrated the validity of their 5-factor personality structure across _______. a. age b. gender c. cultural background *d. all of the above 8-4. (factual-243) Anxiety, hostility, worry, depression, and self-consciousness are characteristics of which personality trait? *a. neuroticism b. agreeableness c. conscientiousness d. extraversion 8-5. (factual-243) Trust, altruism, straightforwardness, and kindness are characteristics of which personality trait? a. neuroticism b. openness *c. agreeableness d. extraversion 8-6. (factual-244) Which of the following is NOT a trait found to be stable by Costa and McCrae?

a. neuroticism b. extraversion *c. rigidity d. openness 8-7. (factual-244) Recent research on personality consistency suggests higher consistency in some periods of adult life than others. During which age period does personality appear to be LEAST consistent? *a. early adulthood ..

144

b. middle adulthood c. late adulthood d. late adulthood for women; middle adulthood for men 8-8. (factual-244) Differential continuity refers to: a. changes in a group’s average score. *b. the stability of individuals’ rank order within a group over time. c. intra-individual variability. d. The most dominant personality trait for most people in adulthood.

8-9. (factual-244) Mean-level change refers to: *a. changes in a group’s average scores. b. differential continuity. c. intra-individual change. d. an individual’s rank order within a group over time.

8-10. (conceptual-245) When researchers compared two groups of older adults, those 74–84 and those 85–92, the older group showed higher scores for ________. a. neuroticism b. openness c. self-centeredness *d. agreeableness 8-11. (factual-244) To answer the question, “Do individuals’ personalities change over time?” correlations that focus on ______ stability are usually employed. a. mean-order *b. rank-order c. percentile-order d. product-order 8-12 (applied-244-245) Which person is likely to have the most stable and consolidated personality? a. Juan, age 25 b. Kareem, age 45 c. Mary, age 35 *d. Miguel, age 55 8-13. (applied-246-247) Stewart thinks that he is not very smart and believes that his intelligence is fixed, so it is not likely to change. Which of the following is TRUE regarding research on beliefs about the self? a. Stewart will be as open to learning and willing to face challenges as his counterparts who believe intelligence is malleable. b. It is not possible to change some of Stewart’s beliefs about his intelligence because they are so engrained in the culture. *c. Fairly simple interventions have been shown to change Stewart’s way of thinking and, consequently, traits such as openness and resilience. d. Fairly simple interventions have been shown to change Stewart’s way of thinking and, consequently, traits such as openness and resilience, but only if he is from a high socioeconomic status background.

8-14. (applied-248) Baruque scores very high on the personality trait of __________. Consistent ..

145

with research, he has been in a series of dissatisfying and abusive relationships that do not tend to last long. a. rigidity b. extraversion *c. neuroticism d. openness.

8-15. (conceptual-250) Men who had wives with high scores on _________ reported better health than those with low-scoring wives. a. agreeableness *b. conscientiousness c. openness d. extraversion 8-16. (applied-249) Of all his six siblings, Bernard lived the longest. All his sisters and brothers died of various illness at much younger ages than Bernard, who died at the age of 92. Bernard was most likely high in the personality trait of: a. extraversion b. openness *c. conscientiousness d. agreeableness 8-17. (conceptual-250-251) What evidence most clearly demonstrates a genetic component in personality consistency in adulthood? a. greater similarity in personality between parents and children than between fraternal twins b. similarity of the personalities of adopted children in the same household c. greater similarity in the personalities of fraternal than of identical twins *d. greater similarity in the personalities of identical than of fraternal twins 8-18. (conceptual-252) Each of us tends to choose environments or situations in which our existing personality traits will be reinforced or supported. Caspi and colleagues refer to this as _________. a. evocative transactions *b. proactive transactions c. genetic transactions d. causal transactions 8-19. (applied-252) Tyrone has a low self-esteem. When his friends asked him to do something together or go someplace, he responds by saying that they are probably only asking to be polite or because they feel bad for him. These comments make his friends uncomfortable and eventually, they stop making an effort to get together. Tyrone is now sure that he is not a person anyone would want to have as a friend Which type of transaction does this illustrate? a. manipulative transaction *b. evocative transaction c. proactive transaction d. transformative transaction 8-20. (applied-252-253) David Buss, an evolutionary psychologist, would be most likely to say: a. “Aging does not represent a loss at midlife, but rather, a gain in personal freedom and new roles within the tribe.” ..

146

*b. “Personality traits have led to important individual differences linked to survival.” c. “Personality traits are important in the development of intimate relationships.” d. “Personality is based on beliefs about the self.”

8-21. (conceptual-252) A person’s genetic endowment combines with environmental factors to maintain personality traits over the years of adulthood, a concept known as: a. generativity. *b. person-environment transactions. c. heritability. d. differential continuity.

8-22. (conceptual-254-255) Which statement is not an element of Erikson’s Stage 7, his view of generativity? a. serving as a mentor for younger colleagues b. doing charitable work in society *c. excelling as a professional d. bearing and rearing of children 8-23. (factual -254) Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development states that personality development takes place in ________ that represents a conflict the individual must try to resolve. a. regular cyclical periods of approximately 7 years throughout life b. spurts that correspond to physical growth periods *c. distinct stages over the life span d. distinct stages until adolescence 8-24. (conceptual-254) An article written by Erik Erickson would NOT emphasize development that _______. a. progresses over the lifetime b. results from interactions between inner drives and outer, societal demands c. results in a gradual, step-wise sense of identity *d. centers around adaptation to unique life experiences

8-25. (factual-255) What is the final stage of development in Erik Erikson’s theory of adult development? a. industry versus inferiority *b. ego integrity versus despair c. intimacy versus isolation d. generativity versus stagnation 8-26. (factual-255) Which of the following stages in Erikson’s theory does NOT typically occur in adulthood? a. intimacy versus isolation b. generativity versus stagnation c. ego integrity versus despair *d. initiative versus guilt 8-27. (applied-256-257) An adult is preoccupied with a need to “make his mark” on the world.

Which of Erikson’s dilemmas (stages) is this adult grappling with? a. identity versus role confusion b. intimacy versus isolation *c. generativity versus stagnation ..

147

d. ego integrity versus despair 8-28. (applied-254) In her first year of college Deneisha was struggling to find herself and mistakenly thought she would find her identity by dating the first guy who showed interest in her. According to Erikson’s theory, Deneisha is likely to experience a. shame and doubt. *b. a sense of isolation. c. stagnation. d. role confusion.

8-29. (factual-254-255) With what stage does Erikson associate the potential strength of care? a. intimacy versus isolation b. industry versus inferiority c. ego integrity versus despair *d. generativity versus stagnation 8-30. (factual-254-255) What potential strength does Erikson associate with the stage of intimacy versus isolation? *a. love b. care c. wisdom d. fidelity 8-31. (factual-254-255) In which of Erikson’s stages is fidelity the potential strength to be gained? *a. identity b. intimacy c. generativity d. integrity 8-32. (applied-254-255) A childless, middle-aged adult who becomes a “Big Brother” or “Big Sister” at age 35 is trying to find a way to deal with which of Erikson’s dilemmas? a. intimacy vs. isolation b. ego integrity vs. despair c. identity vs. role confusion *d. generativity vs. stagnation 8-33. (conceptual-254, 259) Which of the following is a valid statement of a difference between Erikson’s stage theory and Loevinger’s stage theory of development? *a. Loevinger thinks movement to the next stage occurs only when the previous stage has been mastered; Erikson thinks stage movement occurs when social or biological circumstances force new issues. b. Erikson thinks movement to the next stage occurs only when the previous stage has been mastered; Loevinger thinks stages coincide with specific ages. c. Loevinger’s stages are age-linked, while Erikson’s are not. d. Loevinger assumes that all adults move through all stages, while Erikson does not.

8-34. (conceptual- 258) In a study by McAdams and his colleagues, men who were not fathers scored significantly lower on ___________ than those who were fathers. a. agreeableness *b. generativity ..

148

c. conscientiousness d. integrity 8-35. (applied-260) Monique was a participant in Dr. Merrens’ study that required her to complete 18 sentence stems, such as “My mother and I….. and “Rules are….” She received a total score that corresponds to a particular level of ego development. Dr. Merrens’ research is based on the work of: *a. Jane Loevinger b. Erik Erikson c. Daniel Levinson d. Paul Baltes 8-36. (factual-260) Which is the highest level of development in Jane Loevinger’s theory? a. self-aware level b. conscientious stage c. individualistic stage *d. autonomous stage 8-37. (applied-260) If an adult said, “What I learned at home and in my church is what I live by. The approval of my friends and the stability of my family matter the most to me,” this adult is most likely functioning at which level or stage in Loevinger’s model of ego development?

a. self-protective stage *b. conformist stage c. individualistic level d. autonomous stage 8-38. (applied-260) An adult says: “I've been independent from my parents for a long time now, supporting myself and my family, out there in the world being a grownup. It’s only recently that I realized that I’m still dependent on my parents in other ways—that I’m not really a grownup yet.” What stage or level does such thinking reflect in Loevinger’s model? a. conformist stage *b. individualistic stage c. integrated stage d. self-protective stage 8-39. (applied-260) An adult describes herself as “a small-town, family girl; a good person.”

What stage or level in Loevinger’s model does such a description typify? *a. conformist stage b. individualistic level c. integrated stage d. self-protective stage 8-40. (conceptual- 261) In older adults, ________ is related to higher levels of ego development. a. larger family size b. extraversion *c. higher education d. a feminine gender role 8-41. (conceptual-262) Vaillant suggesting that his levels of defense mechanisms are a way to measure psychological maturity and well-being. Which of the following is an argument he probably offered in support of this assertion? a. All individuals consistently demonstrate the same defense mechanisms in a stage-like ..

149

progression based on their age. *b. The association between mature defenses and mental health is present across a number of indicators (occupational success, maturity, happiness). c. Individuals under severe stress do not revert to less mature mechanisms. d. The two levels of defense mechanisms are sequential.

8-42. (factual-261) What does Vaillant call the stage he has added to Erikson’s model of development? *a. career consolidation b. occupational achievement versus discouragement c. work striving d. early 30s transition 8-43. (conceptual-263) Soldz and Vaillant found that the higher a participant scored on ________, the more money he made. a. neuroticism b. openness c. agreeableness *d. extraversion 8-44. (conceptual-263). Research on Gutmann’s theory of gender crossover is best captured by the statement that _______. *a. the evidence seems to support a blending of men’s and women’s personality traits, but not a crossover b. men become more feminine than women and women become more masculine than men c. the cause for this crossover or blending is limited to those who have children d. All the above statements correctly summarize the results of the research.

8-45. (conceptual-264) Which of the following motives or needs would Maslow classify as a “being motive”? a. getting enough to eat b. security *c. altruism d. satisfying thirst 8-46. (conceptual-254, 265) In Maslow’s system, love needs are to self-actualization needs as, in Erikson’s system, _______. a. intimacy is to identity *b. intimacy is to integrity c. generativity is to intimacy d. identity is to integrity 8-47. (applied-264-265) Maslow could be considered a: *a. positive psychologist b. evolutionary psychologist c. behaviorist d. cognitive psychologist 8-48. (applied-264-265) Ruthann is described by her friends as seeing things clearly and freshly, accepting of herself as she is, deeply sympathetic, compassionate toward others, creative, and ..

150

with a strong sense of her need for privacy. How might Maslow have labeled Ruthann? a. self-confident b. self-assured *c. self-actualized d. self-absorbed 8-49. (factual-264-265) Self-actualization, according to Maslow’s theory, occurs _________. *a. in a small fraction of individuals whose deficiency needs have been met b. in a large percentage of individuals over the age of 50 c. for nearly everyone after the age of 65 d. in those individuals who have faced the largest amount of stress or crisis 8-50. (factual-264) In Maslow’s theory of motives, which group of motives are said to be found in all animals? *a. deficiency motives b. being motives c. physiological motives d. homeostatic motives 8-51. (factual-264). Which of the following are distinctly human, according to Maslow’s theories concerning positive well-being? a. deficiency motives *b. being motives c. health problems d. homeostasis 8-52. (conceptual- 266) Ryan and Deci, the psychologists who formulated self-determination theory, stress how important it is for individuals to experience: a. generativity *b. eudaimonia c. ego integrity d. openness 8-53 (conceptual-266) According to Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory, individuals cannot thrive without satisfying the following: a. identity, autonomy, and intimacy b. safety, self-esteem and generativity c. competence, ego integrity, altruism *d. competence, autonomy, and relatedness 8-54. (factual-266) Ryan and Deci have identified 3 basic needs that must be satisfied across the life span in order to experience the state of eudaimonia. Which one of the following is NOT one of the basic needs? a. competence b. autonomy *c. confidence d. relatedness 8-55. (conceptual -266) According to Ryan and Deci’s theory, the basic need of competence centers around effectiveness. Which of the following slogans aptly describes their concept? *a. the U.S. Army slogan, it’s important to “be all that you can be” ..

151

b. Discover’s by-line, It pays to discover” c. Samsung’s “Turn on Tomorrow” d. Saab’s slogan, “whether you think it’s different or expected, you’re right”

..

152

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 8-56. List and describe briefly at least six different characteristics Maslow considered to be attributes of a self-actualized (or self-actualizing) person.

8-57. List the stages described by Loevinger, the stages described by Erikson, and the sequences of motives described by Maslow; then link the three lists to one another.

8-58. Bjorklund notes that “the link between personality traits and health can take place in a number of ways.” Drawing upon research, give two examples.

8-59. List and describe the “big five” personality dimensions.

8-60. Discuss the findings of one study that illustrates the genetic influences on personality.

8-61. Give two examples of how personality changes from middle to late adulthood..

8-62. Diagram Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

8-63. Describe two similarities and two differences between Loevinger and Vaillant’s theories of adult development.

8-64. List the appropriate stage with which each of the following strengths are associated in Erikson’s theory: fidelity wisdom love care ESSAY QUESTIONS 8-65. Suppose a researcher studies a group of adults longitudinally over a ten-year period and finds that the average score on a measure of conscientiousness goes up steadily over time. What, if anything, does this finding tell us about individual consistency in conscientiousness?

8-66. Discuss two dimensions of personality that have been shown to relate to health (or even the health of one’s spouse).

8-67. Which theory of adult development, in your view, is most consistent with the evidence on personality change in adulthood? Give examples.

8-68. Describe the major changes in personality that appear to occur between early and middle adulthood, and give at least one research example to illustrate each change.

8-69. To what extent do you think that cohort differences can account for the pattern of change in personality described in the text? Give specific examples.

8-70. Give an example of a humanistic theorist who would be considered to be a positive psychologist. Provide a rationale and be sure to include the focus of the positive psychology movement in your response. ..

153

8-71. One possible explanation of the age-linked changes with personality is that they are driven primarily or solely by role changes, rather than reflecting some deeper developmental process.

What sort of findings would support such a conclusion? What would refute it?

8-72. Describe two methodological explanations for the “change” in personality over adulthood.

8-73. How are stage theories different from theories suggesting sequences? What are the strengths and weaknesses of each approach?

..

154

CHAPTER 9 THE QUEST FOR MEANING

CHAPTER OUTLINE • • •

• • • • • •

Why a Chapter on the Quest for Meaning? o Self-Transcendence The Study of Age-Related Changes in Meaning Systems o Changes in the Quest for Meaning o Religion, Spirituality, and Health Theories of Spiritual Development o Development of Moral Reasoning ▪ The Stages o Development of Faith ▪ The Stages of Faith Integrating Meaning and Personality: A Preliminary Theoretical Synthesis o A Synthesizing Model o Stages of Mystical Experience The Process of Transition Commentary and Conclusions Summary Key Terms Suggested Reading

BOOKSHELF Churchland, P. S. (2012). Braintrust: What neuroscience tells us about morality. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Authored by a renowned rabbi, with the intent to blunt the debate about whether science or religion is correct.

Dalai Lama. (2011). Beyond religion: Ethics for a whole world. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.

The Dalai Lama is the world’s spiritual advisor, it seems. With a focus on happiness through ethical living, the 14th Dalai Lama asks us to be compassionate and respectful, and through that, we will find fulfillment.

Frankl, V. E. (2006). Man’s search for meaning. Boston: Beacon Press.

Frankl used his experience in a concentration camp to create a new type of therapy, fully explored in this reprint, containing a foreword and afterword, of his original work.

Kohlberg, L. (1984). Essays on moral development, vol. 2. The psychology of moral development.

San Francisco: Harper & Row.

..

155

The creator of the “Heinz Dilemma” explains his theory in detail, in this seminal work on moral reasoning and development.

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION OR REVIEW ❖ Kohlberg’s Theory. Kohlberg’s model is one that is worthy of class time. Examples will help drive this theory home for your students; I think it’s very important to make very clear that it is the nature of the reasoning that determines the stage of some given answer to a moral dilemma, not the specific choice made. In other words, it’s not the decision itself, but the thought process behind making the decision. Thus with the Heinz dilemma, presented in Table 9.2 on page 283 of the text, someone could justify a choice either to rob the druggist or not to rob the druggist at any of the stages.

For example, a person might use Stage 2 logic to justify stealing the drug in one of the following ways: ➢ He should steal the drug because otherwise he would have to pay for his wife’s funeral, and that would be expensive. ➢ He should steal the drug because he wants his wife to live because of all the nice things she does for him.

Or you could justify not stealing the drug from a Stage 2 stance: ➢ He shouldn’t steal the drug because he might get caught, and then he’d have to go to jail and jail would be awful.

Here’s a wonderful opportunity for small-group work to become into a full-class discussion.

Try posing some moral dilemmas, or ask your students to come up with some of their own.

Assign different groups different levels of moral reasoning for the same dilemma, and watch the discussion unfold. ❖ Gilligan’s “Different Voice.” As is discussed in the text, Carol Gilligan (1982) has been a critic of Kohlberg’s theory. The basis for her critique is her view that women and men approach ethical dilemmas in different ways. While women tend to approach dilemmas from a perspective of responsibilities and caring, men tend to emphasize a morality of justice, as introduced above.

Here, again, we find gender differences at the center of debate. With my own students, I have found it interesting to ask students to consider a moral dilemma from both points of view: Kohlberg’s and Gilligan’s. I also ask them to do this using imagined subjects of different ages. As the authors of our text suggest, research supports both theories and has also found that in certain circumstances, men and women do indeed reason in the same way. It’s also interesting to ask students to interview different age cohorts. Millennial young men and women tend to give answers that support a modern version of Gilligan’s theory, coming up with questions like, “Why can’t Heinz just use his credit card?” ❖ The Role of Spirituality. The text shows us that there are gender differences in the increase in spirituality that happens in midlife and late midlife, with women seeing an earlier and sharper increase. What reasons might there be for this disparity?

..

156

❖ Meaning Systems and Cognitive Development. Another link between the sometimes-fuzzy ideas contained in this chapter and other topics covered in this text is suggested by Jan Sinnott (1994), who argues that the kind of unitive thought that seems to be required in order to think of ourselves as spiritual beings requires—as a necessary but not sufficient condition—the availability of postformal thought. In particular, he proposes that what he calls “postformal, relativistic thought” is a necessary condition for achieving the higher stages of development described in this chapter. It includes the ability to deal with apparent paradox, with opposites, and with differing views in a way that seeks deeper solutions—that accepts alternative ideas and solutions. Such postformal thought can be reflected in flexibility and empathy in interpersonal relations, and in advanced scientific thought. Sinnott proposes a number of reasonably specific hypotheses arising from his basic argument. For example, he suggests that adults who are functioning at Erikson’s generative or ego integrity stages would be more likely to describe spiritual searches “that operate to give a unity and meaning to their lives” than are younger persons, but that this should be especially true of those who also are capable of postformal reasoning.

SELECTED REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER NINE Bering, J. M. (2006). The folk psychology of souls. Behavioral & Brain Sciences, 29, 453–498.

Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women’s development.

Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Karpiak, C. P., & Baril, G. L. (2008). Moral reasoning and concern for the environment. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 28, 203–208.

Parker, S. (2011). Spirituality in counseling: A faith development perspective. Journal of Counseling and Development, 89, 112–119.

Sinnott, J. D. (1994). Development and yearning: Cognitive aspects of spiritual development.

Journal of Adult Development, 1, 91–99.

SELECTED KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS FOR CHAPTER NINE Self-transcendence: coming to know oneself as part of a larger whole that exists beyond the physical body and personal history Gerotranscendence: the idea that meaning systems increase in quality as we age, beginning with myths and fairy tales about wise elders Religiosity: the outward signs of spirituality Decentering: a cognitive movement outward from the self Mysticism: an experience in which an individual experiences self-transcendence, in which they know that they are part of a larger whole and that they have an existence beyond their own physical body and personal history

..

157

Test Bank Chapter 9 QUICK QUIZ 9-1. (applied-279-280) At a dinner party, you hear someone make the following statement: “Religion doesn’t do any good for anyone. Religious people are no healthier, and die at the same ages as do nonreligious people.” According to the evidence given in the text, how should you reply? a. “You’re right. The research evidence shows no relationship between religion and health.” b. “The research allows an even stronger statement: highly religious people are actually less healthy than are irreligious people.” c. “You’re quite wrong. The research evidence shows that religious people are healthier and live longer.” d. “You can’t make that statement. There is no research evidence one way or the other about the relationship between religious involvement and health.”

9-2. (factual-278) Which age group of adults in the United States shows the highest level of participation in formal religious activities, such as church attendance? a. 20-year-olds b. 35-year-olds c. 50-year-olds d. 65-year-olds 9-3. (factual-282) In Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, the conventional level is made up of 2 stages: the stage of “good-boy or good-girl orientation” and the stage of _______. a. social contract b. social order maintaining orientation c. individualism and instrumental purpose orientation d. universal ethical principles 9-4. (applied-282) Fifteen-year-old Jack, when asked about various moral dilemmas, says “Well, I think if my parents think something is right, it must be okay.” In Kohlberg’s category system, Jack is reasoning at the _______. a. hedonistic level b. preconventional level c. conventional level d. principled level 9-5. (conceptual-284-285) Results from longitudinal studies of moral judgment show most clearly that _______. a. moral development does not occur in the clear stages that Kohlberg describes b. children and adolescents shift from one stage of moral reasoning to another, following the sequence described by Kohlberg c. average scores on moral development reasoning move upward in stages, but individuals move up and down quite frequently d. stage-like development of moral reasoning occurs only among children and adolescents growing up in western cultures 9-6. (conceptual-284-285) The most appropriate form of study to test Kohlberg’s theory of the ..

158

development of moral reasoning is _______. a. longitudinal b. cross-sectional c. cross-lag d. correlational 9-7. (factual-284) One way of looking at shifts from preconventional to conventional to postconventional levels of reasoning is to see them as a process of _________, a movement outward from the self. a. accommodation b. decentering c. coming to an evolutionary truce d. postformal thinking 9-8. (applied-287-289) “There are lots of ways to think about God and to understand God. My own way satisfies me, but I accept the fact that there are other approaches that work for other people.” Which of Fowler’s stages of faith does this statement reflect? a. synthetic-conventional b. individuative-reflective c. conjunctive d. universalizing 9-9. (applied-287-289) “I used to like to go to church. The pomp and circumstance really appealed to me, and I liked sitting there in the pew with my family. But now I really can’t stand all those rituals. They seem so empty to me—just so much show to satisfy the ignorant.

So I don’t go anymore.” What level of faith in Fowler’s system is reflected in this statement? a. conjunctive b. universalizing c. individuative -reflective d. conventional 9-10. (conceptual-292-293) Which step in Underhill’s description of mysticism seems to correspond to the usual endpoint in Fowler’s and Kohlberg’s theory? a. awakening b. purification c. illumination d. unity

..

159

ANSWER KEY: Chapter 9 QUICK QUIZ 1. Answer: c Page in text: 279-280 Topic: The Study of Age-Related Changes in Meaning Systems Question type: applied; Difficulty level: moderate 2. Answer: d Page in text: 278 Topic: The Study of Age-Related Changes in Meaning Systems Question type: factual; Difficulty level: easy 3. Answer: b Page in text: 282 Topic: Theories of Spiritual Development Question type: factual; Difficulty level: moderate 4. Answer: c Page in text: 282 Topic: Theories of Spiritual Development Question type: applied; Difficulty level: moderate 5. Answer: b Page in text: 284-285 Topic: Theories of Spiritual Development Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: difficult 6. Answer: a Page in text: 284-285 Topic: Theories of Spiritual Development Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: moderate 7. Answer: b Page in text: 284 Topic: Theories of Spiritual Development Question type: factual; Difficulty level: easy 8. Answer: c Page in text: 287-289 Topic: Theories of Spiritual Development Question type: applied; Difficulty level: moderate 9. Answer: c Page in text: 287-289 Topic: Theories of Spiritual Development Question type: applied; Difficulty level: moderate 10. Answer: a Page in text: 292-293 Topic: Integrating Meaning and Personality: A Preliminary Theoretical Synthesis Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: moderate ..

160

CHAPTER 9 THE QUEST FOR MEANING MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 9-1. (conceptual-274-277) Which of the following is most accurate? a. Less than half of people in the U.S. state that they believe in God. b. There has been a gradual decline in the number of empirical journal articles on religion or spirituality in the past few decades with the shift toward brain science. *c. Overall attendance and membership in religious organizations have dropped in the U.S. over the last 50 years. d. Spirituality and religiosity are basically the same constructs and are usually measured with the same questionnaires.

9-2. (factual-274) The process of self-transcendence is best described as: *a. coming to know oneself as part of a larger whole that exists beyond the physical body and personal history. b. the outward signs of spirituality. c. reasoning about what is right and wrong. d. meaning found through creative and leisure activities.

9-3. (conceptual-275) Most cultures support the tradition that spirituality and wisdom increase with age. Which of the following terms defines the concept that meaning systems increase in quality as we age? a. transubstantiation b. individuative-reflective c. conjunctive appeal *d. gerotransendence 9-4. (conceptual-278-279) Bjorklund noted that there is an increase in spirituality during adulthood, but the timing depends on: a. income level b. educational level *c. gender d. geographic region 9-5. (applied-279-280) At a dinner party, you hear someone make the following statement: “Religion doesn’t do any good for anyone. Religious people are no healthier, and die at the same ages as do nonreligious people.” According to the evidence given in the text, how should you reply? a. “You're right. The research evidence shows no relationship between religion and health.” b. “The research allows an even stronger statement: highly religious people are actually less healthy than are irreligious people.” *c. “You’re quite wrong. The research evidence shows that religious people are healthier and live longer.” d. “You can’t make that statement. There is no research evidence one way or the other about the relationship between religious involvement and health.”

9-6. (factual-278) Which age group of adults in the United States shows the highest level of participation in formal religious activities, such as church attendance? ..

161

a. 20-year-olds b. 35-year-olds c. 50-year-olds *d. 65-year-olds 9-7. (factual-278) When it comes to religious beliefs and private religious activities such as engaging in prayers, meditating, or reading sacred texts, cross-sectional studies show that those in which of the following age groups would be likely to participate the most? *a. over 50 b. 30–49 c. 18–29 d. 10–18 9-8. (factual-277) Women attend religious services at higher rates than men *a. at all ages. b. in only certain religions c. in the United States, but not in most other countries. d. in the southern part of the United States, but not other parts of this country.

9-9. (factual-279-280) What effects of religiousness/spirituality are found in adults in U.S. studies? a. higher cortisol levels b. higher levels of depression and anxiety because people often become more spiritual when there is a problem in their lives. *c. longer life expectancy d. lower levels of cardiac deaths, but only among African Americans 9-10. (factual-282) In Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, the conventional level is made up of 2 stages: the stage of “good-boy or good-girl orientation” and the stage of _______. a. social contract *b. social order maintaining orientation c. individualism and instrumental purpose orientation d. universal ethical principles 9-11. (applied-282) Fifteen-year-old Jack, when asked about various moral dilemmas, says “Well, I think if my parents think something is right, it must be okay.” In Kohlberg’s category system, Jack is reasoning at the _______. a. hedonistic level b. preconventional level *c. conventional level d. principled level 9-12. (applied-282-284) Miguel, who is 22 years old, thinks that breaking the law is always wrong, even if it is done in the name of civil disobedience—such as to try to change a law that discriminates against Hispanics. In Kohlberg’s category system, Miguel is reasoning at the _______. a. hedonistic level b. preconventional level *c. conventional level d. principled level

..

162

9-13. (applied-282-284) Teresa, who is in her early 30s, was arrested after participating in a sit-in as part of a protest march. She says, “I know what I did is against the law; 99 percent of the time I think a person should obey the law, because otherwise we’d have chaos. But sometimes laws are wrong, and I have to disobey them in order to try to change them.” In Kohlberg’s category system, Teresa is reasoning at the _______. a. hedonistic level b. preconventional level c. conventional level *d. principled level 9-14. (applied-282-284) “I did it because the teacher told me to. If I hadn’t done it, she would have made me stay after school.” This is an example of _____ reasoning in Kohlberg’s system. a. hedonistic *b. preconventional c. conventional d. principled 9-15 (conceptual-286) One critique of Kohlberg’s theory is that it largely ignores an ethical/moral system based on: *a. caring for others. b. concepts of justness. c. concepts of fairness for all. d. the norms of most citizens.

9-16. (factual-282-284) The 3 levels of moral reasoning described by Kohlberg are _______. *a. preconventional, conventional, and postconventional b. unconventional, conventional, and postconventional c. preconventional, conformist, and individualistic d. preconventional, conventional, and unconventional 9-17. (applied-282-284) “Generally you should obey the law, because that is one of the conditions for living in society. But if a law is immoral, you may need to disobey it—but be prepared to take the consequences.” What level of moral reasoning in Kohlberg’s system is reflected in this statement? a. hedonistic level b. preconventional level c. conventional level *d. principled level 9-18. (applied-282-284) “I try to do things that I think my mom and dad will approve of. Their opinion really matters to me.” In Kohlberg’s category system, this is an example of ______ reasoning. a. hedonistic b. preconventional *c. conventional d. principled 9-19. (conceptual-284-285) Results from longitudinal studies of moral judgment show most clearly that _______. a. moral development does not occur in the clear stages that Kohlberg describes ..

163

*b. children and adolescents shift from one stage of moral reasoning to another, following the sequence described by Kohlberg c. average scores on moral development reasoning move upward in stages, but individuals move up and down quite frequently d. stage-like development of moral reasoning occurs only among children and adolescents growing up in Western cultures 9-20. (conceptual-281) Kohlberg proposed that individuals move through a sequence of stages of moral reasoning, each stage growing out of, but superseding, the one that came before. His theory is considered an extension of ________ theory. a. Loevinger’s b. Levinson’s *c. Piaget’s d. Pearlin’s 9-21. (conceptual-284-285) The most appropriate form of study to test Kohlberg’s theory of the development of moral reasoning is _______. *a. longitudinal b. cross-sectional c. cross-lag d. correlational 9-22. (factual-285) Which level or levels of moral reasoning are most commonly found among adults in their 20s and 30s? a. preconventional *b. conventional c. principled d. Conventional and principled are found equally often.

9-23. (conceptual-286) Which of the following has been used as an argument against Kohlberg’s theory of the development of moral reasoning? *a. Kohlberg is talking only about an ethic of fairness, and ignores other aspects of moral reasoning. b. Cross-cultural data fail to support the hypothesized sequence of development. c. Too few adults reason at the principled level to make it worth talking about. d. When tested longitudinally, subjects move down as often as they move up in the sequence of reasoning.

9-24. (conceptual-287) According to Fowler’s theory of faith development, _______. a. there are two stages in the development of faith b. an individual’s faith typically gets weaker with increasing age *c. all individuals have some kind of faith, whether they participate in organized religion or not d. most adults have no specific faith as such 9-25. (factual-287-289) In Fowler’s system of faith development, which of the following stages is the final stage, if one can reach it, the optimal form of faith in old age, when issues of integrity and meaning become still more dominant ? a. intuitive-projective conjunctive *b. universalizing faith c. synthetic-conventional ..

164

d. individuative-reflective 9-26. (applied-287-289) “There are lots of ways to think about God and to understand God. My own way satisfies me, but I accept the fact that there are other approaches that work for other people.” Which of Fowler’s stages of faith does this statement reflect? a. synthetic-conventional b. individuative-reflective *c. conjunctive d. universalizing 9-27. (applied-287-289) “I grew up in the Baptist church, and I’m still a Baptist. My ideas have really not changed at all. I find comfort by going to church; I find comfort in the Bible. It all seems pretty clear to me.” Which of Fowler’s stages of faith does this statement most reflect? *a. synthetic-conventional b. individuative-reflective c. conjunctive d. universalizing 9-28. (applied-287-289) “I have recently found myself very much interested in the beliefs of others and have been reading about Eastern religions. My reading has not changed my own basic beliefs, but I find it fascinating and very broadening.” What level of faith in Fowler’s system is reflected in this statement? *a. conjunctive b. universalizing c. individuative-reflective d. synthetic-conventional 9-29. (applied-287-289) “I used to like to go to church. The pomp and circumstance really appealed to me, and I liked sitting there in the pew with my family. But now I really can’t stand all those rituals. They seem so empty to me—just so much show to satisfy the ignorant.

So I don’t go anymore.” What level of faith in Fowler’s system is reflected in this statement? a. conjunctive b. universalizing *c. individuative-reflective d. synthetic-conventional 9-30. (applied-287-289) “I grew up in the Baptist church, but when I went off to college, I really had to question all the ideas I’d been given as a child and as a teenager. For a while I called myself an atheist. But now I find myself drawn back to the Baptists. It just seems to me that the church offers answers to questions I’ve been asking myself.” Which of Fowler’s stages of faith does this statement most reflect? a. synthetic-conventional *b. individuative-reflective c. conjunctive d. universalizing 9-31. (factual-287-289) According to Fowler’s stages of faith development, what stage is, most typically, in its ascendance in adolescence or early adulthood? a. individuative-reflective *b. synthetic-conventional c. conjunctive ..

165

d. universalizing 9-32. (factual-287-289) The highest stage of faith Fowler proposes he calls _______. a. conjunctive *b. universalizing c. synthetic -conventional d. individuative-reflective 9-33. (conceptual-290) Which of the following stages in Loevinger’s theory of ego development most closely corresponds to the stage of synthetic-conventional faith in Fowler’s model? *a. conformist b. self-protective c. autonomous d. conscientious 9-34. (conceptual-290) Which stage in Fowler’s theory of faith development most closely corresponds to the stage of social contract reasoning in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development? a. universalizing b. conjunctive c. synthetic -conventional *d. individuative-reflective 9-35. (conceptual-285-290) What stage in Kohlberg’s system of moral development, characterized by a unity orientation, appears to correspond most closely to what Maslow calls “peak experiences”? *a. Stage 7 b. Stage 6 c. Stage 5 d. Stage 4 9-36. (conceptual-290) Which of Fowler’s stages of faith is most parallel to the level of belongingness and love needs in Maslow’s theory? a. universalizing *b. synthetic-conventional c. conjunctive d. individuative -reflective 9-37. (conceptual-282, 290-291) What stage in Loevinger’s model of personality development most closely corresponds to Kohlberg’s level of conventional reasoning? *a. conformist b. self-protective c. autonomous d. conscientious 9-38. (factual-291–292) Kegan proposes that development is governed by the existence of a basic polarity of motives or needs, between _______. a. sexual versus aggressive motives b. love versus hate *c. connection versus independence d. mundane versus exalted ..

166

9-39. (factual-292-293) Which of the following is NOT one of Underhill’s stages of mystical experience? a. awakening b. purification *c. abandonment d. illumination 9-40. (conceptual-292-293) Which step in Underhill’s description of mysticism corresponds to the usual endpoint in Fowler’s theory? *a. awakening b. purification c. illumination d. unity 9-41. (conceptual-293) Step 4 in Underhill’s stages of mystical experiences involves a fuller turn inward, back toward separateness called ________. *a. dark night of the soul b. alienation c. disassociation d. consolidation 9-42. (factual-294) Transition from an integrated to a self-transcendent stage usually involves _______. a. therapy *b. meditation or prayer c. reading about other faiths or religions d. attending college or leaving home for other reasons 9-43. (factual-294-295) Which particular life experience has been most often associated with reports of transitions from “conformist” to “individualistic” stages of faith or moral reasoning? a. therapy b. meditation or prayer c. near-death experience *d. attending college 9-44. (applied-295) According to the Gurin and Brim model, which of the following life experiences would be most likely to lead to significant change in adults’ meaning systems? a. marrying at age 23 *b. having a first child at 40 c. retirement at 65 d. the death of one’s father at the age of 75

..

167

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 9-45. The metaphor of a “journey” dominates most thinking about spiritual development or development of meaning systems. Suggest and discuss one other metaphor that might be used.

9-46. Briefly describe the difference between Stage 5 (Social contract orientation) and Stage 6 (Individual principles of conscience orientation) in Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning.

9-47. List and describe the three levels of Kohlberg’s stages of moral development. Include a sample reasoning statement for each.

9-48. Describe Fowler’s theory of faith development.

9-59. Briefly describe the effects of religiosity on health.

9-50. List at least three different life experiences that might trigger a transition from one stage of moral or faith development to another.

ESSAY QUESTIONS 9-51. Briefly describe the basic polarity Kegan proposes, and discuss how that concept may be useful as a synthesizing concept in tying together theories of both personality development and the growth of meaning.

9-52. Describe the stages of mystical experience as outlined by Underhill. How can these stages be linked to theories of moral reasoning or faith development?

9-53. Suppose you were interested in testing the basic hypotheses in Fowler’s theory of faith development. Briefly describe a study you could do that would provide such a test, and indicate just how the results should come out if Fowler is correct.

9-54. A criticism that is often leveled against Loevinger, Kohlberg, and Fowler is that the techniques they use to measure stage development are heavily verbal, so that better educated or more verbal adults are likely to score higher on the scales. How could you reply to this criticism if you were one of these theorists? What sort of evidence would you have to provide to counter such a criticism?

9-55. What is it about attending college that seems to be influential in triggering a shift to an individualistic mode of reasoning or meaning? Is (or was) your own college experience like this?

9-56. Briefly describe Carol Gilligan’s central argument against Kohlberg’s model of moral development.

9-57. Gary Reker finds that older adults in his cross-sectional study place more emphasis on “collectivism” and on “self-transcendent” meaning. a. How do these findings fit with the possible shared changes in personality in later adulthood discussed in the text? b. How could you account for Reker’s findings based on cohort differences?

9-58. Compare and contrast two fictitious individuals, one in the general stage of individuality and one in the general stage of integration, using two of the following theories: Loevinger’s, ..

168

Fowler’s, Maslow’s, and/or Kohlberg’s. Provide detail about moral reasoning, personality development, and applied examples of the individuals’ choices and behaviors.

9-59. What explanations could you suggest for women attending religious services more frequently than men? How does this fit with other gender differences you have studied in this book?

9-60. How might you design an experiment to determine whether older people are more spiritual because of their age or because of the adversity they have faced? What do you hypothesize about the results?

9-61. Read the following moral dilemma, how might an adult make a moral decision that reflects the post conventional level (or principled) of reasoning?

In Europe a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging $2,000, or 10 times the cost of the drug, for a small (possibly lifesaving) dose. Heinz, the sick woman’s husband, borrowed all the money he could, about $1,000, or half of what he needed. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell the drug cheaper or to let him pay later. The druggist replied, “No, I discovered the drug, and I’m going to make money from it.” Heinz then became desperate and broke into the store to steal the drug for his wife. Should Heinz have done that? Why or why not?

..

169

CHAPTER 10 STRESS, COPING, AND RESILIENCE

CHAPTER OUTLINE • • •

•

•

• • •

Stress, Stressors, and Stress Reactions o Response-Oriented Viewpoint o Stimulus-Oriented Viewpoint Types of Stress Effects of Stress o Physical Disease o Mental Health Disorders ▪ Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) o Individual Differences in Stress-Related Disorders ▪ Gender ▪ Age ▪ Discrimination ▪ Environment-Gene Interactions o Stress-Related Growth Coping with Stress o Types of Coping Behaviors ▪ Problem-Focused Coping ▪ Emotion-Focused Coping ▪ Meaning-Focused Coping ▪ Social Coping ▪ Proactive Coping ▪ Religious Coping o Social Support o Personality Traits and Coping Resilience o Reactions to Trauma o Individual Differences in Resilience ▪ Hardiness ▪ Self-Identity ▪ Positive Emotion o Resilience in Military Combat and Deployment o A Final Word on Stress and Resilience Summary Key Terms Suggested Reading

Suggested Reading

BOOKSHELF There are a variety of good general sources for this chapter, including the following: Bonanno, G. A. (2010). The other side of sadness: What the new science of bereavement tells us about life after loss. New York: Basic Books.

..

170

Containing interviews with bereaved individuals, Bonanno marries solid research with a truly human flavor, taking the stance that our natural response to trauma is resilience.

Brown, G. W., & Harris, T. O. (Eds.) (1989). Life events and illness. New York: The Guilford Press.

Although there are a number of contributors to this volume other than Brown and Harris, all the papers involve research using the measure of life change devised by Brown and Harris; many involve analyses of data from the several Brown and Harris studies. This is classic research. These researchers are also among the few who are trying to uncover the reasons that some people respond with depression (or illness) in the face of specifiable stress, while others show greater resilience.

Hillenbrand, L. (2010). Unbroken: A World War II story of survival, resilience, and redemption.

New York: Random House.

An incredible biography illustrating the resilience of Louie Zamperini, a former Olympic athlete turned Army Air Corps soldier, turned prisoner-ofwar.

Stroebe, M. S., Stroebe, W., & Hansson, R. O. (Eds.) (1993). Handbook of bereavement: Theory, research, and intervention. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

This book has many excellent chapters that will be helpful not only for this chapter but for Chapter 11 (Death and Bereavement). It includes many chapters from European psychologists, epidemiologists, and sociologists, as well as a complete discussion of the data on immune-function change after bereavement.

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION OR REVIEW ❖ Stress and Gender. Taylor (2002) argues that males and females have different evolutionary reactions to stress. Men experience fight or flight, and women go for “tend and befriend.”

Use this opportunity to gently explore those gender-based reactions with your students who are willing to open up about traumatic or stressful experiences. ❖ The Impact of Psychological Interventions. In part because of all the information about the link between social support and good health outcomes, there has been a burgeoning interest in support groups of various kinds, including the many twelve-step programs as well as support groups for children of alcoholics, for women with breast cancer, and more. These are obviously based on the assumption that if naturally occurring support is good, added support will also be good. In this case, there is growing evidence that some kind of organized social support, usually offered in groups, produces positive changes in the immune system and better health outcomes. Asking students to find scholarly research linking group support to immune system function in a variety of conditions—daily stressors, chronic stressors, physical illness, bereavement, and more—will help support the function of psychosocial support on recovery from stress of all kinds. ❖ Age, Gender, Discrimination, and Stress. The text makes the point that age, gender, and race ..

171

can mitigate the impact of stressful life events and the way we deal with stress. Research details the effects of racial discrimination and racism on stress (Cavalli-Sforza & CavalliSforza, 1995; Clark, 2006). This is very important, as it is consistent with earlier discussions in the text about how these factors impact how people experience stability and change in their lives. Consider asking your students to identify some factors related to age, gender, and race that can serve to increase stress. Then go back and ask how a combination of these might multiply the impact of stress on a person’s life and the kinds of responses that might be likely. ❖ PTSD and Military Deployment. Many believe the armed forces in the United States have arrived late to the party in terms of recognizing and caring for active duty soldiers and veterans who have experienced first-hand and/or second-hand traumatic events. Positive psychology has come to the rescue, working with the U.S. Army to develop a tool for early diagnosis and interventions that are hopefully effective. If you would like to inspire your class, do some web browsing for information about the Intrepid Fallen Heroes Fund, a private organization founded by Arnold Fisher, which has begun funding and building state-of-theart rehabilitation centers for returning veterans. The centers provide both physical and mental health rehabilitation.

SELECTED REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER TEN Borrell, L. N. (2009). Race, ethnicitiy, and self-reported hypertension. American Journal of Public Health, 99, 313–319.

Cavalli-Sforza, L. L., & Cavalli-Sforza, F. (1995). The great human diasporas: The history of diversity and evolution. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Clark, R. (2006). Perceived racism and vascular activity in black college women, moderating effects of seeking social support. Health Psychology, 25, 20–25.

Fuller-Iglesias, H., Sellars, B., & Antonucci, T. C. (2008). Resilience in old age: Social relations as a protective factor. Research in Human Development, 5, 181–193.

Holmes, T. H., & Rahe, R. H. (1967). The Social Readjustment Rating Scale. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 11, 213–218.

Hunte, H. E. R., & Williams, D. R. (2009). The association between perceived discrimination and obesity in a population-based multi-racial and multi-ethnic adult sample. American Journal of Public Health, 99, 1285–1292.

Mancini, A. D., & Bonanno, G. A. (2009). Predictors and parameters of resilience to loss: Toward an individual differences model. Journal of Personality, 77, 1805–1832.

Taylor, S. E. (2002). The tending instinct: How nurturing is essential to who we are and how we live. New York: Holt.

SELECTED KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS FOR CHAPTER TEN

..

172

Emotion-focused coping: a coping style that attempts to reduce the negative emotions associated with stressful situations General adaptation syndrome: Selye’s proposal to explain our reactions to stress, consisting of alarm reaction, resistance, and exhaustion Human social genomics: the study of changes in gene expression due to subjective perceptions of the social environment Meaning-focused coping: a coping style that attempts to manage the meaning of a stressful situation Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): a long-lasting, extreme reaction to acute stress, is a mental health disorder strongly related to stress Proactive coping: coping with something before it happens Problem-focused coping: a coping style that addresses the problem causing the stress Religious coping: using one’s religious or spiritual beliefs to cope Resilience: the maintenance of healthy functioning following exposure to potential trauma Response-oriented viewpoint: the study of stress that is focused on the physiological reactions within the individual that resulted from exposure to stressors Social coping: a coping style that involves seeking help from others, both instrumental and emotional support Stimulus-oriented viewpoint: the study of stress that focuses on the stressors themselves, and the stimuli that trigger the stress reactions, specifically, life events

..

173

Test Bank Chapter 10 QUICK QUIZ 10-1. (conceptual-303) Selye’s approach would be considered a. a stimulus-oriented approach b. a response-oriented approach c. an interactionist approach d. a cognitive approach 10-2. (factual-302-303) Which medical researcher and theorist has most significantly shaped our current thinking about human stress? a. George Vaillant b. M. Seligman c. Janet Giele d. Hans Selye 10-3. (conceptual-304-305) Results of Almeida’s diary study of about 1,500 adults showed that the most common stressors were a. those that involved health problems. b. problems at work or school. c. money problems. d. interpersonal arguments and tensions.

10-4. (applied-310-311) According to Yehuda, which gender is most likely to experience a higher incidence of PTSD? a. both genders equally b. men c. women d. It has not been determined.

10-5. (factual-311) In general, stress a. decreases with age for females, but increases for males. b. stays about the same over the life span. c. increases with age. d. decreases with age.

10-6. (applied-316) Which of the following would be an example of a “problem-focused” way of coping with stress? a. Deny any fear or distress. b. Accept the problem with resignation. c. Seek information or advice. d. hope for the best and try to see the silver lining.

10-7. (factual-312) Compared to other adults in the U.S.,_______ adults have greater incidence of high blood pressure and stroke than other racial/ethnic groups. a. nonHispanic white b. black c. Asian American d. Hispanic ..

174

10-8. (factual-318-319) Which of the following features of a social support appears to be most critical in providing a buffering effect in the face of stress? a. size b. frequency of contact c. perception of quality of support d. perception of the status of its members 10-9. (factual-319) When the negative effect of stress is smaller for those who have adequate social support than it is for those whose social support is weak, researchers refer to this as the _______. a. resistance effect b. general adaptation syndrome c. resilience effect d. buffering effect 10-10. (applied- 311) Using the figure below, which of the following statements BEST describes the data?

Source: Adapted from Almeida & Horn (2004). a. Men and women report having more days with stressors as they go from middle (40– 59) to older adulthood b. Men and women report having about the same days with stressors as they go from middle (40–59) to older adulthood c. Men and women report having fewer days with stressors as they go from middle (40– 59) to older adulthood d. Men report more days with stressors than women at all ages

..

175

ANSWER KEY: Chapter 10 QUICK QUIZ 1. Answer: b Page in text: 303 Topic: Stress, Stressors, and Stress Reactions Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: moderate 2. Answer: d Page in text: 302-303 Topic: Stress, Stressors, and Stress Reactions Question type: factual; Difficulty level: easy 3. Answer: d Page in text: 304-305 Topic: Types of Stress Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: difficult 4. Answer: c Page in text: 310-311 Topic: Effects of Stress Question type: applied; Difficulty level: moderate 5. Answer: d Page in text: 311 Topic: Effects of Stress Question type: factual; Difficulty level: easy 6. Answer: c Page in text: 316 Topic: Coping with Stress Question type: applied; Difficulty level: moderate 7. Answer: b Page in text: 312 Topic: Effects of Stress Question type: factual; Difficulty level: easy 8. Answer: c Page in text: 318-319 Topic: Coping with Stress Question type: factual; Difficulty level: moderate 9. Answer: d Page in text: 319 Topic: Coping with Stress Question type: factual; Difficulty level: easy 10. Answer: c Page in text: 311 Topic: Effects of Stress Question type: applied; Difficulty level: moderate ..

176

CHAPTER 10 STRESS, COPING, AND RESILIENCE MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 10-1. (conceptual-303) The life events approach to the study of stress would be considered a. a stimulus-oriented approach *b. a response-oriented approach c. an interactionist approach d. a demand approach 10-2. (factual-302) Which researcher and theorist first coined the term “stress” and proposed that there are three stages to the stress response? a. George Vaillant b. George Bonanno c. Shelley Taylor *d. Hans Selye 10-3. (factual-302) The first phase of the “general adaptation syndrome” is _______. a. resistance *b. alarm reaction c. mobilization of the immune system d. exhaustion 10-4. (factual-302) The “general adaptation syndrome” has three phases. In what order do they occur? *a. alarm reaction, resistance, exhaustion b. alarm reaction, exhaustion, resistance c. resistance, exhaustion, alarm reaction d. resistance, alarm reaction, exhaustion 10-5. (applied-302) Chronic tightness in the neck and shoulders, as a response to stress, would be an example of which phase of the general adaptation syndrome? a. exhaustion b. alarm *c. resistance d. tension 10-6. (factual-302) According to Selye’s theory of the general adaptation syndrome, what is the final stage of response to stress? a. alarm *b. exhaustion c. resistance d. immune reaction 10-7. (applied-303) ________ psychologists suggest that the reaction to acute stress is an adaptive mechanism that enabled our primitive ancestors to summon optimal levels of energy. a. Cognitive b. Social *c. Evolutionary d. Clinical

..

177

10-8. (conceptual-302-303) In which stage of the general adaptation syndrome does an increased risk of illness occur? a. alarm b. resistance c. exhaustion *d. in every stage 10-9. (factual-303–304) Holmes and Rahe (1967)’s checklist measure is based on the premise that ____ change requires adaptation. a. positive b. negative c. sporadic *d. any 10-10. (conceptual-302-303) Which of the following is FALSE regarding Selye’s model? a. He believed that stress led to a suppression of the immune system. b. He believed that if the stressor is severe enough, it could lead to death. c. It emphasizes physical aspects of stress. *d. It has six stages.

10-11. (conceptual-304-305) One finding from the National Study of Daily Experiences (NSDE) was that: a. events that happened at school or home were rated as the most stressful. *b. people tend to perceive their own stressful events as more severe than they are perceived by a noninvolved rater. c. most people did not report any stressors on the days studied, perhaps caused by social desirability of talking directly to the interviewer. d. the least common stressors were interpersonal tensions.

10-12. (applied-306-307) Using the figure below, which of the following individuals is at the greatest risk for developing breast cancer?

Source: Adapted from Lillberg, Verksalo, Kaprio, et al. (2003).

a. Veronica: Young, in good health, living with your parents and attending school, but needs to arrange for a ride to school b. Gina: Middle-aged, in good health, divorced, but happily married, best friend diagnosed with pancreatic cancer-stage 2

..

178

*c. Claire: older, high cholesterol and 10 lbs overweight, divorced once, widowed for 3 years, falling out with her sibling, employer cut her hours from 35 to 20 hours a week, and therefore, she lost her benefits d. Wanda: young, Type 2 diabetes (controlled), getting married in six months 10-13. (conceptual-309-310) The theory that women developed additional stress responses aimed to protect calm and quiet children, to remove them from harm’s way, and to marshal resources to help is called: a. fight-or-flight theory. b. Seyle’s General Adaptation Syndrome. c. urban press. *d. tend-and-befriend theory.

10-14. (conceptual-309) Males typically exhibit a _____ response to stress; women typically exhibit a _____ response to stress. *a. fight or flight; tend and befriend b. fight or flight; care and share c. provoked; dismissive d. provoked; avoidance 10-15. (conceptual-310-311) Which statement best describes gender differences related to PTSD? a. Men are more exposed to trauma than women during their lifetimes and men are more likely to suffer from PTSD. *b. Men are more exposed to trauma than women during their lifetimes; women are more apt to suffer from PTSD. c. There is not enough research on PTSD among men to make comparisons. d. There are no gender differences in either exposure to trauma or likelihood of developing PTSD. 10-16. (applied-310-311) According to Yehuda, which gender is most likely to experience a higher incidence of PTSD? a. both genders equally b. men *c. women d. It has not been determined.

10-17. (factual-311) In the diary study that tracked the daily stressors of about 1,500 people, it was found that the proportion of days that people reported experiencing any stressors began to decline after a. adolescence. b. emerging adulthood. *c. middle adulthood. d. late adulthood.

10-18. (applied- 311) Using the figure below for reference, which of the following statements BEST describes the data?

..

179

Source: Adapted from Almeida & Horn (2004).

a. Men and women report having more days with stressors as they go from middle (40– 59) to older adulthood b. Men and women report having about the same days with stressors as they go from middle (40–59) to older adulthood *c. Men and women report having fewer days with stressors as they go from middle (40– 59) to older adulthood d. men report more days with stressors than women at all ages 10-19. (factual-311) In general, stress a. decreases with age for females, but increases with age for males. b. stays about the same over the life span. c. increases with age. *d. decreases with age.

10-20. (factual-313) The study of changes in gene expression due to subjective perceptions of the social environment is called _______. a. social psychology *b. human social genomics c. evolutionary psychology d. behavioral genetics 10-21. (applied-313) Genetic changes have been found in groups experiencing low socioeconomic status and posttraumatic stress disorder. These finding illustrate: a. Selye’s model. b. the tend and befriend model. *c. environment-gene interactions. d. a stimulus-oriented viewpoint.

10-22. (conceptual-314) Research examining stress-related growth has shown *a. that how one appraises and copes with problems may be the key to deriving benefits from stressful experiences. b. that women, especially breast cancer patients, show more stress-related growth than men. c. that personal growth and wisdom result mainly from daily stressors rather than severe, ongoing stressors. ..

180

d. that those who report personal growth and wisdom after trauma are most likely in denial.

10-23. (conceptual-315) Social support and coping strategies are both examples of _______. a. stress responses *b. resistance resources c. resiliencies d. convoy aids 10-24. (applied-316) Which of the following would be an example of a “problem-focused” way of coping with stress? a. deny any fear or distress b. accept the problem with resignation *c. seek information or advice d. distancing oneself from the problem 10-25. (applied-315) According to Carver, which of the following would be an example of “denial” coping? a. “I’ve been concentrating my efforts on doing something about the situation I’m in.” b. “I’ve been giving up trying to deal with it.” c. “I’ve been learning to live with it.” *d. “I’ve been saying to myself, ‘This isn’t real.’”

10-26. (applied-315) According to Carver, which of the following would be an example of “acceptance” coping? a. “I’ve been concentrating my efforts on doing something about the situation I’m in.” b. “I’ve been giving up trying to deal with it.” *c. “I’ve been learning to live with it.” d. “I’ve been saying to myself, ‘This isn’t real.’”

10-27. (applied-315) According to Carver, which of the following would be an example of “active coping” style of coping? *a. “I’ve been concentrating my efforts on doing something about the situation I’m in.” b. “I’ve been giving up trying to deal with it.” c. “I’ve been learning to live with it.” d. “I’ve been getting comfort and understanding from someone.’”

10-28. (conceptual-316) A study examining how people coped with the Washington, DC sniper attacks in 2002 showed that people restricted their usual activities in many areas. Women reduced activities significantly more than men for all types of activities EXCEPT: a. gas fill-ups. b. food shopping. *c. socializing with friends. d. taking public transportation 10-29. (applied-316-318) Faced with the news that her father’s tumors have grown, an adult says to her friend, “At least we’ve spent more quality time together and express our love for one another more once he got the diagnosis.” This is an example of what form of coping? a. problem-focused b. proactive coping *c. meaning-focused ..

181

d. social-focused 10-30. (applied-318-319) The phrase “social support” includes which of the following actions? a. consoling a friend over a lost job b. loaning money to your brother c. referring your mother to a good doctor *d. all of the above 10-31. (conceptual-318-319) Research on social support has shown a. that the buffering effect of social support is limited to women. b. the link between social support and better health outcomes has been found only in the U.S. and Canada. *c. that perception of quality of support is more strongly related to health than the amount of contact with others. d. that well-intentioned social support has only beneficial effects on the recipient.

10-32. (factual-319) When the negative effect of stress is smaller for those who have adequate social support than it is for those whose social support is weak, researchers refer to this as the _______. a. stress-related growth b. general adaptation syndrome c. resilience effect *d. buffering effect 10-33. (factual-319) The beneficial effect of social support on disease rates in the face of stress has been found _______. a. primarily in studies of women; it rarely occurs among men b. primarily in studies of men; it rarely occurs among women c. primarily in studies of older adults; it occurs less often among young adults *d. at all ages and in both genders 10-34 (conceptual-319) Which of the following findings would be the clearest illustration of the buffering effect of social support? a. Older widows are less negatively affected by widowhood than are younger widows. *b. Unemployed men who enjoy close relationships with their wives are less likely to be depressed than are those men who have distant relationships with their wives. c. Adults with more intimate friendships show higher levels of life satisfaction than do adults with fewer or less intimate friendships. d. The lowest rates of illness and emotional disturbance among widows are found among those with living parents; those with close friends and no living parents are more prone to illness.

10-35. (conceptual-318-319) According to research, which of the following features of social support is most closely linked to a buffering effect? *a. perception of the quality of support b. size of support network c. number of times that the person has been in contact with members of their support network d. availability of support from one’s children 10-36. (factual-318) Religious coping to reduce stress relies upon _____. ..

182

a. finding a meaning in suffering b. achieving a sense of control by trusting God c. gaining social solidarity with others who share one’s beliefs *d. all of the above 10-37. (conceptual-321) Resilience is defined as _______. *a. the maintenance of healthy functioning following exposure to potential trauma b. the same as recovery c. delayed stress reactions that do not cause long-term problems d. the ways people cope in advance to prevent or mute the impact of a stressful event that will happen (or will likely happen) in the future 10-38. (conceptual-321) Of the four outcomes people can have after exposure to trauma, which is the most prevalent, according to Bonanno? a. chronic b. delayed c. recovery *d. resilience 10-39. (factual-322) Hardiness, according to Maddi, describes people who __________. a. are committed to finding meaning in life b. believe that they can control their own surroundings and the outcome of events c. believe that all life experiences bring growth and knowledge *d. all of the above 10-40. (conceptual-322) Researchers are challenging the concept of “grief work,” the idea that people experiencing trauma need to “let it all out,” because a. there is no research on grief-work therapy. b. it only applies to people in Western cultures. c. men and women who experience traumatic loss cope differently. *d. it labels resilient people as pathological.

10-41. (conceptual-310-311) Which statement best describes gender differences related to PTSD? a. Men are more exposed to trauma than women during their lifetimes and men are more likely to suffer from PTSD. *b. Men are more exposed to trauma than women during their lifetimes; women are more apt to suffer from PTSD. c. There is not enough research on PTSD among men to make comparisons. d. There are no gender differences in either exposure to trauma or likelihood of developing PTSD.

..

183

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 10-42. Briefly describe and contrast response-oriented theories and stimulus-oriented theories of stress.

10-43. Cite one piece of evidence in support of the argument that stress can sometimes have beneficial effects on adult development.

10-44. Give an example of how personality affects health outcomes.

10-45. Describe the findings of one study that examined the effects of discrimination as a stressor.

ESSAY QUESTIONS 10-46. Your friend, J’Loreal, is worried that her mother was depressed for only about a week after her husband died. J’Loreal went on to say that her mother is going to have a much more severe form of delayed grief if she doesn’t go to a therapist and work through her real feelings.

Do you agree with her? Come up with a response that draws upon research findings.

10-47. You are giving a lecture on social support and want to end the lecture with some clear advice to your listeners about the kinds of social networks they should have. What advice would you give? Why? 10-48. Describe a study designed to explore this set of questions: 1) Are there age differences in the way adults respond to life crises?

2) Are there differences in coping strategies used?

10-49. If you were conducting a study on the effects of social support on the health of college students, how would you measure social support? Why is this way of measuring social support better than others?

10-50. What do we mean by the buffering effect of social support? Give several examples.

10-51. Give at least two arguments against the strategy of measuring a person’s stress by compiling a list of their recent life changes.

10-52. Use research to support the claim that stress may sometimes have beneficial effects.

10-53. Describe Taylor’s Tend-and-Befriend model.

10-54. Critique with relevant research the phrase, “Crisis is required for growth.”

10-55. Create, then compare and contrast, two stressors—one short-term life event and one chronic stressor. How do these two stressors differ in terms of how an individual might cope and the physical and emotional effects on an individual? Be sure to include a discussion of individual differences and resilience factors in your answer.

10-56. U.S. adults from 25 to 74 years report that the largest proportion of their daily stressors arise from interpersonal tensions, followed by stressful events that happen to other people in their ..

184

networks and events that happen at work or school. List your top 10 sources of stress. Categorize your stressors and compare your groupings with the national sample. Discuss the similarities and differences.

..

185

CHAPTER 11 DEATH AND BEREAVEMENT CHAPTER OUTLINE •

•

• • • • •

Achieving an Understanding of Death o Meanings of Death ▪ Death As An Organizer of Time ▪ Death As Punishment ▪ Death As Transition ▪ Death As Loss o Death Anxiety ▪ Age ▪ Religiosity ▪ Gender ▪ Personality Traits o Accepting the Reality of One’s Eventual Death The Process of Death o Stages of Reactions to Death ▪ Denial ▪ Anger ▪ Bargaining ▪ Depression ▪ Acceptance o The Importance of Farewells o Individual Adaptations to Dying o Choosing Where to Die ▪ Hospice Care o Choosing When to Die ▪ Physician-Assisted Suicide After Death Occurs: Rituals and Grieving o Ritual Mourning: Funerals and Ceremonies o The Process of Grieving Living and Dying: A Final Word Summary Key Terms Suggested Reading

Suggested Reading

BOOKSHELF Albom, M. (1997). Tuesdays with Morrie. New York: Doubleday.

This is a tender personal account of how Morrie Schwartz, a retired sociology professor, faced arterial lateral sclerosis and the end of life. It is told through a series of conversations about living and dying that took place with former student Mitch Albom. If you wish to experience this with your students, a movie by the same name will bring home to your ..

186

students the reality of death and bereavement.

Kübler-Ross, E. (1997). On death and dying. New York: Scribner.

No library on the experiences of aging would be complete without this penultimate volume by the recently deceased Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, originally written in 1960 and re-released in this 1997 reprint. Her groundbreaking research was personal—interviews with those who were in the process of dying—and gave us the five stages of grief that are today so widely accepted. Truly moving and factual, this is assigned reading in my Psychology of Aging courses.

Mor, V., Greer, D. S., & Kastenbaum, R. (Eds.) (1988). The hospice experiment. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

This text includes a history of hospice and its philosophy, and describes the National Hospice Study.

Pausch, R., & Zaslow, J. (2008). The last lecture. New York: Hyperion.

This poignant “last lecture” was given by Carnegie Mellon professor Randy Pausch shortly before his death, and has been widely viewed on YouTube; it was so wildly popular that it was published in print format. In his lecture, he gave a personal account of coping with pancreatic cancer, bodily changes, emotional upheaval, and his impending death. In this moving account, he pays homage to his career, his friends, and his family.

This is a must-read for students and professors alike.

Stroebe, M. S., Hansson, R. O., Stroebe, W., & Schut, H. (Eds.) (2001). Handbook of bereavement research: Consequences, coping, and care. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

This interdisciplinary approach to bereavement explores diverse contemporary theories of bereavement as well as foundation work. For students who wish to approach this subject through empirically based writing, this book is a rich resource.

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION OR REVIEW ❖ Demystifying Death and Dying. It goes without saying that this will be a difficult topic for many students—and for many instructors as well. But through this chapter, you have a chance to help expose your students to ideas and research on the topic that can help them become more aware of and sensitized to fears, feelings, and concerns related to the end of life. When one of my classes first begins to explore this topic, I usually invite students to share their personal experiences with death, grief, and bereavement. This often helps to clear the air, and gives way to a rich discussion that gives permission for them to experience emotion while talking about the scientific evidence surrounding the subject. ❖ Individual Responses to Terminal Disease. This material is obviously linked to the Chapter 10 discussion of coping strategies. The literature on coping strategies generally tells us that those who use “appropriate” strategies are less likely to become ill in the face of stress. ..

187

Greer’s research (1991) and other studies like it tell us that, given a potentially fatal disease, coping strategies or psychological responses affect outcome, presumably through their effect on the immune system.

You might also want to give an example of similar research about something other than cancer. Reed, Kemeny, Taylor, Want, & Visscher (1994) produced a study of gay men with AIDS; they followed seventy-four men over a period of about 3 years. At entry into the study, the participants had been diagnosed with AIDS for an average of 1 year; by the end of the study, 82.4 percent had died of complications relating to the disease. These men reported on their level of psychological distress/adjustment and completed an adaptation of Lazarus’s Ways of Coping Scale, modified for persons living with HIV and AIDS. The items were subsequently factor analyzed, yielding six factors: 1. community involvement and spiritual growth, such as “attend support groups,” “do nice things for people to feel better,” and “find new faith” 2. active cognitive coping, such as “try to keep myself from worrying about the problem, since there is no use in worrying” and “remind myself how much worse things could be” 3. avoidance and self-blame, such as “avoid AIDS-related organizations or other involvements that might remind me of this problem” and “I daydream or imagine a better time or place than the one I am in” 4. seeking social support, such as “talk to someone about how I am feeling” 5. realistic acceptance, such as “try to accept what might happen,” “prepare myself for the worst,” and “go over in my mind what I would say or do about this problem” 6. seeking information, such as “try to analyze the situation in order to understand it better” The researchers were primarily interested in the effect, if any, of “realistic acceptance” on survival time and other variables. They calculated survival time both from the time of diagnosis with AIDS and from the time of entry into the study, and found a significant effect: those with high levels of “realistic acceptance” died sooner—within a median of nine months, compared to eighteen months for those low in “realistic acceptance.”

Let us assume for the moment that it is well established that there is some link between a lack of “realistic acceptance” and survival time in response to a terminal diagnosis. How many possible explanations of such a link can we think of? You might want to ask your students to generate such a list collectively. For example: ▪ immune system responses to differing psychological states, although of course this simply pushes the explanation back one step further ▪ better health compliance among those who are “fighting,” such as taking medication more regularly ▪ better healthcare among those who are “fighting” because they seek out all possible information and insist on aggressive treatments ▪ better diet or healthier lifestyle among those who are “fighting”

..

188

❖ Where Death Occurs. According to our text, about one-third of chronically ill patients chose to die at home, while two-thirds died in an institution (Teno, Clarridge, Casey, et al, 2004).

Hospice care, however, provides emotional support, palliative care, spiritual support, and care for family members. Most family members rate the hospice experience as excellent.

If there is a hospice program in your community, you might want to consider inviting someone from that program to come and speak to your class. What exactly does a hospice worker do? How are patients chosen for such programs? One point you should make is that even among dying patients who are in some kind of hospice program, it is very common for the patient to die in a hospital. The typical pattern is that the dying person is cared for at home for as long as possible, but then a point is reached at which the caregivers simply cannot cope any longer—either because they have run out of psychological steam or because the patient’s care is now too complex to be managed at home. If there is a hospital-based or private hospice program in the community, these patients are often transferred there rather than sent to receive end-of-life care in a hospital setting. But if there isn’t (and there often is not), the person is typically placed in a regular hospital for the last days or weeks of life. So hospice is not necessarily synonymous with “dying at home,” even though that may be the goal. ❖ Euthanasia and Physician-Assisted Suicide. If you want to engage your classes in discussion and debate about a clearly controversial issue, this is an excellent topic. It can be examined on several levels, including ethical, legal, emotional, and empirical. Some questions to ask could include: Under what circumstances, if any, is it ethical for a person to commit suicide or for a physician to assist in suicide? Should physician-assisted suicide be legal in some circumstances? How do you think you might feel if a loved one with a terminal illness wanted to consider euthanasia in order to help them “die with dignity”? What does the research evidence say about this topic? For recent information, refer to the update from the Oregon Department of Human Services (2013); Oregon legalized physician-assisted suicide in 1997 and has kept excellent data on how many patients have exercised this option. ❖ Grieving: A Cultural Perspective. Table 11.2 on page 343 provides an excellent overview of funeral practices and mourning rituals of various cultural groups within the United States.

Open up a class discussion on the various ways in which your students’ families of origin practice grief. If you assign research projects, perhaps a student or group of students research a comparison and contrast of two or more cultures’ rituals.

SELECTED REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER ELEVEN Greer, S. (1991). Psychological response to cancer and survival. Psychological Medicine, 21, 43– 39.

Mor, V., Greer, D. S., & Kastenbaum, R. (Eds.) (1988). The hospice experiment. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

National Hospice and Palliative Care Association. (2012). Dying Americans using hospice care remains stable but new report reveals drop in length of service. Retrieved January 13, 2014, from http://www.nhpco.org/press-room/press-releases/new-hospice-facts-figures

..

189

Oregon Department of Human Services. (2009). Death with dignity act, annual report. Retrieved March 22, 2010, from http://www.oregon.gov/DHS/ph/pas/ Reed, G. M., Kemeny, M. E., Taylor, S. E., Want, H. J., & Visscher, B. R. (1994). Realistic acceptance as a predictor of decreased survival time in gay men with AIDS. Health Psychology, 13, 299–307.

SELECTED KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS FOR CHAPTER ELEVEN Hospice care: care focused on pain relief, emotional support, and spiritual comfort for the dying person and his or her family Living will: a document that takes effect if you are no longer able to express your wishes about end-of-life decisions, which gives people the opportunity to decide, while they are still healthy, which specific treatments they would accept or refuse if they had a terminal illness or permanent disability and were not able to communicate their wishes Physician-assisted suicide: under certain circumstances, physicians are allowed to assist patients to obtain medication that will end their lives Religiosity: the degree of one’s religious or spiritual belief

..

190

Test Bank Chapter 11 QUICK QUIZ 11-1. (factual-330) At what age does Bernice Neugarten think that most adults switch from thinking of time as “time since birth” to thinking of “time ’till death”? a. early adulthood: 20–35 b. middle adulthood: 35–45 c. early old age: 65–75 d. late old age: 75+ 11-2. (factual-331) Those who are_______ are the ones most anxious about death. a. extremely religious b. above average in religiosity c. moderately religious d. low in religiosity 11-3. (factual-332) Which of the following personality characteristics has been found to be correlated (positively or negatively) with fear or anxiety about death? a. extraversion b. conscientiousness c. a sense of purpose in life d. openness to experience 11-4. (applied-333) Wenda Yuan-si, a 42 year old Chinese-American technology consultant, decided it was time to finalize some things that he has long put off. Wenda made out his Last Will and Testament, and he bought life insurance. His actions are typical of what process? a. reminiscence b. finitude c. living wills d. adaption 11-5. (factual-334) According to Kübler-Ross, which of the following is the first response to being told one is dying? a. anger b. bargaining c. depression d. denial 11-6. (factual-336) Research on the survival prospects of women with breast cancer generally shows which of the following responses to the diagnosis to be associated with the POOREST survival rate? a. denial b. stoic acceptance c. anger d. fighting spirit 11-7. (factual-337-339) For which type of patient is hospice care intended? a. the chronically but not terminally ill ..

191

b. the acutely ill (such as those with severe pneumonia) c. anyone terminally ill d. only cancer patients 11-8. (conceptual-345-348) Studies of grief responses in adults suggest that _______. a. the great majority of adults show a strong response, including some depression, for at least 6 months after the loss but then recover b. most adults show only a very brief level of distress, and then recover quickly c. there are several different patterns of grief reactions, no one of which is dominant d. failure to display distress immediately after a loss is linked to high levels of later problems 11-9. (factual-339) A term used in hospice care that refers to support that is aimed at pain alleviation and comfort maximization with a minimum of life-prolonging measures is _______. a. curative care b. psychosocial care c. palliative care d. alleviation care 11-10. (conceptual-342) Marshall and Levy suggest that 2 important functions of rituals are _______. a. venting and rituals b. rituals and mourning c. control and meaningfulness d. mourning and meaningfulness

..

192

ANSWER KEY: Chapter 11 QUICK QUIZ 1. Answer: b Page in text: 330 Topic: Achieving an Understanding of Death Question type: factual; Difficulty level: easy 2. Answer: c Page in text: 331 Topic: Achieving an Understanding of Death Question type: factual; Difficulty level: moderate 3. Answer: c Page in text: 332 Topic: Achieving an Understanding of Death Question type: factual; Difficulty level: moderate 4. Answer: b Page in text: 333 Topic: Achieving an Understanding of Death Question type: applied ; Difficulty level: easy 5. Answer: d Page in text: 334 Topic: The Process of Death Question type: factual; Difficulty level: easy 6. Answer: b Page in text: 336 Topic: The Process of Death Question type: factual; Difficulty level: moderate 7. Answer: c Page in text: 337-339 Topic: The Process of Death Question type: factual; Difficulty level: easy 8. Answer: c Page in text: 345-348 Topic: After Death Occurs: Rituals and Grieving Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: difficult 9. Answer: c Page in text: 339 Topic: The Process of Death Question type: factual; Difficulty level: easy 10. Answer: c Page in text: 342 Topic: After Death Occurs: Rituals and Grieving Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: easy ..

193

Test Bank CHAPTER 11 DEATH AND BEREAVEMENT MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 11-1. (factual-330) At what age does Bernice Neugarten think that most adults switch from thinking of time as “time since birth” to thinking of “time ’till death”? a. early adulthood: 20–35 *b. middle adulthood: 35–45 c. early old age: 65–75 d. late old age: 75+ 11-2 (factual-330) In surveys, what percentage of people in the United States said they believed in an afterlife (i.e., they would exist after death with some sort of consciousness)? a. 5% b. 16% c. 40% *d. 74% 11-3. (factual-331) Which of the following age groups of adults is likely to have the greatest fear of death? a. 20–30 *b. 40–50 c. 60–70 d. 80–90 11-4. (factual-332) Which of the following personality characteristics has been found to be correlated (positively or negatively) with fear or anxiety about death? a. extraversion b. conscientiousness *c. a sense of purpose in life d. openness to experience 11-5. (factual-331) Which of the following age groups of adults is likely to talk the most about death and dying as well as thinking about it most? a. 20–30 b. 40–50 c. 60–70 *d. 80–90 11-6. (applied-331-332) Which of the following individuals is likely to have the strongest fear of death? a. Eric, aged 50, a highly religious man who does his best to live his life according to his religious beliefs. b. Caroline, a highly religious young woman, aged 25, who seeks meaning in life through her religion. c. Lucetta, an atheist, aged 70. *d. B.J., a 45-year-old man who is moderately religious and uses his religion primarily as an arena for doing good deeds. ..

194

11-7. (factual-331-332) Which of the following groups is likely to have the greatest fear of death? a. regular churchgoers who are highly religious *b. irregular churchgoers who are moderately or weakly religious c. strongly non-religious adults d. It makes no difference: religiousness is unrelated to fear of death.

11-8. (conceptual-332) Which of the following groups of individuals is likely to have the highest level of fear of death? a. adults who are satisfied with themselves and what they have done with their lives b. introverted adults *c. adults who feel their lives lack purpose or meaning d. extraverted adults 11-9. (conceptual-331-332) Which of the following groups is likely to have the LEAST fear of death? a. adults high in neuroticism b. middle-aged adults *c. adults with strong religious commitment d. extraverted adults 11-10. (applied-333) Wenda Yuan-si, a 42-year-old Chinese-American technology consultant, decided it was time to finalize some things that he has long put off. Wenda made out his Last Will and Testament, and he bought life insurance. His actions are typical of what process? a. reminiscence *b. finitude c. living wills d. adaption 11-11. (applied-331-332) Research suggests which of the following individuals typically will suffer the most from “death anxiety”? a. Carlos, a 22-year-old college student, full of purpose and zest for life, an atheist. b. Richard, a 72-year-old retired mechanic, a devoted Muslim, and has no regrets in life. c. Katie, an 89 year old widow, an active member in the United Methodist Church. *d. Aretha, a 49 year old housewife, regrets that she did not college; she believes in an afterlife, but she’s not sure she earned a place in it.

11-12. (conceptual -333) Based on the most recent data, which of the following individuals is more likely to have made out a will? a. Maddie, 16 years of age b. Winston, 24 years of age c. Sandy, 40 years of age *d. William, 67 years of age 11-13. (factual-334) According to Kübler-Ross, which of the following is the first response to being told one is dying? a. anger b. bargaining c. depression *d. denial

..

195

11-14. (factual-334) According to Kübler-Ross, which of the following is the final response in the stages of reactions to the knowledge of death? a. anger b. denial *c. acceptance d. depression 11-15. (factual-334) The sequence of 5 stages of responses to dying, according to Kübler–Ross’s theory, is _______. a. anger, denial, depression, bargaining, acceptance b. anger, denial, bargaining, depression, acceptance *c. denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance d. denial, anger, depression, bargaining, acceptance 11-16. (applied-334) The classic response of an individual when told that she has a terminal disease is to say “Why me?” Which stage of response to dying is this thought to represent? a. denial *b. anger c. depression d. bargaining 11-17. (applied-334) A patient, after being told he has terminal cancer, says, “No, that must be someone else. The lab results must have gotten mixed up.” This is an example of what stage of response to dying, according to Kübler-Ross’s theory? *a. denial b. anger c. bargaining d. depression 11-18. (applied-334) A patient, after learning that she has a terminal disease, says, “I can beat this if I just do everything the doctor says—if I do all the chemotherapy, and all the radiation, and change the way I eat.” This is an example of what stage of response to dying, according to Kübler-Ross’s theory? a. anger b. denial *c. bargaining d. depression 11-19. (conceptual-335) What aspect of caring for dying patients is NOT reflected in KüblerRoss’s research? a. unfinished needs b. Caregivers need to listen actively. c. We need to learn from the dying. *d. the process of saying farewells 11-20. (factual-336) Research on the survival prospects of women with breast cancer generally shows which of the following responses to the diagnosis to be associated with the POOREST survival rate? a. denial *b. stoic acceptance c. anger ..

196

d. fighting spirit 11-21. (factual-336) Which of the following pairs of types of responses is associated with HIGH survival rates for women diagnosed with breast cancer, according to Greer’s research? a. denial or stoic acceptance *b. denial or fighting spirit c. stoic acceptance or fighting spirit d. anxious preoccupation or denial 11-22. (conceptual-336) Studies of patients diagnosed with several types of disease, including AIDS and cancer, suggest that _______. a. those who express a lot of hostility and anger die sooner *b. those who express little hostility or anger die sooner c. “good patients” who do what they are told by physicians survive longer d. there is no consistent link between personality and length of survival 11-23. (factual-336) Research with AIDS patients has shown that those who _________ die sooner. *a. fail to express negative feelings b. express their hostility openly c. struggle the most d. fight the hardest 11-24. (factual-337-339) For which type of patient is hospice care intended? a. the chronically, but not terminally ill b. the acutely ill (such as those with severe pneumonia) *c. anyone terminally ill d. only cancer patients 11-25. (applied-339-340) Mena received hospice care for her last three months of life in the U.S. Which of the following statements is most likely to be accurate? a. her care was not covered by Medicare b. she died in the 1950s when hospice started in the U.S. and was most popular. *c. she was cared for by an interdisciplinary team d. she was encouraged to keep her fighting spirit and to “beat death” so that she could savor her limited time with her loved ones.

11-26. (factual-338) Based on a survey of where loved ones died, which of the following would be the place where family members would be LEAST likely to report concern about not having enough emotional support for the patient and not having enough emotional support for the family of the dying patient? In other words, where would they be likely to perceive the most emotional support? *a. at home with hospice care b. in a hospital c. in a nursing home d. at home with home-care nursing 11-27. (conceptual-338-340) Which of the following is NOT a feature of hospice care? *a. Family members perform all physical care of the patient. b. Family members make decisions about the location and manner of the patient’s care. c. Family members are encouraged to make plans for the time after the patient’s death. ..

197

d. Family members are encouraged to view death as normal.

11-28. (conceptual-340) The most common condition patients seek hospice care for is: a. Alzheimer’s disease. *b. terminal cancer. c. cardiovascular disease. d. Parkinson’s disease.

11-29. (conceptual-340) Although this was not the intention, the average length of hospice care is ________. *a. under two months b. six months c. a year d. eighteen months 11-30. (conceptual-345-348) Studies of grief responses in adults suggest that _______. a. the great majority of adults show a strong response, including some depression, for at least 6 months after the loss but then recover b. most adults show only a very brief level of distress, and then recover quickly *c. there are several different patterns of grief reactions, no one of which is dominant d. failure to display distress immediately after a loss is linked to high levels of later problems 11-31 (factual-339) A term used in hospice care that refers to support that is aimed at pain alleviation and comfort maximization with a minimum of life-prolonging measures is_______. a. curative care b. psychosocial care *c. palliative care d. alleviation care 11-32. (applied-342) Leona’s family held a wake in the evening and then a funeral the next day for her mother who died at the age of 62. According to Marshall and Levy, two important functions of rituals are _______. a. venting and rituals b. rituals and mourning *c. control and meaningfulness d. mourning and meaningfulness 11-33. (applied-343-345) After Dana’s grandmother died, the family “sat shiva” for a week in the home and covered all mirrors in the house. Soon after her death she was buried in a plain shroud and simple casket. It is most likely that Dana is _______. a. of Catholic faith *b. of Jewish faith c. Native American d. an African American of Protestant faith

..

198

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 11-34. List the stages of dying as proposed by Kübler-Ross. What is the current status of this theory?

11-35. What explanations have been given for the oft-observed phenomenon that adults are more afraid of death at middle age than at any other period in adulthood?

11-36. Among middle-aged adults, which ones are likely to show the MOST fear of death?

11-37. Describe the major functions of funerals and other rituals surrounding death.

11-38. Choose two different cultural groups and briefly describe their funeral rituals and practices.

ESSAY QUESTIONS 11-39. Research shows that women have higher levels of death anxiety than men. What are two possible reasons to explain this finding?

11-40. What conclusions do you think are reasonable ones to draw from research on the link between survival rates and personality or response to the disease? Cite specific research in support of your position where possible. What additional research would you suggest is needed in order to clarify the results in this area?

11-41.Although there is a body of evidence suggesting that a “fighting spirit” is the optimum response to a disease, there are some studies that have found NO LINK between depression/stoic acceptance/helplessness and more rapid death from cancer. What is one problem with this research that might explain these discrepancies?.

11-42. Drawing upon research with gay men or older married (heterosexual) couples, what is the most common reaction to grief? Explain.

11-43. Create two fictitious individuals who are experiencing the death of a loved one, each from distinctly different cultural backgrounds. Explain the mourning and burial rituals and relate these to one of the predominant grief and bereavement theories. Which individual and which individual’s loved ones do you believe experience the greatest fulfillment in death, if either?

Explain your answer.

11-44. When people learn that a friend is dying, they sometimes stay away because they don’t know what to do or to say. Is there research on the effects of social support on a person’s response to imminent death? Explain and include some helpful things a person could do and say?

11-45. Describe how your family experiences [or may experience] the death of a loved one.

Explain your family’s mourning and funeral traditions, include the specific mourning and burial rituals and relate these to one of the predominant grief and bereavement theories.

..

199

CHAPTER 12 THE SUCCESSFUL JOURNEY

CHAPTER OUTLINE •

•

• • •

Themes of Adult Development o Emerging Adulthood (Age 18 to 24) o Young Adulthood (Age 25 to 39) o Middle Adulthood (Age 40 to 64) ▪ Biological and Social Clocks ▪ Work and Marriage ▪ Midlife Crisis: Fact or Myth? o Older Adulthood (Age 65 to 74) o Late Adulthood (Age 75 and Older) ▪ Selective Optimization with Compensation ▪ Life Review Variations in Successful Development o Individual Differences in Quality of Life o Other Measures of Life Success o A Model of Adult Growth and Development: Trajectories and Pathways Summary Key Terms Suggested Readings

BOOKSHELF Ephron, N. (2006). I feel bad about my neck: And other thoughts on being a woman. New York: Knopf.

Humorous and real, this layperson’s guide to being over sixty by Nora Ephron is a collection of essays about everything from turtleneck sweaters to becoming your own mother. Not everything about aging needs to be taken seriously.

Pestalozzi, T. (2013). Life skills 101: A practical guide to leaving home and living on your own (5th ed.). New York: Stonewood.

Here’s the perfect birthday gift for your own emerging adult children, and maybe something to suggest to your students as well!

Vaillant, G. E. (2012). Triumphs of experience: The men of the Harvard Grant Study. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.

The results of the longest-running longitudinal study in developmental psychology, following participants from college to those who are now in their 90’s.

..

200

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION OR REVIEW This is a review chapter, so you may well prefer to simply assign the chapter for reading and not discuss it in class at all. I have found that this chapter serves as an opportunity for summarization and synthesis. I usually invite students to present final capstone projects in conjunction with this chapter, thereby summing up the classroom experience and the textbook in one fell swoop. ❖ Midlife Crisis. If you choose to discuss a topic in detail in your class, this is likely to be the one. There’s nothing like a good controversy to end a course. There are methodological lessons to be underlined, and there are sharp contrasts between the cultural myths and the research evidence. Why not ask your students how many of them believe in the reality of a midlife crisis? Have they witnessed the midlife crisis in action with a parent, or (in the case of a nontraditional student) have they been through such a thing themselves? What do they think causes such an upheaval? And how do they reconcile their belief in such a crisis with the large body of evidence suggesting that midlife is in fact the very best time of life? If you have a large number of students who themselves are in middle adulthood, you might want to encourage these individuals to share some reflections on their own experiences with midlife crises. This kind of discussion will probably work best in classes where members have established an environment of trust and openness to sharing of personal experiences; this can be accomplished in seminar-style classes or in the traditional classroom, given time and nurturance. ❖ Variability in Pathways. One point worth making yet again is that at every age—but increasingly in older groups—there is an enormous amount of variability. Young adulthood is perhaps least varied because of the impact of the several new roles, but there are clearly many pathways, even during this period. By the time you get to old age, age is no longer a very good predictor of physical, mental, or social functioning.

Yet even within this diversity, there are common patterns. Some adults in their eighties are flourishing, but even they are slower than they were at thirty. And these flourishing adults, in order to function at that high level, must necessarily operate closer to the edge of their “reserve capacity” than is true of high-functioning adults at earlier ages. This could be a good time to restate the importance of understanding both stability and development, as was mentioned early in the text, in adulthood. ❖ Life Review or Reminiscence. A terrific project assignment is to have students make up a mock case study, using Erikson’s last stage of development, and tell the “life story” of a fictitious individual. Much like the vignette at the beginning of the textbook’s chapter, but with more detail, this is an applied learning experience students will never forget.

SELECTED REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER TWELVE Butler, R. N. (1993). The importance of basic research in gerontology. Age and Ageing, 22, S53– S55.

George, L. K. (2006). Perceived quality of life. In R. H. Binstock & L. K. George (Eds.), Handbook of aging and the social sciences (pp. 320–336). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

..

201

Vaillant, G. E. (2002). Aging well: Surprising guideposts to a happier life from the landmark Harvard study. New York: Little, Brown.

Wethington, E. (2000). Expecting stress: Americans and the “midlife crisis.” Motivation and Emotion, 24, 85–103.

SELECTED KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS FOR CHAPTER TWELVE Midlife crisis: Contrary to popular myth, the term seems to have come to mean coping successfully with some threatening situation in one’s adult life and making personal changes as a result, according to Wethington (2000).

Selective optimization with compensation: The process in which older adults select the range of activities or arenas in which they will operate, concentrating energy and time on needs or demands that are truly central; they optimize their reserves by learning new strategies and keeping old skills well practiced, and when needed, they compensate for losses.

..

202

Test Bank Chapter 12 QUICK QUIZ 12-1. (conceptual-361-362) In a normative adult life pattern, the stage of the family life cycle that is most likely to correspond to peak job satisfaction is _______. a. emerging adulthood b. young adulthood c. the five years before retirement d. the years of middle adulthood 12-2. (conceptual-355-356) Which of the following pairs of characteristics or events is most likely to occur together (that is, in the same age period) in a normative adult life? a. peak physical functioning and Erikson’s stage of generativity b. Erikson’s stage of intimacy and decline in crystallized and fluid abilities c. noticeable physical decline and fewer but more intense friendships d. peak physical functioning and the task of ego integrity.

12-3. (conceptual-361) Bjorklund notes that _________ bring “detribalization, perhaps part of a deeper shift in personality or meaning systems toward a more individualistic view.” a. the years of emerging adulthood b. the young adulthood years c. the late adulthood years d. the five years before death 12-4. (conceptual-363) Which of the following best describes our current knowledge about the existence of a midlife crisis? a. Virtually all adults experience a crisis at midlife. b. Some adults experience a crisis, but it they are in the minority. c. More adults experience a crisis at midlife than at any other age. d. There is no evidence that any adults experience a crisis at midlife.

12-5. (conceptual-359) Which of the following best describes the findings on the relationship between social involvement and life satisfaction among young adults? a. The least socially active adults are typically the happiest. b. Those who lack friendships have more depressive symptoms. c. There is a strong relationship between social activity and happiness for females, but not males. d. There is no relationship between social activity and happiness.

12-6. (factual-365-366) Gerontologists describe adults over the age of 75 as_______. a. young old b. the disengaged c. members of the sandwich generation d. in the period of late adulthood 12-7. (applied-368) Cherisse is 72 years old. Based on the research, the strongest predictor of her quality of life would be________. a. her marital status b. her health ..

203

c. the number of children who live nearby d. her gender 12-8. (conceptual-361-362) High levels of marital satisfaction and peak years of career success are most likely to go together in which age period? a. 20–39 b. 40-–64 c. 65–74 d. 75+ 12-9. (conceptual-371-372) One major shortcoming of Vaillant’s Grant studies was that: a. they only included women. b. it was a cross-sectional study. c. they only included people from the South who rated themselves high on religiosity. d. they only included very well-educated professional men.

12-10. (conceptual- 376) Whether a person will experience a disequilibrium period as a crisis or merely a transitory phase is most likely to depend on: a. the number of siblings and amount of contact with extended family. b. the person’s personality and coping skills. c. quality of education and number of years of post-secondary schooling. d. whether or not the individual engaged in a life review.

..

204

ANSWER KEY: Chapter 12 QUICK QUIZ 1. Answer: d Page in text: 361-362 Topic: Themes of Adult Development Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: moderate 2. Answer: c Page in text: 355-356 Topic: Themes of Adult Development Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: moderate 3. Answer: b Page in text: 361 Topic: Themes of Adult Development Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: difficult 4. Answer: b Page in text: 363 Topic: Themes of Adult Development Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: moderate 5. Answer: b Page in text: 359 Topic: Themes of Adult Development Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: easy 6. Answer: d Page in text: 365-366 Topic: Themes of Adult Development Question type: factual; Difficulty level: easy 7. Answer: b Page in text: 368 Topic: Variations in Successful Development Question type: applied; Difficulty level: moderate 8. Answer: b Page in text: 361-362 Topic: Themes of Adult Development Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: difficult 9. Answer: d Page in text: 371-372 Topic: Variations in Successful Development Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: easy 10. Answer: b Page in text: 376 Topic: Variations in Successful Development Question type: conceptual; Difficulty level: difficult ..

205

CHAPTER 12 THE SUCCESSFUL JOURNEY MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 12-1. (conceptual-355–356) Which of the following pairs of characteristics or events is most likely to occur together (that is, in the same age period) in a normative adult life? *a. peak physical functioning and romantic relationships consist of short-term dating for most. b. marriage and maximum work satisfaction c. plateau in career advancement and peak of physical functioning d. establish generativity within family or workplace and low marital satisfaction 12-2. (conceptual-355–356) Which of the following pairs of characteristics or events is most likely to occur together (that is, in the same age period) in a normative adult life? a. peak physical functioning and Erikson’s stage of generativity b. Erikson’s stage of intimacy and low rates of loneliness *c. noticeable physical decline and fewer but more intense friendships d. bone mass is still increasing and the postparental stage of the family life cycle 12-3. (conceptual- 358) According to Arnett, there are five major tasks of emerging adulthood.

Which of the following is one of them? a. redefining life goals *b. focusing on the self c. establishing a sense of integrity d. establishing generativity within the workplace 12-4. (applied-358) Essence started off as a nursing major, but then decided that this was not the right career path for her. She switched to her passion of social work after taking a course in sociology her first semester of college. According to Arnett, she is experiencing *a. positive instability b. feeling in-between c. moratorium d. selective optimization with compensation 12-5. (conceptual-359) During young adulthood: *a. those who have small friendship networks report more loneliness. b. people are working on giving back and establishing generativity. c. there is a shift to detribalization. d. job satisfaction is at its highest.

12-6. (conceptual-359) Which of the following best describes the findings on the relationship between social involvement and life satisfaction among adults aged 20–39? a. The least socially active adults are typically the happiest. *b. Those who lack friendships have more depressive symptoms. c. Adults with moderate levels of social activity are the happiest. d. There is no relationship between social activity and happiness.

12-7. (conceptual-358-359) Period of life with the most changes and peak physical condition go together in which age period? *a. 25–39 ..

206

b. 40–64 c. 65–74 d. 75+ 12-8. (factual-360) In the majority of studies, there is a drop in ________ in young adulthood after the birth of the first child and during the period when the children are young. a. work satisfaction *b. marital satisfaction c. salary d. generativity 12-9. (applied-360-361) Which of the following is likely to coincide with Julie all of the sudden realizing that she needs bifocals? a. Erikson’s stage of intimacy b. lowest level of job satisfaction c. high inferiority *d. diminished reproductive capacity 12-10. (factual-361) During what typical age period are most adults still locked into a conformist view, seeing things in black-and-white terms, looking to outside authority to tell them the rules. This would be a time of maximal tribalization, defining themselves by tribe and place in the tribe. a. 18–24 *b. 25–39 c. 40–64 d. 65–74 12-11. (conceptual-361) Bjorklund notes that _________ bring “detribalization, perhaps part of a deeper shift in personality or meaning systems toward a more individualistic view.” a. the years of emerging adulthood *b. the young adulthood years c. the late adulthood years d. the five years before death 12-12. (conceptual-362) Which of the following is likely to coincide with the period of peak work satisfaction in an adult following a normative sequence? a. birth of the first child b. an increased social network *c. sense of choice d. peak physical functioning 12-13. (conceptual-361–362) In a normative adult life pattern, the stage of the family life cycle that is most likely to correspond to peak job satisfaction is _______. a. emerging adulthood b. young adulthood c. the five years before retirement *d. the years of middle adulthood 12-14. (conceptual-361-362) Which of the following is likely to coincide with a high level of marital satisfaction in an adult following a normative sequence? a. birth of the first child ..

207

*b. high work satisfaction c. disengagement from non-family social roles d. rapid work advancement 12-15. (conceptual-361-362) High levels of marital satisfaction and peak years of career success are most likely to go together in which age period? a. 20–39 *b. 40–64 c. 65–74 d. 75+ 12-16. (factual-361-362) Marital and work satisfaction ______ in the years of middle adulthood. *a. rise b. drop c. remain stable d. have an inverse relationship 12-17. (factual-360–362) In the 40–64 age range we find several characteristics. Which is NOT a characteristic of this age range? *a. increase in the centrality of work b. detribalization c. The social clock is less significant. d. The biological clock begins to be audible.

12-18. (factual-363) According to Costa & McCrae (1984), people experience upheaval at what point in life? *a. at any time b. young adulthood c. late adulthood d. middle adulthood 12-19. (applied-364-365) Petra is experiencing a rapid drop in role demands. She is most likely in which of the following age groups? a. 20–39 b. 40–64 *c. 65–74 d. 75+ 12-20. (conceptual-363) Which of the following best describes our current knowledge about the existence of a midlife crisis? a. Virtually all adults experience a crisis at midlife. *b. Some adults experience a crisis, but they are in the minority. c. More adults experience a crisis at midlife than at any other age. d. There is no evidence that any adults experience a crisis at midlife.

12-21. (conceptual-365) The fastest segment of the U.S. population is the group in: a. emerging adulthood. b. young adulthood. c. middle adulthood. *d. late adulthood.

..

208

12-22. (factual-365) What term did Cumming and Henry use to describe the shrinkage of social contacts and social roles in old age? a. interiority b. introversion *c. disengagement d. role decline 12-23. (applied-365) Misty is 85 years old; gerontologists would describe her as _______. a. being young old b. being in a time of tribalization c. being disengaged *d. being in late adulthood 12-24. (applied-366) The singer, Lionel Ritchie, explained in an interview that he could no longer reach the high notes the way he used to when he was younger. The way he handled this was to encourage the crowd to sing along when he got to the parts of songs that are most challenging. Baltes and Baltes (1990) would refer to this as: a. disequilibrium *b.selective optimization with compensation c. tribalization d. disengagement 12-25. (conceptual-365) Why is there little knowledge or research concerning the age group termed “late adulthood”? a. The group is a relatively recent phenomenon. b. Data has not been complied on this specific age group. c. Census bureau reporting was inadequate. *d. All of the above are valid reasons.

12-26. (factual-365) The demarcation point between older adulthood and the late adulthood is determined by _______. a. the ability to drive b. health *c. turning 75 d. attitude 12-27. (factual-366) For older adults, ________ is a cause of higher overall life satisfaction. a. marriage b. personality *c. social involvement d. work 12-28. (conceptual-365-366) Which part of Cumming and Hendry’s theory was disputed by researchers? a. that the social “life space” shrinks with age *b. that aging persons actively embrace the process of disengagement c. that the aging person becomes less governed by rules and norms d. that close relationships are the key to happiness for women, but not men 12-29. (conceptual-367) Butler expanded on Erikson’s ideas by proposing that in old age, all of us go through a process in which there is a “progressive return to consciousness of past ..

209

experience, and particularly, the resurgence of unresolved conflicts.” Butler is describing: a. disengagement * b. life review c. late life crisis d. selective optimization with compensation 12-30. (conceptual-368-370) When it comes to quality of life: a. studies in the U.S. over the past 50 years have shown that less than half of the population considers their life “satisfying” or “very satisfying.” *b. more affluent countries show larger percentages of satisfied or very satisfied people than less affluent countries. c. older adults report a lower quality of life than middle-age adults because they tend to compare themselves to how they were when they were younger. d. the strongest predictor is personality.

12-31. (conceptual-368) The strongest predictor of quality of life for adults over 65 is_____. a. marital status * b. health c. number of children living in the same area d. gender 12-32. (conceptual-369) Which of the following is TRUE regarding quality of life? *a. Married people in the U.S. have higher quality of life than unmarried people. b. In countries other than the U.S., single people have much higher quality of life than their married counterparts. c. One to two years after the death of their husbands, widows report the same quality of life that they experienced before. d. Cross-cultural research shows no correlation between marital status and quality of life.

12-33. (factual-371) According to Vaillant’s studies of the Grant sample, measures of childhood family environment, or of a young adult’s personal resources (such as personality or cognitive skills), are predictive of subsequent psychological adjustment _____. a. at every age throughout the adult age range b. in old age, but not at midlife *c. at midlife, but not in old age d. at no age in adulthood 12-34. (conceptual-371-372) One major shortcoming of Vaillant’s Grant studies was that: a. they only included women. b. their sample of men and women was too small and, therefore, not generalizable. c. they only included people from the South who rated themselves high on religiosity. *d. they only included very well-educated professional men.

12-35. (factual-371) According to Vaillant’s studies of the Grant sample, measures of early family experiences are predictive of subsequent difficulties _____. a. throughout the adult age range b. in old age *c. in the first few decades of adulthood d. at no age in adulthood 12-36. (conceptual- 372) Among the childless men in Vaillant’s study, those who were rated as ..

210

generative at age 47 were the ones who: *a. adopted a pet. b. found someone else’s child to parent/mentor. c. found a job that was a better fit with their personality. d. became a leader in their place of worship.

12-37. (conceptual-373-374) Bjorklund uses Waddington’s analogy of the ___________to describe how each adult’s development occurs primarily within a specific pathway. The process is influenced by the starting conditions of education, family background, ethnicity, intelligence, and personality. a. patchwork quilt *b. epigenetic landscape c. layers of the atmosphere d. compass 12-38. (conceptual- 376) Whether a person will experience a disequilibrium period as a crisis or merely a transitory phase is most likely to depend on: a. the number of siblings and amount of contact with extended family the person had. *b. the person’s personality and coping skills. c. the quality of education, number of years of schooling and the person’s cohort. d. whether or not the individual engaged in a life review.

12-39. (conceptual-375–376) According to the model proposed in the final chapter of the text, what is the relationship between the occurrence of stable life structures and age? *a. There is an approximate link; adults who follow a modal sequence of family and work roles will share the rough timing of stable periods. b. The linkage is very strong; virtually all adults experience periods of disequilibrium at the same ages. c. The linkage is generally weak, but is stronger for those in the working class than those in the middle class. d. There is no relationship at all between age and the occurrence of stable structures and disequilibrium.

12-40. (conceptual-375-376) According to the model presented in the final chapter in the text, which of the following experiences is likely to create disequilibrium in the psychological system and thus lead to some change or development? a. role changes b. asynchrony of timing of developmental sequences c. poor match between personality and role demands *d. any of the above 12-41. (factual-375-376) Which of the following is NOT a source of disequilibrium? a. role changes b. asynchrony of timing c. major life changes *d. a change in the epigenetic landscape 12-42. (factual-377) According to research by Costa and McCrae, individuals ________ were more likely to respond to disequilibrium by increases in substance abuse, illness, depression, or regressive patterns of defense. a. low in conscientiousness ..

211

*b. high in neuroticism c. from low socioeconomic status backgrounds d. high in openness to experience 12-43. (factual-378-379) When an adult responds adaptively to a period of disequilibrium—with personal growth, or with an improvement in health habits or the like—what effect does such a change have on personal happiness? a. Adaptive change is consistently associated with increased happiness. *b. Adaptive change shows no consistent link with happiness. c. Adaptive change increases happiness in about three-quarters of adults. d. Adaptive change increases happiness in women but not in men.

12-44. (factual-378) According to Vaillant’s study of the Grant sample, which characteristic of the men in middle age was most predictive of psychological health or ill health at age 63? *a. trust in early childhood b. the stability of the man’s marriage c. the man’s satisfaction with his work d. the quality of the man’s relationship with his children

..

212

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 12-45. What do Baltes and Baltes mean by selective optimization with compensation? Give an example.

12-46. Butler (1963) argued that in old age we all go through a “life review.” Define what he meant by this term and discuss whether his argument is valid or not.

12-47. What did Bjorklund mean by the terms tribalization and detribalization?

12-48. Describe at least three variables (or individual differences) related to quality of life..

12-49. Describe at least three of the five major tasks of emerging adulthood as proposed by Arnett.

12-50. List and describe briefly the five different potential sources of disequilibrium as outlined in the final chapter of Bjorklund’s text.

12-51. According to the model proposed in the final chapter of Bjorklund’s text, what combination of characteristics or circumstances is most likely to lead an individual to emerge from a period of disequilibrium with some kind of personal growth or development?

12-52. Briefly describe the participants of the Grant study and include one major finding from research on this group of individuals.

12-53. In the final chapter of your text, the author proposes a four-proposition model of adult growth. Briefly list and define the four propositions of the model. Do you think this is a good model of adult development? Why or why not?

12-54. Describe two sources of disequilibrium and give an example of each.

ESSAY QUESTIONS 12-55. Describe how the period of emerging adulthood (as defined by Arnett) is different from the period of young adulthood?

12-56. Describe the period in adulthood from age twenty-five to forty. What are its key features?

What makes this period different from those that come before or after?

12-57. Describe the period of adulthood from age forty to age sixty-five. What are its key features? What makes this period different from those that come before or after?

12-58. Describe the period of adulthood from age sixty-five to seventy-five. What are its key features? What makes this period different from those that come before or after?

12-59. What did Bjorklund mean by the following: “the midlife crisis is, to some extent, an aspect of individual personality rather than a characteristic of this particular age period?” Include research findings in your response.

12-60. What is meant by the “social clock” and the “biological clock”? How do these two ..

213

processes interact across the adult years?

12-61. “In modern American society, virtually all adults go through some kind of significant personal crisis in the years of middle adulthood—roughly ages forty-five to fifty.” Evaluate this statement.

12-62. Describe the “disengagement” hypothesis offered by Cumming and Henry. Which parts of the hypothesis have been supported and which have not?

12-63. “The best part of adult life is the years from about age fifty to age sixty-five. These years are truly the flowering of adulthood.” Evaluate this statement.

12-64. If you ask most middle-aged or older adults whether they would like to be twenty again, the great majority reply with a resounding “NO!” In light of what you now know about the different periods of adult life, why do you think so many people respond in this way?

12-65. Why would satisfaction with work and relationships increase in midlife while the centrality of work and relationships decreases during this time?

12-66. Argue for or against the proposition that adult life is made up of an alternating series of episodes of stable life structures and periods of disequilibrium.

12-67. Evaluate the following assertion in light of the evidence presented in the final chapter of Bjorklund’s text, and throughout the text: “The kind of family one grows up in, the economic and educational advantages one has, the personality characteristics one has at age twenty—all of these profoundly shape the pattern of adult life one will experience.”

12-68. List as many “maladaptive” responses to disequilibrium as you can. Are all of these invariably maladaptive? Can you think of any circumstances in which any of these behaviors or attitudes would be adaptive?

12-69. At age twenty, Sarah is working as a checkout clerk in a grocery store, having left school after high school. She didn’t do particularly well in school and had a hard time learning how to run the cash register, but she is a cheerful person, outgoing and friendly, and a reliable worker.

She doesn’t have a steady boyfriend, but she dates quite a lot and is looking forward to getting married and settling down—although she guesses that she will probably have to work after she is married. Given everything you know about adult development, what predictions would you make about Sarah’s adult life? Back up your predictions with research evidence or theory wherever you can.

12-70. The Berkley and Grant studies both find that the most successful and well-adjusted middle-aged adults grew up in certain types of families. What kind of families did they have (what where they like)? Are there any critiques of these studies? Explain.

12-71. Discuss Waddington’s (1957) concept of “epigenetic landscape.” Make sure you describe not only the theory behind this concept, but also how it relates to development.

12-72. What determines whether a person will experience a disequilibrium period as a crisis or merely as a rather transitory phase? Give an example that draws on the experiences of someone you know or those of a fictitious character.

..

214

12-73. What do researchers mean by “successful aging”?

..

215