Film A Critical Introduction, 3E Maria T Pramaggiore Instructor Manual and Test Bank

Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank for

Pramaggiore/Wallis

Film: A Critical Introduction Third Edition

prepared by

William Christy Ohio University-Zanesville

Maria T. Pramaggiore North Carolina State University

Tom Wallis North Carolina State University

Table of Contents Preface ............................................................................................................................................ ii Sample Syllabi .............................................................................................................................. iii Sample Course Schedule 1 ...................................................................................................... vi Sample Course Schedule 2 .................................................................................................... viii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 1 CHAPTER 2: AN APPROACH TO FILM ANALYSIS ........................................................... 6 CHAPTER 3: WRITING ABOUT FILM ................................................................................ 17 CHAPTER 4: NARRATIVE FORM ........................................................................................ 31 CHAPTER 5: MISE EN SCÈNE .............................................................................................. 42 CHAPTER 6: CINEMATOGRAPHY ...................................................................................... 56 CHAPTER 7: EDITING ............................................................................................................ 80 CHAPTER 8: SOUND................................................................................................................ 96 CHAPTER 9: ALTERNATIVES TO NARRATIVE FICTION FILM: DOCUMENTARY AND AVANT-GARDE FILMS ............................................................................................... 115 CHAPTER 10: FILM AND IDEOLOGY............................................................................... 130 CHAPTER 11: SOCIAL CONTEXT AND FILM STYLE .................................................. 149 CHAPTER 12: FILM STARDOM AS A CULTURAL PHENOMENON .......................... 161 CHAPTER 13: GENRE ........................................................................................................... 169 CHAPTER 14: FILM AUTHORSHIP ................................................................................... 184 CHAPTER 15: CINEMA AS INDUSTRY: ECONOMICS AND TECHNOLOGY .......... 197 TEST BANK Chapter 1 ................................................................................................................................... 212 Chapter 2 ................................................................................................................................... 216 Chapter 3 ................................................................................................................................... 225 Chapter 4 ................................................................................................................................... 235 Chapter 5 ................................................................................................................................... 243 Chapter 6 ................................................................................................................................... 252 Chapter 7 ................................................................................................................................... 266 Chapter 8 ................................................................................................................................... 277 Chapter 9 ................................................................................................................................... 286 Chapter 10 ................................................................................................................................. 294 Chapter 11 ................................................................................................................................. 301 Chapter 12 ................................................................................................................................. 308 Chapter 13 ................................................................................................................................. 315 Chapter 14 ................................................................................................................................. 323 Chapter 15 ................................................................................................................................. 330

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This manual is intended to enhance the pedagogical value of the third edition of Film: A Critical Introduction by emphasizing important topics and content covered in each chapter. It offers in-class exercises designed to help launch invigorating discussions, and out of class exercises designed to encourage students to think actively and critically as they read the material.

Learning objectives, chapter overviews and detailed summaries from the textbook are combined with exercises in the manual and electronic resources (PowerPoint slides and sample test questions).

Finally, two sample syllabi appear in the appendix to this manual. These syllabi are designed to illustrate the textbook’s flexibility and adaptability to a variety of approaches to introductory film courses. By no means are these options exhaustive. Instructors are encouraged to modify course materials as they see fit and should feel free to use alternative film titles at their discretion. Furthermore, instructors should realize that a rigorous and invigorating course designed around this textbook does not necessarily have to cover every chapter.

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Sample Syllabi Introduction to Film Office: Phone: Hours: e-mail: .

Textbook: Film: A Critical Approach (3rd Ed.)by Maria Pramaggiore and Tom Wallis Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, 2012 Course description: This class will focus predominantly on teaching students to recognize and analyze the narrative, visual, and aural elements of film. The course will be structured so that each unit will focus specifically on one of five facets of the cinema. To illustrate the breadth of film’s expressive potential, the class will expose students to a variety of film styles (Classical Hollywood, realism, expressionism, short films, and documentaries) over the course of the semester and consider how external forces (economics, politics, culture, etc.) shape film aesthetics and reception.

Student Learning Outcomes: This course is designed to help students: 1. Identify the narrative, visual, and aural elements of films.

2. Analyze how these elements can contribute to a film's overarching aesthetic and thematic concerns.

3. Identify the narrative, visual, and aural characteristics of Classical Hollywood cinema, documentaries, and avant-garde cinema.

4. Recognize alternatives to the Classical Hollywood aesthetic, including Art Cinema, Neorealism, and Third Cinema.

5. Begin conducting research in film studies by focusing specifically on how the historical circumstances of a film’s production shape its aesthetic sensibility.

6. Improve their writing skills.

Course requirements: sequence analysis paper (4-6 pages)=15 pts. midterm exam =20 pts. film analysis (8-10 pages)=25 pts. film review (2-3 pages)=10 pts. final exam=25 pts. (open note, but not open book) participation=5 pts.

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Grades: Students earn points up to a total of 100 points. Final grades will be assigned on a +/scale as follows: A+ = 98-100 B+ = 87-89 C+ = 77-79 D+ = 67-69 F = Below 60 A = 93-97 B = 83-86 C = 73-76 D = 63-66 A- = 90-92 B- = 80-82 C- = 70-72 D- = 60-62 Attendance: *Attendance at class discussions and screenings is required. Please note that missing just one class is equivalent to missing an entire week’s worth of material. You are allowed one unexcused absence, but every additional unexcused absence will result in a 3-point reduction from the final grade point total. *Regularly arriving at class a few minutes late will affect your participation grade. Arriving at class more than ten minutes late or leaving class early will count as a partial absence. *On most days I will take attendance by having you sign your name on a sheet of paper. You are responsible for making sure that you have signed the roll; if you arrive late or the sheet passes you by, please see me after class. *Written documentation of an excused absence must be provided within one week of returning to class. *Late papers will result in as much as half of a letter grade reduction for each day the paper is late. If you are unable to attend class when papers are due, you may submit your work electronically as long as you provide a hardcopy when you return to class. *Makeup quizzes will not be administered without a documented excuse or approval in advance.

Makeup quizzes must be taken in my office within a week of the date they were originally administered to the rest of the class. *If you anticipate having difficulty completing an assignment by its due date, please feel comfortable asking me for an extension in advance. I will make appropriate accommodations whenever possible, but you must make your request well before the paper is due. *Refer to the university’s attendance regulations for if you have questions regarding the distinction between excused and unexcused absences.

Classroom etiquette: *Please turn off cell phones when you come into the classroom; disconnect yourself from the rest of the world for 2 hours! *Movie theaters are public spaces that demand silence so that all patrons are able to enjoy the product they have purchased. Talking and creating disruptions during any public screening is unacceptable behavior. Furthermore, this theater is an academic setting, so disrupting a screening of a film will threaten your classmates’ ability to succeed in the course. Talking during in-class screenings--this includes the opening credits--will result in a half-point deduction from your final grade. *If you must leave the theater in the middle of a screening or lecture, please exit through the door in the rear. Please keep the door from slamming shut behind you when you leave or enter the room. *Please--no food in the classroom. Rattling snack wrappers are EXTREMELY disruptive during screenings. *Please take any trash with you when you leave. *Some of the films we will discuss cover sensitive material. Respect your fellow students as you watch the films and when you participate in class discussion. iv .

How is participation evaluated?: Class participation will help your performance in this course since it is part of your grade. More importantly, for most students active participation encourages comprehension and memory retention . . . and it usually makes the class more exciting. Participation includes but is not necessarily limited to speaking in class. Looking attentive in class, taking notes during screenings and discussions, meeting with me during office hours, and corresponding via email are all less obvious (but nearly as important) types of class participation. Getting into the habit of doing some or all of these things will improve your performance in the course and give you an advantage in "borderline circumstances."

Poor participation (0-6 pts.): *student regularly arrives at class late *student sleeps in class and/or is obviously inattentive in other ways *student never willingly participates in class discussion, and is unable to respond to questions when called upon *student regularly disrupts class (e.g., noisily leaving the room during screenings, rattling food wrappers, eating pizza) Average participation (7-8 pts.): *student is attentive in class; she actively takes notes and clearly listens to in-class discussions and lectures *student rarely volunteers to speak in class, but is able to answer questions with thoughtful, cogent responses when called upon *student asks questions or adds comments about course material after class, during office hours or via email Excellent participation (9-10 pts): *student is attentive in class; she actively takes notes and clearly listens to in-class discussions and lectures *student volunteers daily to speak in class; she responds thoughtfully to comments and questions offered by me and by other students *the student rarely arrives late to class. *if the student must leave in the middle of a screening, she takes care not to disturb other students. *the student takes advantage of my office hours, visiting to ask questions and make comments about course content Academic Integrity: Our code of student conduct states that “Plagiarism and cheating are attacks on the very foundation of academic life, and cannot be tolerated within universities.”

Plagiarism or cheating on any assignment will result in an F for this course and will be reported to the Office of Student Conduct. For definitions of and university policies regarding academic dishonesty, cheating, and plagiarism, as well as non-academic misconduct, visit ********. I expect that signing your name on any assignment or exam means that you have neither given nor received any unauthorized or unacknowledged assistance on your work.

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Sample Course Schedule 1 This syllabus strictly follows the organizational logic of the textbook and focuses on the major films discussed in each chapter.

SCREENING/IN-CLASS MATERIAL READING Week One: Introduction Pan’s Labyrinth Chapters 1 and 2 Excerpts from Inglourious Basterds Discussion: The fundamental principles of film analysis: expectations, patterns, and details Week Two: Writing About Film The Big Heat Excerpts from Steamboat Bill Jr. Discussion: Continue discussion of genre expectations, writing about film

Chapter 3

Week Three: Narrative Form The 400 Blows Discussion: Classical and "realistic" narratives

Chapter 4

Week Four: Mise en Scène Thelma and Louise Chapter 5 Screen scenes from expressionist films Discussion: the components of mise en scène; realism vs. expressionism Week Five: Cinematography Screen scenes from Paths of Glory and M*A*S*H Do the Right Thing Discussion: cinematography

Chapter 6

Week Six: Editing Screen scenes from Battleship Potemkin and The Godfather Notorious Discussion: editing

Chapter 7

Week Seven: Sound Screen scenes from Taxi Driver No Country for Old Men Discussion: sound Scene analysis papers due

Chapter 8

Week Eight: Alternatives to Narrative Fiction Film Midterm exam March of the Penguins vi .

Chapter 9

Screen scenes from Nanook of the North Un Chien andalou Discussion: Documentary and avant-garde forms Week Nine: Film and Ideology Knocked Up Screen scenes from 4 Months, 3 Weeks, and 2 Days Discussion: Ideology and Film Analysis *Writing a film analysis paper Week Ten: Film and Ideology Freaks Screen scenes from The Birth of a Nation Discussion: gender, race and disability in contemporary film Week Eleven: Social Context and Film Style Screen scenes from Breathless, The Bicycle Thieves and The Battle of Algiers Discussion: Classical Hollywood Narrative and International Art Cinema Week Twelve: Film Stardom Jezebel, screen scenes from The Wrestler Discussion: The Star Persona Week Thirteen: Genre Psycho Screen scenes from Frankenstein, Sweeney Todd, I Am Legend Discussion: The evolution of the horror film Week Fourteen: Film Authorship Touch of Evil Screen scenes from The Hurt Locker Discussion: A modern auteur?

Chapter 10

Chapter 10 (cont’d)

Chapter 11

Chapter 12

Chapter 13

Chapter 14

Week Fifteen: Cinema as Industry Screen scenes from Easy Rider Chapter 15 Medium Cool and Jaws I Shot Andy Warhol Screen scenes from Pulp Fiction, Funny Ha Ha, The Puffy Chair Discussion: The Hollywood Renaissance and the rise of the blockbuster; The rise (and fall?) of independent film

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Sample Course Schedule 2 This syllabus is an option for instructors who want to teach every chapter in the textbook, but not in chronological order.

Unit One: Course Introduction Week One The Cinema Ticket (Vikene 1995) Chapters 1 and 2 *Available on the Short anthology, Vol. 8 (Warner Bros.)

Les Mistons (Truffaut 1957) Small Deaths (Ramsay 1996) *Available on the Criterion’s Ratcatcher DVD Discussion: The fundamental principles of film analysis Unit Two: Structure in Fictional Narrative Films, Documentaries and Experimental Films Week Two Slumdog Millionaire Discussion: Classical, frame, and “realistic” narratives Week Three March of the Penguins Un Chien andalou Discussion: Documentary and avant-garde forms

Chapter 4

Chapter 9

Week Four The Big Heat Discussion: Writing about film (the scene analysis)

Chapter 3

Unit Three: Mise en Scène Week Five Thelma and Louise Screen scenes from expressionist films Discussion: the components of mise en scene

Chapter 5

Week Six Jezebel All About Eve Discussion: Bette Davis and the Star Persona Unit Four: Visual Style Week Seven Ratcatcher Screen scenes from Paths of Glory and Pan’s Labyrinth

Chapter 12

Chapter 6 and Ch. 11

Discussion: cinematography and classical Hollywood’s visual style viii .

Week Eight Psycho Screen scenes from Sweeney Todd, I Am Legend Discussion: The evolution of the horror film Week Nine Screen scenes from Notorious, The Bicycle Thieves 8 ½ and The Battle of Algiers Discussion: International Art Cinema Week Ten Screen scenes from Battleship Potemkin Notorious and The Godfather Discussion: Editing

Chapter 13

Chapter 11

Chapter 7

Unit Five: Sound Week Eleven Screen scenes from Taxi Driver No Country for Old Men Discussion: Sound

Chapter 8

Week Twelve Wall-E Discussion: The politics of gender in Wall-E

Chapter 10

Week Thirteen The Fantastic Mr. Fox Chapter 14 Screen scenes from Rushmore, The Royal Tenenbaums Discussion: The modern auteur and the rock music soundtrack Unit Six: Beyond Aesthetics—Film and Industry Week Fourteen The Hurt Locker Screen scenes from Far From Heaven Discussion: A modern auteur as marketing device?

Week Fifteen Screen scenes from Easy Rider Medium Cool, and Jaws I Shot Andy Warhol Discussion: The Hollywood Renaissance and the rise (and fall?) of independent film

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Chapter 14 (cont’d)

Chapter 15

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HAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1 (Introduction) LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, students should be able to: 1) understand the very essence of cinema: light, color, and sound.

2) recognize that studying film will enhance their experience (and enjoyment) of the cinema.

3) understand why developing writing skills is such an integral part of film scholarship.

4) explain how cinema grew out of experiments in still photography.

5) understand that cinematic art merges social and economic factors as well as innovation in technology and aesthetics.

6) understand how the book is organized.

CHAPTER 1 (Introduction) OVERVIEW ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

Film consists of light, color, and sound, orchestrated to provoke emotional and intellectual responses from viewers.

Moviegoers who learn to analyze films and to study films as artistic, commercial, and cultural documents will enhance their experience (and enjoyment) of the cinema.

Writing is the surest way to produce sound interpretation, since the writing process helps to clarify thoughts and organize ideas.

The development of film art is the result of the interaction of technological development, economic organization, and aesthetic experimentation.

The book is organized in three sections. Part I offers strategies for embarking on film analysis. Part II introduces the basic tools for performing film analysis. Part III moves from the textual analysis of individual films to the examination of cinema more broadly as a cultural institution.

CHAPTER 1 (Introduction) SUMMARY I. Chapter Introduction

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F

ilm is a complex art form and cultural institution whose influence spans the twentieth

century and transcends it. In its maturity, the cinema emerged as a global entertainment industry, instigating and taking advantage of technological developments in photography, sound recording, and, eventually, electronic and digital imaging.

The cinema not only contributed to a mass culture of entertainment and celebrity; it also provided a forum for education and critique through the tradition of social documentary, and served as a medium of personal expression in the form of avant-garde films and home movies.

Many film lovers value movie spectacles that transport them to a magical world of romance, drama, and adventure. Others seek out challenging films that provide a rigorous intellectual and aesthetic experience. This book contends that these two desires are not mutually exclusive: the most profound moments of immersion in cinema art also invite audiences to ponder social, aesthetic, moral, and intellectual questions.

Watching a movie takes most viewers out of their everyday lives and transports them to a different world, a realm that Russian writer Maxim Gorky called “the Kingdom of Shadows.”

Movie-goers immerse themselves in the lives of fictional characters, develop opinions about historical events, and become captivated by artistic combinations of color, light, and sound.

Watching films can be both emotionally satisfying and intellectually stimulating.

One of this book’s major concerns is film analysis, and one of its central aims is to help readers identify the major elements of film art and recognize the way those elements work together to produce meaning.

The book also encourages students to develop the skills necessary to build sound written interpretations. The writing process helps to clarify thoughts and organize ideas.

II. Cinema: a Confluence of Artistry, Industry, and Technology The most recognizable image of the cinema as an art form and a cultural institution may be that of an audience of individuals sitting in a darkened theater watching larger-than-life images on a screen. This manifestation of film art was the result of the interaction of technological developments, economic structures and opportunities, and aesthetic experimentation. The history of film production and exhibition merges social and economic factors as well as innovations in technology and aesthetics.

During the late nineteenth century, technological advances in photography established the basis for recording moving images on film. Experiments conducted by Eadweard Muybridge and Étienne-Jules Marey moved still photography in the direction of motion pictures.

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By 1888 inventor Thomas Edison and his assistant William Dickson began to focus on motion picture technology. Film rapidly became a popular mass-market entertainment medium. Early forms of film such as the actualités (the earliest documentary films) and screening them for audiences in theaters in European cities and in American cities through neighborhood theaters called nickelodeons became hugely popular.

During the 1910s and the 1920s the narrative feature film began to eclipse other types of movies as filmmakers began to develop cinema’s narrative potential and as U.S. industry leaders sought to compete with French and German cinemas.

The studio and star systems established in Hollywood—often referred to as an “assembly line” model of industrial production—became the dominant filmmaking practice, both in economic and aesthetic terms, in the United States and around the world.

Alternative modes of filmmaking and spectatorship have always existed alongside the commercial industry, however, including independent art cinema, experimental films, and documentaries. Economic and technological factors influence the production and the viewing of these types of films as well.

The contemporary history of cinema is, in part, a history of attempts to stave off the competition from newer entertainment technologies such as television. By the 1970s video technology made it possible for people to watch feature films at home, which, in turn, changed the dynamics of the film industry.

Digital technologies have had an enormous impact on both the economics and aesthetics of cinema. They have affected the way filmmakers make movies and the way fans consume them.

At the loftiest levels of commercial filmmaking, many major, big-budget studio productions have been shot on digital formats rather than on film.

The film industry has emphasized these exciting new technological developments in part because it becomes more and more difficult with each passing year to lure customers into movie theaters.

During the first decade of the millennium, consumers became accustomed to watching moving images on smaller, mobile screens, which poses challenges to both filmmaker and film exhibitors.

The experience of film has never been limited to viewing feature-length narrative films on the big screen. Film, as an art form, a technological apparatus, and an industry, is intertwined with society, and more specifically with the image culture that permeates contemporary life.

III. How This Book is Organized The book’s introductory section, Part One, continues with Chapter 2, which offers strategies for embarking on film analysis. As an example of film analysis in action, Chapter 2 concludes with a short essay on how the careful orchestration of detail creates meaning in Guillermo del Toro’s 3 .

Pan’s Labyrinth (2006). Part One concludes with Chapter 3, which focuses on writing about film.

Part Two introduces the basic tools for performing film analysis. These chapters help readers recognize film techniques, describe these techniques using film studies terminology, and understand the part each of them plays in the film’s overall organization.

The Study Notes that accompany each essay identify rhetorical techniques the writer has used to organize and develop ideas and emphasize major points. The Study Notes establish a logical approach to writing.

Part Three moves from the textual analysis of individual films to examine cinema more broadly as a cultural institution. Part Three, and the text, concludes with Chapter 15, which discusses film as an industry, focusing on new technologies and industry convergence—a term that refers to the economic and technological blending of cinema with other entertainment industries.

By the time readers have completed Part Three, they will be ready to formulate questions related to cinema as a cultural institution and to conduct independent research on film studies topics.

Together, Parts Two and Three help readers develop the analytical, critical reading, and rhetorical skills to describe, interpret, and evaluate a film at the textual level and to engage current issues in film and media studies by moving beyond the individual text to consider film’s broader cultural significance.

IV. Technical Tips A collection of tips, hints, suggestions and explanation of how the text content flows, establishes key points and unfolds in a coherent manner.

V. Works Consulted A list of external sources consulted in the explication of content for this particular chapter.

CHAPTER 1 (Introduction) DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What did Russian writer Maxim Gorky mean by calling film “the Kingdom of Shadows”?

Explain the nature of the film experience as referenced by Gorky’s statement.

2. Summarize some of the early technological inventions and innovations in the history of film.

Include a discussion of how the early popularity of film compelled inventors and designers to advance the technology required to make films.

3. How do you watch movies? How often do you go to a movie theatre? Do you rent videos locally or through a service like Netflix? Do you watch movies at home on your TV (standard or HD) through cable or a game system like Xbox? Or do you use your computer or Smartphone?

Which do you prefer and why? What are the chief benefits of seeing films at a movie theater?

At home on the computer?

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4. What, in your opinion, is the future of filmmaking? Will 3 D continue to hold prominence and popularity with the general movie-going audience? Will more films be produced with a smaller screen in mind?

CHAPTER 1 (Introduction) LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND IN-CLASS ACTIVITIES 1) Cinema: A Confluence of Artistry, Industry, and Technology (What is a film?)

Show students an actualité and ask them whether or not what they see is a film. Encourage them to discuss what they expect films to include. Chances are, most students will argue that a film should include a story. Discuss how student expectations are the product of having grown up in a particular era in film history when narrative feature films are the norm. This in turn might provoke a discussion about whether the rise of viewer upload websites, such as YouTube, have the potential to change the next generation’s assumptions of what films should be and where they should be screened.

2) How This Book is Organized (Encountering the importance of language) This brief exercise will demonstrate why the love of cinema and writing skills go hand in hand.

It is designed to address those students resistant to the idea that writing is an invaluable component of the academic experience . . . and life in general. ✓ Everyone think of the most enjoyable movie you’ve seen in the past two months. ✓ Think about why you liked the movie so much. But here’s the catch: DO NOT USE WORDS TO EXPRESS YOUR IDEAS. [This exercise in futility might provoke a chuckle—the crucial point is to emphasize that language is an integral part of appreciating anything and sharing that appreciation with others.] ✓ [Point out examples of where people resort to language to develop an audience’s appreciation of a subject. Mention sports commentators, music critics, wine enthusiasts, art historians, teachers, film critics.] These examples illustrate a two-pronged truism of the human experience: the more you know about a subject, the more you appreciate its intricacies, and language is the means by which we acquire, process, and share knowledge. The development of the broad cultural appreciation of film as a serious art form would not have been possible without writing. ✓ Thus, this textbook’s focus is twofold: first, it introduces the student to film as an art form and cultural institution, and second it emphasizes strategies for writing about film. [At this point introduce the book’s writing practice features: the “Techniques in Practice” readings; the end of chapter essays and sidebars; Chapter 3’s emphasis on various styles of writing about film; and the rhetorical logic that distinguishes section II from section III. You would do well to stress the importance of learning proper film terminology/vocabulary—the language that professionals use to talk about film.]

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HAPTER 2: AN APPROACH TO FILM ANALYSIS

CHAPTER 2 (An Approach to Film Analysis) LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, students should be able to: 1) explore what expectations they bring with them when they attend a movie or rent a DVD. 2) explain why filmmakers deliberately thwart expectations to evoke an emotional and/or intellectual response from the audience.

3) identify patterns of repetition and change in a film, and analyze how these patterns evoke an emotional and/or intellectual response from the audience.

4) identify references to people, places, and things outside the world of the film, and what these references contribute to the emotional and intellectual content of the film.

5) distinguish among descriptive, evaluative, and interpretive claims.

6) appreciate the importance of making interpretive claims to the cinematic experience.

7) recognize the importance of taking careful notes during in-class screenings.

CHAPTER 2 (An Approach to Film Analysis) OVERVIEW ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

A single film can elicit a variety of divergent responses from different members of the audience.

Audiences bring certain expectations with them when they enter the theater. These expectations might involve the film’s mode of organization, genre, stars, and director.

Filmmakers will satisfy many of these expectations, but upset others to provoke an emotional and intellectual response from the audience.

Good filmmakers meticulously organize details, encouraging audience responses by employing motifs, parallels, and structure.

Filmmakers can create meaning by making references to people, places, and things outside the world of the film. A film can reference historical events and cultural attitudes, a star’s previous roles, public figures and celebrities, other films and works of art, and products.

Film analysis can involve statements that take three different forms, each one related to a different level of meaning: descriptive claims, evaluative claims, and interpretive claims.

Interpretive claims grow out of a sustained intellectual engagement with a film, taking into account the way its stories, characters, camera angles, sound effects, and other elements interact to produce intense emotional and thought-provoking experiences.

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CHAPTER 2 (An Approach to Film Analysis) SUMMARY I.

Introduction (Dr. Strangelove and viewer expectations)

W

hen a college student tells a friend about seeing Stanley Kubrick’s Dr. Strangelove

(1964; fig. 2.2), a black comedy about nuclear deterrence, what information does he convey?

When a film reviewer writes about that film, does she present the same ideas as the friends who informally share their opinions? And when a film scholar writes an essay about that film, would he adopt the same approach as the casual viewer or the popular critic?

It seems likely that these three viewers would discuss the same film in different ways. Is one of them “right”? Casual viewers might focus on whether they formed a personal connection to characters or enjoyed a particular performance, such as Slim Pickens’s comic turn. By contrast, critics and scholars place their observations in a specialized framework. They use their knowledge of film to formulate interpretations about what the film means, on the level of the story and on broader cultural and aesthetic levels.

Any viewer’s ability to find meaning in a film is based on knowledge, cultural experiences, preferences, formal training, and expectations. But the significance a viewer derives from a film also depends upon the choices the filmmaker has made.

This chapter introduces two ideas that are essential to film analysis. The first one is that expectations influence filmmakers’ choices and viewers’ experiences of films. The second idea is that filmmakers present information, elicit emotions, and suggest ideas by orchestrating details in a systematic way.

The chapter ends with a look at how an understanding of a film’s structure and themes can form the basis for making different sorts of statements about it.

II. Understanding Audience Expectations All film viewers bring expectations to their experiences of film. Viewers form expectations about movies by learning about and experiencing film, visual art, and culture. Expectations may be based on labels that film critics or the general public give to films. Labels that make a sharp distinction between art and entertainment miss the point that art films entertain because they are challenging, and that even an accessible action film requires visual artistry to produce stunning effects.

Most viewers form expectations about the kind of film they plan to see. Is it fictional, historical, a documentary, avant-garde? If viewers expect all films to tell stories, they may be disappointed or confused by documentaries and avant-garde films. What’s most important, however, is to recognize that, despite their differences, each mode of organization provides viewers with profound and enjoyable experiences, and each type is amenable to analysis and interpretation using the tools provided in this book.

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A. Expectations and Modes of Organization Narrative fiction films are organized by the cause and effect logic of storytelling: they present characters who encounter obstacles as they attempt to achieve their goals.

Viewers identify with characters and understand the choices they make, even if they themselves wouldn’t make the same ones.

Viewers generally expect a narrative film to offer a conclusion that resolves conflicts.

Some directors work against the traditional happy ending. An open-ended conclusion may frustrate audiences, leaving them with lingering questions, not closure.

Some documentary films tell stories, although the stories originate in real-world events.

These films may satisfy many of the expectations regarding characters, conflicts, and resolution that viewers bring to narrative fiction films.

Avant-garde films move even farther away from the conventions of narrative film.

Avant-garde filmmakers explore the aesthetic capabilities of the film medium itself, seeing it as similar to painting, sculpture, or dance. They rarely tell stories or present arguments and, instead, make meaning through symbols and metaphors.

Whether a filmmaker creates a narrative, documentary, or avant-garde film, he or she is aware of audience expectations. For their part, viewers bring expectations about the type of film they are seeing and may be delighted or disturbed by a filmmaker’s choices.

B. Expectations about Genres, Stars, and Directors When viewers plan to see a narrative fiction film, they probably arrive with specific expectations based on their knowledge of film genres, movie stars, and directors.

Filmmakers anticipate that viewers have expectations, and they may or may not choose to fulfill them.

Another important influence on expectations is the star system, a marketing process that studios, talent agencies, and the press use to transform actors into brand name products.

Viewer expectations come into play because fans enjoy seeing their favorite actors in the same kind of roles again and again. The public forms expectations about directors as well.

In order to analyze a film, one must consider viewer expectations and take note of which expectations are met and which ones are modified or rejected. If there are modifications, what are the effects of those choices?

In order to answer questions such as these, the viewer must take note of the seemingly minor details that are critical for conveying meaning. Paying close attention to the careful arrangement of detail is one way to identify a film’s themes and structure.

III. The Orchestration of Detail Certain details seem to demand the viewer’s attention. Those details may relate to a storyline or characters, or they may arise from the visual or sound aspects of the film. Usually, details claim 8 .

attention because they are prominent. One way for a filmmaker to assure that audience attention will be focused on a detail is to repeat it.

A. Motifs When any detail takes on significance through repetition, it is called a motif. Filmmakers may employ any film element to develop a motif, including (among others) lines of dialogue, gestures, costumes, locations, props, music, color, and composition.

Motifs have a variety of functions. They can provide information about characters and reinforce the significance of an idea. Motifs often encourage spectators to compare and contrast moments over the course of a film. Once established, motifs may evolve, suggesting change and development in a character or situation.

A film need not limit its use of motifs to objects within the frame.

Repetition can also serve an important function in documentary films. Documentary filmmakers may repeat images to highlight their significance. Repetition can also create meaning in avant-garde films.

B. Parallels Filmmakers sometimes use the repetition of details to create parallels. A parallel arises when two characters, events, or locations are compared through the use of a narrative element or visual or sound device. When this happens, viewers are encouraged to consider the similarities and differences.

Parallels can also play an important role in non-narrative films. In avant-garde films, parallels may work as metaphors, suggesting the common characteristics of two images.

Repeated details form patterns that contribute to a film’s meaning. Paying attention to repetition, motifs, and parallels can help viewers to recognize a film’s deeper structure.

C. Details and Structure One way to create a framework for meaning is to pay attention to the way a film begins and ends, and the way it unfolds in sections. Each section forms a part of the underlying structure of a film. A full analysis of the film reunites the parts and considers the way they interact to produce meaning.

1) Parallels and Structure Parallels that invite viewers to compare the beginning and end of a film provide information about its overall structure. Identifying turning points will help the viewer grasp how and why characters undergo such dramatic changes.

2) Turning Points Narrative feature films tend to flow according to a standard structure. Analyzing a narrative film involves dividing the story into beginning, middle, and end and tracking important turning points. Directors signal important moments such as these 9 .

through camerawork, editing, and sound as well as through dialogue and action.

Turning points signal the end of one section of the film and the beginning of another.

Becoming attuned to significant turning points, and to how they are created, helps viewers gain a better understanding of a film’s structure.

Tonal shifts can convey changes over time as well. All films are structured through turning points and repetition. Turning points and motifs help organize documentaries and experimental films as well as fiction films.

3) Repetition and Non-chronological Structure In a documentary, a turning point may be based on a change from one topic to another. Alternatively, documentaries may be structured according to the various points of view brought to bear on an issue.

Avant-garde films can be divided into sections as well. The turning points may be subtle, however, signaled by changes in the photographic properties of images, in the way the images and sound relate to one another, or in editing patterns that alter the film’s rhythm or pace.

The goal of examining the relationship between details and structure is to arrive at a comprehensive analysis that takes into account the way seemingly minor elements combine to produce the overall design of a film. Viewers also must consider the details filmmakers include when they make references to people or events outside the film. Recognizing the importance of these references deepens the audience’s understanding of the work.

IV. Creating Meaning Through the World Beyond the Film Films can also convey meaning by making reference to people and events that exist outside the world of the film. Viewers may understand plot details, character motivation, or themes better because of references to historical events, to other films, and to works of art.

A. Historical Events and Cultural Attitudes Narrative films convey fictional stories, yet they frequently make reference to actual historical events. Audiences should not assume that historical references in period pieces (films set in the past) function only to establish the story’s time and place. Many films use such references to develop important themes as well.

Historical references do not necessarily establish a film’s setting in the historical past.

B. Stars and Public Figures as References Films also make references through movie stars. Chapter 12 examines the star system, so it’s sufficient for this discussion to observe that actors often repeat and reprise roles and that directors may expect audiences to make connections with those previous roles.

Films can also make reference to public figures. Like other references, these figures may resonate with other details in the film and so they shouldn’t just be taken at face value.

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C. Intertextual References Films also make intertextual references, or references to other films or works of art.

Some may consider this a visual trick, but sometimes it is a structural or metaphorical element of the film.

Avant-garde films also make references to the world outside films and to other films.

In one sense, all documentaries make reference to the world beyond film because they are based on historical events.

D. Meaningful References with Objects Films also refer to specific real-world objects. Characters may drive a particular kind of vehicle, wear clothing made by a designer, and consume popular brands of beer and soft drinks. Often these references are the result of lucrative business deals called product placement. Corporations agree to pay film studios a fee to feature products in a film.

The important question to ask is whether or not familiar products serve a purpose in terms of the film’s meaning: do they help to form motifs, do they add significance?

Inset Box: Film Style For film critics who distinguish content from style, style is defined as the way the content of a film is presented to the audience. For many filmmakers and critics, however, the story is inseparable from the way it is told, and style cannot be easily disengaged from subject matter.

Film scholars have long divided narrative fiction films into three stylistic categories: classical, realist, and formalist. The classical style includes the type of films made under the Hollywood studio system, in which the story is paramount. Realist films reject some of the rules of classical narrative in terms of characters, stories, and structure. Formalist films are self-consciously interventionist. They explore abstract ideas through stories and characters. Classical, realist and formalist approaches to film style should not be understood as three rigidly defined categories, but rather as a spectrum of aesthetic choices.

V. The Goal of Film Analysis: Articulating Meaning The purpose of film analysis—breaking a film down into component parts to see how it is put together—is to make statements about a film’s themes and meaning. Those statements take three different forms: a descriptive claim, an interpretive claim, and an evaluative claim, each one related to a different level of meaning.

A descriptive claim is a neutral account of the basic characteristics of the film. Most descriptions of narrative fiction films involve plot events. An interpretive claim involves a more complex intellectual response than a descriptive claim. Interpretive claims present an argument about a film’s meaning and significance. An evaluative claim expresses the author’s belief that the film is good, bad, or mediocre. In popular media outlets, film critics often rely on a shorthand mechanism for measuring a film’s worth, perhaps giving the film a letter grade of “A,” etc.

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VI. The Importance of Developing Interpretive Claims One of the most challenging and rewarding aspects of studying film is developing interpretive claims. Whereas a brief description may be helpful when deciding whether or not to see a film, interpretive claims move the conversation to a new level. Interpretation takes into account the complexity of films, capturing the way films affect viewers long after they have viewed the film.

Because interpretive claims grow out of description and analysis, they take account of the way that stories, characters, camera angles, sound effects, and other elements of film art interact to produce intense emotional and thought-provoking experiences.

Interpreting films also helps to develop logical thinking and writing skills, which Chapter 3 examines more fully. Finally, interpretations link films to larger issues, such as the impact of a film on society at large, or on the aesthetics of film in general.

CHAPTER 2 (An Approach to Film Analysis) DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1) How does the inclusion of history, and historical events, have an effect on filmmaking?

Think of recent films such as Pan’s Labyrinth, Let Me In, Shutter Island and Avatar that make reference to history in some way, and discuss how these films either accurately or inaccurately portray history, distort it or modify it to fit the needs of the filmmaker.

2) Why do you think motifs, parallels, turning points and repetition, as discussed in chapter 2, are essential filmmaking practices? Is it possible to tell the story of a character who undergoes some sort of transformation without using at least some of these strategies?

3) Discuss a recent movie-going experience you had. Did you know what the film was about prior to going? Did you know who was starring in it? Directing it? Were those factors important for you? What drew you to see that particular film? Explain your expectations before you saw the film and how you felt at the end of the film.

4) Summarize the three styles of narrative fiction films: classical, realist and formalist.

Discuss what makes each different from the others and provide film titles that best represent each of these three styles.

CHAPTER 2 (An Approach to Film Analysis) LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND IN-CLASS ACTIVITIES 1) Understanding Audience Expectations (Audience expectations and meaning) To emphasize the importance of considering the role audience expectations play in the production of meaning, draw your students’ attention to Scott MacDonald’s quote on p. 11.

A) MacDonald’s quote addresses how and why audiences respond when they see their first experimental, avant-garde film. What does he imply most audiences expect to see when they go to a movie? What do you expect a movie to do? [Most students will begin with the expectation that a film will tell a story. But prompt them to talk about what they expect to happen in these stories: conflict and resolution? romance? happy endings?]

B) Is there any reason why a film has to tell a story? What else could a film do? What is MacDonald implying that films can also do besides telling stories?

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C) Are there other options for narrative films? Do they all have to have happy endings?

Have you ever been shocked and surprised by an unexpected turn a story takes? What had you expected to happen? How did the decision to thwart your expectations make you feel? What did it make you think?

[As you wrap up this discussion, be sure to stress that narrative filmmakers can upset audience expectations about narrative structure, genre, stars, and directors.]

2) Creating Meaning through the World beyond the Film (Different meanings in different contexts) This exercise demonstrates how the meaning of a detail depends upon the context in which it appears. It emphasizes the importance of linking details to other patterns of development that unfold over the course of a film. This example from Thelma and Louise works really well with this exercise, because most students maintain the broad cultural assumption that links excessive alcohol consumption with irresponsibility and unhappiness . . . an assumption this film flatly contradicts. But the exercise will work with detail taken out of context from just about any film.

Here are lines of dialogue from a film. Two women are talking: Woman 1: “What, are you going to stay drunk all day?”

Woman 2: “Try to.”

A) What do you think we are supposed to feel about the second woman?

B) What is her drinking a sign of?

Instructor Note: This dialogue comes from Thelma and Louise. In the context of the film, Thelma’s insistence on drinking all day is a sign of her growing liberation and vitality, although out of this context students will probably assume that the dialogue is a symptom of a character’s unhappiness or alcoholism.

If you show the entire film: Conduct the above experiment before the screening. Discuss how Thelma’s drinking becomes an important motif that evolves over the course of the film: at the Silver Bullet she comments that Daryl never lets her drink; later she insists on drinking out of airplane bottles to maintain the appearance of decorum; when she robs the convenience store (a sign of her growing independence) she asks for a pint of liquor.

If you don’t show the film in its entirety: Consider showing two scenes: at the Silver Bullet when Thelma complains about never being allowed to have any fun and passing the crude truck driver for the first time, when Thelma utters the above lines.

A) Do you stick by your initial assumption that the character’s dialogue suggests a drinking problem?

B) In these two scenes, do you see how drinking becomes a motif?

C) What changes over the course of these two scenes?

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Instructor Note: Students should notice the drastic change in setting (an important topic in the end of chapter reading for Chapter 5), and they might also point out changes in costuming. Both point to the characters’ sense of growing liberation, not sadness.

Conclude the exercise by stressing the importance of not relying on preconceived ideas as they interpret details. Thoughtful analysis requires audiences to carefully study details in context.

Careful viewers will be aware of the assumptions they bring with them, and recognize how and why a film might challenge these assumptions.]

3) The Orchestration of Detail (Identifying patterns of development) This simple exercise encourages students to discover for themselves how films use repetition to draw attention to important details. Before they have read or you have introduced Chapter 2, screen a film and ask them this simple question: What is the most important non-narrative detail (in other words, a visual or sound detail) in this film?

After the screening concludes, solicit student responses to that question. Make a list on the board. Certainly some of the items will be “throwaway” details, or details that don’t quite demonstrate the point you need to make. But most of the students will pick out important motifs—you will want to focus on these. We would suggest that this first screening should be a film rich with motifs and parallels. Steamboat Bill Jr., Citizen Kane, The Big Heat, Thelma and Louise, Notorious, Rear Window,, The Hangover or Pan’s Labyrinth are all excellent suggestions. After you have made a long list of details, focus your attention on one that seems the most obviously suggestive.

A) What did the filmmakers do to draw your attention to this detail? Why did you notice it?

[At this point, introduce students to the importance of spotting motifs. Also explain how motifs can establish parallels.]

B) [Depending on the motif, ask follow up questions to begin students on the process of interpretation.] Who or what is the motif associated with? When does it appear? Why does it appear at these moments?

C) Does the motif remain consistent, or does it change? [Hopefully the motif evolves with the character. Discuss when and why it changes. Then explain the importance of noticing such significant shifts in detail . . . the importance of noticing structure and turning points.]

Repeat or adapt the above questions for other details students identify. Expect the discussion to be a little formless. The central point you should try to make is that filmmakers orchestrate detail to draw the audience’s attention to the most significant elements in a film. Stress that interpreting a work of art isn’t a mysterious, inaccessible talent. It’s just the opposite, in fact.

The fact that filmmakers use repetition and patterns of development suggests that, in most cases, they want audiences to spot important information.

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4) Creating Meaning through the World beyond the Film (Making sense of references) This discussion introduces students to the various ways a film can reference people, places or things outside the story world. Its emphasis is on helping students learn how to distinguish between mere product placement and references to objects that contribute to a film’s themes.

[Define what an external reference is. Explain that films can reference historical events and cultural attitudes, stars and public figures, other films and works of art, and objects.]

A) The central question to ask yourself upon spotting a reference is, what does this contribute to the film? Does this help develop the film’s central ideas? Does it correspond with other motifs in significant ways?

B) Answering these questions can be especially tricky when the reference in question is a commercial object. Is the product there as part of a paid sponsorship? Or does it function as an important image?

C) [At this point, it might be useful to provide students an example of how a reference can be used in a significant way. At the very least, refer students to the image of the Coke machine from Dr. Strangelove (p. 26). Explain that the plot of the film revolves around the U.S. military trying to recall a rogue bomber that threatens to initiate the nuclear holocaust. Mention that one of the major motifs in the film is the breakdown of communication; characters try to communicate via phone lines and two-way radio, but their words are often misconstrued or ignored. The colonel’s refusal to shoot the Coke machine continues this trend, as he’s reluctant to break into the machine to retrieve coins for a phone call (which could prevent nuclear war) out of deference to a corporation.]

D) If you use the Coke machine example, ask a follow-up question: if you were Kubrick and were paid by Coke to insert the product in an image-friendly way, how would you write the product placement into the screenplay?

We would suggest that you draw attention to at least one reference in the film you teach for this unit.

Other suggestions: Louise’s Thunderbird in Thelma and Louise (which complements Thelma’s preference for Wild Turkey. Both motifs foreshadow the concluding image of the two women literally in flight).

Wedding Crashers makes several pointed references to Washington D.C.’s political culture and monuments to link the characters’ womanizing to broader cultural values. The Washington Monument is an important (and humorously employed) motif.

Oskar in Let the Right One In repeatedly quotes dialogue from violent American films, including Taxi Driver and Deliverance. These references allude to the boy’s barely repressed desire to enact physical vengeance on those who torment him.

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OUT OF CLASS EXERCISES 1) Analyzing structure and turning points Watch this scene from _____________________ and explain its importance as a turning point in the film. Your discussion should consider how the film’s major plotline(s) change(s) direction in this scene, what visual cues signal this change, and how this change helps shape the overall structure of the film. (Feel free to mention other scenes in the film to help you measure the importance of this particular moment).

Instructors: Plug in any scene for this assignment. Suggestions: The prolonged scene in Rear Window when Lisa delivers the note to Thorwald. This scene begins the third act, as Jefferies begins to acknowledge his love for Lisa, and the three would-be detectives become active investigators as they try to solve the murder (Miss Lonelihearts’s plotline takes a dramatic turn here as well.) The scene in The Big Heat when Bannion visits his in-law’s home and discovers that a group of WW II veterans have volunteered to help protect the family. This scene begins the third act, as Bannion begins to trust others and is slowly reintegrated into the community.

The scene in Pan’s Labyrinth when Ofelia goes on her first mission for the faun. This scene marks the first time she willfully disobeys her stepfather, and a number of visual cues emphasize her rejection of his world.

2) Three types of claims After screening __________________________, write three types of claims about the film or a specific scene in the film: a descriptive claim, an interpretive claim and an evaluative claim.

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C

HAPTER 3: WRITING ABOUT FILM

CHAPTER 3 (Writing About Film) LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, students should be able to: 1) recognize and employ five different rhetorical approaches commonly used in making interpretive claims about a single film.

2) write a scene analysis paper.

3) write a film analysis paper, which effectively singles out the most illustrative supporting details from across an entire film.

4) develop a shorthand method for recording visual techniques as they take notes during screenings.

5) recognize and employ three different rhetorical approaches commonly used in making claims involving multiple texts (including more than one film, books, etc.).

6) locate popular and academic articles and reviews from a variety of sources.

7) write a research paper.

8) know where to begin conducting archival research.

9) write a popular review.

CHAPTER 3 (Writing About Film) OVERVIEW ✓ Venues for writing about film are not limited to academic settings and newspapers that print movie reviews. ✓ Maintaining a film journal is an effective way to keep track of your viewing experiences and can be an important tool to help you brainstorm for ideas. ✓ Generate a working thesis before you start to write about a film. ✓ The scene analysis paper is a form of academic writing designed for students to demonstrate that they can read significant details and describe them using the language of film studies. ✓ The film analysis is a form of academic writing designed for students to demonstrate that they can trace an idea over the course of an entire film and support that idea with evidence garnered from narrative, visual, and sound techniques. ✓ The research paper is a form of academic writing designed so that students enter a public dialogue with primary and secondary sources: scholarly books and articles, publicity materials, industry documents, and/or popular journalism. ✓ There are a number of film archives open to scholars conducting research on film. ✓ The popular review is not strictly academic writing. Popular reviews evaluate films by measuring a title against a set of standards. Because popular reviews can address a wide variety of audiences, authors should consider the interests and values of their readers as they evaluate a film.

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CHAPTER 3 (Writing About Film) SUMMARY I. Introduction

T

he proliferation of blogs, zines, and the varied assortment of film-related sites on the

internet, not to mention the continued prevalence of newspaper and magazine reviews, mean that casual and avid film buffs alike now have access to a wide array of film writing on a daily basis.

Reviews, biographies, box office statistics, behind-the-scenes gossip, and production information are all readily available in print and on-line. Even the descriptive blurbs on the back of jewelboxes are examples of film writing.

When instructors ask students to write about film in an academic setting, they expect students to consider how a film (or a group of films) functions as a complex artistic and cultural document, in the hope that students will more fully appreciate the medium’s social significance, artistic potential, and diversity of forms. Writing assignments also prepare students to take their interpretive skills beyond the classroom. The act of writing can transform the spectator from passive fan to actively engaged participant in the dialogue taking place among cinephiles in academia, on the internet, in print media, and in liner notes.

This chapter emphasizes the importance of pursuing the next logical step: getting those ideas down on paper. It begins with a discussion of strategies for preparing to write. Then it explores the four most common genres of writing about film: the scene analysis, the film analysis, the research paper, and the popular review.

II. Getting Started A. Keeping a Film Journal Some film enthusiasts and scholars also find it helpful to keep a screening journal—a cinephile’s version of a diary. A typical journal entry should include the film’s title and important production information: its release date and studio, its director, its cast, and a brief plot summary. Because journals explore an individual’s response to films, entries tend to vary significantly from one film to the next.

Because they document a person’s most (and least) enjoyable experiences at the movies, film journals provide opportunities for personal exploration and creative thinking and writing. Furthermore, keeping a journal helps film students study for exams (by providing detailed information that prods the memory) and generate ideas for papers.

B. Formulating a Thesis Whereas film journals encourage the spontaneous flow of ideas, formal writing demands that authors stay focused on a central, clearly defined argument. Because it articulates a main point in a sentence or two, the thesis statement is the most crucial element in any 18 .

written analysis of a film. Consequently, most writers try to develop a working thesis before they start to write.

The thesis can and will evolve over the course of several viewings of a film. A strong thesis for an academic paper does more than simply stating what would be obvious to anyone who watched the film; it organizes and interprets the information gleaned from analysis. A strong thesis proposes a debatable argument about a film and reveals the writer’s understanding of themes and appreciation of the way cinematic techniques coalesce into a coherent artistic expression.

C. Managing Verb Tense As a general rule, scholars use the present tense when describing a film. The logic behind this convention is that details in a film exist in the present; even though the action in Pan’s Labyrinth unfolds in the 1940s, the film itself is an artifact that exists, unchanging, in the here and now.

There are two common exceptions to this rule. First, if you are comparing two moments in time in a film, refer to early events using the past tense and later events using the present. A second exception occurs when you are discussing details about a film’s production history.

III. Four Types of Writing About Film A. The Scene Analysis Paper The scene analysis is designed to help students identify narrative, visual, and sound elements and to establish the link between minute details and broader patterns of development in a film. With this assignment, the film instructor asks students to analyze one scene from a film carefully, discussing the specific qualities of each individual shot.

The purpose of this assignment is academic, since it requires students to demonstrate that they can read significant details and describe them using the language of film studies. In most cases, evaluative claims are irrelevant in this assignment. Rather, the scene analysis relies heavily on descriptive statements.

The essay below forwards an interpretive claim about a scene from Fritz Lang’s The Big Heat (1953), a particularly brutal film noir.

“The Divided Human Spirit in Fritz Lang’s The Big Heat” Like many examples of film noir, Fritz Lang’s The Big Heat focuses on an urban criminal underworld in order to explore the darker side of human existence. When a bomb meant for Detective Bannion (Glenn Ford) kills his wife instead, Bannion quits the force in a fit of anger and becomes a brooding, increasingly violent vigilante. During the course of his investigation, Bannion finds an unlikely compatriot in Debbie Marsh (Gloria Grahame), a gangster’s moll brutalized and betrayed by her lover, Vince Stone (Lee Marvin). In one critical scene, Debbie commits murder to help Bannion. This scene is especially important because it underscores the duality of human nature.

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Recognizing the scene’s positioning within the film’s overall narrative structure is critical for understanding what motivates Debbie. In a subsequent scene, Bannion tells Debbie about his investigation, complaining that Bertha’s stubbornness has effectively put a halt to his pursuit of justice. At one point he confesses, “I almost killed her an hour ago. I should’ve.” To this Debbie replies, “If you had, there wouldn’t be much difference between you and Vince Stone.” Herein lies the motivation for the scene at hand: Debbie kills Bertha to prevent Bannion from becoming like Vince Stone. In doing so, she redeems herself.

Because of her actions, Bannion rids himself of the anger and resentment festering inside him. In the film’s resolution, he rejoins the police force, no longer needing to stand apart from society’s rules and obligations. Still, the resolution’s optimism is qualified by Debbie’s death during a climactic shootout and complicated by Bannion’s use of violence to seek vengeance. Yes, Debbie and Bannion redeem themselves. But Lang’s film suggests that redemption may be a temporary state of being, because even the most honorable men and women are capable of committing horrific acts when they are pushed far enough.

B. The Film Analysis Like the scene analysis, the film analysis is a form of academic writing. This assignment demands that students trace an idea as it develops over the course of an entire film.

Unlike the scene analysis, the film analysis doesn’t require students to analyze every single shot—otherwise, the paper might be hundreds of pages long. Instead, this assignment requires students to develop a thesis about a film and then isolate passages from the film that illustrate that thesis.

In most cases, evaluative claims are irrelevant or inappropriate for this assignment.

Usually instructors want students to focus on an interpretive claim. As with the scene analysis, the film analysis should utilize the vocabulary of film studies.

This essay explores how Buster Keaton’s Steamboat Bill Jr. links questions about Bill’s masculinity to two important themes: the conflict between father and son and Bill Sr.’s unwillingness to accept change.

“The Anxieties of Modernity in Steamboat Bill Jr.” Buster Keaton’s last great comedy, Steamboat Bill Jr. (1928), might at first glance appear to be a variation on Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet. But in fact, the film is more interested in the troubled relationship between father and son. The film’s primary conflict—and the source of tension between Bill Jr. and his father that also keeps the lovers apart—is Bill Sr.’s fear of modernity. However, by the end of the film, Bill Sr. learns to accept that his son lives in the modern world and to recognize that it has some advantages.

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C. The Research Paper Unlike the scene analysis or the film analysis, whose primary function is to show that the author has mastered the materials in a professor’s course, the research paper is designed to teach students important academic skills. The assignment asks students to read beyond assigned materials to broaden intellectual horizons and generate new ideas; to summarize and synthesize others’ ideas to support their own; to acknowledge perspectives that contradict their own; and to argue against these perspectives with intellectual integrity and respect.

When a professor asks students to write a research paper, she wants them to participate in an ongoing scholarly conversation about the subject matter. The research paper requires the writer to draw ideas from a broad array of materials.

A good research paper does not merely collect and repeat the information contained in these sources.

Topics for research papers vary widely. Scholars can easily incorporate research to help support an argument that uses any of these approaches and those outlined in fig. 3.2.

Figure 3.5 outlines several approaches writers use when they pursue research and synthesize ideas taken from multiple texts (including more than one film, book, article, etc.).

The sample research paper on page 49 discusses the vampire film Let the Right One In (“Låt den rätte komma in”; Tomas Alfredson 2008) within the context of the horror film tradition. It argues that this film’s attitude toward the monster differs from classic depictions of horror.

Notice the sources this essay relies on. The author cites academic journals and books published by university presses, not popular magazines or books published at popular presses. Manuscripts are generally chosen for publication based on their originality and intellectual rigor.

In general, websites receive even less editorial scrutiny than magazines and newspapers.

Much of the web’s original content consists of self-published blogs, fan summaries, or reviews. Consequently, serious scholars should be wary of relying on the web.

A simple litmus test to evaluate the intellectual rigor of a website involves three steps.

First, determine whether or not the website is affiliated with a university, a professional film association, or a reputable press or publication. Second, notice if the source provides details about the professional background of its authors. Third, determine when the website was last updated.

Conducting research is comparable to listening in and joining an ongoing public dialogue. This essay doesn’t just rehash claims others have made about horror. Instead, the author summarizes pertinent points and then develops and adds to them.

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1) The New Vampire as Sympathetic Gothic Heroine In Tomas Alfredson’s Let the Right One In (2008) By Cassandra Pope The introduction begins by using research to help define a particular type of horror film. The rest of the essay measures Let the Right One In against the criteria for classical and postmodern horror films spelled out here.

The Study Notes that accompany the Film Analysis essay in Chapter 2 discussed the importance of gathering evidence drawn from a film to make convincing points. Research papers also gather evidence from films, but supplement this information with material drawn from other sources. The author does not treat this analysis of horror films as an end in itself, nor does she use this research to “fill up space” in her paper. Instead, this quote helps her develop her own ideas about how the monster Eli compares to her predecessors.

When conducting research, writers don’t limit themselves to looking for sources that explicitly discuss the specific film under consideration. Essays that theorize film history, genre, or historical context might all provide fruitful material, which can help interpret your primary source. In fact, here the author goes outside the discipline of Film Studies altogether and uses psychoanalytic theories to help understand characters and settings.

The name and page number in parenthesis is one accepted method for documenting words and ideas taken from other sources. This refers the reader to the “Works Cited” page at the end of the essay. Here readers can find complete bibliographical information. Entries in the Works Cited page are ordered alphabetically by authors’ last names. For more information on citing sources, refer to the Study Notes that accompany the Film Analysis essay in Chapter 6.

When writers quote dialogue from a film (the primary source), they do not need to include an in-text citation or a works cited entry. Such documentation is only required for secondary sources (i.e, published reviews, scholarly essays, and commentary tracks).

2) Conducting archival research The research in the essay above is culled exclusively from published scholarship, or secondary sources. But film scholars also seek out primary sources such as a director’s notes, internal studio memos, contemporary press materials, or private correspondence.

Scholars wanting to do research at an archive should first check its website, for two reasons. First, some materials may be available online. Second, many archives require researchers to make reservations to see materials in advance and do not allow walk-ins.

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Inset Box: Taking Notes After establishing a working thesis, writers should gather details and examples to support the main point. For film scholars, this means watching a movie several times, taking note of how narrative, mise en scène, cinematography, editing, and sound contribute to, complicate, or contradict the ideas associated with the working thesis.

Inset Box: Resources for Film Scholarship Libraries and the Internet now contain a wealth of resources for film scholars. Here is a selective bibliography that includes some of the materials that may prove helpful to begin a research project.

D. The Popular Review Of the genres of film writing that students are commonly asked to read and/or write, the popular review is the one that is not strictly academic. Even the most casual film buffs actively seek out and read popular reviews as they determine which movie they should go see over the weekend.

The primary function of the popular review is to encourage audiences to see a particular film … or to stay away at all costs. At its simplest, the essence of any popular review is one of two evaluative claims: “This is a good movie,” or “this is a bad movie.”

To support a claim, the popular reviewer must measure the film against a set of standards, or criteria. Effective reviewers are conscious of what criteria they use to evaluate films, and they make these criteria clear to their readers. By debating the relative worth of individual films in widely read publications, critics raise their readers’ awareness of film as a serious art form worthy of careful consideration.

The reasons for liking or disliking a film have to be considered carefully. Anyone who has had the experience of liking a film only after a second viewing understands that one cannot always trust an initial response.

While most popular reviews are easier to read than academic papers, they are not necessarily easier to write. Consider the following review of the cult science fiction film District 9 (Neill Blomkamp 2009), written by Scott Foundas. Notice how the review begins by situating the film within the tradition of science fiction and arguing that District 9 is doing something fresh in a well-established genre. These paragraphs establish a central premise Foundas will use throughout his review.

Unlike formal academic writing, journalistic film reviews often feature more playful, informal language.

Finally, notice how Foundas interweaves a wide range of references and information to help his readers imagine a film they very likely haven’t seen yet, and to help develop his evaluative logic.

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“Aliens as Apartheid Metaphor in District 9” Like most reviews, this article begins with a short section that establishes the general tone. Foundas links District 9 to a specific genre and identifies the film’s historical allusions.

As with more formal modes of writing, the review requires the writer to gather “evidence” to describe and comment on the film. In most cases, the film reviewer faces inflexible word count limits, so this detail is used sparingly. Pay attention to how Foundas focuses his attention on the details that help him capture the film’s critique of social oppression, which he alludes to in the opening paragraphs.

Foundas’s review employs a three-part structure common to popular film criticism. The first section pithily evokes the author’s opinion—it sets the mood, so to speak. The second section offers a succinct plot summary—just enough to give the reader an impression of the film without spoiling it. The third section goes into more detail about why the reviewer praises or condemns the film. Foundas begins the third section of his review here. Notice how he pulls various strands of thought together, linking his appreciation of the film’s unusual visual style with its interest in the politics of intergalactic apartheid.

A film critic should be able to pinpoint his criteria for evaluation. What ingredients must a film have to warrant a positive review?

Foundas ends with a paragraph that discusses the film’s relatively miniscule budget. Why does he conclude by hoping Blomkamp gets an even smaller budget for his next film?

How does Foundas manage to connect this discussion of finances to his central focus on District 9’s sophisticated themes?

CHAPTER 3 (Writing About Film) DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1) A film critic writing a popular review should be able to pinpoint his criteria for evaluation.

What ingredients must a film have to warrant a positive review from a popular source such as a magazine? List and discuss these ingredients. How would the criteria for praising a film vary depending upon the primary readership for the magazine? Use a film shown in class to underscore this discussion.

2) Compare two passages from the sample essays in this chapter that describe detail from a film.

One of the passages should be from an academic essay and the other from the review of District 9. How do these passages differ in terms of the language they use to help readers visualize what appears onscreen? How do they differ in terms of what they contribute to each essay’s central argument?

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3) Visit IMDb.com or the Rotten Tomatoes website. Select a film discussed in this chapter and look up the reviews and comments about it on one of those websites. Discuss the range of positive and negative commentary about the film, and whether it is valid and useful for writing about films.

4) Most readers implicitly accept the value of the film review; it’s a genre designed to help viewers make informed decisions about what films to go see, and it gives readers a forum for digesting their own responses to the films they’ve seen. But what’s the intellectual and social value of academic writing about film?

CHAPTER 3 (Writing About Film) LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND IN-CLASS EXERCISES 1) What is a cultural phenomenon?

The table on p. 40 suggests that some strong thesis statements make claims about how a film explores a social phenomenon. Students might not initially grasp the nearly infinite number of possibilities this approach holds. ✓ Ask them to identify cultural phenomena in their community (i.e., on campus). Encourage them to talk about behavior associated with dating, sports, alcohol and drug use, gender relations, musical performance, and academic pursuits. Emphasize that every one of the behaviors is a cultural phenomenon, and that a film about college life could easily investigate any number of these issues. ✓ Have students bring in local movie listings. As a class, discuss what cultural phenomenon some of the films appear to address: attitudes about race? gender? national security? romance? Obviously, much of this discussion will be hypothesis, since students will not have seen most of the films currently playing. Nevertheless, marketing campaigns and movie blurbs will ensure that nearly everyone will have a general sense of what many of the films are about.

2) Description vs. analysis Have students read the sample paper on The Big Heat (pp. 41-43). Encourage them to recognize the difference between summary and analysis by comparing paragraph 1 with paragraphs 2 and 3. ✓ Both paragraph 1 and paragraph 2 describe the plot of the film. What distinguishes these two paragraphs? Do they have a different function in the author’s logical approach? ✓ In paragraph 2, what sentences and/or phrases move the paragraph beyond description to analysis? In other words, how does the author link narrative details to his major interpretive claim? Do the same exercise for paragraph 3. ✓ Paragraph 4 begins to discuss the scene’s visual techniques. Where does it move from description to analysis? What words or phrases indicate that the author is interpreting detail rather than just describing it? ✓ Compare the opening sentences for paragraphs 5 and 9. How are they different? What types of claims does each make? ✓ What is the rhetorical function of the plot summary in the introductory paragraph? Does it merely give readers who haven’t seen the film an overview of the plot, or is it written to help establish the central idea the rest of the paper will explore?

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3) Organizational strategies When students begin to work on film analysis papers, some class time dedicated to helping them develop organizational strategies is always helpful. This exercise asks students to compare paragraph organization in the scene analysis with that found throughout the longer film analysis paper. Emphasize that the scene analysis’s paragraphs are a bit mechanical—emphasizing descriptive claims instead of interpretive ones—whereas the film analysis foregrounds the author’s interpretation by locating central claims in the topic sentence(s) for each paragraph. ✓ Compare the topic sentences in paragraphs 5 and 6 of the scene analysis with paragraphs 2, 3, and 4 in the film analysis. What types of claims does each make? ✓ Where does the author support these claims (made by the topic sentences in the film analysis paper)? ✓ Given the rhetorical purpose of the scene analysis assignment, why is it appropriate that most of the paragraphs begin with a description of each shot? ✓ Ask students to notice how the paragraphs in the film analysis can be clumped together into broader subsections. The author’s argument makes three supporting claims to prove his thesis. What are they? (In the first section, the author discusses how the exposition establishes the central conflict between past and present. In the second section, the author discusses how this conflict is embodied in the tension between father and son. In the third section, the author explains how the film resolves these parallel conflicts).

4) Marketing, popular writing, and academic scholarship Give students three different types of writing about the same film: a publicity or marketing piece, a review, and an academic article. ✓ Describe the differences among each of these pieces. ✓ Who is the audience for each piece? What is the purpose for each piece? ✓ How do the characteristics you described above help each piece address its audience effectively? (You might ask more directed questions, such as: Would an academic audience be as convinced by this person’s ideas had she neglected to include any research? Why do popular reviewers not necessarily need research? If they do use research, why do they not cite it with footnotes? What words or phrases in the publicity piece and/or the popular review are designed to appeal to popular audiences? Would an academic article use these words or phrases? Why or why not?)

As an alternative assignment, consider having students find three different types of writing about the same film: a publicity or marketing piece, a review, and an academic article.

OUT OF CLASS EXERCISES 1) Keeping a film journal At the beginning of the semester, ask students to begin keeping a film journal. Encourage them to make entries for films they see outside of class as well as those screened in your course. Have them begin each entry by listing the main characters and the cast; refer them to imdb.com if the credits scroll by too quickly to record this information. Consider alternating between letting students pursue their own ideas in the journal and asking them more directed questions. As added incentive for students to be detailed in their entries, consider allowing them to refer to their journals during exams.

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2) Writing a thesis After you have concluded a discussion of a film, ask students to write a thesis for that session. In other words, have them write a sentence or two that articulates the main point of the discussion.

Also consider referring them to the table on p. 40 and asking them to identify which rhetorical approach(es) you adopted in the discussion.

3) The scene analysis assignment (sample assignment sheet) Screen the assigned clip from repeatedly, taking note of as much narrative and visual information as possible. Write a short paper (3-6 pages, typed, double-spaced) that analyzes how this information contributes to our understanding of the emotional conflicts and ideas explored in this scene. In short, I want you to evaluate its use of narrative strategies, mise en scene, and cinematography. Use the precise terminology provided by the textbook to describe what you see.

Organization: You should use your introduction to establish the narrative and thematic context for this scene.

Introduce the important ideas that you will discuss in your paper. Don’t give me a plot summary, or waste time defining what mise en scène, cinematography, and editing are. Instead, carefully explain how this scene functions within the overall plot of the film and introduce the interpretive claim(s) that your paper will explore. Make sure your introduction concludes with a carefully articulated thesis statement, which summarizes what your argument(s) will be. Once you have established your basic argument, you should then explore the scene shot by shot; look at all the detail in one shot first, then move on to the next.

Obviously some shots will warrant more attention than others, but make sure that you at least describe the camera’s position and the most basic elements of mise en scène for each shot.

And yes, for this assignment you can begin paragraphs with the phrase, "In the next shot . . . ".

Due date: ______________ at the beginning of class. If you get to class late, do not hand me your papers until the end of the session. If you cannot make it to class on the day the paper is due or if you have printer problems, I will accept electronic copies of your work, as long as I receive it before your class begins.

4) The film analysis assignment (sample assignment sheet) Length: Your paper must be between 8-10 typed, double-spaced pages. Use 10 or 12 point Times font with approximately one inch margins. Remember: 8 is on the short side!

Due date: Last day I will accept and read a rough draft: Assignment: Pick any one of the films on my list and analyze the entire work. This analysis should be developed and organized around a central thesis that makes an interpretive claim. To develop the ideas articulated in your thesis, consider how the movie employs the cinematic techniques we have covered this semester: narrative, mise en scéne, editing, photography, and sound. If you would like, you could focus your entire discussion on just one component of film 27 .

art (e.g., cinematography), as long as this component is not narrative/narration. Do not attempt a shot by shot analysis, or you will have a 100-page paper! Instead, focus on the details from the film that best support your main idea.

Development and organization: After you have watched the film once (or perhaps twice), think of an argument you can make about it. Watching the movie repeatedly before you have found an idea for your paper will be counterproductive. Remember that you can run any ideas by me well in advance to see if you are on the right track.

Once you have an idea in mind, watch the movie again, taking note of specific details that would support your thesis (and don’t be afraid to alter or change your argument if you start to reconsider your original position). When you review your notes, decide which details seem to play the most important role in the development of your idea. You will need to watch the movie at least three times to successfully complete this assignment.

I would encourage you to outline the film according to the major turning points in its development. In this outline, clarify why each of these moments is an important turning point: what changes? Why does it change? How does this moment lead the narrative to its climax and resolution? This outline might help you organize your paper into clearly definable steps and avoid presenting a jumbled list of disconnected ideas or lapsing into plot summary.

Hints: * remember, develop and prove your main point by referring to supporting narrative and visual/aural elements in the film. *have an idea (i.e., a working thesis) before you watch the film a third or fourth time *refer to characters and directors by name. If you need character names or other information about the film's credits, you might refer to imdb.com (the Internet Movie Database). *if you are focusing on one or two components of film form (e.g. editing), do not feel obliged to exclude entirely the other components from your discussion since often all of the components complement one another. For example, a discussion of editing would probably need to mention changes in camera perspective from shot to shot. *use me as a resource. I will gladly discuss ideas you have before you get started, and I will comment on rough drafts. *provide specific examples and analysis of those examples to support your claims. The more examples and analysis the better. Any claims that you make about the film's overall style need to be supported by at least two examples and analysis. *when you use examples, describe when they appear in the film and analyze why they appear at those specific moments. *underline or italicize titles of movies.

Do not plagiarize: Any research (which is by no means encouraged or required) should be documented appropriately. Follow the MLA rules for documentation. Any information, ideas, or words that are not common knowledge (such as character names, actors, directors, etc) taken from a source without giving that source credit will result in an F for the course and potential academic probation. Using ideas taken from the director's commentary on a DVD and any liner notes 28 .

included in the DVD counts as research and must be documented. It is far easier to document sources that you use than to suffer the consequences of being put on academic probation!

What is analysis? Analysis equals interpretation. Present your reader with a thematic interpretation--an argument about the film--and define your position in a thesis statement. Use the rest of your paper to prove your claim, using the evidence offered by the film's style.

Remember, analysis is not plot summary. Describe elements of plot only when you need to help provide context for your claims.

Plot Summary (inappropriate thesis): In Goodfellas, Henry Hill enjoys life in the mob. But eventually he loses his power and prestige.

Evaluative claim (inappropriate thesis): Goodfellas is a brilliant movie that keeps the audience on the edge of its seat, generating excitement with its story of how an ordinary young boy dedicates himself to the gangster’s lifestyle.

Analysis: In Goodfellas, Henry Hill abandons any sense of commitment to family or community when he joins the mob in search of wealth and power. His rapid downfall is the logical conclusion to his self-destructive lifestyle choices: if you participate in a culture motivated only by self-interest, you can’t even trust those closest to you.

5) Summary and analysis of film criticism (sample assignment sheet) Length: 3-5 pages Due date: Topic: Summarize and evaluate two essays written about any one of the films on the course syllabus this semester. One essay should be a review originally published in a popular magazine or newspaper in the year of or following the film’s release. The second essay should be a substantial article from an academic press. This could be an article from an academic journal or a chapter from an academic book.

Purpose: This assignment should help you: 1) develop strategies for doing research in film studies.

2) practice summarizing extended arguments.

3) recognize and appreciate the differences between popular and academic film criticism.

Finding the articles (Instructors: adjust the following advice so that it corresponds with materials available in your library): Probably the best place for you to start is to find the Film Literature Index (FLI) in the reference section of the library. The FLI is a comprehensive bibliography, published annually, of articles written about film and the film industry. Find the volume published the year of (and 1-2 years after) your film’s release; look up the film’s title and you should find a whole list of articles written that year about the film (you can also try looking up the director’s name, or the leading star’s name). Jot down the bibliographical information and then search for the articles using the library’s database. You can use the FLI to find more recent academic essays as well, but if you get stuck consider these two options: try using one of the 29 .

library’s electronic databases (I usually start with "Academic FullTEXT Elite," and ”JStor") or, try to find a book on the film’s director (or genre, or historical period) with a good bibliography.

Be sure that you conduct your search in a variety of fields: by film title, by director's name, by film genre, by "key word," etc.

MAKE PHOTOCOPIES OF THE ESSAYS YOU USE. Organizing your paper: 1) Spend a paragraph or two summarizing the review. Your summary should begin with a sentence that articulates the review's overall response to the film. Then explain how the essay arrives at this position. What qualities does the reviewer value in a film?

2) Next, paraphrase and explain the academic essay’s thesis. Chances are, this thesis will be considerably more complex than the popular review’s, so you might take an entire [short] paragraph to explain the essay’s argument.

3) Spend a few paragraphs explaining how the essay arrives at its main argument. You should try to understand how the essay is organized. Break the argument apart into its major “steps” --that is, emphasize the key points the essay makes in the body of the argument.

4) Spend a paragraph or two considering the strengths and weaknesses of these genres of film criticism in relation to one another. What are the advantages of popular criticism?

Of academic essays? What does each try to accomplish? For whom? *Any direct quotations--entire sentences or phrases--should be put in quotation marks with parenthetical documentation at the end of the sentence. Follow MLA standards.

6) Comparing two popular reviews (sample assignment sheet) Assignment # __ Worth: Due: Length: 500-750 words (2-3 typed pages) Assignment: Compare and contrast the logical approach each review of adopts. To what degree do the reviews agree with one another regarding the overall worth of the film? What reasons justify each verdict? What, if any, evidence does each review provide to illustrate its main point? Do any words or phrases capture the essence of the review’s attitude toward the film?

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C

HAPTER 4: NARRATIVE FORM

CHAPTER 4 (Narrative Form) LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, students should be able to: 1) Distinguish between diegetic and non-diegetic elements.

2) Reconstruct the fabula of a film based on its syuzhet and analyze how the differences between the two affect the audience’s understanding of character and theme.

3) Identify major turning points in a film and analyze how these turning points signal important developments in character and theme.

4) Identify how and when films discard conventions of narrative form and analyze the effects of jettisoning unity, clarity, sympathetic, goal-oriented characters, closure, and/or unobtrusive craftsmanship.

5) Identify a film’s perspective and analyze how changes in perspective within a film shape the way audiences respond to characters and their predicaments.

6) Identify moments of subjectivity in a film and analyze how these moments shape the way audiences respond to characters and their predicaments or contribute to themes, motifs, and ideas.

7) Recognize the importance of taking notes when watching a film and outlining thoughts during the writing process to help organize ideas.

CHAPTER 4 (Narrative Form) OVERVIEW ▪ ▪

▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

The diegesis consists of the world of the story. Non-diegetic elements allow the filmmaker to communicate with the audience directly, rather than through characters or other aspects of the fictional world.

The distinction between the syuzhet and the fabula is critical for understanding the significance of the order and selection of events. The syuzhet contains all represented events whereas the fabula consists of a complete and chronological accounting of all represented and implied events.

Many narrative films conform to a three-act or four part structure. Alternatives to this model include two-part structures, frame/embedded tales, and episodic narratives.

Turning points are moments where significant changes to characters and steps in the plot progression occur.

Some films adopt, and others discard, conventions of classical narrative form, such as unity, clarity, sympathetic, goal-oriented characters, closure, and unobtrusive craftsmanship.

Most narrative films use a combination of restricted and omniscient narration, providing objective and subjective information to viewers. When viewers know more than characters about an event, the knowledge affects their response to the character and may create suspense.

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▪ ▪

Point-of-view shots may or may not align viewers with characters. They may encourage viewers to understand and sympathize with characters, as do character voiceovers and direct address.

Narrative films tend to privilege the perspective of one or two main characters. As they unfold, they may shift between or among characters.

CHAPTER 4 (Narrative Form) SUMMARY I.

Introduction

P

art Two, which begins with Chapter 4, provides readers with the analytical tools

needed to interpret films. These tools include identifying the elements of film art and the terminology that film scholars and filmmakers use to describe film techniques. Part Two also helps readers to develop the skills necessary to write a comprehensive textual analysis.

Part Two also offers several opportunities for readers to build on the writing skills developed in Chapter 3. Film analyses at the end of Chapters 4 through 9 offer examples of film writing and provide useful tips on topics such as logic and organization and incorporating outside research.

Choices regarding how and when to present information contribute to the overall storytelling framework of the film. That organizing framework is called a film’s narrative form. Becoming familiar with the role of narrative as a structuring device allows viewers to grasp character change and development, to recognize parallels and motifs and, most importantly, to synthesize these details to build an interpretation of a film’s themes. Although most feature films are organized according to principles of narrative form, there are other types of films, which are organized differently.

II. Defining Narrative A narrative is an account of a string of events occurring in space and time. Not merely a cluster of random elements, a narrative presents an ordered series of events connected by the logic of cause and effect. Narrative films generally focus on human characters and their struggles.

Characters possess traits, face conflicts, perform actions, and undergo changes that enable or hinder their pursuit of a specific goal. The goal may be concrete or abstract, lofty or banal: in some cases it may be finding love; in others it may be saving humanity or arriving safely at a destination.

Characters encounter obstacles to attaining goals: these obstacles arise from within, from other characters, from non-human characters (in horror and science fiction), and from forces of nature.

They may be concrete physical challenges (scaling a mountain), the actions and desires of others (a lover’s rejection), or internal psychological or emotional issues (fear of commitment). In some cases the characters may not achieve the goal they are pursuing: events, or their own failings, may conspire against them.

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Many narrative films involve characters overcoming obstacles on more than one level.

Filmmakers orchestrate story details in a systematic way to produce a meaningful and enjoyable experience for the audience. They establish and explore characters and their conflicts using the panoply of cinematic techniques available, including dialogue, music, visual effects, locations, costumes, colors, and editing.

A. Framing the Fictional World: Diegetic and Non-Diegetic Elements Narrative films often include elements that exist outside the fictional world of the story— such as the opening or closing credits, or background music. The implied world of the story, including settings, characters, sounds, and events, is the diegesis. Elements that exist outside the diegesis are called non-diegetic or extradiegetic devices. The audience is aware of these non-diegetic components of the film, but the characters, of course, are not.

Filmmakers use non-diegetic elements for several reasons: they may draw attention to aspects of the narrative from a position outside the story, they communicate with the audience directly, and they engage viewers on an emotional level. Most narrative films tell a story by simply showing a sequence of actions, but others include a narrator, who may or may not be one of the characters in the film.

Music may function as a diegetic or a non-diegetic element. Often filmmakers use nondiegetic music (that is, music without a source in the story world) to accompany action or romantic scenes. The music communicates directly to viewers on an emotional level, enhancing the actions depicted.

Non-diegetic narration and music accomplish several things: they frame the diegesis (providing information from a vantage point unavailable within the story world), interrupt the diegesis (distancing viewers or creating humor), and enhance the mood of the diegesis (reinforcing moments of danger or romance).

Inset Box: The Screenplay The process of making a feature film begins with an original or an adapted screenplay, written by a screenwriter, based on fictional events or non-fiction source material.

Screenplays usually go through a number of revisions, modified by script doctors, who are specialists in a particular area, such as dialogue. During pre-production, the director adds information (numbering scenes, determining camera placement, cuts, and sound cues) to produce the shooting script, which is the day-to-day guide the director and cinematographer use during production.

B. Within the Diegesis: Selecting and Organizing Events Feature films typically have a running time, or screen time of between 90 and 180 minutes. But the stories they tell rarely take place in that amount of time. Films do not depict every moment of their characters’ lives; in fact, they omit a great deal. Days, months, or even years may pass in the blink of an eye, or during a fade-out. Simply put, filmmakers choose to present certain events and leave others out. This seemingly obvious principle of storytelling is so important to narrative form that Russian literary theorists created two terms to describe the fact that a writer (or, in this case, a screenwriter) 33 .

transforms a complete, chronological story (the fabula) into an abbreviated, reorganized version of events that plays out on screen for the audience (the syuzhet).

The syuzhet refers to the selection and ordering of the actions explicitly presented on screen. The fabula is the chronological narrative, in its entirety, that implicitly stands behind the events depicted. The significance of the difference between fabula and syuzhet is not simply that events are left out. Instead, the important question is: what is the effect of these choices? Does it change a viewer’s perception of a character or the flow of action that certain events are represented while others are not?

The syuzhet entails more than simply eliminating events from the fabula—it also involves re-ordering events. The syuzhet can begin at any point within the fabula, including the end. Repositioning events influences the way the audience understands them. Fabula events that are omitted from the syuzhet may have a strong bearing on the way the audience interprets the narrative. The syuzhet may also manipulate the frequency of events (how many times an act occurs). The distinction between the fabula and syuzhet makes clear that each event represented in a film has been selected and ordered systematically—there are no accidents.

When analyzing a narrative film, take note of the fabula events that have been left out of the syuzhet, changes in chronology, and events that may occur more than once; they often reveal important aspects of structure, character, and theme.

III. Narrative Structure: A. Classical Three-Act Structure The standard pattern that shapes narrative films is the three-act structure. Act One introduces characters, goals, and conflict(s) and ends with a first turning point, which causes a shift to Act Two. In Act Two, the protagonist meets obstacles, possibly arising from the actions of another central figure who opposes her, called the antagonist. Act Three presents the dénouement, a series of events that resolves the conflicts that have arisen—not always happily.

Film scholar Kristin Thompson has recently argued that both classical and contemporary Hollywood films actually exhibit a four-part structure (fig. 4.3). The parts, which are of roughly equal length, are demarcated by turning points linked to character goals. The main difference between the three-act model and Thompson’s four-part structure is that she locates a critical turning point at the midway point—the “dead center” of the film.

At the beginning of a film, audiences find themselves thrust into a fictional world of characters and actions they cannot fully understand. To help orient viewers at the opening of a film, filmmakers often impart a great deal of information in a relatively short period of screen time.

After noticing important details in the exposition (the very opening of the film, dense with narrative details), scholars should be careful to recognize when characters and their traits undergo important changes, and how these changes correspond to the three- (or 34 .

four-) act structure. Typically, critical transitions between acts are marked by lines of dialogue, changes in setting, or major events that suggest a shift in character or circumstance.

B. Alternatives to Conventional Narrative Structure Not all narrative films conform to a three-act or four-part structure. Remaining attentive to narrative, visual, and sound details that signal turning points makes it possible to discern alternative narrative structures. Even in unconventional narratives, turning points signal structural shifts.

Two-part structure can incorporate turning points and parallels to reveal form and important narrative details. Another variation on structure is the use of frame narration.

This allows for the creation of two distinct diegeses, and there may be complicated interactions between the two.

Another important alternative is the episodic narrative. In episodic narratives, events are not tightly connected in a cause-and-effect sequence and characters do not focus on a single goal. An episodic structure emphasizes the repetition of everyday events rather than the dramatic accumulation of tension toward a moment of crisis. Some episodic narratives conclude without resolving the conflicts; if this is the case, the film is said to be open-ended.

IV. Variations on Narrative Conventions: Beyond Structure There are a number of other ways films resist and rewrite the rules of narrative. The principles of narrative that govern most commercial feature films emerged from the practices and preferences of Hollywood filmmakers in the early part of the twentieth century. Commercial Hollywood studios established a formula for making popular films and refined these rules over several decades.

A number of narrative filmmaking traditions have modified or rejected the rules of the dominant Hollywood method of storytelling. Art films, independent films, non-Western films, and unconventional Hollywood films represent alternatives to the standard form, to the delight of many and the dismay of others. (see pp. 77-78) V.

Perspective and Meaning A. Defining Perspective A narrator can play a crucial role in novels and short stories. By establishing a position or angle of vision on the story events—a perspective—the narrator determines whether the reader has access to the same information that characters possess. Stories narrated in the first person use the pronoun “I” and limit readers to a single character’s knowledge and understanding of events. Third-person narration conveys the story from a position outside any single character’s experiences.

Films treat narration differently. Although characters occasionally address the audience using the first person “I” in a voice-over, films rarely use a first-person narration throughout an entire film. Most films employ a system of restricted narration, which 35 .

conveys external events as well as the knowledge, thoughts, and feelings of one or two major characters without the intervention of an explicit narrator. Within an overall framework of restricted narration, directors sometimes provide viewers with information that main characters do not possess. These selective moments of omniscience—where viewers gain more knowledge than major characters—usually occur in scenes that do not include the protagonist(s). Filmmakers may shift away from restricted narration to omniscience within a film for several reasons.

B. Character Subjectivity “Point of view” is a term sometimes used in a literary context to describe the overall system of narration in a novel, poem, or short story. But in film, the term designates a very specific and limited use of camera to indicate perspective. A point-of-view shot occurs when the audience temporarily shares the visual perspective of a character or a group of characters.

Point-of-view shots do not necessarily result in the audience understanding or sympathizing with a character. Point-of-view shots can, but don’t always, align viewers with characters. They help to explain the way characters experience the world, validate characters’ interpretations of events, and provide information about motivation.

Diegetic sound techniques such as voice-over narration or a character’s direct address to the camera can be used to place audiences more firmly within a character’s subjectivity.

Sound may also align viewers with a character at a less conscious level than point-ofview shots.

Figure 4.19 summarizes the elements of narrative form covered in this chapter. Like all narrative art forms, narrative films depend on characters, conflicts, and cause-and-effect logic. Unlike stories, novels and plays, films uniquely depend on sound and visual elements to establish place and time, develop characters, suggest ideas, and create mood.

Techniques in Practice: Noticing Shifts in Perspective (Psycho) Some films, such as Hitchcock’s Psycho, contain significant shifts in narration. These shifts do not necessarily move in a single direction, from restricted to omniscient or vice versa. Throughout a film like Psycho, moments of omniscience may reveal an important piece of information, after which the narration will return to a restricted level.

Consider the scenes with Marion Crane (Janet Leigh) where Hitchcock allows viewers to share Marion’s subjectivity, but then she suddenly dies; a totally unexpected development. Although Marion’s death is quite shocking, the shift to a more omniscient narration that allows viewers to continue to share in the story line occurs several scenes before the infamous shower scene where Marion dies. In fact, the camera begins to acknowledge Norman Bates’s (Anthony Perkins) point of view in scenes where Marion does not appear. When Norman reads Marion’s pseudonym in the hotel register, the audience shares his point of view and understands that Norman knows Marion lied to him.

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After Marion’s death, when Norman hides the evidence, point of view shots may evoke audience sympathy for him. The scene alternates between point of view shots that align the audience with Norman as he watches Marion’s car stubbornly refusing to sink in the pond.

In this section of the film, the audience is treated to a restricted narration that limits our knowledge of events to what Norman experiences. However, the remainder of the film moves toward greater omniscience and departs from this exclusive focus on Norman to incorporate the thoughts and actions of the other remaining characters as they search for Marion and encounter Norman. By this point, the film’s shifting narration has encouraged viewers to accept some dramatic shifts in character alignment.

To close the film with a twist, Hitchcock makes masterful use of a narration that may seem fully omniscient, but in fact is not. He prevents the audience from learning one critical aspect of Norman’s story—the true nature of his relationship with his mother— until the end of the film.

VI.

Analyzing Narrative Structure: The Narrative Complexity of Slumdog Millionaire (Danny Boyle and Loveleen Tandan 2008) According to the author, even though Slumdog was adapted from the novel Q&A by Indian writer Vikas Swaroop, was set in Mumbai, and is organized by a flashback structure, its narrative system conforms to that of a traditional Hollywood film.

Before beginning any type of writing project, it’s a good idea to make an outline. An outline is a blueprint: it contains your main idea and lays out a logical progression for the ideas that support that main point. Use this process to begin to sketch out specific details from the film to use as examples to illustrate and develop your claims. Remain flexible to new ideas at this stage of the process: you may need to reconsider, eliminate, or reorder your ideas and examples to achieve clarity and coherence.

The sample outline used to organize the essay on Slumdog Millionaire identifies the thesis statement and establishes this writer’s organizational logic. Be aware that there is no set formula for organizing an essay: in fact, writers often outline more than one approach and then eliminate those that fail to come together. The structure of an essay depends upon what the writer believes to be the most important assertions; how she connects those ideas to details from the film (and to other concepts); and how she organizes sentences and paragraphs so that each claim is fully developed. An essay should build a meaningful argument, not simply list loosely connected observations about the film.

CHAPTER 4 (Narrative Form) DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1) Discuss the origins of the syuzhet and the fabula. From what art form(s) were they derived? How and why do they easily transfer to filmmaking?

2) Why is identifying turning points and articulating a film’s narrative structure (in three acts, or using Thompson’s four part model) an important step in analyzing film? What 37 .

does breaking a film apart into acts help film scholars understand about character and theme?

3) What is restricted narration? How does it affect the audience’s response to a film? How do directors manipulate emotional and intellectual reactions by selectively using restricted and/or omniscient narration?

CHAPTER 4 (Narrative Form) LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND DISCUSSION TOPICS 1) Is this a narrative?

Ask students if the following scenario is a story: A man goes to the store to buy groceries. He purchases a jar of Ovaltine.

(Hopefully) Students will recognize that this is a scenario, but not a story. Ask them what’s missing. What could be included to transform this information into a story? See if the class can identify the following missing elements: ✓ a central conflict ✓ character traits that make this character distinct ✓ an obstacle that prevents him from achieving his goal and threatens his sense of stability ✓ character development—a change that helps him accomplish his task ✓ the restoration of equilibrium 2) Why is it important to distinguish between diegetic and non-diegetic elements?

Play for students excerpts of two or three films that employ voice-over narration. At least one should be an example of a non-diegetic voice-over (e.g. The Royal Tenenbaums) and at least one should be diegetic (e.g., Avatar). Ask students the following questions: ✓ Which of these narrators is diegetic? ✓ Is there a difference between the kind of information we get from the diegetic voiceover and the kind we get from the non-diegetic voice-over? [Encourage students to see that the diegetic narration allows audiences access to the character’s internal space.] ✓ Is there a difference in the degree of authority between diegetic and non-diegetic voice-overs? [Encourage students to see that a diegetic narrator doesn’t necessarily have a firm understanding of the events taking place; the information she relates may be limited. It could be worthwhile comparing narration by a relatively knowledgeable character, such as Karen in Goodfellas, with that of a relatively naïve character, such as Holly in Badlands. See Ch. 8, p. 243.]

Alternatively, try a similar exercise with music. Demonstrate how non-diegetic music directly addresses the audience; that is, it functions as a kind of authorial commentary on the action onscreen. But when a character listens to a song on the radio or enters a bar with a live band, that music emanates from her world—it reflects her tastes and/or establishes the nature of her environment.

3) Why is it important to notice turning points?

After screening a film, guide the class through a discussion of the first act. What character traits are established? What goals are established? What obstacles might stand in the way of the characters achieving these goals? When does the first act end? Do any visual or sound cues draw attention to this change? Then ask students to identify the next major turning point in the narrative on their own. How did they recognize this dramatic shift? Does the character’s 38 .

approach to achieving his goals change in any way, or do the goals change? What motivates this change? Do any cues draw attention to this change?

Finally, ask students to discuss why noticing these turning points helps them to appreciate how and why the characters evolve (or fail to evolve) in their attempt to achieve their goals. What kinds of changes occur for the narrative to arrive at its resolution?

4) Do films that lack conventional narrative structure have turning points?

In a semester-long course where time is limited, one time-effective way of demonstrating different approaches to narrative structure is to show two or three short films. One film should be a classical narrative that follows the three-act structure Gunnar Vikene’s The Cinema Ticket works well, as it has a very clearly delineated plot (a boy wants to earn enough money to buy a ticket to a movie) and it’s only 15 minutes long. Ask students these questions: ✓ Who is the protagonist? ✓ What is his main goal? ✓ What obstacles stand in his way? Is there an antagonist? ✓ How does the main character go about achieving his goals? ✓ Are there turning points where the main character must alter his approach to achieving his goals? ✓ Identify the three acts of the film. Can it be broken down into four parts?

Follow this screening with a short film that doesn’t have a conventional narrative. Charles Stone’s true is a useful example since it has not “plot” to speak of: the entire film consists of a handful of characters saying “What’s up?” to one another on the telephone. Yet it still has a clearly defined three-act structure. The turning points are delineated by a change in the tone of voice. Ask students these questions: ✓ Is there a protagonist? ✓ Does s/he have a clearly defined goal? Does s/he face clearly defined obstacles? If not, what aspect of the character’s personality or predicament gets emphasized? What is most notable about the character? ✓ Does the character change? Come to a moment of realization? Grow emotionally? ✓ [Ask students to identify at least one way the film departs from the classical narrative model] Note: The Cinema Ticket and true are both available on volume 8 of the Short series (Warner Bros.)

François Truffaut’s Les Mistons and Lynne Ramsay’s Small Deaths (available on Criterion’s Ratcatcher DVD) also work well, especially when paired with The Cinema Ticket, since all three are stories about youth. Les Mistons and Small Deaths abandon classical narrative to evoke the psychological experience of moving from childhood to adulthood. These films might be contrasted with a classically structured feature depicting a character’s coming of age, such as To Kill a Mockingbird, Whale Rider, Happy Feet, or True Grit.

5) Rearranging chronological order Try to screen a film that makes use of flashbacks and/or flashforwards. Citizen Kane is an obvious example. Others include Stage Fright, Casablanca, The Wild Bunch, Walkabout, Edward Scissorhands, Jackie Brown, Eve’s Bayou, The Usual Suspects, Smoke Signals, The 39 .

Sweet Hereafter, The Prestige, Flags of Our Fathers Memento, Batman Begins, Slumdog Millionaire or The Hangover, to name a few..

Encourage students to consider how the reorganization of time shapes the audience’s response: ✓ Does the flashback reveal any important information about a character or characters? ✓ When does the flashback occur? Why does it occur at this point? Would our response to characters and their situations have been different had the flashback appeared earlier in the film? ✓ Is the flashback told from a particular perspective? Is this perspective trustworthy? Does the film provide any cues to emphasize the subjectivity of this perspective? ✓ If we see the same events twice, thanks to a flashback, does our perception of the event change the second time we see it? Does the repetition complicate our initial response?

6) Changing perspective, changing responses Show the scene in Psycho where Marion listens from her motel room to Norman argue with Mother. Ask students the following questions: A) Is the perspective at this point restricted third person or omniscient?

B) Why is it important to restrict the audience’s information to what Marion knows at this point? How does withholding information contribute to the film’s suspense, especially its surprise revelation during the climax of the film?

C) If the film were to adopt an omniscient perspective at this point, what would it have shown?

D) Would making this sequence omniscient have eliminated all of the film’s suspense, or would it have just changed its nature? Would the film have been scarier if Hitchcock had established the secret of Mother’s identity early on?

Obviously, if you don’t screen Psycho in your class you can modify this exercise to work with any film. The key point is to encourage students to discuss how perspective shapes the way they respond to events onscreen. A useful alternative might be showing a chase scene in a thriller like Casino Royale and one from a horror film like The Descent. Both depict characters fleeing the threat of violent retribution, but do they encourage the same emotional response from the audience? Class discussion of differences in perspective should reveal that horror films make more use of restricted narration (to produce anxiety and shock) whereas thrillers make more use of omniscient narration (to produce excitement). In general, the use of the first-person perspective in “slasher” horror films is a narrative technique students will be familiar with. What is the effect of withholding information about the killer while allowing audiences to adopt his/her perspective?

OUT OF CLASS EXERCISES 1) Creating a narrative Ask students to develop the scenario described in Lecture Launcher #1 above into a story and then write a one-page treatment that includes description, named characters, and dialogue.

2) Shaping the syuzhet.

Give students this list of fabula events: 1. A local high school student goes grocery shopping at the local Sav-A-Dime shopping center for her mom. Unbeknownst to the student, her name is automatically entered into a drawing for prizes.

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2. Weeks later the same student buys a stack of recordable compact discs on her way to school.

3. Two representatives from the Sav-A-Dime draw the student’s name out of a box. Apparently she has won a year’s supply of recordable compact discs.

4. In her 6th period philosophy class, the teacher leads a debate on the ethics of illegally downloading music from the internet. The student, tired after eating a heavy lunch, falls asleep in the middle of class and dreams of becoming a recording artist.

5. The bell rings, and the student runs to her car so she can beat the traffic out of the school parking lot.

6. The student meets friends at the local coffee shop for an after school snack.

7. The student begins her homework, but is distracted by a call from her best friend.

8. She begins downloading music.

9. Looking out her bedroom window while her disc is still burning, the student spots two men in suit and ties walking up to her front door. She panics, thinking that the men are lawyers representing the music industry, ready to confront her about her illegal music sharing.

10. The girl’s mother answers the men’s knock, and they proceed to “interrogate” the mother regarding the whereabouts of her daughter. The young girl overhears them and her worst fears seem to be confirmed. Desperate, she runs for the window and climbs out.

11. At the same moment, the two men spot her hasty exit and stop her, excitedly informing the terrified student of her prize.

Ask students to design the syuzhet based on these fabula events. Students can leave out any scenes and arrange them in any order, but they should be ready to explain each of their decisions.

Why would they show the action included in the syuzhet? How would the events be arranged, and why would they be arranged this way?

3) Identifying changes in perspective and subjectivity Ask students to note five changes in perspective in a film screened in class. They should be prepared to discuss the dramatic logic of these changes. Alternatively, ask students to identify and analyze five examples of character subjectivity in a film. You might also consider a film like Zhang Yimou’s Hero. In the frame narration, is the audience aligned with the emperor or warrior who comes to kill him? How does the conclusion build on the technique of shared or multiple perspectives?

4) Envisioning alternative perspectives Ask students to draw crude storyboards or to describe, shot by shot, a scene from a film screened in class as it would be shot from another perspective. For example, ask students to re-design the climactic rescue scene in Notorious so that the information onscreen is restricted to Alex’s perspective.

5) Writing exercise Ask students to read the analysis of mise en scène in Thelma and Louise at the end of Chapter 5.

Have them write an outline of the short essay, using the outline on p. 86 as a model. Students should identify a thesis, the major points that support this argument, and the supporting detail.

You might encourage them to see that the outline effectively establishes a hierarchy of information, drawing a distinction between major claims and evidence.

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C

HAPTER 5: MISE EN SCÈNE

CHAPTER 5 (Mise en Scène) LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, students should be able to: 1) List the essential elements of mise en scène.

2) Describe visual attributes of setting and analyze how films use setting as an expressive element.

3) Describe visual attributes of the human figure and analyze how films use the human figure as an expressive element.

4) Describe the three attributes of light and analyze how films employ different lighting schemes to evoke a variety of emotional and intellectual responses.

5) Describe six attributes of composition and analyze how a filmmaker’s treatment of composition may reiterate underlying themes and ideas, or produce a striking visual effect.

6) Recognize and analyze the differences between expressionist uses of mise en scène and French Poetic Realism’s use of mise en scène.

7) Write more convincingly about films by supporting interpretive claims with detailed descriptive claims.

CHAPTER 5 (Mise en Scène) OVERVIEW ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

▪ ▪

Mise en scène (setting the scene or staging the action) is an integrated design program that establishes the “look” of a film.

The setting refers to the location of the action, which can be filmed on location or artificially constructed on a soundstage. Sets can be digitally enhanced. The spatial attributes of settings contribute meaning, often by developing characters and their conflicts.

The human figure encompasses actors, including casting, acting style, figure placement and movement, and costumes, props and makeup.

Lighting can affect not only the look but also the mood of a film. Hollywood’s standard three-point lighting produces bright images with minimal shadows, whereas the low-key lighting characteristic of film noir makes use of shadows and contrast to convey intrigue and danger. The dramatic low-key lighting schemes often used in horror films contribute to the audience’s feelings of shock and unease.

Composition is the art of using graphic elements such as balance, line, foreground and background, light and dark, and color to convey information, emotions, and meaning.

German Expressionism and French Poetic Realism are different film styles that each depend on a distinctive mise en scène.

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CHAPTER 5 (Mise en Scène) SUMMARY I.

Introduction

T

his chapter explores the way filmmakers carefully orchestrate visual details such as

these to develop characters, support themes, and create mood. An integrated design program called mise en scène, has four major components: setting, the human figure, lighting, and composition. It then looks at two specific styles of mise en scène: that associated with German Expressionist cinema of the 1920s and the French style of the 1930s known as Poetic Realism.

These distinctive approaches suggest different ways that mise en scène creates fictional worlds that viewers find compelling.

The term mise en scène (pronounced “meez ahn sen”) originated in the theater and literally means staging a scene through the artful arrangement of actors, scenery, lighting, and props— everything that the audience sees. Each element of the mise en scène—the setting, the human figure, lighting, and composition—influences the viewer’s experience of the story, characters, space, and time. Filmmakers use details in a systematic manner not only to create a world on screen, but also to indicate character development, present motifs, amplify themes, and establish mood.

Inset Box: Designing the Look of the Film The mise en scène is determined during pre-production and production and involves the work of many people. The production designer’s careful planning contributes greatly to the coherence of the mise en scène. The director and production designer make decisions about how the story world will look well before principal photography begins. A team of people, from the director down to the property master, contribute to the creation of the mise en scène.

II. Setting Setting refers to the places where the film’s action unfolds. These places may be general or specific locations, real or imaginary places. Constructing a set provides filmmakers with the maximum degree of control over their shooting environment. On an indoor set, directors and cinematographers do not have to contend with bad weather, noise, and unreliable lighting conditions. These are precisely the conditions that pose challenges to documentary filmmakers.

In an indoor set, a technique may be used known as forced perspective: filmmakers construct and arrange buildings and objects on the set so that they diminish in size dramatically from foreground to background.

Most commercial films today contain scenes shot on location. Locations may contain recognizable physical landmarks. Whether shooting on a soundstage or on location, filmmakers may carefully craft a recognizable story world. They can make reference to familiar, human-made objects to convey the significance of place.

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Filmmakers also use computer-generated imagery (CGI) to create settings. Deciding whether to construct sets, to use locations, and/or to take advantage of newer computer technologies is part of the creative challenge of filmmaking. These decisions also relate to the business of filmmaking, as location shooting is often complex, time-consuming, unpredictable, and more expensive than shooting on a set.

A. Describing Setting: Visual and Spatial Attributes The visual characteristics of a setting evoke responses from the audience. Do events take place inside buildings or outdoors? Are settings living spaces, work places, or public spaces? Are they spacious or cramped, sunny and bright, or dim and shadowy? Are they full of bits and pieces or empty? The context for interpretation includes the actions taking place there as well as the way the setting relates to other settings used throughout the film.

The director or location scout chooses particular spaces for their visual and spatial attributes. Those qualities inevitably transmit cultural meanings as well as emotional implications. Settings need not be ornately decorated or breathtakingly beautiful to offer insight into the lives of characters.

B. The Functions of Setting The primary functions of setting are to establish time and place, to introduce ideas and themes, and to create mood. Certain genres are linked to settings and time periods.

Westerns are set in the American West in the late nineteenth century, whereas gangster films typically take place in a modern, urban environment. Other genres, such as romantic comedies, are less dependent on geography or historical period.

As with any element of filmmaking, directors sometimes choose to use settings that work against expectations. Settings need not refer to existing locations or actual historical periods: instead they may evoke a generic sense of place or stand for implicit ideas.

Settings help to determine the mood of a scene or an entire film. Settings also offer opportunities for creating motifs.

C. Techniques in Practice: Same Film, Different Settings (Full Metal Jacket) The significance of any setting derives not only from its visual and spatial qualities, but also from the way it functions in relation to other settings in the film. In Full Metal Jacket, the dramatic contrast between the film’s two primary settings generates ideas and develops themes. In the first section, the structural barrack columns look rigid, upright, and homogeneous—mirroring the appearance of the two lines of men standing in front of them, all wearing identical white underwear (fig. 5.8). This physical parallel compares the men with architecture and suggests at least two ideas. The first is that these men form the structural support of the entire military organization. A second idea hints at the purpose of the rigorous and dehumanizing training: like the blank, faceless columns, the men must sacrifice their individuality to become marines.

This ordered setting contrasts sharply with the settings in Vietnam. The latter suggest the breakdown of military discipline and social order. the men are neither geometrical nor 44 .

precise: they amble in ragged clusters, moving haphazardly, not in straight lines (fig. 5.9).

The frame is full of diverse objects arranged in a random fashion. The changing mise en scène reflects and enhances the shifts between order and chaos.

After the battle, the film’s final scene shows the soldiers marching toward the river. They are not in perfect geometric formation, but they are moving in an orderly way in the same direction (fig. 5.10). The sense of a temporary restoration of order comes not only from the voice-over and cessation of combat, but also from a mise en scène that subtly reintroduces some visual attributes from the first half of the film.

D. Techniques in Practice: Same Setting, Different Films (The Piano, Bhaji on the Beach, The 400 Blows, and Black Girl) Interpreting setting depends on careful consideration of the context in which a setting appears. Ideas and feelings that viewers associate with a setting in the abstract may not apply to any specific film’s use of that setting. One setting can achieve different effects depending on its context. For example, the beach may spur associations of lightheartedness, leisure, and freedom. But the significance of that environment in a film depends on the way it functions in the narrative and relates to other visual and sound elements in the film. Beach settings have played important yet very different roles in many films.

In The Piano, the beach represents, among other things, the intense pleasure of creative self-expression. Bhaji on the Beach also features a beach setting. Here the beach is not a space of vast, wild, unspoiled beauty as it is in The Piano; alongside expanses of sand, fast food restaurants and a strip club appear. The women exhibit various levels of comfort with the informality of the beach and its tourist attractions, highlighting the theme of the generational and cultural differences that divide the women.

The final scene of The 400 Blows finds the troubled young protagonist, Antoine Doinel, running from a juvenile detention center to the beach. The setting seems incongruous after the urban streets that have served as the character’s usual environment. The beach does not promise the unfettered freedom conventionally associated with that setting.

Instead, the slowness of Antoine’s movements and a final freeze frame render the scene ambiguous. The uncertainty of the final moment on the beach contributes to the film’s non-traditional narrative structure.

In Black Girl, only the privileged are permitted to frolic on the beach; their servants remain inside. The scene of the beach highlights Diouana’s exploitation and her invisibility.

In these examples, beach settings produce meaning within a specific context. In Black Girl, the beach represents a dead end rather than a site of transcendence, as it seems to be for Ada in The Piano. In Black Girl and Bhaji on the Beach, the beach setting highlights cultural conflicts. In The 400 Blows, the beach setting and the freeze frame raise more questions about where Antoine is headed than they answer.

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II. The Human Figure Actors’ performances contribute a great deal to a film’s meaning. Most narrative feature films tell stories about human beings and the conflicts they face. Casting (the selection of actors), acting style, and the placement and movement of figures influence the viewer’s response to fictional characters, their strengths and weaknesses, and their hopes and fears.

A. Casting Choosing actors is one of the most important decisions a director can make. Usually a casting director organizes auditions, but “A-list” actors are generally cast without the indignity of an audition. Well-known stars can earn more than $20 million per film. In recent years, studios have moved from these astronomical salaries to a system called cash break zero, where stars earn smaller salaries up front, but share in the profits studios make after they break even on a film.

Filmmakers may be limited in their casting choices for commercial reasons. The practice of typecasting—repeatedly casting an actor in the same kind of role—offers benefits to stars and studios. Stars sometimes prefer roles that will play to their strengths and reinforce their image. Sometimes actors deliberately choose roles that work against type.

This can be a risky proposition, since fans may refuse to accept this shift from their familiar frame of reference. This is not to say that actors are incapable of moving beyond typecasting, but that commercial considerations may limit their opportunities to do so.

B. Acting Style Actors may bring a public image and traces of their previous roles to each new character they play, but they also bring training in a particular acting style. In early cinema, stage acting techniques influenced film acting and a highly emotive, almost pantomime style prevailed. In silent films, exaggerated facial and bodily expressions were the primary means of conveying the story. In contemporary film, actors are more likely to subdue their expressiveness, as they know they can depend upon sound and visual technologies to capture the nuances of their performances.

Film scholar Barry King identifies several categories of actors, based on the way their performances are perceived by audiences: Impersonation, personification, technical acting and method acting.

Actors’ performances also depend on the narrative: protagonists are presented in lead roles; their sidekicks, friends, and other lesser personages are played out in supporting roles. Character actors often play the same supporting roles in many films, but they generally do not achieve the widespread recognition enjoyed by lead actors. Extras are hired to appear anonymously, often in crowd scenes (although computer graphics also allow special effects technicians to create crowd scenes in post-production). Cameos are brief appearances by well-known actors playing themselves. Ensemble acting is based on an equitable distribution of the work and the glory.

C. Acting Brechtian: Distancing the Audience An actor’s skill in bringing a character to life—his ability to make audience members believe in the character—is essential to involving viewers in a realist film. But some 46 .

filmmakers reject the conventions of realism. Some directors have explored the film medium as a process of representation. Uninterested in the psychological believability of characters, they draw on German dramatist Bertolt Brecht’s ideas about acting, which emphasize the artifice, not the authenticity, of performance. Brecht’s Epic Theater was an attempt to stimulate the audience’s critical thought processes, as well as their emotions, by calling attention to the aesthetic and political frameworks that produce stories and characters. Brechtian distanciation refers to the destruction of the theatrical illusion for the purpose of eliciting an intellectual response in the audience.

D. Actors’ Bodies: Figure Placement In rehearsal, directors work with the actors to block the action, establishing movements that change their physical relationships with other actors and with the camera. Figure placement and movement—what audiences see on screen—can produce artful compositions, provide information about characters and their relationships, develop motifs, and reinforce themes.

Directors treat actors’ bodies as elements of the visual field. Figures who tower over other characters, for example, may dominate them in some other way in the film, whereas characters who meet each other on the same physical level (high/low) and plane of depth (foreground/background) may exhibit a more equitable relationship. Characters who occupy the foreground gain visual prominence through their apparent proximity to the viewer. They may assume a greater narrative importance as well.

Techniques in Practice: Figure Placement in Citizen Kane A scene in Citizen Kane illustrates the way the careful positioning of actors produces meaning. In the Colorado boarding house scene, characters are positioned in ways that provide insight into their relationships and suggest Charles Foster Kane’s motivations later in his life. The prominence of Mary Kane underlines her position of authority. She makes the decision to send her son Charles away to grow up as Thatcher’s ward, believing that she is acting in his best interests.

Useful comparisons can be made between the figure placement in the two parts of the scene. The interplay between Mary, Thatcher, Jim and Charles and their physical positions in the settings’ space and relationship with the physical space inside the room and out, convey important narrative and interpretive details for the viewer.

E. Actors’ Bodies: Costumes and Props Costumes provide information about time and place, but, more importantly, they express social milieu and personal style. Costumes cannot be simply taken at face value, but must be interpreted in the context of the film. Clothing is a highly personal matter. Characters wear their clothes on their bodies; they are literally attached to their wardrobe. Finally, clothing (and the lack thereof) carries cultural implications. Like costumes, props establish character and hint at change and development. Props are moveable objects owned or used by characters and range from automobiles to a child’s teddy bear. The 47 .

degree of narrative or symbolic importance of props varies. Some props are purely functional and do not enrich the exploration of character or contribute to a motif. But sometimes a prop holds tremendous importance and may embody or reinforce a film’s themes.

F. Actors’ Bodies: Makeup Makeup and hairstyles establish time period, reveal character traits, and signal changes in characters. Makeup was used in early cinema simply to make actors’ faces visible. But improvements in film stock and lighting mean that makeup is now used to enhance or minimize an actor’s prominent features or to simulate youth or advanced age. Makeup and prostheses (three-dimensional makeup that is attached to actors’ faces and bodies) can alter an actor’s appearance so that he or she resembles a historical figure, enhancing a film’s claim to historical accuracy.

Makeup and prostheses may produce comical or frightening effects. Horror film monsters and science fiction creatures pose great challenges for makeup artists and costume designers. Digital effects that are added in post-production also modify an actor’s appearance. Images of actors may be altered in a variety of ways using computer graphics programs.

As the brief discussion of acting and the human body makes clear, playing a part requires an actor to transform himself. In a way, actors are shape shifters, losing their identities to the characters they portray.

III. Lighting Light is an essential requirement of filmmaking. Without light entering the camera lens, no image would be recorded. Lighting is an element of mise en scène because it illuminates the set and the actors and can be used to create certain moods and effects. But it is also related to issues of cinematography, since film stock, lenses and filters, and processing techniques all affect the look of a film. Lighting furthers the audience’s understanding of characters, underscores particular actions, develops themes, and establishes mood.

Light exhibits three attributes: quality (hard or soft), placement (the direction from which the light strikes the subject), and contrast (high or low). Skilled Hollywood cinematographers produce flattering renderings of stars by taking special care with the quality and the positioning of light sources. Available light (or natural light) from the sun can be hard or soft, depending on time of day, time of year, angle of the sun, cloud cover, and geographical location. The direction of light (or positioning of lighting sources) also produces a variety of different effects.

Most filmmakers supplement natural lighting with artificial light for greater control over the illumination of the image.

In the Hollywood studio era, a system of lighting was developed that would allow cinematographers to do just that. Three-point lighting (key, fill and back lights) has remained a standard approach to lighting. The method is designed to ensure the appropriate level of illumination and to eliminate shadows (fig. 5.35). In addition to these three sources of light, eye lights are aimed directly into the eyes of an actor to produce a gleam in the eye (fig. 5.37). These are also called obie lights, named for Merle Oberon, the actress for whom they were developed.

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Side lights or kicker lights model the subject in three dimensions by illuminating it from either side.

Image contrast—one of the most important factors in establishing mood—depends on the relative intensity of the key light to the fill light (key/fill), also known as the lighting ratio. Highkey lighting refers to a lighting design in which the key to fill ratio is 2:1 or lower. Natural-key lighting (or normal lighting) is produced with a ratio of key to fill light between 4:1 and 8:1.

Low-key lighting is produced by increasing the intensity of the key light relative to the fill. In low-key lighting, the lighting ratio (key/fill) is between 16:1 and 32:1. Notice that the terminology of high- and low-key lighting is counterintuitive: a higher ratio of key to fill is in fact a low-key lighting set up.

IV. Composition The last aspect of mise en scène examined in this chapter is composition, defined as the visual arrangement of the objects, actors, and space within the frame. A filmmaker’s treatment of composition may reiterate underlying themes and ideas, and may also produce a striking visual effect.

A. Balance and Symmetry The space of the frame can be thought of as a two-dimensional space, where principles of visual art can be brought to bear. One important principle is to ensure there is balance or symmetry within the frame. The frame can be partitioned horizontally, on a left–right axis, and vertically, from top to bottom. A balanced composition has an equitable distribution of bright and dark areas, striking colors, objects and/or figures. In classical Hollywood films, symmetry was often achieved by centering actors in the shot (see fig.

5.42). By contrast, an unbalanced composition leads the viewer’s eye in a particular direction by giving greater emphasis to a bright or dark area of the frame, to an object or actor, or to an area of color. Asymmetry may suggest a lack of equilibrium, but, as with all aspects of mise en scène, the composition must be interpreted in context.

B. Lines and Diagonals Graphic elements such as lines play a role in composition. The human eye tends to respond to diagonal lines, vertical lines, and horizontal lines in decreasing degrees of emphasis. All three may be used as compositional elements, but a diagonal line carries the most visual weight.

When directors place actors in the frame, they make choices regarding the way those actors’ bodies will be situated in space. Loose framing refers to shots in which figures have a great deal of open space around them—this may suggest freedom or isolation.

Tight framing describes an image in which the lack of space around the subject contributes to a sense of constriction.

C. Foreground and Background Directors distinguish between the frame’s foreground and background. They may place objects or actors in the foreground in order to highlight their narrative significance—as Welles does with Mary Kane in the boarding house scene. They may also make it possible to distinguish important details in the background, another feature of the Citizen 49 .

Kane boarding house scene. They may direct viewer’s attention into the depth of the frame through the use of perspective, as Carné does in Children of Paradise.

D. Light and Dark Arranging light and dark areas in the frame is an important aspect of composition. Using contrasting areas of lightness and darkness to create compositional effects is referred to as chiaroscuro, after a classical painting technique.

E. Color Production designers develop a color palette, or range of colors, appropriate to the subject matter or the mood of the film. In doing so, they take into account the way audiences respond to the properties of color. Like any other visual technique, color in the mise en scène may function as a motif.

Saturation refers to the strength of a hue (red, green, blue, yellow, etc.). Desaturated colors are less pure; they contain more white than saturated colors and thus they look grayish, pale or washed out.

While conventional cultural associations may attach to certain colors that appear in the mise en scène—black for mourning, for example—it is important when forwarding interpretations to consider the contextual use of color in relation to cultural norms, narrative elements, and other visual techniques in the film under consideration.

V. Two Approaches to Mise en Scène A. The Frame in Two Dimensions: Mise en scène in German Expressionism Several German films released in the decade immediately following World War I (1918– 28) were so visually distinctive that contemporary critics lauded their merits, making the Weimar Republic’s film industry one of the first internationally recognized national cinemas. Robert Wiene’s horror classic The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1919) helped make the German film industry Hollywood’s most serious competitor for a time. German Expressionism was named for the Expressionist movement in painting and sculpture that began in Germany before World War I. Wiene’s film is recognized as one of the canonical examples of German Expressionist cinema.

Film scholars have debated whether the style was a reflection of German culture and psychology or simply a creative response to financial constraints. The dramatic use of mise en scène is one of the primary reasons German Expressionism was, and is, so visually distinctive and important to film history.

The film’s macabre story (which involves a murderous madman and a sleepwalker), chiaroscuro lighting, diagonal lines, and bizarre, artificial sets give the film a distinctive look (fig. 5.59). The combination of visual elements conveys a world out of balance and suggests extreme states of subjectivity—that is, states of feeling rather than being. The visual system externalizes characters’ unbalanced perceptions of the world.

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The sets in Caligari reflect contemporary experiments in the visual arts, namely the emphasis on distortion, jagged shapes, and irregularity in Expressionist painting, sculpture, and theater.

Since the 1920s, many filmmakers have used mise en scène to depict extreme states of subjectivity.

B. Combining Mise en Scène and Camerawork: The Frame in Three Dimensions in French Poetic Realism André Bazin, one of the co-founders of the influential French film journal Cahiers du Cinéma (“Cinema Notebooks”), celebrated films that made dramatic use of threedimensional space. He described this approach as a mise en scène aesthetic—one that emphasized movement through choreography within the scene rather than through editing.

Although Bazin focused on the importance of mise en scène, he also discussed cinematography. His ideas show that elements of film are inevitably interrelated and that analysis and interpretation must take into account the fact that film techniques work together, combining to produce an overall experience for the viewer. Using Bazin’s ideas to discuss the mise en scène aesthetic and French Poetic Realism thus serves as a conclusion to this chapter and an introduction to the next chapter on cinematography.

Bazin celebrated the films of French Poetic Realism because they emphasize the space of the story world: the setting and the arrangement of figures. The films of three of the most important directors of French cinema during the 1930s—Marcel Carné, Julien Duvivier, and Jean Renoir—emphasize the complex interplay between individuals and society.

Whereas Hollywood favored stories about individuals transcending social limitations, French Poetic Realist films depicted characters whose fates are determined by their social milieu.

These filmmakers used mise en scène to illuminate the possibilities and limitations of characters trapped by social circumstance. A common feature of Poetic Realist films was the depiction of characters whose desires are at odds with society.

Two visual characteristics of Poetic Realism convey the theme that one’s social milieu determines one’s fate: careful construction of the mise en scène and elaborate camera movement. Because these films explore how environment shapes human behavior and destiny, set designers paid attention to minute, yet meaningful, details. Unlike German Expressionism’s self-consciously artificial mise en scène, that of Poetic Realism depicts realistic and identifiable environments. Poetic Realism’s set designs are not distorted or artificial, yet they invest the image with atmosphere.

Technological factors played a role in determining the look of Poetic Realism. Given the movement’s emphasis on detailed, realistic, and atmospheric settings, cinematographers were faced with the challenge of capturing the fine details of the mise en scène in threedimensional space. In French films during the 1930s, camera mobility rapidly increased.

In 1930, about one shot in ten involved a moving camera, whereas in 1935, one shot in three involved a moving rather than a stationary camera.

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As this comparison of German Expressionism and French Poetic Realism suggests, analyzing a film’s mise en scène can be a challenging enterprise, requiring attention to details of setting, figure placement, lighting, and composition as elements of the overall production design. Furthermore, these examples show that visual elements work in concert to produce meaning. Rich interpretations grow out of the serious contemplation of the interaction of aesthetic elements. The next chapter considers another important visual element: cinematography.

VI. Film Analysis: The Functions of Space (Thelma and Louise) This analysis focuses on the way a single aspect of mise en scène (the use of spatial oppositions) performs two functions: to develop characters and reinforce themes.

Learning how to describe specific details that support interpretive claims makes papers more engaging and convincing. These detailed descriptions must be clearly and logically linked to each of the paper’s major ideas. Study Notes point out the way the author uses detailed descriptive claims to support interpretive claims.

CHAPTER 5 (Mise en Scène) DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of high-, natural- and low-key lighting techniques.

2) Film scholar Barry King identifies several categories of actors, based on the way their performances are perceived by audiences. Generate a list of popular actors working in the cinema today, and categorize them according to King’s system.

3) Explain how the setting of a film is crucial to the narrative, characters and ultimately, the viewer’s understanding and interpretation of a film.

4) How can filmmakers use compositional aspects of the frame to shape the way audiences respond to a character?

CHAPTER 5 (Mise en Scène) LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND DISCUSSION TOPICS 1) Discovering the expressive potential of mise en scène.

Try this warm-up exercise before you begin discussing mise en scène. The goal is to encourage students to notice details on their own before you offer any guidance, hopefully allowing them to recognize that they respond emotionally and intellectually to mise en scène even if they aren’t fully aware of how or why they are responding.

Show students a still image from a film they are about to watch in class (it is important that the class has not seen the film yet).

Ask students to describe every detail of the image they notice. Dissuade them from analyzing anything; just make a record the observations they make about the image on the chalkboard.

Once the students have exhausted the possibilities, ask them to interpret the details they have noticed. What can they guess about the characters onscreen? The mood? The atmosphere?

After students have offered their hypotheses, feel free to ask more directed questions, encouraging them to push their ideas even further.

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Screen the film in class. At the beginning of your post-screening discussion, return to the image once again and ask students to compare their responses from before and after the screening. This exercise should afford you an opportunity to demonstrate two points: a. how much narrative information mise en scène conveys b. how meaning depends on context (since, chances are, some of the initial ideas were off base) 2) What elements are included in the mise en scène?

Students often have a difficult time distinguishing between mise en scène and cinematography— this distinction is obviously more important after you have covered Chapter 6. However, this short exercise might help begin to reinforce the distinctions among the three visual elements of film.

Show students a short scene from a film. Ask them, “If this film were adapted for the theatre, which of the details onscreen could be reproduced on stage? What visual details could not be translated onto a stage?” Emphasize that everything in front of the camera is part of the film’s mise en scène.

3) Same title, different mise en scène Bring the pedagogical logic of the Techniques in Practice reading on p. 97 into the classroom.

Ask students to compare and contrast the mise en scène in a remake of a film with that of the original. Encourage them to explore if the changes might encourage different emotional and intellectual responses from the audience, or how the remake might suggest changing cultural concerns, values, and/or attitudes.

One fruitful example: compare the opening sequence of Dawn of the Dead (Romero 1978), in which a S*W*A*T team invades an urban tenement house, with the opening sequence in the 2004 remake, set in suburbia. Ask students to consider these questions: ✓ Is the change in setting suggestive? What values are associated with run-down urban areas? With pristine suburbia? What might be the logic in setting a horror film about mindless, brain-sucking zombies in these two dramatically different places?

Obviously each film links the source of terror to a specific place. Does the fact that the remake locates this source in the heart of suburbia change the nature of what is scary? ✓ What do the zombies look like in each film? Both versions create confusion by making it difficult to distinguish between zombies and living humans. Is it important that Romero blurs the differences between zombies, gang members, residents of the tenement house, and members of the S*W*A*T team? How does Romero use elements of mise en scène to sow the seeds of confusion? What makes it difficult to distinguish zombie from living human in the remake? ✓ [You might also screen scenes from the opening of Shaun of the Dead for humor and to illustrate a different take on the similarity between zombies and regular people.]

As an alternative, you could also compare and contrast early and late images of a serial character like James Bond or Michael Corleone (from The Godfather). Or study a character whose appearance changes dramatically over the course of a film, such as Rosemary Woodhouse (Rosemary’s Baby), Jake LaMotta (Raging Bull), Thelma Dickinson (Thelma and Louise), or 53 .

Easy Rawlins (Devil in a Blue Dress). Does costuming change? Casting? Movement? Props associated with the character? Studying the evolution of a cartoon character like Mickey Mouse or Bugs Bunny could be useful for instructors who want to expose students to animation early in the semester.

4) The expressive power of figure placement and movement.

Invite a student (a drama student?) to try and convey the following emotional or psychological states to the rest of the class without using words. Have the rest of the class guess, in an abbreviated version of charades. ✓ anger ✓ timidity ✓ weariness ✓ arrogance ✓ happiness 5) Who else could have been cast?

To demonstrate the expressive logic of typecasting, ask students to make alternative casting choices for a film they have screened in class. Focus their attention on one especially noteworthy performance and ask what other actor or actress could have played that role. For a lively discussion, ask students to cast fellow students or other professors in particular roles.

6) How can composition suggest internal states of mind?

Ask students to describe the elements of composition (balance and symmetry; lines and diagonals; framing; foreground and background; light and dark; color) in two stills from the book, or a still from a film screened in class. Then ask if these compositional elements in any way convey different emotional or physical states in each shot.

Suggestions: ✓ Compare image 5.5 (Capote) with 5.8 (Full Metal Jacket). Students should recognize how the composition in the first image conveys the alienating emptiness Capote feels when he is in Kansas, whereas the composition in the second suggests entrapment through precision of movement and symmetry. ✓ Compare the image of Do the Right Thing on p. 119 with the image from Batman Begins on p. 116. Emphasize how the composition complements the contrasting use of setting in each shot, establishing differences in the environment and mood depicted in each shot.

Point out how the stills demonstrate two different approaches to color cinematography. Also encourage students to appreciate the difference between the horizontal composition in Do the Right Thing (suggesting stasis?) and the more vibrant diagonal composition from Batman Begins (suggesting confusion? Chaos?).

Finally, be sure to point out the symmetry of Do the Right Thing (four teens on the left standing, three men on the right sitting), versus the asymmetry of Batman Begins (in which the subject occupies the right half of the frame).

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7) Who’s in the foreground, and why does it matter?

Direct the class’s attention to the image from Broken Flowers on p. 113. Ask students to identify who is standing in the foreground, and who is standing in the background. Then ask them to discuss what the composition suggests about the nature of the characters’ relationship.

OUT OF CLASS EXERCISES 1) Where would you set this encounter?

Ask students to describe an appropriate setting for each of these encounters. As students describe the setting, they should take the time to explain the emotional and/or intellectual effect they are aiming for in each case. In other words, ask them to explain why the details of the setting are an appropriate backdrop for the action that is taking place. You might want to refer students to the discussion of genre expectations introduced in Chapter 2: ✓ two young lovers are breaking up because one thinks (mistakenly) that the other is having an affair ✓ a married couple is breaking up after 25 years together because the wife can’t shake the feeling that she’s lost her sense of identity ✓ two young lovers kiss for the first time, pursuing their romance with discretion because of their different ethnic backgrounds ✓ an American spy accepts a bribe from a foreign agent to hand over classified documents ✓ a young soldier fritters about on her last night at home before shipping off to war ✓ an estranged father and son reunite for the first time in five years (the son is 16 years old) ✓ an estranged mother and daughter reunite for the first time in five years (the daughter is 16 years old) ✓ three gang members are holding a family hostage ✓ two inept burglars conduct their first heist. Things will go wrong. ✓ two teenagers find themselves hiding from a mad killer 2) Creating a character through props and setting Have students describe a character type in a paragraph. The description should be fairly detailed, establishing the character’s gender, age, background, interests, emotional state, etc. Students should then identify two props and a setting that would help establish this character.

3) Writing exercise Before an in class screening, ask students to think about an interpretive claim they can make regarding the film. For example, consider asking them how the main character changes over the course of the film. Students should be able to support their interpretive claim by referring to at least two elements of mise en scène. Make sure students are prepared to provide very specific details (e.g., color, shape, size, lines, etc.) and to talk about the specific context in which these details appear (what scene? what is happening in the narrative at this point?). If you are screening Thelma and Louise, ask students to find two ways (in addition to the spatial oppositions described in the end of chapter reading) the film emphasizes the women’s increasing independence. Students should easily latch onto any number of motifs: costuming, makeup, hairstyles, the use of mirrors, trucks, cigarettes, hats, Thelma’s habits when buying (or stealing) alcohol, and Thelma’s handling of the pistol, to name a few.

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HAPTER 6: CINEMATOGRAPHY

CHAPTER 6 (Cinematography) LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, students should be able to: 1) distinguish between cinematography and mise en scène (recognizing that visual elements work in concert to some degree).

2) analyze how the length of a take and the ratio of recording speed to projection speed can shape the audience’s perception of time.

3) identify three properties of camera placement and analyze how these properties can shape the audience’s perception of space.

4) identify seven different types of camera movement and discuss five common functions of camera movement in narrative films.

5) recognize how three types of lenses can affect the characteristics of the space of the frame, including an image’s focus and depth.

6) recognize how cinematographers can alter the color and quality of the light as it enters the camera by using filters and/or diffusers.

7) understand how celluloid captures an image, and how the type of film stock and the amount of time the film stock is exposed to light can determine the size, shape, and quality of this image.

8) consider five common questions used to analyze the significance of color and its relationship to other narrative, visual, and sound elements.

9) discuss how the color and quality of the image can be influenced while film stock is being processed.

10) have a basic understanding of the wide variety of visual effects, both traditional and digital, available to cinematographers during the principal shooting and post-production.

11) distinguish among original ideas, summarized ideas, and quoted passages in their own academic writing.

CHAPTER 6 (Cinematography) OVERVIEW ▪

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The camera and time: A take is a single uninterrupted series of frames exposed by a motion picture or video camera between the time it is turned on to the time it is turned off. The long take is a long uninterrupted shot that requires the choreography of actors and camera and produces continuity. By exposing more (or fewer) than 24 frames per second and projecting the exposed and developed footage at 24 fps, directors can create slow-and fast-motion effects, which can extend or shorten the apparent duration of events.

The camera and space: by selecting camera height, angle, and distance, filmmakers present characters, actions, and locations from a particular visual perspective.

Camera movement: choreographing camera movements, often with devices built expressly for this purpose, permits the camera to explore the space of the frame in two and three 56 .

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dimensions, detaching the audience from the action or placing them in the midst of it, moving or mingling with characters.

Lenses and filters: lenses affect the perception of the visual field of the frame, particularly in terms of depth. Wide-angle lenses increase the apparent space between objects in the foreground and background. Telephoto lenses do the opposite—they compress the visual depth. Normal lenses approximate human vision. Filters can enhance color and manipulate light as it enters the camera.

Film stock: gauge, grain, and speed affect the overall look of a film. Gauge refers to the size of the film, measured horizontally across the strip of film. Grain refers to the grains of silver halide in the film’s emulsion. Fast film stocks are very sensitive to light so are useful in lowlight conditions, but may yield images with visible grain. Slow film stocks are relatively insensitive and produce high-quality images when light can be carefully controlled, as on a studio set.

Special visual effects involve optical illusions and digital techniques used during principal photography and in post-production. This aspect of cinematography includes building models and miniatures, matte paintings or glass shots, or digitally enhancing built sets. It also encompasses optical and digital compositing, where several elements of the frame are produced separately and brought together using an optical printer or computer graphics software.

CHAPTER 6 (Cinematography) SUMMARY I.

Introduction

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inematography techniques work in concert with a film’s mode of organization, its

mise en scène and editing, and its sound design to produce meaning. The most powerful uses of cinematography do more than simply display technical expertise: they provoke emotional, intellectual, and aesthetic responses.

Cinematographers “speak” to the audience in visual terms, using images the way writers use words. To grasp the full import of visual expression, viewers must move beyond selective vision, which is the tendency to notice only those things they want to see, they expect to see, and they are used to seeing.

This chapter examines the ways filmmakers use cinematography to develop characters, tell a story, produce a distinctive look, suggest ideas, and evoke emotions. Although it addresses many technical aspects of filmmaking, the chapter is not designed to instruct would-be cinematographers in their craft.

In this chapter, the effects of a technique (that is, the way it works with other aspects of the film) are more important than the methods used to achieve it. When building an interpretive claim about a film, the first order of business is to identify a technique using the proper terminology.

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Second, the viewer moves beyond description, developing ideas about the technique as it works with other elements to produce meaning. Understanding how a technique emerged and developed, and how it has been used in various contexts, enhances interpretation, but is not central to it.

During the first 100 years of cinema, cinematography was synonymous with photography, a photochemical process. As electronic technologies such as analog and digital video recording have eclipsed traditional methods, cinematography has come to include many non-photographic processes such as computer-generated imagery, or CGI. This chapter examines photographic processes as well as digital technologies. The chapter discusses four elements of cinematography: camerawork (the operation, placement, and movement of the camera), lenses and filters, film stock, and special visual effects. Lastly, it looks at cinematographic effects made possible by digital film technology, and at the impact of that technology on film style.

Inset Box: Film and Video: A Comparison Capturing images on film involves photographic and chemical processes. Exposing film stock to light passing through a lens aperture (a circular opening of variable size) causes a chemical reaction in the light-sensitive silver halide particles in the film’s emulsion (chemical layer).

Negatives and Master Positives are created through subsequent processes. Finally, the release print is sent out to theatres for exhibition.

In exhibition, projectors aim a beam of light through each frame of the release print as it advances mechanically. The light strikes a reflective screen on which the audience sees the images.

Film is prized for its high resolution—how much detail can be discerned in the image—and its potential for rendering beautiful, saturated color. Each frame of 35mm film contains approximately 18 million pixels (picture elements).

Instead of recording photographic images on film stock, video cameras capture images as an electronic signal and store them as waves (analog) or as a binary code of ones and zeros (digital).

Digital video can be stored in a variety of formats, and the fact that image quality is not affected by successive generations of duplication makes video much less costly to use, but also makes digital images much easier to pirate.

Video monitors (including televisions) have three electron beams (red, green, and blue) housed in a cathode ray tube. In response to an input signal, each beam scans the image across the screen horizontally, one line at a time, illuminating light-emitting phosphors.

The standard video format in the U.S. is NTSC (National Television Standards Committee); it yields 525 scan lines and a scanning rate of 29.97 fps. PAL, the format used in Europe, produces 625 lines at 25 fps. To convert film to NTSC the conversion process, called a 3:2 pull down, involves slowing the film down to 23.976 fps as it is run through a telecine machine, which creates one extra frame. The digital heir to the telecine is the film scanner; these machines scan 58 .

individual film frames, and store the images on a digital intermediate, if the film will be edited in digital format. The images are then converted back to film for projection.

There are vocal and heart-felt debates within film studies about the relative merits of film and digital formats. For budding cineastes, the benefits of digital video seem persuasive. It is far cheaper and easier to purchase digital video filmmaking equipment than it is to rent or buy film equipment. There are no processing costs, and the formats are extremely portable. It is quite difficult to purchase and maintain the equipment for projecting films.

II. Camerawork: The Camera in Time and Space A. Creating Meaning in Time: The Shot Cinematography involves both the spatial characteristics of the frame and the temporal, or time-dependent, character of the film medium. Narrative films tell stories, documentaries recount and observe events, avant-garde films create new combinations of image and sounds; all of these types of films unfold in space and time.

The shot, a single uninterrupted series of frames, is film’s basic unit of expression: an image whose meaning unfolds through time. Shots vary in length.

Editing several shots together produces a scene, which is a coherent unit: one that has its own beginning, middle, and end.

In order to use time on the set efficiently, directors and cinematographers generally plan each shot ahead of time. One method for planning shots is the storyboard—a series of drawings that lays out the film sequentially (fig. 6.6). The DP (Director of Photography) designs set-ups, positioning actors, the camera, and lighting arrangement for each shot.

Films are generally not shot in chronological order, and, except on very low-budget productions, every shot is filmed more than once. Each version is called a take.

Uninterrupted shots of more than one minute are called long takes. Long takes build dramatic tension, emphasize the continuity of time and space, and allow directors to focus on the movement of actors in the space of the mise en scène.

Inset Box: From Stop Motion to Animation Stop-motion photography (pixilation) is the technique underlying all film animation (fig. 6.9). As early as 1906–7, J. Stuart Blackton used stop motion to animate objects and hand drawings in one-reel films for Vitagraph, and French filmmaker Emile Cohl combined animation and live action (Crafton, p. 71; Cook, p. 52). Animators soon developed a process using transparent overlays called cels (for “celluloid”) to separate moving figures from static backgrounds, which avoided the problem of drawing each frame individually. Cel animation is a labor-intensive and time-consuming process, and it remained the standard technique for animated films until the 1990s.

Animated short films were exhibited with newsreels and fiction features, providing “humor, slapstick spectacle, animal protagonists, and fantastic events” (Crafton, p. 72). Disney Studios achieved commercial success with animated features such as Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (David Hand 1937), Pinocchio (Ben Sharpsteen and Hamilton Luske 1940), and Fantasia (Ben 59 .

Sharpsteen 1940; fig. 6.10).

Animation experienced a renaissance during the 1990s. Disney (having moved into live-action feature films) did an about-face and purchased Pixar Studios (originally the computer graphics division of LucasFilm). Pixar’s success with Toy Story (John Lasseter 1995), the first computeranimated feature, re-energized commercial animation.

Perhaps one influence on the thematic sophistication of Hollywood’s animated films is the popularity of a Japanese style of animation, called anime. This style grew out of the film and television work of Osamu Tezuka during the 1950s and 1960s. In addition to the influence of Japanese anime, comic books and graphic novels of all kinds have emerged as important sources for films.

As part of the revitalization of animation through computer graphics, Richard Linklater took the artistry of the rotoscope to a new level in Waking Life (2001) and A Scanner Darkly (2006). The rotoscope projects photographs or footage onto glass so that images can be traced by hand as templates for cartoon characters (Rickitt, p. 141).

1) Altering Time: Slow and Fast Motion Cinematographers can manipulate the speed of filming to compress or expand time. Unless special effects are desired, the standard recording speed is 24 frames per second. By reducing or increasing the camera’s recording speed, and then projecting the film at 24 frames per second, filmmakers can affect the viewer’s perception of time.

To produce slow motion, the camera records images at a speed faster than that at which it is projected. When the film is projected at the standard rate, the action appears to be slowed down. Slow motion has been used for both comic and dramatic purposes.

To produce fast motion, cinematographers record images at a slower speed than the speed of projection. Fewer frames are exposed in one minute when shooting at a speed of 16 fps than at a speed of 24 fps. When projected at 24 fps, that action takes less than a minute on screen and appears unnaturally rapid.

Go-motion, a technique developed by Industrial Light and Magic, builds movement into single frames. In this process, the puppet or model is motorized and moves when the camera’s shutter is open, creating a sense of blur.

Time-lapse photography is a process of recording a very small number of images over a long period of time—say, one frame per minute or per day. Timelapse nature photography can present a slow process, such as a flower blooming, in a matter of seconds.

Contemporary filmmakers have developed sophisticated methods for manipulating time. An impressive effect developed during the 1990s is called a 60 .

frozen time moment, or a bullet-time moment. These terms refer to a shot where a single action is viewed simultaneously from multiple vantage points.

B. The Camera and Space: Height, Angle, and Shot Distance Whereas the length of a take and slow and fast motion influence the viewer’s sense of time, the positioning and movement of the camera affect the viewer’s understanding of space. Camera placement and movement determine the way viewers perceive characters, events, and objects in the world on screen.

Three important variables for any shot are camera height, angle on the action, and distance from the action. These choices convey information, form motifs, introduce ideas, and create mood.

Camera placement may evoke a wide range of emotions: the position of the camera may compel intimacy or establish a sense of distance from characters and situations. It is also important to remember what the camera placement excludes: offscreen space refers to spaces within the world of the story that are temporarily or permanently excluded from the viewer’s vision. Filmmakers can use character behavior, dialogue, and sound to remind viewers that off-screen spaces exist, without showing them explicitly.

1) Camera Height The camera’s height most frequently approximates an eye-level view of the action (fig. 6.12), but eye-level shots are usually combined with shots from higher and lower vantage points. This height convention can assume a variety of forms.

2) Camera Angle Another aspect of camera position is angle. In most shots, the camera is level.

High-angle shots, where the camera is positioned above the action and aimed downward, tend to minimize the subject. One result can be that characters seem less powerful.

Low-angle shots, which position the camera below the subject, aiming upward, often exaggerate the size and volume of the subject. Characters often appear more powerful, as they physically dominate the shot.

An overhead shot, also called a bird’s eye shot, gives a unique perspective on the action from above. Cinematographers rarely use the bird’s eye view, and when they do, typically they are striving for a dramatic effect.

Overhead shots are not always explained by plot events, however. A director may include these shots in order to alienate the spectator from the characters or action.

When film techniques encourage spectators to step back from the story or characters in terms of their emotional engagement, the effect is said to distance the viewer.

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3) Camera Distance Camera distance refers to the space between the camera and its subject, which can determine how emotionally involved the audience becomes with characters.

There are long shots, medium shots and close-ups. Medium shots and close-ups tend to produce a greater sense of intimacy by allowing viewers to focus on actors’ faces and character emotions, whereas long shots tend to emphasize the environment and the space that surrounds the characters. However, the effect of any shot distance must be interpreted in context. Filmmakers can also use shot distance to convey abstract ideas.

C. Camera Movement: Exploring Space In addition to height, angle, and shot distance, camera movement can affect the meaning of shots and scenes. Shifting the camera’s height, angle, or distance merely to account for changes in character position is called reframing.

1) Horizontal and Vertical Movement Some camera movements are horizontal and vertical. A pan is the horizontal turning motion of a camera fixed to a tripod. A pan can integrate camerawork and narrative development. A swish pan occurs when a pan is executed so quickly that it produces a blurred image, indicating rapid activity or, sometimes, the passage of time. A tilt refers to the technique of tipping the camera vertically while it remains secured to a tripod. The movement can simulate a character looking up or down, or help to isolate or exaggerate the vertical dimension of an object or setting.

2) Movement in Three Dimensions To free the camera in space, cinematographers sometimes mount cameras on rolling platforms called dollies, which ensure fluid, controlled, motion. A crab dolly has wheels that rotate, so the dolly can change direction. Very low-budget filmmakers sometimes use shopping carts as dollies and stand or sit inside. A tracking shot is accomplished by moving the camera, on a dolly, along a specially built track (fig. 6.32). Tracking shots can trace movement laterally (across the frame) or in and out of the depth of the frame.

Cameras mounted on cranes create sweeping, three-dimensional movements (fig.

6.33). Aerial shots, taken from airplanes and helicopters, allow filmmakers to compose shots from great distances.

In many instances, filmmakers want to capture intimate scenes with subtle camera movements. Conventional motion picture cameras are heavy, however; without a brace, all the motion of the camera operator will be translated into shaky images.

In the 1960s, lightweight 16 mm cameras able to record synchronized sound led to a flowering of documentary filmmaking, and, particularly, non-interventionist direct cinema. The sense of immediacy produced by handheld shots is evident in narrative fiction films as well.

Other innovations in camera technology included the small, lightweight, and quiet Panaflex camera. Cinematographer Garrett Brown developed a stabilizing device 62 .

worn by the camera operator that he patented as the Steadicam. The Steadicam permits fluid camera movement, allows greater mobility than tracking shots, and minimizes shakiness (fig. 6.37). Brown describes the effect of his invention: “the moving camera lets you break into the medium itself—the screen stops being a wall and becomes a space you can play in.” (LoBrutto, p. 139) Brown has gone on to develop other devices that allow filmmakers to incorporate fluid movement, such as the underwater moby cam and the SkyCam, a system that involves suspending and moving cameras using cables and pulleys.

As this discussion suggests, discerning the significance of camera placement and movement requires careful consideration of a shot in context. Broadly speaking, camera movement can function in five ways. (see p. 147) Inset Box: Moving Pictures and Visual Perception The viewer’s ability to perceive any rapid succession of images as continuous motion—whether the images are presented on film or digital video—was, for much of the 20th century, believed to derive from two properties of human vision: persistence of vision and the phi phenomenon. Yet no scientific consensus exists, and these theories have been called into question by recent work in cognitive film studies that seems to suggest the human brain processes short-term apparent motion using the same cognitive processes it uses for real motion. This model suggests that film spectators are, on the cognitive level, actively seeking out meaning rather than passively absorbing visual information.

D. Techniques in Practice: Patterns of Camera Placement and Movement (Do the Right Thing) In Spike Lee’s Do the Right Thing, patterns of camera placement and movement establish relationships between the characters. Canted angles, close-ups, and tracking shots communicate the rising tensions among residents of a Brooklyn city block on a summer day.

Lee and DP Ernest Dickerson use canted angles to emphasize conflict between characters. Their differences are also evident in their contentious dialogue. A shift in the relationship between these two characters is partially suggested by a shift in camera angle. Canted angles and close-ups visually define disputes between other characters.

In addition to canted angles and close-ups, Lee uses tracking shots. As each character expresses his particular sentiments about racism, the camera tracks in toward the character, ending the shot in a close-up. In this sequence, the shift from the camera tracking in toward unmoving characters to Señor Love Daddy moving toward the stationary camera, visually underscores the DJ’s attempt to reverse the unrelenting messages of hate.

III. Lenses and Filters: The Frame in Depth The camera does not see the world the way that the human eye does. Eyes and cameras both use lenses to focus rays of light. The rays converge, producing an image of the object being observed. The lens of the human eye focuses light rays that enter the pupil on the retina. In the 63 .

camera, the lens focuses the light rays entering the aperture on the film stock. Camera lenses must be carefully calibrated to produce the desired image. Keeping images in focus would seem to be a rather basic element of filmmaking, but, in fact, DPs use lenses and filters not just to maintain proper focus, but also to shape the environment, create mood, and develop themes.

A. The Visual Characteristics of Lenses: Depth of Field and Focal Length Lenses allow filmmakers to shape the space of the story (or, in an avant-garde film, the visual field in which images take shape). Different lenses have different visual characteristics. Understanding the focal properties of lenses helps viewers to assess the frame as a visual field that serves as an environment for the action, that creates the texture of another reality, or externalizes a character’s feelings. Most important is the depth of field, or the “range of acceptable sharpness before and behind the plane of focus” (American Cinematographer’s Manual, p. 161). Depth of field describes the space in front of and behind the primary subject where objects remain in crisp focus.

Lenses may be normal, wide-angle, or telephoto. Each of these different lenses produces a distinctive look because the focal length of a lens (the measurement, in millimeters, of the distance from the surface of the lens to the surface of the film in the camera) in large part determines depth of field (figs. 6.40, 6.41, 6.42).

The normal lens (focal length: 27 to 75 mm) approximates the vision and perspective of the human eye. No spatial distortions are apparent. The wide-angle lens, sometimes called a short lens because it has a focal length of less than 27 mm, produces a wider angle of view than the human eye and exaggerates the frame’s depth. Characters (or objects) in the foreground appear larger than they are, and characters (or objects) in the background appear smaller than they are. This lens also accelerates the convergence of parallel lines so they appear to bend more than they do when seen through a normal lens (Zettl, p. 153).

An extreme wide-angle or fish-eye lens (focal length less than 17.5 mm) dramatically distorts images so that most straight lines appear to be curved.

Telephoto lenses, sometimes called long lenses because their focal lengths range from 75 mm to 1000 mm, compress the distance between objects at different distances from the lens; that is, the distance between foreground and background appears to be less than it actually is.

Rack focus is a change of focus from one plane of depth to another. Rack focus can create a dramatic visual effect by overtly withholding and then revealing information about narrative space. Another cinematographic technique reveals excess information about narrative space: split screen cinematography combines two or more images into a single frame, giving audiences multiple perspectives.

1) The Zoom Lens Zoom lenses have a variable focal length. Zooming changes the size of the filmed subject without changing the distance between the subject and the camera. By rotating the barrel of the lens, cinematographers move from wide-angle to telephoto (zooming in, which magnifies the subject) or from telephoto to wide64 .

angle (zooming out, which makes the subject appear smaller). When zooming in or out, the subject remains in focus.

Distinguishing between a zoom in and a tracking shot that moves toward the subject can be a challenge. Viewers should keep in mind that zooming in (moving from a wide angle to a telephoto) will minimize depth perception; instead of sensing the camera moving toward the subject, viewers might feel instead that the subject is pulled toward the camera.

B. Combining Camera Movement and Lens Movement Filmmakers sometimes combine camera movement and the zoom lens to create unusual shots. Hitchcock created the trombone shot, where the camera was trained on an object, with the zoom fully in so that the object filled the frame. The camera tracked in toward the object as the lens zoomed out. This combination produces an unsettling physical effect because the object remains the same size (tracking toward it would make it larger, but zooming out counteracts the track), but the apparent depth of the object increases (the zoom-out increases the depth of field). This dramatic shot translates a character’s visceral, uncomfortable sensations to the viewer.

C. Through the Lens: Filters and Diffusers Filters change the quality of light entering the lens by absorbing light in different ways.

They affect contrast, sharpness, color, and light intensity. Neutral-density filters, polarizing filters, diffusion, star, fog and color filters all create special effects to underscore the narrative, context and drama of a scene. Day for night refers to the practice of shooting during the day but using filters and underexposure to create the illusion of nighttime. Day-for-night shooting is generally more successful on black-andwhite film.

Inset Box: Deep Focus Cinematography In the late 1930s, “fast” lenses and advances in lighting technology helped cinematographers such as Gregg Toland to perfect deep-focus cinematography, in which objects remain in focus from positions very near the camera to points at some distance from it. Toland used wide-angle lenses and stopped down the lens, making the aperture smaller to produce greater precision in focus. He also used the fastest film stock available, Kodak XX, and employed large arc lamps that had been designed for shooting Technicolor. These lamps cast a more penetrating illumination needed to light the set with the lens aperture stopped down.

Directors who choreograph actors and arranged sets with several planes of depth, are said to compose in depth. These directors accentuate the way the film frame can embody several levels of meaning.

D. Techniques in Practice: Lenses and the Creation of Space (Paths of Glory and M*A*S*H) Stanley Kubrick’s Paths of Glory (1957) and Robert Altman’s M*A*S*H (1970) chronicle human experiences of war, yet the two filmmakers adopt very different approaches to this subject. One technical feature that offers insight into their differences 65 .

is the choice of lens. Kubrick uses a wide-angle lens and composes in depth to emphasize the hierarchical structure of the army and its vast reach. In contrast, Altman uses a telephoto lens and frequent zooms to emphasize the chaotic aspects of a military organization.

These two directors and their cinematographers convey ideas and emotions visually through the choice of lenses. The wide-angle lens and compositions in depth in Paths of Glory heighten the contrast between generals, who are in control, and foot soldiers, who are at the mercy of the system. The zooms and telephoto lens in M*A*S*H suggest a lack of order and the difficulty of making connections in a chaotic, decentralized, and claustrophobic environment.

Inset Box: Cinematography on the Set For most films, the DP collaborates with the director and art director before and during principal photography to think systematically about creating expressive visual images. Prior to the production phase, the director and DP confer about camera angles and effects, using the script to map out the specific set-up for each shot. Often, they create storyboards, with drawings, photographs, or computer simulations.

During principal photography, the DP is responsible for all aspects of the photographic process, including camera placement, movement, and lighting set-ups.

A second unit may be used for filming at a remote location, or for insert shots. The film footage exposed in a given day is often printed, and dailies are screened to determine whether changes are necessary. Digital cinematography offers one major advantage over film during shooting: directors and DPs can view footage immediately, saving time and money.

While the DP’s job theoretically is complete at the end of shooting, often she will work with the editor during post-production to ensure that the desired look is achieved.

IV. Film Stock Another key factor that will influence the final look of the film is the choice of film stock, which will affect the color and depth of contrast of the images produced. Experienced cinematographers come to depend upon particular film stocks to help create the look of a film. Digital cameras are equipped with different types of CCDs (see p. 132); they differ in their response to light and, thus, produce different types of images.

A. Characteristics of Film Stock Film stock is composed of two parts: the emulsion, a light-sensitive chemical layer in which the image is formed, and the base, the flexible support material for the emulsion.

The base for the earliest films was cellulose nitrate, a highly flammable substance that was replaced in the 1950s by cellulose triacetate.

The attributes of film stock include gauge, speed, and grain. Gauge refers to the size of the film, measured horizontally across the film stock (fig. 6.68). Standard feature films are projected on 35 mm film.

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Speed is a measure of a film stock’s sensitivity to light and is measured by an index called the ASA or DIN number. The higher the ASA or DIN number, the greater the film’s sensitivity to light, and the “faster” the film.

The grain refers to the suspended particles of silver or color-sensitive grains in the emulsion layer. After processing, the grains may become visible as dots. Finer-grained, slow film stock records more detail and renders sharp images with high resolution.

Grainy film, with its lower resolution and fuzzier images, is typically associated with black-and-white newsreel and documentary films.

B. Light and Exposure Exposure refers to the amount of light striking the emulsion layer of the film stock.

When the shutter of the camera opens, light passes through the aperture and strikes the film. The aperture size can be varied to let in a greater or smaller amount of light.

Overexposure occurs when more light than is required to produce an image strikes the film stock; the resulting image is noticeable for its high contrast, glaring light, and washed-out shadows (fig. 6.69). Underexposure occurs when too little light strikes the emulsion. Dark areas in an underexposed image will appear very dense, and overall contrast will be less than a properly exposed image (fig. 6.70).

C. Film Stock and Color Directors and cinematographers choose their film stock according to the aesthetic effects they are seeking to achieve. Occasionally black-and-white and color film stock may be used in the same film, to contrast between past and present, perhaps, or between reality and fantasy.

Filmmaking has always involved color, even before the development of color film stock.

By around 1910, most films used color. The most prevalent technique was tinting, which involved bathing lengths of developed film (typically one scene at a time) in dye.

Another practice, called toning, replaced silver halide with colored metal salts so that the dark portions of the frame appear in color rather than black. Mordanting involved developing the emulsion with a silver solution able to fix colored dyes (Usai, p. 9).

Even unadulterated black-and-white images vary in their tonal properties. First, blackand-white film stocks possess different properties: the earliest stocks were sensitive to blue and violet only. Black-and-white film stocks that were sensitive to all colors of the spectrum (called panchromatic) became the industry standard in the 1930s.

Second, filmmakers make different use of the same technologies. When Eastman Kodak and Agfa manufactured faster film stocks in the 1930s, movie studios responded to them differently, which resulted in distinctive visual styles. Many of the major Hollywood studios had their own techniques that made each studio’s films look different from another studio.

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Although color film processes were developed in the 1930s, it wasn’t until after World War II that color film developed into an industry standard. Color cinematography was a commercial and aesthetic enterprise: it was one way U.S. movie studios could compete with television, a black-and-white medium, at first. By 1979, 96 percent of American films were made in color (Cook, pp. 462–3).

In 1922 the Technicolor Corporation developed a two-strip additive process. The process was plagued by several problems: during screenings the cement melted under the highintensity heat generated by projector lamps.

In 1928, Technicolor perfected a dye transfer process called imbibition printing, which became the basis for its three-color dye transfer process, the industry standard from 1935 until the mid-1950s. The strengths of Technicolor were vibrant and stable colors that aged well. But Technicolor’s de facto monopoly and the fact that the process used three times as much film stock as black-and-white cinematography meant that color films were costly to make.

The development of Eastmancolor contributed to the widespread adoption of color cinematography. Eastmancolor uses a multilayered film stock. This method produces sharper prints than the Technicolor process, but its colors are less saturated. The process became popular because film studios could use standard film cameras and process the film in their own labs, saving money.

Color—as an element of mise en scène and cinematography—allows directors to express ideas, themes, and mood. When cinematographers choose to shoot on color stock, they choose from a wide range of options. One factor that helps filmmakers decide from among these options is color quality; because the emulsion on different brands and types of film stocks varies, so does the color.

When analyzing the use of color in a film, attend to the specific ways color is used in relation to narrative, visual, and sound elements. Some questions to consider are included on page 167.

D. Wide Film and Widescreen Formats During the 1950s, U.S. movie studios developed widescreen formats as part of their campaign to compete with the popular new medium of television. These formats widened the traditional aspect ratio (a measure of the horizontal to the vertical dimension of the image) from the Academy ratio of 1.33:1 (also that of traditional television) to 1.85:1 or 2.35:1 (fig. 6.83). Currently, U.S. movie theaters project films in those latter two aspect ratios. The aspect ratio for HDTV is 1.78:1 (also referred to as 16:9).

CinemaScope and Panavision use anamorphic lens attachments to create an aspect ratio of 2.35:1 with standard 35 mm film, cameras, and projectors. Other widescreen processes involve changes in both cameras and film stock. Cinerama uses three cameras, three projectors, and a wide, curved screen. The technique was both novel and expensive.

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One method for producing a wide screen image without using special lenses or equipment is masking. Masking during shooting is rare because it is expensive to modify the camera, and this procedure sacrifices 36 percent of the image.

Wide film formats use a larger film stock than standard 35 mm stock. IMAX, Omnivax, and Showscan are shot on 70 mm film.

Vista Vision was an alternative to Cinemascope developed by Alfred Hitchcock that used standard 35 mm film stock but changed the orientation of the film so that the film moves through the camera horizontally instead of vertically.

E. Stereoscopic 3D: Then and Now The premise behind filmmaking in 3D (also called stereoscopic or S3D to distinguish it from 3D computer animation) is a very simple principle: humans see the world in three dimensions because of stereoscopic vision. Our two eyes, with their slightly different positioning, provide different visual information to the brain, which processes the discrepancy as depth.

Filmmakers have attempted to exploit opportunities for translating stereoscopic vision into 3D images since the 19th century. Those in attendance to a 1922 3D film donned spectacles that held one blue and one red lens, known as anaglyph glasses.

The anaglyph method requires that in production, two film cameras shoot two completely different strips of film, one using a red color filter and the other cyan (blue-green). The two strips of film are projected together, with a slight offset. The brain interprets the differences in the images as distance, creating the perception of depth. Although this technology is closely associated with the decade of the 1950s, anaglyph 3D is still being used.

Another 3D technology makes use of polarizing filters rather than color filters. Polarized lenses filter out light according to its direction rather than its color. Like the anaglyphic system, the polarization of one lens permits only one image to enter that eye and cancels out the image viewed through the other eye, and vice versa.

In contrast to earlier 3D technologies, RealD Cinema, the most popular 3D format, uses circular rather than linear polarization. The two images are polarized in clockwise and counterclockwise directions, rather than in vertical and horizontal directions. RealD requires only one projector, which alternately projects right and left eye images.

The 3D innovation widely credited to James Cameron and his DP Vince Pace on Avatar was the creation of a mobile stereoscopic camera outfit that used a computer to drive two lenses able to optically converge on objects as the angle of each lens changed independently. This design better approximated the way human eyes work.

Filmmakers claim that these techniques were not designed to attract attention to the technology, but, instead, to involve viewers in the action to a much greater degree, much like we experience every day life.

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F. Processing Film Stock Once a film stock has been chosen and exposed, cinematographers can achieve unusual visual effects by making choices about processing methods. A number of specific techniques have been developed. Scratching involves scraping the surface of the film to achieve the look of a home movie. Pushing a film (also known as overdevelopment) means allowing it a longer time in development, which increases contrast and density.

Pulling a film negative (underdevelopment) reduces contrast. Forced development is a technique used when lighting levels are inadequate for normal exposures. Pre-fogging or flashing the negative desaturates color. Bleach bypass printing is a process that involves leaving the silver grains in the emulsion layer rather than bleaching them out.

V. Special Visual Effects Although they are often associated with sci-fi or action films, special visual effects have been part of the film experience since the beginning of cinema and are used in all kinds of films.

Special visual effects encompass painting, model building, prosthetics, photography, and computer graphics. In industry parlance, special (or mechanical) effects are created during production while visual effects (also called optical effects) are created in post-production, but the terms are often used interchangeably.

This section of the chapter presents commonly used visual effects and looks at how they are achieved and why they might be used. Digital visual effects are created with software programs, and practitioners in the field are constantly developing and perfecting new effects with every film project, so any discussion of techniques becomes out of date very quickly. The publications below explain traditional visual effects and track new developments: American Cinematographer Cinefantastique Cinefex Digital Cinematography SMPTE Journal (Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers) VFX World Magazine Describing these effects clearly and concisely, and addressing the way they support the narrative system, contributes to a thorough film analysis.

A. Manipulating the Image on the Set Many visual effects are employed during principal photography to create optical illusions, including models, photo cutouts, makeup, prosthetics, front and rear projection, and matte paintings.

Common methods for projecting a background behind live actors during shooting are photo cutouts, and front and rear projection (fig. 6.90). Rear projection (left) requires a projector to be placed behind a screen, onto which it projects an image. Actors stand in front of the screen and the camera records them in front of the projected background (fig.

6.91).

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Matte paintings are painted backdrops, typically used in establishing shots to convey a l ocation. They are also used to extend the setting beyond the boundaries of the built set.

Glass shots are a type of matte shot, created by positioning a pane of optically flawless glass with a painting on it between the camera and scene to be photographed.

Traditional matte painting has now largely been replaced by digital matte painting, using software programs that allow artists to paint images in layers, and by digital set extension.

B. Creating Scene Transitions, Titles, and Credits: The Optical Printer An optical printer is a device that allows films to be re-photographed and has been used for numerous visual effects, including fades and dissolves (see fig. 6.3). For a fade-out, a scene is copied in the printer and near the end of the scene, the shutter is closed in increments, reducing the amount of light striking the copy. A dissolve results from copying a fade-out at the end of a scene onto the fade-in of the next scene.

With the optical printer, technicians can create freeze frames by re-photographing a single frame many times over. Double exposures are achieved in camera by exposing film frames, then rewinding the film and exposing them again (fig. 6.93, whereas optical printers are used to produce superimpositions.

Another use for the optical printer is to create split-screen effects, by exposing different areas of the frame at different times (figs. 6.53 and 6.54). Finally, optical printers are used to create titles and credits by superimposing black-and-white film with title wording over live-action footage.

C. Optical and Digital Compositing: Assembling the Elements of the Shot Compositing—also called a process shot—refers to the creation of a single image by combining elements filmed separately. Long the province of the optical printer, compositing is now largely accomplished digitally. Blue and green screen techniques refer to a compositing method that begins by shooting action against a blue or green background. This background is replaced with an image, called the background plate, through the use of a traveling matte (a mask used to cover portions of the image that move from frame to frame). The blue hue is used for optical compositing because there is so little blue in human skin that achieving the proper color balance for flesh tones in live action footage is easier. Green screens are used because they provide better resolution on video formats.

Digital compositing techniques, on the other hand, use any color background, and are used to blend live action footage with computer-generated images.

D. Performance Capture Performance capture technology is an innovative process that involves the creation of digital “humanized” characters. It has been used in a limited number of films, but is increasingly popular for sci-fi/fantasy filmmaking. The performance capture process for Avatar began with actors donning a full bodysuit studded with stripes and reference markers, and tightly fitting helmets (made from a cast of the actors’ own heads) that 71 .

aimed a digital camera at their faces and recorded expressions throughout the shoot.

These cameras tracked dots of green ink that were distributed across the actors’ faces to pick up subtle movements. Shooting took place in a CG environment dubbed “the volume” which was ringed by 120 digital cameras; data from these cameras were streamed into a software program that converted actors’ movements into those of their CG characters for Cameron to view in real time (fig. 6.96).

E. Computer-Generated Images Computer-generated imagery (CGI) was made possible by the rapid development of powerful computers during the 1970s. CGI creates background images and objects using a three-part process: developing the spatial characteristics of an object through a 3D model (also called the wireframe), rendering (producing the finished image), and then animating the object and simulating camera movement (frame by frame).

F. Adding and Subtracting Frames Morphing is a process that involves the interpolation of frames using a computer program. The process begins with the creation of starting and ending images (say, a face before and after transformation), with specific areas within the images used as anchoring points (eyes, ears, and chin). The program then calculates the way the image must change in order for the first image to become the second over a series of frames (Rickitt, p. 86).

The object appears to stretch as it metamorphoses into something else entirely (fig. 6.97).

VI. Digital Cinema: Post-Production The first uses of digital technology were in post-production, where filmmakers replaced chemical processing and optical printing with digital techniques. As with all new technologies, some visual effects artists use digital techniques imaginatively, pushing the envelope of film art; others use them to replace standard practices. Ultimately, digital processes have become integral to commercial filmmaking because they are less expensive than traditional methods and offer a director and art designer greater control.

VII. Digital Cinematography and Film Style The shift from film to digital images is motivated partly by a desire to improve on film images and also to take advantage of the flexibility of digital formats in production and exhibition. One important question to ask is whether the digital revolution has changed the nature of film as a medium composed of expressive images that are, in narrative fiction films, linked to stories.

Consider the emphasis on special visual effects and how it may be an industry response to sophisticated home viewing technologies (broadband cable, high-speed computer connections, and home theater systems).

Certain trends in filmmaking—what Denby calls the “digital spectacle”—have emerged because of these technologies. One trend is the revival of the epic blockbuster. CGI allows directors to create huge crowds through duplication, and digital compositing allows filmmakers to recreate historical eras.

Digital and 3D technologies undoubtedly will play an important role in international cinema in the future, as cinematographers and directors continue to explore their potential to dazzle.

However, they will not supplant the human dramas that also appeal to so many moviegoers. In 72 .

2010, half of the ten films nominated for the Best Picture Academy Award were character-driven dramas. In fact, directors like Cameron and Spielberg say they have availed themselves of the latest sophisticated digital technologies in order to retain the human feel of their films.

To analyze and interpret individual films, viewers must consider what digital technologies contribute to the overall system of meaning. Shock, surprise, and delight at optical and digital tricks can make watching films fun. But to unearth a greater underlying significance, those effects must be read in relation to story, character, theme, tone, and style.

Cinematography is a powerful visual tool that has always depended on a mix of old and new technologies. Whether based on photochemical or electronic processes, cinematography works in concert with narrative elements, mise en scène, editing, and sound to produce an integrated aesthetic experience.

VIII. Film Analysis: Cinematography as a Storytelling Device (Ratcatcher) This chapter has emphasized the way cinematography creates meaning in narrative fiction films.

This sample essay puts these lessons into action, describing and analyzing the way cinematography can reveal a character’s social circumstance, emotions, and thought process.

While the emphasis here is cinematography, notice that the author also includes detailed descriptions of the mise en scène. Cinematic elements are intertwined, and thoughtful analysis usually requires careful attention to how a film combines details simultaneously.

Throughout the essay, the author uses facts and ideas gathered through research to illustrate and support critical points he makes. He paraphrases the work of others, and in some passages he relies on their words in direct quotations. Comments by the film’s director and film scholars help to clarify descriptive statements about the film, provide historical context, and strengthen interpretative claims. Often scholars rely on research to help bolster ideas, but sometimes scholars use research to establish a contrasting position.

As this paper demonstrates, writers should make clear to their readers which ideas are original and which ideas are taken from other sources. That way, the reader knows who is responsible for the arguments and ideas. Study notes accompanying this essay offer pointers on how to use paraphrases and quotations, and how to document sources. Writers using a film as a primary text do not need to cite it in the bibliography, but they should be sure to acknowledge all other sources (books, journal articles, audio commentary tracks, or websites). Do not cite information that is considered common knowledge: cast and crew names, plot details, awards and release dates.

Always ask your professor or publisher for the preferred method of documentation. In the humanities, you will usually be directed to The Chicago Manual of Style or The MLA Handbook.

CHAPTER 6 (Cinematography) DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1) Watch the scene from North by Northwest known as “The Crop Dusting Sequence,” or “Prairie Stop Highway 41” on the DVD. Explain the camerawork used in this scene, including movement, as well as camera placement (height, angle and distance). How does Hitchcock use 73 .

the camera? How does the camerawork engage the viewer? What do these choices contribute to the audience’s understanding of character?

2) What is the purpose of a long take? Research the history of the long take online and summarize what the technique contributed to the aesthetic development of film as an art form.

Compare the opening long take in Welles’ Touch of Evil and with Hitchcock’s opening long take in Rope or Alfonso Cuarón’s long takes in Children of Men. Why did each director use a long take? What makes them different?

3) Watch the scene in the Wizard of Oz when Dorothy opens the door to the Land of Oz, when the sepia tones in black and white in Kansas turn into Technicolor. What is the symbolism as underscored by the change from sepia to color? How does this affect the viewer’s understanding of narrative structure, and their interpretation of character and theme?

CHAPTER 6 (Cinematography) LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND IN CLASS EXERCISES 1) What is the difference between mise en scène and cinematography?

On one hand, overemphasizing the distinction between mise en scène and cinematography could be counterproductive, encouraging students to overlook the fact that both visual components are inextricably linked and, on occasion (e.g., lighting), overlap. Developing the ability to analyze how visual details help tell stories, shape an aesthetic experience, and advance ideas is certainly a more valuable skill than mere categorization. But the tendency is to let our attention gravitate toward what is most immediately accessible, and for many students mise en scène is simply more “visible” than the many complex aspects of cinematography. Encouraging students to recognize the difference between the two can get them into the habit of looking for both when they study an image.

Try this exercise before you formally introduce the class to cinematography. Grab (or freeze) two images from a single scene, both of the same subject but from a distinctly different vantage point. Ask students to describe how the images are different from one another. A good example can be found in Run Lola Run at time code 25:26. Most should certainly notice the change in camera angle and shot distance, and astute students can see spot differences in the depth of field and in the frame’s depth.

After this brief discussion is exhausted, formally introduce cinematography and its most rudimentary elements: the camera (position, movement, and lenses), film, and the development process.

2) How can a long take capture time and space?

Screen the final sequence of The 400 Blows, beginning when Antoine escapes from the juvenile detention center. Ask students if the scene provokes excitement. Chances are, most students will say no—they tend to feel as if Antoine “runs forever.” Ask them to explore why they have this response, given the scenario that, in another filmmaking context, would be an exciting climax. If they don’t eventually settle on the fact that most of Antoine’s run is filmed in a long take (with no score for most of the shot), ask them how a Hollywood film might approached the scenario differently. You might show them another scene of a character escaping; The Texas 74 .

Chainsaw Massacre and Run Lola Run include climactic chases filmed and edited in very different styles.

As another point of comparison, screen the Copacabana scene from Goodfellas or the opening of Robert Altman’s The Player. This is another long take that exaggerates time, but which creates a strikingly different mood. Ask students to discuss how Scorsese and Altman inject excitement into the shot. This discussion could reiterate how meaning depends on narrative context and how mise en scène and sound complement cinematography (since the lively pop music and/or the frantic choreography of the extras generate much of the energy in the scenes).

3) How can camera placement influence the audience’s response?

Before screening a film (or a scene from a film), grab (or freeze) an image of a character filmed from an extreme low or high angle. For example, if you plan to use Citizen Kane, you could use the low angle shot of Thatcher from young Charles’s vantage point during their first Christmas together. Or you could use one of the many low angle shots of Charles Kane from Susan Alexander’s point of view later in the film.

Ask students to guess how the film wants audiences to perceive his character. Do they think he will be likeable? How does he treat others around him? Then ask students how they arrived at these ideas.

Screen the scene (or the film) in its entirety, and ask students to consider how understanding the shot’s context reinforces or undercuts their original impression. What other narrative or visual details convey meaning upon the cinematography?

4) Intimacy and camera distance Refer students to the stills on pp. 141-43. Ask them to identify the shots that create the most intimacy, or which enable an emotional connection between the subject(s) and audience. Use this opportunity to point out that, as a general rule, the closer the camera is to the subject, the more intimate the shot.

5) The functions of camera movement Direct students’ attention to the list of five common functions of camera movement on p. 147, and be sure to emphasize that a single camera movement can do any number of these things simultaneously. For example, the harbor scene in Gangs of New York emphasizes the continuity of time while also revealing information in a dramatic fashion (we see soldiers disembarking for war, while corpses are being unloaded) and conveys a sense of space (the camera lays out the geography of the harbor).

Students might appreciate seeing examples of how camera movement can suggest mood and emphasize the continuity of time, since these are the most abstract functions of camera movement. Demonstrate the former by comparing a scene that uses handheld camera with one that uses a tracking shot or Steadicam. Consider these three options: ✓ Compare the scene early in Goodfellas when Henry’s father beats him for skipping school with the Copacabana shot or the scene when Henry assaults Karen’s neighbor. Emphasize that in the former scene, the handheld camera suggests the frenzied, claustrophobic 75 .

environment Henry wants to flee, whereas the fluid Steadicam in the latter scenes captures Henry’s sense of self-confidence and authority. ✓ Compare any scene from Blair Witch Project with an example of prolonged camera movement from Stanley Kubrick’s The Shining (such as one of the scenes where the camera follows Danny as he rides his “big wheel” or when he runs through the maze). Emphasize how the handheld camera in Blair Witch grants audiences a first-person perspective and evokes the confusion and chaos of being terrorized, whereas the Steadicam in The Shining creates the sensation of looking at the character(s) from a coldly detached—but no less menacing—position. ✓ Compare the use of handheld camera to film Selma’s “real” life with the fluid movements of the fantasy musical sequences in Dancer in the Dark. ✓ Compare the static “surveillance camera” shots with the handheld “handicam” footage in Paranormal Activity. Both produce fear…but in the same way?

If you show the Copacabana scene to demonstrate camera movement’s relationship to time, ask students to contemplate if it would have felt differently had Scorsese chosen edit the scene rather than filming it in a long take. It might also be worthwhile asking students to consider the consequences of flubbing a line of dialogue or forgetting the blocking while filming this shot, or any long take. If you teach a classical musical, you might point out the complexity of the choreographing the camera, dancers, and (sometimes) shifting mise en scéne.

6) The camera lens and the creation of space Students will have a difficult time distinguishing between wide-angle and telephoto lenses without seeing examples in class. If you don’t have favorite examples of each ready to show your class, consider screening a scene or two from Paths of Glory and a scene from M*A*S*H before they read the chapter on cinematography. Since many students are already familiar with the TV show M*A*S*H, consider starting with this film. Ask students these questions: ✓ [Begin by introducing the idea that much of the film’s humor derives from pointing out the absurd illusion of military hierarchy:] Can you understand who is talking to whom? How does the mise en scène add to the confusion? ✓ [Now encourage students to discuss how the visual qualities of the cinematography further suggest the disintegration of order: (Focusing on a frozen image with shallow focus)] Who is in focus? If this movie is trying to evoke an aura of chaos in the military camp, is it suggestive that only one or a few people are in focus at any given point? What does it suggest about the way these soldiers interact with one another?

Does it look like these soldiers have a lot of space around them to move about? Why not? How does this sense of claustrophobia add to the film’s depiction of military confusion?

Now screen one or two scenes from Paths of Glory, or refer students to the stills on pp. 158-159.

Ask students these questions: ✓ How does the imagery compare with what you saw in M*A*S*H? Focus your attention on the mise en scène—is it easier to distinguish officers from troops in this film? Why? ✓ What do you notice about the focus in each shot? Your sense of depth? ✓ Do you think Kubrick is suggesting disarray in the military in the same way Altman is in M*A*S*H? If so, in which scene does this occur (only the scene where Dax 76 .

leads troops across no-man’s land does the image suggest chaotic space and movement). How do the differences in visual style contribute to your hypothesis?

It will probably be necessary to spend time helping students distinguish between zooms and tracking shots. ✓ Remember that a wide-angle lens exaggerates depth, and a telephoto lens flattens depth. If a zoom lens shifts from a short focal length to a long focal length in a continuous shot, how will the image change? [Explain that the image is magnified, as opposed to what happens in tracking shots, in which the camera moves closer to the subject. Some describe the zoom effect as having the subject “pulled toward” the audience—that space seems to collapse and depth disappears. Show examples of both to illustrate the difference.]

7) Your eye, film, and the world.

To help students “picture” the multitude of ways film stock affects picture quality, ask students these questions: ✓ How many of you have ever purchased film for a camera or bought a disposable camera? ✓ Did you walk into the store and grab the first camera or roll of film you saw, or did it take you a few minutes to decide what you wanted? ✓ What concerns did you consider as you weighed your options? Whether or not the film would fit in your camera? Color vs. black and white? Indoor vs. outdoor shooting? Suitable for flash photography? ✓ In this era, many students have only taken digital pictures. Discuss how new cell phone apps can make digital pictures look “retro” by replicating the effects of shooting on different types of stock, changing the aperture, etc.

Emphasize that, in going through this process, they were pre-determining some of the photographic qualities of their pictures: color, sensitivity to light, and grain.

Draw students’ attention to the stills on pp. 164-167, and discuss differences in color and shades of black and white. Be sure to emphasize that filters and processing techniques can also affect the color quality of an image.

8) Color, realism, and convention.

Many students tend to categorize film into two camps--black and white, and color—without acknowledging that color cinematography encompasses a broad spectrum of color palettes. This tendency reflects a broader mindset that links color cinematography to heightened “realism” and black and white with inadequate representation and artificiality. Address this assumption and encourage students to think about color cinematography as a convention that demands careful scrutiny to understand how color functions in a film. Consider this series of questions: ✓ How many of you prefer color to black and white films? Why? (Presumably, many students will say they prefer color because they seem more “real.”) ✓ If you go into the electronics section of a department store and you see countless TVs sitting side by side playing the same channel, you’ve no doubt noticed how each one has a different color quality. Which one is the most realistic? (At this point, emphasize that color quality is the product of aesthetic choice and chance—it can be determined by any number of factors during production, post-production, and exhibition).

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✓ Refer students to the color stills throughout the chapter. Have them describe the differences among the different images. Make it clear that the color palette of an image deserves careful attention and precise description. ✓ If you want a wider range of examples, these films are especially useful: The Piano (the exterior shots in particular have a bluish sheen to suggest how Ada is emotionally “drowning”) Meanstreets (the bar scenes have a deep red sheen, suggesting that the environment is Hell) Dancer in the Dark (factory scenes are examples of desaturated color) Do the Right Thing (saturated reds and yellows evoke the heat of the day) Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind (changes in color help depict an altered reality) Children of Men (Desaturated grays and earth tones capture the corrosive ennui that grips the central character, and more broadly evoke the gradual collapse of British society) Pan’s Labyrinth (dramatic changes in the color palette are motivated by the narrative) ✓ Follow this discussion by comparing different black and white “looks.” Begin with a discussion of the stills p. 164. Other examples might include the grainy black and white cinematography in Stranger than Paradise, Go Fish (Troche 1994), or Nadja (Almereyda 1995) with the crispness of Schindler’s List or John Boorman’s The General.

9) What is a special effect?

To encourage students to appreciate that special effects can create a wide array of illusions, and not just bursting fireballs, monsters, and space ships, consider playing the newsreel sequence in Citizen Kane. Ask students to list the special effects they notice as they watch it. Then discuss all of the effects Welles and Toland employ—most of which students probably didn’t notice (e.g. using models and matte shots, scratching the negative, etc.).

If you have the DVD, students will find Roger Ebert’s commentary during this sequence especially enlightening, especially when he makes the claim that Kane has more special effects than Star Wars (generally regarded as the standard bearer of special effects).

OUT OF CLASS EXERCISES 1) Fun with flipbooks To demonstrate how persistence of vision and the phi phenomenon help transform still images to moving images, pass around a flipbook, then ask students to make their own in the corner of their notebooks or a cheap paperback. On the first page, they should crudely draw a character or object in the midst of an action (e.g., a person is running from left to right past a giant cactus).

On the next page, they should draw roughly the same image, but progress the action slightly (e.g., the person’s leg is slightly higher and the cactus is positioned ever so slightly further to the left). Students continue this process until they reach the end of the book. When they flip the corners of the book, the image will appear to move.

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Encourage students to design their “shot” around a simple narrative (e.g., the character’s suspenders get caught on the cactus and pull him backwards into the prickly spines.)

2) Designing a shot Screen a single shot from a film you have already discussed in class. Ask students to do the following: ✓ Describe the shot using precise terminology and analyze its narrative function. ✓ Write a brief description of how you would redesign the shot, altering at least two elements of cinematography. ✓ Write a brief analysis of how these alterations would affect the way audiences respond.

3) Writing exercise Ask students to write a paragraph that describes and interprets a shot. The paragraph should include a quote or paraphrased material from a secondary source (e.g., direct students to quote the textbook or the DVD’s audio commentary track corresponding to the shot).

Suggestion: Show students a shot from the court martial scene in Paths of Glory. There are several effective high angle shots of the defendants in the foreground, surrounded by guards.

Have students 1) describe the shot in detail, 2) explain how the shot suggests the defendant’s vulnerability, and 3) quote or paraphrase this sentence: “The deep space and symmetrical composition reinforce the hierarchical military power structure and the entrapment of the ordinary man within that system” (p. 159). Make sure students document the source material (in this case, the textbook) following your standards.

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C

HAPTER 7: EDITING

CHAPTER 7 (Editing) LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, students should be able to: 1) identify, explain and analyze the three attributes of editing: collage, tempo, and timing.

2) identify five common shot transitions.

3) explain how editing can condense or expand narrative time, suggest the simultaneity of events, and rearrange the sequence in which events appear onscreen.

4) identify three editing techniques used to draw audiences into the story space: the shot/reverse shot, the eyeline match, and the cutaway.

5) identify and explain the common practices for maintaining continuity in editing: following the standard shot pattern, adhering to the 180-degree rule, using shot transitions to indicate the passage of time, avoiding continuity errors, adhering to a plausible narrative chronology, and insuring that editing has a narrative function.

6) recognize when French New Wave directors and others intentionally break from the conventions of continuity editing.

7) understand and recognize the basic philosophy of Soviet montage as practiced by V.I. Pudovkin, Dziga Vertov, and Sergei Eisenstein.

8) adopt strategies for creating effectively structured paragraphs.

CHAPTER 7 (Editing) OVERVIEW • • • • • •

This chapter emphasizes how all editing, even that used in completely abstract films, consists of three attributes: collage (joining images), tempo (adjusting the rhythm and pace), and timing (orchestrating shot transitions in relation to other visual and aural detail).

In narrative films, editing helps shape the way audiences perceive time and space and how they link plot elements.

Editing shapes the way time is presented onscreen in four ways: suggesting continuously flowing action; manipulating the length of time; suggesting the simultaneity of events; and arranging the order of events.

Editing can draw the audience’s attention to important details of the narrative space by employing three different devices: the shot/reverse shot, the eyeline match, and the cutaway.

Many films follow the standards of continuity editing, a method for clearly presenting space and time.

Editing can suggest more abstract ideas that transcend the literal scope of a film’s narrative in two ways: by departing from the conventional rules of continuity editing and by employing associational editing.

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CHAPTER 7 (Editing) SUMMARY I.

Introduction

E

diting is the process of joining together two or more shots. Editing has several

practical functions: it makes the logistics of crafting feature-length films (involving multiple lines of action) possible; it makes scenes easier to choreograph; and it cuts down on production costs.

Because a traditional motion picture camera magazine holds less than fifteen minutes’ worth of film stock at a time, making a conventionally shot feature film would be impossible without editing multiple shots together. Only recently has the development of digital video and computer technology made the concept of a full-length, one-shot film possible.

Furthermore, editing allows filmmakers to simplify the choreography in each shot. Any continuous shot of more than a minute—called a long take—demands perfect choreography; actors and actresses must remember their lines of dialogue and blocking, while the camera operators must move the camera in perfect timing with the cast.

Editing also contributes to the aesthetic quality of a film. In contemporary films, rapid, purely kinetic cutting creates visual dynamism, drawing on the style of music videos.

But beyond its purely practical and aesthetic functions, editing can also convey important information.

At its core, editing involves the manipulation of three things: the graphic qualities of two or more shots, the tempo at which these shots change, and the timing of each shot in relationship to other elements of the film. After examining each of these three elements of editing, this chapter looks first at how editing can be used in narrative films to construct the meaning of the story that the viewer sees unfolding on screen, and then at how editing can produce meaning at a more abstract level, by defying audience expectations and by creating visual associations.

Inset Box: The Kuleshov Effect One of the basic theoretical principles of editing is that the meaning produced by joining two shots together transcends the visual information contained in each individual shot. In 1917, Soviet filmmaker Lev Kuleshov, a pioneer in editing techniques, began publishing articles on film as an art form, and eventually forming the Kuleshov Workshop. Kuleshov experimented with editing techniques and audience responses to them as they interpreted what they saw. His discovery illustrated that the meaning of a shot was determined not only by the material content of the shot, but also by its association with the preceding and succeeding shots. This general principle of editing is called the Kuleshov effect.

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II. The Attributes of Editing: Creating Meaning Through Collage, Tempo, and Timing A. Joining Images: A Collage of Graphic Qualities Editing forms a collage, an assortment of images joined together in a sequence. When images are joined, audiences formulate ideas and derive meaning by comparing the visual details of each shot. Editing can also encourage audiences to compare and contrast the cinematographic qualities of each shot. The director of a film can be acutely aware of the way abrupt changes in camera positioning can evoke an emotional response, and take advantage of that.

Careful attention to the editing in what appears to be a purely functional scene will demonstrate how many elements of the visual system a director can bring into play during a scene that revolves around the restrained dialogue between two characters.

Editing is the combination of imagery, creating meaning by the play of one image against another. Editing complements dialogue by shaping visual information to evoke a response from the audience on emotional and intellectual levels.

Editing can also emphasize similarities between shots, establishing a point of comparison between two people, places, or things. A graphic match is when two shots are juxtaposed in a way that emphasizes their visual similarities.

B. Tempo Filmmakers also encourage emotional and intellectual responses by adjusting tempo. The tempo in editing can be affected by two factors: the length of each shot and the type of shot transition—the visual effect used to move from one shot to the next.

1) Shot Length The most obvious way that editors adjust tempo is by controlling the length of each shot: long takes tend to slow down the pace of a scene, while short takes quicken pace and intensity. Most movies combine long takes and short takes to allow for more variation and sophistication in the narrative pacing.

Scholars have studied the average shot length in films and discovered that the average shot in contemporary films is shorter than the average shot in older films.

Recent studies have shown that, with the advent of digital editing devices, shots are increasingly becoming shorter. The tendency to rely on such rapid editing in recent films may explain why younger audiences are not initially receptive to older films: they seem slow-paced.

2) Shot Transitions The second way in which filmmakers adjust the rhythm of editing is through shot transitions. A shot transition is the method of replacing one shot on screen with a second. The most common shot transition is the cut, when Shot A abruptly ends and Shot B immediately begins. A second common shot transition is the fadeout/fade-in, in which Shot A gradually darkens until the screen is completely 82 .

black (or white, or red, or some other solid color) and then Shot B gradually appears. A third common shot transition is the dissolve (sometimes called overlapping, or lap dissolve), in which Shot A gradually disappears, while, simultaneously, Shot B gradually appears. Unlike fades, with a dissolve, the two shots will temporarily be superimposed. The viewer sees the two images overlapping one another (see fig. 7.19).

One function of these transitions is to help convey the passage of time, but they also affect the pacing of a scene. Cuts are almost invariably used within scenes because they connote an instantaneous change. They immediately alter the image, quickening the pace of the action. Even in a scene that relies primarily on long takes (and, hence, slow pacing), a cut often suggests a sudden change in mood or character dynamic.

Using shot transitions to join scenes affects the pace of a sequence or an entire movie. Fades can have an especially pronounced effect on the pace of a film because they give audiences a literal visual pause in the action.

Dissolves, fades, irises, and wipes rarely occur within scenes, since most scenes take place over an uninterrupted period of time. When they do occur within scenes, they usually introduce a memory or a fantasy.

C. Adjusting the Timing of Shot Transitions The third way filmmakers use editing to produce meaning is by placing shot transitions so that they coincide with other visual and sound elements. The placement of shot transitions in relationship to these elements can punctuate the emotional and intellectual content of a scene. In narrative films, cutting within scenes tends to correspond to lines of dialogue.

Shot transitions may also correspond to visual cues. Editing can be timed to coincide with action. Careful analysis of editing demands consideration of how any single edit can exploit all three attributes of editing simultaneously for expressive purposes.

D. Techniques in Practice: Using Contrasting Imagery and Timing to Romanticize the Outlaws in Bonnie and Clyde Audiences in 1967 flocked to see Arthur Penn’s new gangster film Bonnie and Clyde. Although the film was panned by a number of influential film critics, young viewers were drawn to the two characters. An analysis of two crucial scenes from the film illustrates how Penn uses editing to draw a contrast between the honesty, openness, and altruism of the outlaws and the dishonesty and hypocrisy of the establishment.

Throughout, Bonnie and Clyde underscores the integrity of the Barrow gang in contrast to the deceitfulness of the authority figures who pursue them. In linking the couple’s innocence and moral integrity with images of tranquility and 83 .

openness, the film romanticizes the two outlaws, who are ruthlessly gunned down by a corrupt establishment.

III. Story-Centered Editing and the Construction of Meaning All films consisting of multiple shots, even those that do not tell stories, draw on the three attributes of editing discussed above. But almost all popular films revolve around a story, and, as Chapter 4 emphasizes, stories usually unfold over a period of time greater than the screen time and take place in a number of different spaces. In narrative films, editing’s primary functions are to shape the audience’s sense of time and to draw the audience’s attention to important details of the story space.

A. Editing and Time Narrative films tell stories by splicing (joining together) multiple shots to convey the cause-and-effect logic of the plot. The order in which an audience sees shots determines how the audience perceives the storyline. At the simplest level, as editors arrange shots within a scene, they have to create the illusion that the succession of shots depicts continuously flowing action. The arrangement of images to depict a unified story time is called narrative sequencing.

In addition to creating the illusion of chronological time, narrative sequencing allows filmmakers to shape the audience’s perception of time in three ways: to condense or expand time; to suggest the simultaneity of events happening in different settings; and to rearrange the order in which audiences see events.

1) Condensing and Expanding Time The most obvious way narrative sequencing shapes how audiences perceive narrative time is by cutting out unnecessary events. The plot in most narrative films shows us only those actions and events that directly affect the outcome of the storyline. Narrative sequencing often achieves a purely functional purpose—it keeps the audience’s attention from flagging.

But in the process of manipulating time, narrative sequencing can also help a film develop emotional and/or intellectual intricacy. Changes in time and space invite audiences to make an immediate comparison between two distinct points in time.

Changes in time may mark the presence of central conflicts or emphasize important stages in character development.

Eliding time can also emphasize more abstract themes. Sometimes filmmakers use a montage sequence to indicate the passage of time. Instead of merely excising a period of time altogether via a dissolve or a fade-out, a montage sequence emphasizes the actual process of passing time (albeit in a condensed form). Montage sequences consist of several shots, each one occurring at a different point in time, and each joined together by an appropriate shot transition.

A montage sequence can span hours, one day, a few months, or years.

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In addition to condensing or eliminating time, editing also allows filmmakers to expand time by arranging multiple overlapping shots of a single action, so that portions of the action are repeated as it unfolds.

2) Suggesting the Simultaneity of Events Narrative sequencing also involves arranging the order in which audiences see events. For example, editing can suggest multiple lines of action unfolding simultaneously. Parallel editing, sometimes called cross-cutting, is when a filmmaker cuts back and forth between two or more events occurring in different spaces, usually suggesting that these events are happening at the same time. Often filmmakers use parallel editing to create suspense. Sometimes a filmmaker uses parallel editing to compare two or more lines of action. In addition to suggesting that the depicted events are occurring simultaneously, such sequences also help develop themes.

3) Arranging the Order of Events Editing can also allow filmmakers to rearrange the sequence in which events are shown. Editing makes possible the expressive potential of those moments when a film’s syzuhet reorders chronology to suggest a similarity between two points in time or a cause-and-effect relationship. The most common example of this is the flashback, when events taking place in the present are “interrupted” by images or scenes that have taken place in the past. Flashbacks typically emphasize important causal factors in a film’s fabula.

Editing also allows filmmakers to reveal a character’s dreams or fantasies. Like a flashback, a dream is usually signaled by a shot transition that indicates the boundary between reality and fantasy.

B. Editing and Space One of the many distinctions between film and theater is film’s ability to draw audiences into the story space. When viewers see a play, their perspective is determined and limited by the distance between their seats and the stage. Early filmmakers relied largely on the tableau shot, a long shot in which the frame of the image resembles the proscenium arch of a stage (fig. 7.23). The audience’s perspective, in other words, is consistently distanced from the action onscreen, as it would be if they were watching a play.

Editing focuses the audience’s attention on anything from the microscopic to the grand.

Filmmakers cut within scenes, they can draw the viewer’s attention to a number of things, including the emotional tenor of a conversation, the objects of a character’s gaze, important details in the mise en scène, and the group dynamics of a scene.

1) Shot/Reverse Shot One of the most important editing techniques within a scene is the shot/reverse shot, a standard shot pattern that directors use to film conversations between two characters. This method dictates that a shot of a character speaking will be followed by a shot of another character’s response, taken by a camera placed at the reverse angle of the first shot.

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In general, actors avoid speaking directly to the viewer, because doing so acknowledges the audience’s presence and destroys the illusion of a naturally unfolding story.

One way filmmakers can tap into the expressive potential of the shot/reverse shot is to orchestrate the timing of cuts, so that the editing punctuates dramatic lines of dialogue or important movement onscreen. Editors can also exploit patterns of repetition and change for effect. Typically, the alternating images in a shot/reverse shot sequence create a somewhat repetitious pattern. That is, when filmmakers return to a reverse angle, they often use a shot that is more or less consistent with the previous reverse-angle shot. However, editing can signal important shifts in the emotional dynamics of a scene by suddenly altering this pattern.

2) Eyeline Match A second key technique editors sometimes use to shape the audience’s understanding of the geography of a scene is the eyeline match. This match cut uses a character’s line of sight to motivate the cut. If a filmmaker wants to emphasize that a character is looking at a particular prop or another person, she will include a shot of the character looking offscreen, followed by a shot of the object or person that the character observes. This sequence of shots makes spatial relationships clear to the audience and guides viewers through a character’s thought process.

3) Cutting to Emphasize Group Dynamics In scenes involving more than one or two characters, filmmakers sometimes cut to specific areas of the mise en scène to help suggest complex group dynamics. This occurs frequently in scenes where the characters have conflicting goals and distinct character traits, where editing can help portray a complex interweaving of different emotions, types of behavior, and physical responses to stimuli.

4) Cutaways Editing may also draw attention to non-human elements of the mise en scène that will influence the plot or help develop the theme of a film. Shots that focus the audience’s attention on precise details are called cutaways. Unlike an eyeline match, a cutaway is not character-centered; the onscreen appearance of an object does not depend on a character having to “see it” in the previous shot.

In short, editing offers filmmakers a powerful tool for drawing the audience’s attention to what is important within the diegetic space. It allows filmmakers to bring the audience’s perspective closer to (or further from) the action that unfolds in the story space and tells the audience what it should notice and when.

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IV. Beyond Narrative: Creating Meaning Outside the Story So far this chapter has focused largely on the ways editing can generate story-centered meaning: how editing helps filmmakers indicate the passage of time and how editing emphasizes important narrative details in a scene. But there are two significant means by which editing can produce abstract ideas: it can defy audience expectations by departing from the “rules” of continuity editing, and it can associate two images with one another to produce meaning on the level of metaphor.

A. Continuity Editing: Conventional Patterns and “Bending the Rules” Audiences have expectations about how editing should function in a narrative film. Most importantly, audiences expect to see editing that is carefully calibrated with the action on screen. Most contemporary viewers might be put off by films that advance Bazin’s mise en scène aesthetic (see pp. 122–4). Bazin advocated the use of long takes so that audiences experience an unmediated unfolding of reality. Some viewers may initially find the long take aesthetic tedious because they expect dramatic cutting to accentuate the emotional content of any given scene.

This point illustrates how Western audiences have very specific expectations about what editing should look like. These expectations are shaped by the Hollywood standard, which is called continuity editing, or invisible editing, because the cutting is so seamless from one shot to the next that audiences in the movie theater are not even aware that they are seeing an assembled sequence of images. In their attempt to “hide” the hundreds or thousands of shot transitions that make up an average feature film, continuity editors face two central challenges: to depict space with a coherent geography, and to create the illusion that narrative time unfolds in a linear fashion.

One major concern of continuity editing is to ensure that audiences have a clear sense of the geography of a scene. Because editing is a collage of collected images, changing shots can cause confusion. Any time a scene cuts to a new shot, the image becomes fragmented and the scene’s coherence could potentially rupture. Continuity editing works to hide this fragmentation by employing two strategies: it relies on a systematic order for presenting shots and it maintains the consistency of direction on screen. These standard practices help ensure that audiences perceive the story space as unified and coherent.

1) Continuity and Space To begin, editors usually rely on a standard shot pattern, which helps to orient audiences to the setting and spatial characteristics of a scene. Typically a scene begins with an establishing shot, which is usually (but not always) a long shot designed to clarify when and where the scene is taking place in relation to the previous scene and to provide an overview of the entire setting.

Continuity editing demands that filmmakers rely on standardized techniques—the shot/reverse shot and the eyeline match—to ensure that audiences understand why they are being shown this information.

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As a scene ends, there is often a re-establishing shot, another long shot that reorients viewers to the environment and offers closure to the scene, paving the way for the next scene.

Another way for filmmakers to ensure that audiences do not lose track of the setting’s spatial arrangement as the scene moves from shot to shot, is to follow the 180-degree rule. This rule dictates that, within a scene, once the camera starts filming on one side of the action, it will continue filming on that same side of the action for the rest of the scene unless there is a clearly articulated justification for crossing “the axis of action.”

In short, the 180-degree rule helps maintain consistent screen direction and spatial unity. Within a scene, the axis of action may shift. If characters move, or if new characters enter the scene, the line adjusts accordingly, through reframing and, perhaps, a re-establishing shot. Most filmmakers conscientiously work to ensure that audiences perceive the direction of movement as consistent across shots.

2) Continuity and Chronology In addition to maintaining a coherent story space, continuity editing also regulates the audience’s sense of linear time. Because editing is the art of joining images filmed at two or more distinct points in time, editing itself jeopardizes the illusion of chronological continuity. The best way to establish this illusion is to present events chronologically. As a rule, events appear onscreen in the order in which they occur in the fabula. Any exceptions to this principle are almost always motivated by narrative events.

Likewise, actions don’t get repeated unless they happen more than once in the story, or the repetition is motivated (for example, a character has a flashback). If the plot requires a flashback or dream sequence, to minimize disruption editors will include an appropriate shot transition, such as a fade or a dissolve. Such transitions ease audiences into the new location and time. An abrupt, inexplicable shift in the time and place of an action, which is not “announced” by a transition, results in a jump cut.

To preserve visual continuity, filmmakers generally adhere to the 30-degree rule, which dictates that the camera should move at least 30 degrees any time there is a cut within a scene. Moving the camera at least 30 degrees gives the cut dramatic purpose. Failure to do so gives the editing a feeling of unnecessary or random fragmentation.

Adding to the challenges of an editor working to maintain the illusion of linear time is the fact that he is invariably working with footage shot out of order and must choose from multiple takes of the same material. Most film crews contain at least one continuity editor (sometimes called the script supervisor), whose job is to maintain consistency of action from shot to shot. Any unintentional discrepancy from shot to shot—an inexplicable change in location, in costume, in posture, in hairstyle—is called a continuity error.

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Continuity editors also ensure that cutting from shot to shot maintains a match on action. If a cut occurs while a character is in the midst of an action, the subsequent shot must begin so that audiences see the completion of that action, thus guaranteeing the illusion of fluid, continuous movement.

B. “Breaking the Rules”: The French New Wave and its Influence Because continuity editing is the norm, most film scholarship does not concern itself with discussing how a film adheres to the Hollywood standard. But critics and scholars do notice when a film departs from these conventions. Some films (such as Seconds) accidentally break the rules. But some filmmakers intentionally break them. One of the most important movements in cinema history, the French New Wave (Nouvelle Vague), is important because it openly defied conventions of so-called “quality filmmaking” such as continuity editing.

As the name implies, this movement—which lasted roughly from the late 1950s to the mid-1960s—rejected the staid traditions of French cinema. What united the most prominent directors of the New Wave—including François Truffaut, Jean Luc Godard, Agnès Varda, and Claude Chabrol—was a commitment to exploring the expressive promise of cinema and to tapping its potential to do more than simply adapt classic literature.

A willingness to challenge the conventions of editing is characteristic of the best films of the period. New Wave directors readily used wipes and irises—transitions that were, by that point, considered crude relics of the silent era. The fact that New Wave directors flagrantly used these techniques announced their desire to investigate the language of the cinema, to experiment with storytelling, and to liberate the cinema from the constrictive conventions of the day. New Wave directors routinely discarded rules of continuity. New Wave directors felt that returning to the medium’s basic techniques and elements would propel film art forward.

The devil-may-care philosophy of the French New Wave has had a dramatic impact on American filmmaking since the 1960s, especially among independent directors.

Inset Box: Continuity Editing During principal photography, the continuity editor (or script supervisor) maintains a record of each shot to guarantee consistency from take to take. Her notes would specify each actor’s costume and position, and the arrangement of the mise en scène in general at the end of each take. After the principal photography is completed, the editor works with the director to combine and cull the footage. To build a scene, directors and editors combine master shots—takes that cover the entire scene—with reaction shots, cutaways, and B-roll (secondary footage that may depart from the main subject of a scene, such as an exterior shot of the building where a scene takes place). Because any single take may be filmed from multiple vantage points simultaneously, editors study footage on an editing deck that allows them to watch several takes at once before deciding which is the best one for the scene. An assistant editor catalogs all the takes, inspects the condition of the negative, and supervises the creation of optical effects (often contracted out). A negative cutter assembles the entire negative and cuts and splices it together, 89 .

adhering to the editor’s decisions. Positive prints are then made from the negative. As digital post-production technologies have become the norm, the tools available to the editor have changed.

C. Associational Editing: Editing and Metaphor One of the great challenges of spoken language is finding a way to articulate abstract feelings or ideas. Writers run up against the limitations of the word when they are faced with having to describe something as basic, yet as abstruse, as romantic longing or fear.

Authors use metaphors and similes to help their readers visualize what would otherwise be an indescribable feeling. Editing also has the power to encourage audiences to meditate on equally abstract ideas.

1) Soviet Montage Soviet montage is a style of editing built around the theory that editing should highlight the differences between shots to produce meaning. It was developed and perfected in Russia during the silent film era of the 1920s, when the Soviet regime had just come to power. Soviet leaders believed that film was an effective political tool, and filmmakers saw editing as the key to involving the audience in political and intellectual revolution. Exploiting the Kuleshov effect became the guiding principle of three of the major Soviet filmmakers in the 1920s: V.I. Pudovkin, Dziga Vertov (Denis Kaufman), and Sergei Eisenstein. These filmmakers studied D.W. Griffith’s Intolerance (1916), a film that uses editing to establish thematic parallels between and among three unrelated narratives. All three directors experimented with the notion that, just as audiences could derive an emotional meaning from the juxtaposition of two completely unrelated shots, so, too, they could understand abstract political ideas.

Among the chief practitioners of montage editing there was some debate about how editing conveys ideas to the audience. Eisenstein’s editing self-consciously created visual collisions. He advocated what he called a “dramatic principle” of editing, by which “montage is an idea that arises from the collision of independent shots—shots even opposite to one another.” (Eisenstein, p. 49) Eisenstein described how Pudovkin, on the other hand, believed in an “epic principle,” which held that “montage is the means of unrolling an idea with the help of single shots.” (Eisenstein, p. 49) In other words, Pudovkin maintained that editing had the greatest power as an integral part in a series of narrative events.

As the Soviet practitioners understood, editing synthesizes the cinematography and mise en scène of individual shots into a series of images that, when taken as a whole, transcend the limitations of any one of the images in isolation.

Editing is the last of film’s three visual elements described in this book. While this chapter has emphasized how a film creates meaning by combining images, the next chapter will explore how film creates meaning by combining those images with sound.

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2) Techniques in Practice: Soviet Montage Aesthetics in The Godfather Soviet montage never caught on as a popular approach to filmmaking. It eventually fell out of favor under Stalin’s regime, and even at the height of his productivity, Eisenstein’s films weren’t necessarily popular among audiences in the Soviet Union. Nevertheless, this aesthetic approach has had a lingering impact on other filmmakers. While Hollywood filmmaking is still largely wedded to the priority of telling a good, gripping story, some films incorporate Soviet montage as a means of offering shorthand commentary on characters, or of adding a layer of complexity to theme.

By and large, Francis Ford Coppola’s The Godfather adheres to the standards of continuity editing. Nevertheless, the film provocatively combines continuity editing and montage editing to add layers of complexity to the story. In particular, Coppola uses montage editing to show that the Mafia justifies its dishonorable activities (murder) by linking them to honorable values (the importance of family and loyalty).

V. Film Analysis: Classical Editing: Editing in Notorious This essay analyzes a scene from Alfred Hitchcock’s Notorious. It complements the brief analysis on page 197 of the patio scene, which explores how tempo can affect the emotional tenor of the scene. Notice that this analysis considers the way that all three attributes of editing—collage, tempo, and timing—contribute to the scene’s expressiveness.

Study Notes accompanying the essay discuss strategies for writing effective paragraphs. When we begin to read and write, we learn that paragraphs are units of organization that play a pivotal role in helping readers discern major ideas and assimilate information. While there is no standard or ideal length for a paragraph (indeed, variation is an important writing strategy), longer paragraphs run the risk of incorporating too many ideas, which all struggle for attention at the same time. Shorter paragraphs, on the other hand, may introduce important ideas without offering enough discussion to develop those ideas or explain their significance.

For these reasons, good writers take great pains to organize paragraphs around a single idea. The sidebars stress how each paragraph is structured in order to foreground interpretive claims. This helps the reader follow the argument’s main points.

CHAPTER 7 (Editing) DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1) View the shower scene from Hitchcock’s Psycho. Try and count the individual shots that comprise the entire scene. How complicated was the editing for this scene? How does the pacing of the scene affect viewers? Could this scene have been shot as a long take?

2) The “Techniques in Practice” section of this chapter on The Godfather mentions the parallel editing of the film’s climax between the baptism and the execution of the opposing Mafia families. View this scene and discuss how collage and timing both play an important role in establishing the metaphors this scene conveys. Bear in mind that the parallel editing used here was not part of the originally planned production sequence. Coppola decided to use this technique while the film was in post-production.

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CHAPTER 7 (Editing) LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES 1) Why do filmmakers use editing?

By exposing students to an example of non-conventional editing, this exercise encourages them to recognize conventional ways editing controls the rhythm of a scene and conveys dramatic information.

Show students a long, uninterrupted take. A shot from Alfred Hitchcock’s Rope (1948) or Jim Jarmusch’s Stranger Than Paradise (1984) would work nicely for this exercise (both films rely on long takes throughout; shots in Rope are roughly ten minutes long). ✓ Ask students if they notice something unusual about the excerpt you screen—see if they can spot the absence of cutting within a scene. If not, ask students to describe their responses to the pacing and the emotional content of the scene. Chances are they will notice that the pace is slow, and that they are observing the goings-on from a more distanced or neutral perspective than they are used to seeing in films. If students do notice the absence of cutting, get them to articulate how this choice affects the way they respond to the scene. ✓ Put students in the filmmaker’s shoes. Ask them what risks the filmmaker who uses long takes faces. What happens if one of the actors misses his line or forgets her blocking?

Remind students of the differences between film and videotape; if someone makes a mistake, the exposed film stock is lost. ✓ The ultimate goal of this exercise is to demonstrate two points: to demonstrate that editing plays a powerful role in conveying narrative information, and that it allows filmmakers flexibility in terms of choreographing a scene and choosing the best performances from among a multitude of takes.

2) How does editing influence the way audiences respond to information onscreen?

Begin this activity by screening an action sequence from a film. The climactic ambush from Bonnie and Clyde is ideal for this exercise, because of its historical importance and its masterful use of a variety of editing techniques. Be sure to begin the sequence as Bonnie and Clyde are driving and casually talking to one another. ✓ Ask students to clap at each cut (hence the importance of beginning the clip when Bonnie and Clyde are on the road . . . when the takes are relatively lengthy). This exercise really helps students recognize when cutting occurs—a crucial lesson, since many have difficulty simply noticing editing. ✓ Eventually the classroom erupts into a cacophony of spastic clapping and laughter as the moment of violence approaches, and the cutting becomes so rapid students can’t keep up.

When the scene is over, ask students to describe how the rhythm of their clapping changed and why. Emphasize that they have just noticed one attribute of editing at work: tempo.

Point out that the tempo slows down as the massacre continues and becomes positively lethargic after the bullets stop flying—excitement gives way to pathos. ✓ Ask students what Bonnie and Clyde’s final thoughts are. They should recognize that the outlaws’ last thoughts are of one another. Now ask students how they know, even without dialogue. Point out how the cutting back and forth between close-ups of Bonnie and Clyde wordlessly conveys their longing for one another and demonstrates a second attribute of editing: collage, or the joining of images. ✓ Ask students when Bonnie and Clyde have their moment of realization.

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3) Same images, different context Students tend to have difficulty seeing how editing has a different (though usually complementary) impact on audiences than cinematography alone. Conduct your own version of Kuleshov’s experiments to help students see the expressive power of editing.

Find a scene from a movie you’ve screened that uses shot/reverse-shot to depict a heightened emotional encounter between two characters (e.g., a fight or a tearful reunion). Isolate a frame from that scene that captures just one of the characters in a close-up or medium close-up, and dub this frame onto a DVD. Then find another frame from a different scene that uses a long shot to film the subject. Dub this frame onto the DVD so that it immediately follows the first shot.

So that students have time to process both shots, consider freezing both images when you dub them. Then dub the first scene as it originally appeared in the film so that students have a point of comparison.

Discuss how and why the first shot “means” something different when it is take out of context.

In its original context, the close-up probably suggested emotional intensity. Is this intensity still present in the refashioned version?

Alternative suggestion: Show students the final shot of North by Northwest of the train entering the tunnel. Ask students to comment on what it depicts or means. Then show the preceding shot of Thornhill pulling Eve into their wedding bed followed by the shot of the train and ask them to reconsider their initial responses to the image of the train. This exercise demonstrates the power of collage and the Kuleshov effect.

4) How can the combination of images create a metaphor or suggest an abstract idea?

To demonstrate Sergei Eisenstein’s theory of dynamic juxtaposition, project a few ideograms for the class and have students decipher their meaning. The following examples are Eisenstein’s own, taken from “The Cinematographic Principle and the Ideogram.” (available in Film Theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings. 4th ed. Eds. Gerald Mast, Marshall Cohen, and Leo Braudy. New York and Oxford: Oxford UP, 1992. 127-138.)

A dog + a mouth=”to bark”; A mouth + a child=”to scream”; A mouth + a bird=”to sing”; A knife + a heart=”sorrow” (128) As an alternative, have students design their own. The critical point that you should get across is that the ideogram reflects the Soviet Montage theory of editing. In Eisenstein’s words, “It is exactly what we do in the cinema, combining shots that are depictive, single in meaning, neutral in content—into intellectual contexts and series” (129).

OUT OF CLASS EXERCISES 1) Identifying the attributes of editing Before beginning an in-class screening, ask students the following question: “Identify one example of each of the three attributes of editing at work in this film. Note where exactly each example occurs in the film and describe each in as much detail as possible.”

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Alternatively, ask students the same question but focus their attention on one scene or screen a short film, such as Köm. Scenes from Citizen Kane are especially effective for this exercise, especially the confrontation between Charles Kane and Boss Jim Gettys in Susan Alexander’s apartment.

2) Continuity exercise Give students a jumbled series of images: photos, crude drawings, stills from a film. Have students arrange these images so that they adhere to some kind of narrative logic, and ask students to explain this logic. If you are creating your own images, try to include the following: an establishing shot, close ups of people, at least one close up of an object (flowers? a dog? a gun?), and a medium two-shot of people in conversation. In other words, provide enough images so students can create eyeline matches and shot/reverse-shots.

3) Storyboarding exercise Encourage students to put into practice their understanding of how editing shapes narrative time and space by storyboarding a short scene. Be sure to emphasize one or two narrative details you want them to get across visually (e.g., a character notices someone across the room; a character is hurt by something she witnesses but suppresses her feelings). You might describe a scene from a film students will see later in the course so that, after they have completed the project, they can compare the scene they have designed with someone else’s conception. Conversely, you could ask students to re-envision a scene they have already seen and discussed. Have them design the scene from another character’s perspective, or to strive for a different emotional effect.

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Storyboarding Exercise Handout The following handout offers students a rubric to follow as they illustrate and describe each shot.

SHOT NUMBER _______

A) Shot transition: B) Camera distance (circle one): XLS LS MLS MS MCU CU XCU C) Camera movement (if applicable): D) Dialogue (if applicable): E) Further notes:

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CHAPTER 8: SOUND CHAPTER 8 (Sound) LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, students should be able to: 1) demonstrate a general understanding of how the history of film sound documents an industry’s investment in cutting-edge technology to produce sound with higher fidelity.

2) explain why some feared the industry’s embrace of synchronized sound would curtail visual experimentation in the cinema.

3) recognize the expressive potential of film sound, capable of conveying important narrative information independent of image.

4) identify and analyze the characteristics of speech.

5) analyze the perspective offered by a voice-over narration.

6) identify and analyze the characteristics of sound effects.

7) identify and analyze the characteristics of film music.

8) craft stronger introductions and conclusions in academic essays about film.

CHAPTER 8 (Sound) OVERVIEW • • • • • • • • • • •

The history of sound technology has seen several major developments, each one an attempt to provide higher fidelity.

One temporary consequence of the industry’s full-scale embrace of synchronized dialogue was the diminishment of visual experimentation.

Because sound may be added or altered during post-production, it is freed from the image.

There are five common image-sound relationships: onscreen vs. offscreen sound; subjective vs. objective sound; diegetic vs. non-diegetic sound; image time vs. sound time; image mood vs. sound mood.

The three components of film sound are: dialogue, sound effects, and music.

In addition to the content of an actress’s lines of dialogue, the characteristics of her voice contribute to film’s overall impact: volume, pitch, speech characteristics, and acoustic qualities.

The voice-over is a powerful storytelling technique that can help maintain narrative coherence and provide a point of identification, or it can challenge conventional ways audiences identify with characters.

Sound effects have three common functions in narrative films. They can define location, lend mood to an environment, and portray the environment’s impact on characters.

To be precise when describing sound effects, film scholars pay attention to four characteristics of sound effects: acoustic qualities, volume, regularity, and verisimilitude.

Five common functions of film music are: to establish historical context; to shape the audience’s perception of space; to define character; to shape the emotional tenor of a scene; and to distance the audience.

It is possible to write concretely about music in film by noting these five characteristics: patterns of development; lyrics; tempo and volume; instrumentation; and cultural significance.

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CHAPTER 8 (Sound) CHAPTER SUMMARY I.

Introduction

S

ound is integral to the construction of cinematic imagery. Sound in a film does not

always correspond to what’s happening onscreen. It is an expressive element of film capable of operating independently from images. Often filmmakers encourage intellectual and emotional responses by including sounds that do not logically or literally correspond to the image.

Though many film critics and scholars focus most of their attention on the narrative and visual elements of films, this chapter emphasizes how sound is an evocative element in its own right.

Sound plays a critical role in determining how audiences react to images, and so this chapter stresses the importance of learning how to think, talk, and write about sound, using concrete, analytical language.

This chapter begins with a brief history of the use of sound in films, followed by a discussion of the technical aspects of the soundtrack, which is generally created completely independently from the visual image. Then there is an examination of the different relationships that a filmmaker can create between sound and image. The last section looks at the three components of film sound in terms of the way filmmakers manipulate the relationship between sound and image.

A film soundtrack is composed of three elements: dialogue, music, and sound effects. These components are recorded separately from the images and from one another. Mixing is the process of combining the three elements of film sound into one soundtrack, which is added to the image track in post-production. Although the early years of cinema (1896–1927) are referred to as the silent era, the next section explains that films have always depended upon the relationship between image and sound, which involves aesthetic principles, technological innovations, and commercial considerations.

II. Film Sound: A Brief History Contrary to popular assumption, movies were never “silent.” In practice, a variety of sounds accompanied the exhibition of early films. In 1908 Camille Saint-Saëns composed the first film score (music specifically composed or arranged to accompany a film), but in general the musical accompaniment in the early days of the cinema was more off the cuff. Most films weren’t scored, so musicians played whatever music they wanted to play, and “professionalism left much to be desired since, in many theaters, the orchestra would play through a certain number of compositions and then simply get up and leave the film and the audience.” (Prendergast, p. 5) Nevertheless, music, live narration, and sound effects devices were all integral parts of the theater experience.

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Big budget films such as D.W. Griffith’s The Birth of a Nation (1915) had original scores.

Exhibitors could hire entire orchestras for these films and transform screenings into elaborate galas. But this was not a uniform practice, since smaller theaters could not afford the large orchestras needed to perform such compositions.

The distinction between early “silent” cinema and later sound cinema actually rests on the difference between live sound and recorded soundtracks that were affixed to the image track.

The idea of combining pre-recorded sound that could be synchronized with images motivated many early experiments with sound, but the process of developing a workable system for doing so spanned several decades.

An early system capable of synchronizing sound and image was Vitaphone’s sound on disc system, where sound was recorded and played on separate discs. But it wasn’t until 1927 that a group of exhibitors (Loew’s, Universal, First National, Paramount, and Producers Distributing Corporation) signed the “Big Five Agreement,” which stated that the signatories would jointly agree to adopt the single film sound system that they decided was the best one for the industry.

By 1930 sound-on-film systems replaced sound on disc. Sound-on-film systems were based on the conversion of sound to electronic signals that were recorded as light impulses on film stock.

A. Critical Debates over Film Sound One widely held misperception about early cinema was that the lack of pre-recorded sound crippled its expressive potential. Given the power of cinema’s visual elements, the shift from live to recorded sound was not an unqualified step forward for the art. The need to record dialogue on the set affected the mobility of the camera, which, in turn, negatively impacted film style. Motion picture cameras had to be encased in soundproof booths so that microphones would not pick up the sound of their motors (fig. 8.4). But, in the booth, the camera could pan only about 30 degrees to the right or left (Salt, p. 38).

Marsha Kinder and Beverle Houston write, “the three elements that had been so crucial to the artistic development of the silent cinema—visual composition, camera movement, and editing—were severely restricted” (p. 52).

In 1927, The Jazz Singer (Alan Crosland 1927) was the first feature-length film to include synchronized dialogue and musical numbers, whose success guaranteed the industry’s shift to “talking pictures.” At the time, not everyone in the industry wholeheartedly embraced the new technologies of sound. French and Soviet filmmakers were not convinced about the positive attributes of sound. They were skeptical. What these directors feared was the prospect of a cinema where sound—specifically talking— impeded the visual elements. In retrospect, the success of The Jazz Singer at the apparent expense of Sunrise confirms that, at least for a time, these fears were warranted.

The conversion to sound had more than an aesthetic impact on the film industry. The high costs of conversion to sound film hit independent producers particularly hard because it became more difficult to compete with better-financed, vertically integrated studios.

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lucrative investment for Hollywood, some filmmakers questioned both the aesthetic and the economic consequences of the transition to sound.

In the late 1930s, the practice of re-recording, or post-synchronization, freed sound films from the idea that “everything seen on the screen must be heard on the soundtrack.”

(Cook, p. 271) The practice of re-recording allowed filmmakers to manipulate sound and to experiment with the relation of sound to image. The freedom engendered by postsynchronization has allowed filmmakers to transform film sound into a vital component of cinematic expression, completely independent of, and at times more weighty than, a film’s visual information.

Repeatedly, advances in film sound technology have promised greater fidelity and a heightened sense of audio realism. From the 1950s (with the advent of magnetic tape recording), to the 1970s with Dolby and multi-track recording technologies, to modern times with the advent of digital sound creation, surround sound and home theatres, the progression of sound to create a realism found in everyday life has been vital to filmmakers. But film sound is an expressive element, as carefully composed as the image.

Film sounds do not reproduce reality—they provide an aesthetic experience in conjunction with the images onscreen.

III. Freeing Sound From Image Sound effects (any noise that forms part of the film soundtrack, apart from dialogue and music) are seldom recordings of the actual events the audience is being shown. Instead, Foley artists produce many of a film’s sound effects by creatively manipulating various materials (fig. 8.6).

“The basic thing in all films is to create something that sounds believable to everyone, because it’s composed of familiar things that you cannot quite recognize immediately” (quoted in Carlsson). Even the sound of footsteps in film isn’t “real.” In fact, the most common manufactured sound effect in films is walking, which is why Foley artists are often called “Foley walkers” (Cook, p. 966).

Filmmakers conceive of sounds differently, even when the effects are linked to the same visual event. Even when sound effects are recorded on location (called direct sound), they are remixed and remastered in post-production so that they achieve the desired result.

The human voice is similarly prone to post-production manipulation. While a scene containing dialogue is usually recorded by the camera and sound equipment, if a technical glitch or inappropriate inflection mars the delivery of a particular line, that line can be replaced during post-production using a process called ADR, or automatic dialogue replacement. During this process, sometimes called looping, actors re-read their lines as they watch footage of the scene that needs to be reworked.

Finally, the third component of the soundtrack—music—is often quite obviously freed from the image. In fact, much film music is non-diegetic, or played outside the world the characters inhabit.

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Because filmmakers have the ability to select and manipulate every sound on the soundtrack— dialogue, sound effects, and music—audiences should be as attentive to what they hear as they are to what they see, and consider how it contributes to the overall aesthetic impact of the film.

Inset Box: Sound Recording and Dubbing in Production and Post-production The sound designer plans the sound for a film and oversees the entire recording process.

During the production phase of filming, a boom operator extends the microphone at the end of a long pole, or boom, to record dialogue on the set. The cable person manages the equipment. The location sound mixer, or production sound mixer, controls the recording and mixing during the shoot.

During post-production, Foley artists and effects editors experiment with making and recording sound effects. The ADR supervisor re-records flawed or inadequate lines of dialogue.

Meanwhile, the film’s music supervisor determines how much prerecorded and original music the film will be able to include. The composer or arranger scores the film, often watching dailies for inspiration. When the score is complete, the composer works with the music editor to record the score. Together they determine when the music should enter the soundtrack, and when it should leave. The re-recording mixer combines and mixes all three elements of the film’s soundtrack. The supervising sound editor supervises the entire process of editing the soundtrack, making sure that the dialogue, sound effects, and music are synchronized with the images.

IV. The Relationship Between Sound and Image Filmmakers often take advantage of the fact that sound and image are recorded separately.

Whenever filmmakers construct a soundtrack, they must consider what audiences will hear at any given time and whether dialogue, music, or sound effects gets the most emphasis. Because dialogue conveys so much information, speech gets the most emphasis in most mainstream films.

Rarely do sound effects or music overwhelm the dialogue.

Of course, some filmmakers have experimented with intentionally obscuring pivotal lines of dialogue. Filmmakers carefully choose which sounds to include on the soundtrack, knowing that emphasizing a particular sound helps to shape the audience’s perspective and to determine the emotional dynamics of a scene.

In addition to selecting what sounds an audience will hear, filmmakers also consider how these sounds will correspond to the imagery. Usually the soundtrack will offer an acoustic equivalent to the visual effect on the screen.

There are five ways that sound may differ from the imagery onscreen: A. Emphasizing the Contrast between Onscreen and Offscreen Space Sound is a powerful tool for helping filmmakers create the illusion that the world of the story extends beyond the boundaries of the frame. Sound often points to action that happens offscreen—details that are unseen, but which are important factors shaping the storyline.

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B. Emphasizing the Difference between Objective Images and Subjective Sounds Sound gives audiences access to what a character is thinking, even while the images continue to show what the character is doing or experiencing at an objective level. Sound can depict a character’s subjectivity without the need to dissolve to a fantasy or flashback sequence.

C. Emphasizing the Difference between Diegetic Details and Non-diegetic Sound Sound and image can differ in terms of their relationship to the story world. Using the terminology set out in Chapter 4, anything that the characters involved in the story can experience can be called diegetic sound, while anything outside the story space can be referred to as non-diegetic sound. By far the most common non-diegetic sound is music, but non-diegetic sound also includes, for example, sound effects that don’t actually occur within the diegesis.

Non-diegetic sounds generally function as a form of direct address, wherein the filmmaker offers explicit commentary on the image. By noticing whether or not sounds are diegetic or non-diegetic, audiences can determine the degree to which the filmmaker is directly addressing them.

Diegetic sounds, on the other hand, help define an environment in ways the characters must recognize to some degree. Often diegetic music reveals character traits. When a character plays a song on a jukebox or listens to music on the radio, that music is an outward symbol of her taste or emotional state at a given point in time.

D. Emphasizing the Difference between Image Time and Sound Time Combining sound and image allows filmmakers to present two different points in time simultaneously, as when a voice-over narration describes past events.

Discrepancies in sound and image time also occur during transitions between scenes. On occasion, the dominant sound at the end of one scene will carry over into the next scene, forming the aural equivalent of a dissolve called a sound bridge. Alternatively, some scenes end with the gradual emergence of the next scene’s dominant sound. Such moments suggest the powerful aura of an event, as the sound acts as a reminder of its lingering presence or anticipates an event’s arrival.

With a lightning mix, sound doesn’t overlap from one scene into the next. Instead, filmmakers link scenes together by joining different sounds that have similar qualities.

Whereas a sound bridge allows a sound to extend beyond a scene, a lightning mix emphasizes sonic parallels in adjacent scenes.

E. Emphasizing Differences in Image Mood and Sound Mood Finally, combining sound and image can produce a jolting contrast on an emotional level.

While typically the soundtrack corresponds to the action and accentuates the mood evoked by visual details, sometimes filmmakers will pair an image with a sound that seems wildly inappropriate, producing a noticeable tension between aural and visual information.

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Filmmakers may also choose non-diegetic sounds to work against the imagery.

Filmmakers can and do exploit all five variants of the relationship between sound and image. Sometimes the most creative use of film sound goes beyond simply trying to mirror the images onscreen or clarifying narrative events; the most profound examples of film sound often exploit the soundtrack’s ability to add intellectual or emotional depth to the visual image. To develop valid interpretations of a film, viewers must be able first to define the relationship between sound and image and then describe its effect on the film’s meaning.

V. Three Components of Film Sound In narrative films, the words a screenwriter gives to his characters, the music they listen to, and the sounds in their environment all convey a wealth of information.

A. Dialogue Dialogue forwards the narrative, giving voice to characters’ aspirations, thoughts, and emotions, often making conflicts among characters evident in the process.

1) Text and Subtext The primary function of spoken dialogue is to externalize a character’s thoughts and feelings, bringing motivations, goals, plans, and conflicts to the surface.

Screenwriters are careful to avoid dialogue that reiterates information already made clear by the image. Clunky dialogue that states the obvious is called on-thenose dialogue.

The most effective dialogue works on several levels to suggest character motivations, even when characters are not fully aware of those feelings themselves.

Dialogue makes meaning through the text (the words a characters says), the line reading (the way an actor says the line, including pauses, intonation, and emotion), and the subtext (the unstated meaning that underlies spoken words).

Dialogue often works in a roundabout fashion and depends upon audiences to discern the subtext (what isn’t stated directly), which eloquently reveals a character’s complexity.

Although the dominant sound in most narrative films is that of the human voice, most viewers don’t consider in specific terms what it is that allows the voice to convey so much information so quickly. Listening to dialogue involves more than noting what words are spoken. Hearing the way an actor reads a line of dialogue can accentuate a sharp division between text and subtext.

Dialogue plays an important role in establishing character. It can also be used to emphasize setting, or a character’s cultural background. Finally, the voice can define a character’s environment, and his relationship to that environment.

The human voice has four sonic attributes that invest words with emotional and intellectual depth: volume, pitch, vocal characteristics, and acoustic qualities.

Each of these is examined below, along with one particular use of the voice that deserves special attention: the voice-over.

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2) Volume It almost goes without saying that volume reflects the level and the type of a person’s engagement with her surroundings. Generally, the louder a person speaks, the greater the emotional intensity of her words. Volume suggests the emotional vigor of dialogue. Loudness usually connotes a character experiencing intense emotion, such as anger, fear, or passion. Softness, on the other hand, usually connotes a more timid or carefully considered emotional response: tenderness, diffidence, sophistication, fear, or even guile.

3) Pitch A sound’s pitch refers to its frequency, or its position on a musical scale. In music, the lowest (or deepest) pitch is bass, and the highest pitch is soprano.

While one immediately thinks of pitch as being a musical term, it can also be used to evaluate the quality of the speaking voice.

Typically, audiences associate deep voices (basses or baritones) with power or authority. Characters with high-pitched voices, on the other hand, are often associated with weakness.

4) Speech Characteristics The way a character speaks does more to define her individual persona than perhaps any other characteristic of the human voice. Her cultural background, her class, her interests, her aspirations, and even her limitations can all be revealed by subtle qualities of the voice such as accent, diction, and vocal tics.

A character’s accent is a powerful indicator of background and social status.

Through language, audiences readily recognize a character’s nationality, for example. But a character’s accent usually contributes more to a film’s storyline than just indicating where a person was raised. Often this background information plays a crucial role in helping audiences to understand a character’s motivations or in helping a film explore broader themes. Some actors’ voices are immediately recognizable for their rhythm.

American films frequently use accents to define characters according to regional background. American movies rely on accents to link characters to specific locales across the U.S. Of course, when filmmakers rely on accents to flesh out two-dimensional, stock characters, they run the risk of perpetuating stereotypes.

A character’s diction—his choice of words—can also reveal his economic status or level of education. A character’s inability to find the right words can also speak volumes.

Finally, the human voice can be characterized by vocal tics particular to specific individuals. Actors and actresses have distinctive voices that are immediately identifiable, and we recognize them and what they represent as film personalities.

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5) Acoustic Qualities Manipulating the acoustic quality of the human voice can help filmmakers convey perspective and details about the surrounding environment. The way voices sound can suggest the distance between characters, or the mood, aura, or atmosphere of a place—its ambience. The quality of a sound’s movement through a particular space—what might be called a sound’s acoustic properties—can help determine whether that space feels cozy and intimate, or sterile and alienating.

Through the mixing process, sound editors are able to conjure a broad array of audio illusions. By manipulating the acoustic characteristics of voices, a sound editor can create the effect of a character speaking from across a great distance, on the telephone, broadcasting via radio, speaking from behind a wall, and so on.

6) Addressing the Audience: the Voice-Over Because of its ability to encourage audience identification with characters onscreen, the voice-over deserves special attention. Diegetic voice-overs may function as a character’s meditation on past events. Voice-overs can guide viewers through a series of events they might not otherwise understand.

Voice-overs can also allow audiences access to a character’s immediate thoughts.

Such voice-overs allow audiences to experience a more profound level of engagement with that character. Voice-overs aren’t necessarily delivered by the central character, however. Other characters in the film can contribute as a narrator.

Narrators can be non-diegetic as well, offering what might seem to be an objective point of view. The voice-over in Stranger than Fiction is a metaphorical device whose distance from the action onscreen provides both comedy and tragedy.

Some filmmakers upset the audience’s expectation that a voice-over will offer a stable point of identification. Terrence Malick’s films, for example, tend to emphasize that the voice-over narration may not offer the most accurate or perceptive account of the events onscreen.

Voice-over narration, whether diegetic or non-diegetic, can be unreliable. There are films where the narrator is judgmental of the principle character, so much that the viewer, if not paying close attention, may draw incorrect conclusions about the character and the narrative.

Viewers shouldn’t assume that voice-overs promise the authoritative interpretation of events unfolding onscreen. Rather, audiences should recognize the often complex interplay between sound and image.

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B. Sound Effects Because dialogue is the element of film sound that usually receives the most emphasis onscreen (and in spectators’ minds), some viewers may be tempted to think that sound effects are a minor, cosmetic component of a film’s soundtrack. However, sound effects play an important role in shaping the audience’s understanding of space.

1) Functions of Sound Effects Sound effects can contribute to the emotional and intellectual depth of a scene in three ways: they can define a scene’s location; they can lend a mood to the scene; and they can suggest the environment’s impact on characters. a) Define Location Sound effects play an important role in helping audiences understand the nature of the environment that surrounds the characters. Usually, sound effects define location rather generically. In some films, however, sound effects define the setting more specifically, alluding to particular places at specific points in time. Sound effects can also evoke the vast emptiness of a setting. b) Lend Mood to an Environment Sound effects can contribute to the mood established by the mise en scène.

Sound effects can produce a wide variety of moods. Sound effects can help to create a romantic environment or a terrifying one, establishing an intimate setting or an alienating one. c) Portray the Environment’s Impact on Characters Sound effects can help illustrate how the environment has a direct impact on characters. Sound effects are a powerful and sometimes subtle device for establishing how surroundings have a direct impact on people.

To suggest that sound effects have these three functions, however, is, in some cases, to impose an artificial distinction between the roles sound plays in films. Particularly expressive sound effects may serve all three functions simultaneously, defining location, creating mood, and portraying the environment’s relation to characters.

2) Characteristics of Sound Effects A crucial component of any analysis of a sound effect is a careful description of how that effect is created. Film scholars take particular note of four characteristics of sound effects. a) Acoustic Qualities In order to analyze sound effects it is important to be able to describe exactly what the audience hears, and to write about it with precision. As they do with the human voice, sound editors can also adjust the acoustic qualities of a sound effect to help characterize the surrounding environment.

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b) Volume Because dialogue tends to overwhelm sound effects, those rare moments when sound effects do compete with dialogue are particularly important. They suggest an environment that engulfs the characters within it.

Sometimes, however, filmmakers will diminish the volume of sound effects for expressive purposes. The expressive potential of adjusting the volume of sound effects goes well beyond any particular genre. c) Regularity By and large, sound effects occur sporadically because in real life most sounds do not follow a set, repetitive pattern. Thus, when a sound effect does appear with rhythmic consistency, its persistence draws attention to a rigid order that runs counter to the more irregular rhythms of daily life. d) Verisimilitude Typically Foley artists and sound editors try to produce sounds with a high degree of verisimilitude. That is, audiences assume that the sounds that accompany images are true to life. But on occasion, filmmakers will disregard verisimilitude altogether, and provide instead a sound that strives to be more expressive than representative.

Departures from verisimilitude have the potential to transcend representations of physical reality. They can allude to metaphorical or psychological truth rather than the sounds of everyday experience.

3) Techniques in Practice: Sound Effects and the Construction of Class in Days of Heaven American literature and film usually portray the plains of the Southwest as a rugged landscape that offers a liberating alternative to the Midwest’s noisy, claustrophobic, and industrialized urban areas. In Terrence Malick’s Days of Heaven (1978), lovers Bill (Richard Gere) and Abbey (Brooke Adams), along with Bill’s younger sister (Linda Manz), flee Chicago.

The volume, acoustic characteristics, and regularity of the sound effects all work to convey the noisy urban environment that seems to consume the lead characters.

But the sprawling landscape of Texas, their ultimate destination, has its own collection of ambient and mechanical sounds that plague the characters and narrative.

The tranquility of the unnamed Farmer’s residence is symbolic of the class struggle that is the basis of the film’s narrative. The main characters struggle in a mechanized world much like the industrialized space they’ve left behind .

Both sound effects and images in Days of Heaven suggest that, by the turn of the century, the American West was already an industrialized region. While the 106 .

Farmer can enjoy the privilege of a pastoral experience on his farm, Bill, Abbey, and the Girl remain trapped in their industrialized, working-class milieu.

C. Music Most narrative films rely on music to engage the audience’s attention, yet the same music threatens to make the artificiality of any film obvious. The composer’s charge is to add soundtrack music that complements the imagery onscreen without calling attention to itself. In fact, film scholar Claudia Gorbman calls this music “unheard melodies” because audiences should not be too aware of the composer’s work for fear of interfering with the story.

1) Functions of Film Music In many cases, the only function of a score is to provide background music, which sustains audience attention and lends coherence to a scene as it moves from shot to shot. But, like the other elements of a film, music can develop systematically. It can establish motifs and parallels, and it can evolve with narrative context.

Systematic use of film music can contribute to the emotional and intellectual complexity of a film in five ways: it can establish the historical context for a scene; it can help depict a scene’s geographical space; it can help define characters; it can help shape the emotional tenor of a scene; and it can provide a distanced or ironic commentary on a scene’s visual information. a) Establish Historical Context Music offers filmmakers an efficient means of defining a film’s setting.

Audiences should associate diegetic music with the story’s time period, since, in the name of historical accuracy, most filmmakers will try to ensure that the music characters listen to would have been popular during the time when the story takes place. b) Shaping Space Diegetic music can be used to help audiences perceive the geography of the setting. Music can even suggest the specific cultural makeup of a setting’s location. c) Defining Character Just as many people express themselves through the music they listen to, so filmmakers use music to define characters. A particular song, artist, or type of music may function as a motif that informs audiences of a character’s taste, demeanor, or attitude. In music terminology, the leitmotif (leading motif) was first used to describe the compositional strategies of Karl Maria von Weber and Richard Wagner, who used distinctive musical phrases and themes to define character and present ideas. Composers can also score non-diegetic musical motifs for specific characters. d) Shaping Emotional Tenor Music plays an important role in helping audiences know how to interpret the mood of a scene.

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e) Distancing the Audience Music sometimes exploits a contrast between sound and image. The effect of such a contrast is to distance the audience—to sever the connection between sound and image, so that the audience sees the images from a more critical perspective.

Sometimes, filmmakers use this technique to offer wry, satirical commentary.

On other occasions, filmmakers exploit the juxtaposition of music and image to suggest the world’s complete indifference to a character’s plight.

A piece of film music can carry out more than one of these functions simultaneously. To help recognize how a piece of music functions, audiences should train their ears to recognize five characteristics of film music.

3) Five Characteristics of Film Music Film music is notoriously difficult to write about. Despite a song’s uncanny ability to sweep audiences up into the romantic (or exciting, or tragic) sentiment unfolding onscreen, few people have the ability to describe how the music accomplishes this.

Still, it is possible for non-musicians to talk and write concretely about film music. In order to think and write about it with specificity, begin by concentrating on these five attributes of film music. a) Patterns of Development Like other elements of film, music develops systematically. Musical themes are often repeated, establishing motifs and parallels. And as musical motifs evolve, they signal important changes in the story. Consequently, perhaps the most important strategy for actively listening to and thinking about film music is to notice when a musical theme appears. Does the theme come to be associated with particular characters or settings? With particular emotions?

With particular visual imagery?

Musical motifs can function in abstract ways as well, helping viewers to draw parallels between characters, settings, or ideas. b) Lyrical Content Since the late 1960s, soundtrack music has relied more on self-contained popular songs instead of scored material. Often (but not always) filmmakers choose songs whose lyrics are relevant to the image onscreen. Consequently, an analysis of film music should consider the possible significance of any lyrics. Lyrics can be powerful indicators of mood or turning points in plot.

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c) Tempo and Volume Tempo (speed) and volume are two attributes of music that are readily describable even to the untrained ear. They also play a significant role in determining the emotional intensity of a song (and, by extension, a scene).

Uptempo, or fast, melodies tend to convey frenetic energy and rapid movement. Slow melodies, on the other hand, suggest a more relaxed pace, or a lack of energy.

Like tempo, volume can also affect the intensity of a scene. But whereas tempo usually comments on a character’s movement, volume usually characterizes the aura of the space surrounding characters. Loud music seems to swallow characters, whereas soft music connotes more intimacy.

The tempo and volume of non-diegetic music can also help paint internal space. d) Instrumentation It is not difficult to make generalizations about what instruments are used to perform a piece of music. Does an orchestra play the music? A brass ensemble? A string quartet? Do the musicians use electric or electronic instruments? Do the musicians sample and manipulate pre-recorded sounds?

Instrumentation can suggest a film’s time period and setting. Some instruments may also portray more subtle emotional states. Instrumentation can also suggest important character traits. e) Cultural Significance Finally, filmmakers can add complexity to a film by using music that bears a specific cultural significance. A specific song or type of music may conjure up shared cultural knowledge. Music that functions in this way often relies on stereotypes to produce meaning.

Filmmakers may also use songs whose production history holds some cultural significance.

Film scholar Nora Alter explores the powerful role that non-diegetic music can play in the non-fiction essay film, a genre that may incorporate elements of documentary, fiction, and avant-garde films. “Critical attention is rarely focused on the soundtrack of the non-fiction essay film,” she writes, “[a]nd yet, music is one of the most important and determining forces in this type of film. It structures the montage, shapes meaning, establishes tone, and encourages flights of fantasy.” (Alter, p. 3) Even in non-fiction films, then, music “speaks” to audiences, but does so in an indirect way on what Alter calls a parallel track.

This discussion of sound concludes our book’s coverage of the five technical 109 .

aspects of film art (narrative, mise en scène, cinematography, editing, and sound). By and large this chapter (along with Chapters 4 through 7) has explored how these elements function in narrative films. Because sound lacks shape and form, writing about its use in cinema is in some ways more difficult than writing about narrative and visual content, but it is no less important.

Yet even films that don’t tell stories can use sound to complement images onscreen, even when those images are abstract. While sound in such cases won’t contribute narrative information such as historical context or a character’s upbringing, the characteristics of the human voice, sound effects, and music will still be relevant. The next chapter takes up in more specific detail two such alternatives to narrative filmmaking: documentary and avantgarde cinema.

3) Techniques in Practice: Bernard Herrmann’s Score and Travis Bickle’s Troubled Masculinity in Taxi Driver Herrmann’s score for Taxi Driver (his last score in a career that began with Citizen Kane in 1941) introduces two dominant themes during the opening credits. The soundtrack alternates between the two, seemingly antithetical, nondiegetic themes. The first theme is spare and militaristic. It is built around two low, descending notes. Often the tonal progression is punctuated by the tapping of a snare drum, whose tempo gradually increases until the high note gives way to the low note. The second theme is a slow, lilting jazz tune played on a tenor saxophone. Onscreen, the image cuts back and forth between extreme close-ups of Travis’s eyes and blurry, oversaturated point-of-view shots of New York City (fig. 8.22). This suggests immediately that the music reflects two halves of his personality (one angry, the other romantic), and that Travis’s perspective of the city is distorted.

The film’s score emphasizes that Travis’s romantic longing for Betsy, his hatred for the city, and his rescue of Iris are all interrelated. His romantic ideals are essentially violent, since they require the subjugation of everyone’s will to Travis’s ego. The fact that the public lauds Travis as a hero at the end of the film is a crucial ironic twist. Scorsese suggests that Americans still valorize chivalry— a value system the film shows to be outdated, violent, self-serving, and destructive.

4) Film Analysis, The Human Voice and Sound Effects in No Country for Old Men The essay below examines the way sound emphasizes that the gruesome violence in No Country for Old Men is in keeping with a long tradition of bloodshed.

The Study Notes that accompany this film analysis focus on strategies for writing introductions and conclusions. These paragraphs are notoriously difficult to write, largely because writers fear they may be redundant. However, introductions are important since they establish what the rest of the paper will 110 .

cover, and conclusions often summarize the main argument. From the reader’s perspective, these paragraphs aren’t repetitive—they clarify. Introductions guide the reader into the argument, letting her know what main point(s) will be addressed in the body of the paper. Conclusions reiterate this main point in light of the ideas that have been developed throughout the paper.

Instructors look to introductions and conclusions to gauge how well students have synthesized their ideas. Researchers look to introductions and conclusions to help weed through piles of material quickly, since they offer a good indication of the scope of the essay. If a scholar doing research stumbles across a poorly written introduction or conclusion—one that fails clearly to delineate the specific issues covered in the article—there’s a good chance he could ignore the whole piece, assuming that it doesn’t address relevant topics. How does the introduction in this essay prepare the reader for the main argument that follows? How does the conclusion reiterate the logic that connects the essay’s major claims?

CHAPTER 8 (Sound) DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1) View the scene from Singing in the Rain when Monumental Studios re-shoots the love scene between Don and Lina using the new sound system techniques of 1927 Hollywood.

Discuss the problems encountered on the set and in the premiere of The Singing Cavalier.

2) Discuss the use of leitmotifs in opera, and the utilization of them in films such as Once Upon a Time in the West. What makes the leitmotif such a logical choice to underscore a film character?

3) What is a compilation soundtrack? Name and discuss two recent films that use compilation soundtracks and whether they are effective in supporting the film’s narrative and characters, or do they distract from the director’s intentions.

CHAPTER 8 (Sound) LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES 1) From “silents” to sound This discussion will illustrate how sound has always been an important component of the moviegoing experience, dispelling the misconception that “silent movies” were devoid of sound.

Ask students what the term “silent movie” means. In all likelihood, their initial assumption might be that silent movie theaters in that era would have been as hushed as public libraries.

Play a scene from a silent movie with the sound turned all the way down to demonstrate just how empty watching a film in complete silence can be. Then play the same sequence with sound.

Emphasize that this would be the way most audiences would have experienced “silent films”— and that the label “silent film” is a bit of a misnomer.

Then compare a scene from Sunrise (Murnau 1927) with an early “talkie,” such as Oscar Micheaux’s Girl From Chicago (1932) to demonstrate how the drive to synchronize dialogue compromised camera mobility and the use of space in mise en scène.

Explain how the development of re-recording or post-synchronization in the late 1930s “liberated” the camera and allowed filmmakers to transform film sound into a vital component of 111 .

cinematic expression. Screening outtakes or making-of documentaries included on many DVDs can demonstrate the remarkable contrast between sound re-mastered during post-production and sound recorded on the set. Albert Maysles’s documentary on Wes Anderson included on Criterion’s The Royal Tenenbaums includes some useful production footage, especially the sequence where Anderson himself reads Angelica Huston’s lines while the crew films Gene Hackman’s responses. *** Because so much of contemporary culture is visual, one of the tricks of teaching this chapter is encouraging students to concentrate as much attention on sound as image. The following is a series of variations on a single exercise designed to force students to listen: project a scene from a film but black out the image and ask students to describe what they hear. This may be a film you have already screened in class, or you might consider screening a scene from a film students haven’t seen, forcing them to rely in their ears rather than their memory of visual detail.

Instructors should consider conducting these exercises before they formally cover material in Chapter 8 to encourage students to understand what a powerful narrative tool film sound is.

Done this way, these exercises will illustrate one of the philosophical tenets of this chapter: students are accustomed to digesting all sorts of audio information in film—the goal of the chapter is to make them more self-conscious of what they hear and to provide a language to describe this information.

3) Listening to a short film Screen a short film in its entirety and ask students to list all of the sounds they hear. Be sure to encourage them to point out examples of music, dialogue, and sound effects. Can they hear the difference between diegetic and non-diegetic sounds? Then ask them to hypothesize about what happens in the film and where the story takes place. Marianne Olsen Ulrichsen’s short film Köm (available on the Short anthology, Volume 4: Seduction) is ideal for this exercise, since there is almost no dialogue. Music and sound effects guide audiences from one space and time to the next. The opening credits sequence in Sergio Leone’s Once Upon a Time in the West is also a fruitful example, as the soundtrack is little more than a compendium of “old West” sound effects.

4) Text versus subtext in dialogue Analyze the screenplay for a scene you will screen in class (there are countless websites that offer free downloadable screenplays), paying careful attention to what the words on the printed page. What is the literal meaning of those words?

After you have screened the film, go back to the scene at hand and ask students to consider how speech characteristics (e.g., vocabulary, vocal tics, etc.) create an emotional meaning (subtext) that differs from the literal meaning of the words.

A good film and scene for this exercise is In the Bedroom where Ruth discusses her son’s death with her priest. The priest tries to offer comfort by showing Ruth she’s not the only person this has happened to. Without explicitly saying it, Ruth chooses to remain in her solitary grief, seeing herself as alone.

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5) Listening to a compilation of soundtrack music Assemble a montage of short clips from films that include music. Be sure to search out a wide variety of musical styles for this exercise. Ask students to hypothesize about what kind of narrative information is conveyed via the music in each example. Can they guess where the scene or film is set, based upon the music? When the scene or film is set? What emotions are being depicted? Be sure to ask students why they made these guesses. Encourage them to identify the aspects of film music to which they were responding.

Suggested scenes: ✓ Days of Heaven (Malick 1978)—Leo Kotke’s acoustic guitar as the trio leaves Chicago ✓ Se7en (Fincher 1995)—Trent Reznor’s music playing over the opening credits ✓ Forrest Gump (Zemeckis 1994)—Any combination of the popular tunes used in the soundtrack ✓ The Last Picture Show (Bogdanovich 1971)—One of the many scenes that use music

by Hank Williams ✓ Once Upon a Time in the West (Leone 1968)—Morricone’s score during the final shootout ✓ Terminator 2: Judgement Day (Cameron 1991)—Brad Fiedel’s score during one of the protracted chase scenes early in the film ✓ Blazing Saddles (Brooks 1974)—Count Basie’s performance in the desert (good for a laugh in class, since this will surely throw every student; should initiate an interesting discussion of how film music has conventions) After this last example, it might be worth reiterating that music does not have to parallel the image. Also consider showing the opening credit sequence of Dr. Strangelove.

6) Alternative: Watching an image with no soundtrack As an alternative to the above exercises—or to complement them—screen some short clips from various films without sound. Ask students what type of music should accompany the image.

Their responses should be specific, providing details drawn from each of the five characteristics of film music when possible.

OUT OF CLASS EXERCISES 1) Writing dialogue Create a generic, simple scenario (e.g., a character announces that she is going to quit her job).

Ask students to rewrite dialogue for the scene for several different character types and/or in different contexts. Consider these examples: ✓ The character is a college professor, speaking to her husband. ✓ The character lacks a high school diploma ✓ The characters have just had a fight ✓ The characters are in the midst of a fight ✓ The characters have just spent their first night together ✓ The characters are being pursued by the law

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2) Making a sound effects file Divide the class into groups of three or four and assign each group to create its own sound effects library. The effects might include: ✓ a punch thrown to the face ✓ a tree falling ✓ a body being stabbed ✓ a low-impact car wreck ✓ fire 3) Creating a soundtrack Ask students to imagine a soundtrack (of pre-recorded music) for a variety of scenarios. Ask students to explain the emotional and/or intellectual effect they are striving for with each choice.

These scenarios might include these scenes: ✓ a woman goes into a rural bar, lonely ✓ a woman goes into an urban bar, lonely ✓ a couple dances alone together after having a fight ✓ a car chase through a wheat field (non-diegetic music) ✓ a car chase through city streets at night (non-diegetic music) ✓ a car cruises empty city streets at night (non-diegetic music) ✓ a mysterious man gazes at art in a gallery

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HAPTER 9: ALTERNATIVES TO NARRATIVE FICTION FILM: DOCUMENTARY AND AVANT-GARDE FILMS

CHAPTER 9 (Alternatives to Narrative Fiction Film) LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, students should be able to: 1) recognize how documentaries and avant-garde films differ from mainstream narrative films in terms of production and post-production techniques, and exhibition.

2) discuss how no documentary film can fully achieve the genre’s ideal: capturing an unmediated reality.

3) identify and analyze four common strategies that documentaries use.

4) discuss the spectator’s role in determining what is “real” in a documentary, and the various ways spectators engage with documentary footage.

5) discuss the ethical issues that arise when a filmmaker from one culture sets out to document the traditions of another culture.

6) discuss how and why avant-garde filmmakers work to expand the definition of film beyond the realm of narrative cinema.

7) identify five styles/traditions of avant-garde filmmaking.

8) locate hard to find documentary and avant-garde films.

9) avoid using passive voice when writing about film style.

CHAPTER 9 (Alternatives to Narrative Fiction Film) OVERVIEW • • • • •

• •

Documentary and avant-garde films differ from narrative fiction films in their purpose, mode of production, exhibition venue, and formal organization.

While some documentaries and avant-garde films may use certain elements of narrative form, their primary purpose is not storytelling and they are not bound by the conventions of narrative form.

Documentaries and avant-garde films edit sound and images to create irony, establish visual association, and develop metaphors.

Documentaries deal with some aspect of the real world, depicting or recreating historical or contemporary events.

Documentaries use one or more of the following rhetorical strategies: a voice of authority approach; the talking heads approach, which involves interviews and allows for multiple and possibly competing perspectives, including that of the director; cinéma vérité techniques that efface the filmmaker’s presence; and self-reflexive techniques that expose and often question the act of documentation.

Recent scholarship has focused on the phenomenology of documentary film spectatorship, exploring the various ways audiences engage with documentary footage.

Ethical concerns are critical to documentary: issues of balance and perspective arise whether a filmmaker is documenting the culture she lives in or a different culture.

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Avant-garde films (also called underground, subversive, or experimental films) explore the aesthetic properties of the medium and often challenge aspects of the culture and political status quo.

Techniques commonly used in avant-garde films include: slow, fast, and reverse motion: superimposition; rapid editing; scratching or painting the surface of the film; and nonsynchronized sound.

Some styles and traditions within avant-garde film include Surrealism, abstract films, city symphonies, structural films, and compilation films.

CHAPTER 9 (Alternatives to Narrative Fiction Film) SUMMARY I.

Introduction

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any moviegoers regard Hollywood films as the “real” cinema, much in the same

way as an American tourist abroad might ask: “How much is this in real money?” (Stam, p. 5) But alternative filmmaking practices such as documentary and avant-garde cinemas are very real, and a sound grasp of their history and formal organization is crucial to understanding film art and culture. This chapter explores the formal characteristics of documentary and avant-garde films and emphasizes their particular histories and modes of organization.

II. Three Modes of Filmmaking: A Comparison Documentary and avant-garde film depart from commercial fiction films in several ways, including their purpose, mode of production, exhibition venues, and their formal organization and visual style. Not all commercial films turn out to be financially successful, but profitability is the primary goal of the large corporations that produce, distribute, and exhibit them.

Although some documentaries depict characters and stories, and some avant-garde films are interested in the way narratives work, neither type of film is primarily concerned with telling stories. Thus, they do not obey the rules of narrative form discussed in Chapter 4. Documentary films present contemporary or historical events rather than fictional stories. Most documentary filmmakers do not treat profits as a primary objective; usually they are pleased if they can just make a living!

The goals of avant-garde filmmakers, like those of documentary filmmakers, vary widely, but two principal concerns dominate. The first is the desire to explore the artistic and technological capabilities of the medium, usually by rejecting the conventional use to which film has been put: telling stories. The second major concern of many avant-garde filmmakers is to question orthodoxies beyond the realm of aesthetics. These filmmakers use film as a means of personal expression to address important social issues and to expand the aesthetic vocabulary of film art.

Another way to differentiate commercial film from documentary and avant-garde film is to consider their methods of production and exhibition. Documentaries are not produced in the 116 .

industrial context of Hollywood. Instead, individuals or small groups of people work together, raising funds, renting equipment and space, and managing restrictive budgets. The peripheral status of documentary filmmaking relative to the Hollywood industry is reflected by the fact that there are just two Academy Awards for documentaries: one for short films and one for featurelength films. In recent years, however, documentaries have gained ground. Creative experimentation suggests the vast possibilities of documentary filmmaking, although the public’s continuing investment in feature-length films severely restricts the possibilities for seeing short documentary films.

In contrast to commercial feature films and documentaries, avant-garde films are made in an artisanal mode, often by just one person. Although many avant-garde filmmakers use technology in unconventional ways to produce new visual and sound experiences, the goal is not necessarily to make conventionally beautiful images, but, rather, to create thought-provoking sensual and aesthetic experiences.

Avant-garde films should not be confused with independent film, although filmmakers working in these modes tend to reject the commercial film production process. Independent feature filmmaking is not always synonymous with an anti-industry perspective, however, as avantgarde filmmaking almost always is.

After looking at the history of documentary, the chapter turns to documentary form. It then discusses two theoretical aspects of documentary cinema: spectatorship and ethics. This is followed by a discussion of avant-garde cinema. Because documentary and avant-garde films have a lower commercial profile than mainstream narrative films, they can prove difficult to track down. The last section of this chapter provides some tips on research in this area.

III. Documentary Film: “The Creative Treatment of Actuality” Most films made before 1907 were not narrative fiction films but short documentaries. These actualités, as they were known, were “shot around the world, nominally ‘unstaged,’ although many were documents of performances, dances, processions, and parades.” (Russell, p. 52) As non-fiction films based on real world events, these actualités were precursors to the documentary film. The legitimate question arises: at what point does a documentary film cease to be a document of reality and become instead a fictional creation?

The term “documentary” was coined by John Grierson, founder of the British documentary movement in the 1920s, who famously described documentary film as “the creative treatment of actuality.” A tension remains between an ideal—that documentaries capture unmediated reality—and the practical fact that making a film will influence the behavior of subjects and the outcome of events.

Documentary films engage viewers by showing them some aspect of the real world. A documentary filmmaker captures and organizes visual images and sound to convey that real world situation.

As with fiction films, documentary filmmakers make choices involving structure, cinematography, sound, and editing. These choices influence how audiences interpret the events 117 .

onscreen. In fact, documentary filmmakers may draw inspiration from their fictional counterparts.

Visual choices in a documentary can be carefully designed for expressive effect. Documentary filmmakers may be primarily concerned with presenting the real world, but they also lure the audience into an absorbing emotional and aesthetic experience. In fact, some documentaries present ideas, information, and characters in story form.

A. Narrative Documentaries Some documentaries trace the lives of individuals and, as a result, they resemble fiction films with characters, goals, and obstacles.

Man on Wire (James Marsh 2008) tells the story of a man with a mission, and how he used his own mischievous brio, a well-crafted plan, and a team of dedicated accomplices to achieve his goal. The documentary traces a precise narrative arc: the exposition introduces us to Petit’s penchant for daring acrobatics in unexpected places, then the narrative follows Petit and his chums as they meticulously plan, execute, and celebrate their now world-famous stunt. Elements of cause and effect come into play.

IV. Documentary Form The simplest argument a documentary film can make is that the images depicted in the film are real: that the film has captured some aspect of existence that is worthy of contemplation.

Documentaries may also make other arguments: they may assert that the subject matter of the documentary is worthy of greater scrutiny (the issue has more sides than have been represented); that a social or economic practice has caused, or is causing, problems that need to be addressed; that a subculture is of interest because it resonates with culture at large (or, conversely, because it represents the profound diversity of humanity); that a forgotten but important cultural or historical figure needs to be given her due; that previous explanations of a historical event have not fully captured its complexity, or have deliberately ignored certain facts and some viewpoints.

Documentaries present this wide variety of arguments through rhetorical devices that appeal to logic, ethics, and emotions.

Viewers may be surprised to discover that even documentaries whose sole purpose seems to be light-hearted entertainment present arguments of some kind.

Documentary filmmakers employ a number of rhetorical strategies to support their assertions.

The rest of this section examines four strategies—the voice of authority, talking heads, direct cinema and cinéma vérité, and self-reflexivity. These rhetorical modes are mocked in the mockumentary, analyzed in the conclusion of this section.

A. Voice of Authority One of the most basic strategies employed by documentary filmmakers is to combine voice-over narration with images in order to convince the audience of a particular claim about the world. Well-known political figures, respected celebrities, and actors with commanding vocal qualities may be employed to narrate these films in an authoritative 118 .

style. Films that rely exclusively on this strategy include nature documentaries and combat films.

Films made with the sole intent of persuading viewers of the rightness of a single view are referred to as propaganda films. They promote a single position without any allowance for competing perspectives. It is important for viewers to consider the precise claim to authority represented by the narration. Is the author providing the textual information an expert on the subject, or is the narrator’s commanding voice alone meant to convey authoritative knowledge?

B. Talking Heads and Director-Participant A second rhetorical strategy combines images with verbal testimony from individuals affected by or knowledgeable about the subject matter of the documentary. This strategy allows real people, not a designated off-screen authority, to make assertions about the subject. Documentaries that rely exclusively on interviews are often called “talking heads” documentaries.

Interviews allow for a range of ideas to be presented and may convince the viewers that the reality the filmmaker has presented is complex. They may also capture the personal feelings of interview subjects, inviting viewer identification.

A documentary film director may edit images and sound to corroborate or to call into question the statements made by subjects. Errol Morris, Michael Moore and Morgan Spurlock each use unique strategies to make their case in their documentaries.

C. Direct Cinema and Cinéma Vérité A third rhetorical strategy in documentary represents a fairly radical shift from the talking heads mode, and especially from those films in which the director is a participant. This observational style is referred to as cinéma vérité (cinema of truth) or direct cinema. The introduction of lightweight 16 mm cameras and the portable Nagra tape recorder helped record unfolding events with as little intervention as possible. Directors sought to record reality as it happened. While some use the terms direct cinema and vérité interchangeably, they can be distinguished from one another in terms of the way filmmakers understood “unfolding” reality.

Two of direct cinema’s visual techniques—the static camera and the long take—strongly connote the idea that viewers are invisible observers watching events unfold. Even in direct cinema, directors make choices and employ techniques that convey ideas. Directors choose the subject matter, select the framing of shots, and juxtapose scenes through editing. In many regards, editing is the cinematic technique that offers the greatest influence over the material.

D. Self-reflexive Documentary A fourth rhetorical strategy departs dramatically from direct cinema by including the process of filmmaking as part of the subject matter of the film. Bill Nichols calls this “self-reflexive documentary”; like formalist narrative films, these films refer to the 119 .

process of making films and expose the way the medium constructs reality. They challenge audiences to consider the relationship between images and reality.

E. The Mockumentary Mockumentaries are not documentary films but fiction films that pose as documentaries by using familiar conventions. These films adopt documentary strategies—primarily interview and cinéma vérité techniques—but their subject matter is fictional and their interviewees are characters played by actors. Humor derives partly from strict attention to details: the filmmakers not only parody the documentary conventions precisely but also capture the historical and cultural details of clothing, behavior, and musical styles.

V. Two Theoretical Questions The conventional understanding of documentary films rests upon their status as documents, or records, of the real. Even the most stylistically innovative, thoughtful, and challenging documentaries of the past two decades are, at the most fundamental level, concerned with presenting actual people, events, and social realities of one sort or another to viewers. It’s easy to focus our attention on the many fascinating issues of ethics and aesthetics that arise when filmmakers attempt to tell stories, convey information, or create cinematic experiences that relate to real world subjects.

A. Documentary Spectatorship One important topic that is often neglected within discussions of documentary form is the experience of spectatorship. Do we bring a different sort of thought process, or form of attention, to documentaries because they seek to represent reality? Do we possess expectations that we can satisfy with the specific experience of documentary films?

Documentary films speak to two potentially contradictory human impulses, according to Elizabeth Cowie. The first is a belief that reality is knowable, and that documentary films provide evidence that allows us to organize and interpret the world—even, or especially, a world we have not been exposed to—using rationality and logic. The second impulse seeks to engage with the real world as a spectacle, as a vision that exceeds even our wildest imaginations. Cowie contends that this is a false distinction and that documentary films “involve us as desiring, as well as knowing, spectators.” (Cowie, p. 20) Vivian Sobchack believes that analyzing the structure, style, and subject matter of the film text itself only partly explains how documentary films function: we must also consider the spectator, who is an “active agent in constituting what counts as memory, fiction or document.” (Sobchack, p. 253) Sobchack discusses a continuum of film types—the home movie, the documentary, and the fiction film—to explain how the historical knowledge and personal memories that each viewer brings to a film influence her engagement with the scenarios depicted. This progressively more “immersive” mode of attention partly defines the experience of watching a home movie, documentary, or fiction film.

But these rubrics of attention can become fluid, most obviously when motivated by something within the film text. An event in a fiction film may trigger viewers to move out of their immersion in the fiction.

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These ideas about the fluidity of spectatorship encourage us to revisit the definition of documentary film. According to Sobchack, “a ‘documentary’ is not a thing but a subjective relationship […] the viewer’s consciousness determines what kind of cinematic object it is.” (p. 251) This theoretical approach may inspire us to more thoughtfully consider our expectations about the nature of home movies, documentaries, and fiction films.

These ideas about documentary spectatorship underscore the fact that documentary films mediate reality, and that the documentary experience becomes a mutual construction of the filmmaker, the film, and the spectator.

B. Ethics and Ethnography Unique ethical dilemmas arise within documentary filmmaking. Whose vision of reality is represented in a documentary film, and how can filmmakers ensure fairness and accuracy? Image ethicists encourage viewers to question the relationship between the filmmaker and the people whose lives are being represented. The ethnographic films of Robert Flaherty, one of the earliest and most influential documentary filmmakers, have been reconsidered in light of what is now known about Flaherty’s methods.

In his zeal to valorize what he considered the blissfully primitive cultures of the Inuit and the Aran islanders, however, Flaherty misrepresented the cultures he intended to document. He staged inaccurate events, provided clothing that was not worn by the natives, and generally lied about what he recorded as being factual and real.

Flaherty’s films capture a romantic idea of the Inuit and the Aran islanders rather than their reality in the 1920s and 1930s. They highlight the ethical complexities of documenting a culture, whether that culture is one to which the filmmaker belongs or one he visits.

Flaherty’s filmmaking practices were extreme. Yet even filmmakers who take pains to avoid the staging of reality must recognize that their choices—including subject matter and style—imply underlying ethical principles related to the subjects filmed and the audience watching the film.

Some filmmakers use self-reflexive strategies to highlight the ethical dilemmas of documenting any culture and to make clear the director’s role as observer–participant.

Documentary filmmakers make creative use of reality for a number of purposes: to inform viewers about extraordinary or mundane aspects of reality, to encourage viewers to draw conclusions about world events, to change the audience’s understanding of social issues, and to question the way the film medium constructs reality.

VI. Avant-garde Film Like documentary film, avant-garde film—called experimental film in the 1940s and 1950s and underground cinema during the 1960s and 1970s—represents an extraordinarily diverse array of filmmaking practices. Some avant-garde films tell bizarre stories, others focus on the abstract qualities of film images, while still others may choose to explore one particular technical aspect 121 .

of film, such as slow motion, to exploit its effects to the full. Many avant-garde filmmakers have been associated with art and social change movements, including Surrealism, Minimalism, feminism, and gay and lesbian liberation.

If viewers think of cinema solely in terms of narrative film, then avant-garde films may put them off. These films require a different set of skills for interpretation. Scott MacDonald argues that avant-garde films evoke frustration because “they confront us with the necessity of redefining an experience we were sure we understood.” (MacDonald, p. 2) Avant-garde films rarely present straightforward stories or characters. Instead, they approach the medium as an aesthetic, philosophical, and/or political means of expression. They often isolate elements of film art—including cinematography, sound, and editing—and subject them to intense scrutiny. Avant-garde films often reject traditional methods for combining images and sound, startling the viewer with new possibilities.

Avant-garde filmmakers break new ground in film aesthetics and cultural politics. The techniques experimental filmmakers use to challenge convention include time-lapse photography, fast, slow, and reverse motion, negative images, scratching and painting on the emulsion, superimposition, electronic soundtracks, and non-synchronized sound.

The sections below examine several important styles and traditions in avant-garde filmmaking, including Surrealism, abstract film, the city symphony, structuralist film, and the compilation film. This examination is suggestive rather than comprehensive; an annotated list of resources for further research directs readers to sources for exploring the gamut of avant-garde filmmaking practices.

A. Surrealist Cinema One film convention that early European avant-garde filmmakers rebelled against was narrative form. Surrealist film culture, centered in Paris, grew out of Dada and Surrealist currents in performance (Hugo Ball and Tristan Tzara), photography (Man Ray), and literature (André Breton). Surrealism explored the irrational, unconscious mind beneath the surface of reality.

Surrealist films are rife with humor, sexuality, and scandalous images. They reject conventional morality and poke fun at bourgeois values through form and content.

During World War II, a number of European artists and filmmakers left occupied Europe and came to the U.S., where an American avant-garde developed, particularly in New York and San Francisco. Within the American avant-garde, some filmmakers expanded on the Surrealist tradition, dismantling narrative and working in a poetic form.

B. Abstract Film When the Surrealists were exploring irrationality, filmmakers such as Man Ray, Walter Ruttmann, and Hans Richter established a very different tradition, one of abstract filmmaking. Their films abandoned human figures altogether. Their animated, geometrical forms reflect their creators’ idea that filmmaking was painting with motion.

Some like Stan Brakhage made a number of abstract films that reflect an interest in the 122 .

philosophy and physiology of vision. Brakhage believed that the untutored eye absorbs and creates its own visual field before it learns to recognize familiar objects.

Film scholar David Curtis wrote that Brakhage’s films defy all conventional notions of filmmaking. They have “no story, no symbolism, no acting, no posed photographic beauty; the drama is […] the drama of vision, a vision that implies a belief that the first priority is to see and record, the second to structure and interpret.” (Curtis, p. 86) Although described within the abstract tradition here, Brakhage has been called a personal and visionary filmmaker because much of his work is both poetic and selfreferential.

C. Techniques in Practice: Interpreting Abstract Films Stan Brakhage’s films can be challenging to interpret. But by attending to the principles that inform avant-garde filmmaking, and especially, the idea that avant-garde filmmakers often focus on the materials of the film medium, it’s possible to gain a greater understanding of even the most abstract of his films. As with any analysis, the first step is simple description.

Two of Brakhage’s later works call attention to basic elements of the film medium, namely, images and movement. Brakhage orchestrates color, light, movement, and tempo in different ways in Black Ice (1994) and Dark Tower (1999), inviting different aesthetic responses.

Editing and composition in Dark Tower emphasize the division of frame into right and left, in contrast to the depth created in Black Ice. Again it’s useful to consider the imagery in relation to the film’s title. Brakhage’s divided compositions and clashing colors are abstract versions of the medieval tower, a powerfully iconic structure that may be familiar from childhood fairly tales and contemporary films such as The Lord of the Rings. The editing emphasizes the physical clash of abstract entities, possibly connoting a mythic struggle between good and evil, darkness and light, or life and death.

D. The City Symphony Beginning in the 1920s, a number of filmmakers celebrated the vibrancy of the modern world with the city symphony film, a genre that combines documentary and experimental film.

Ruttmann and Vertov’s films present ideas through visual association: images produce meaning based on their visual attributes, not through the logic of cause and effect. Both filmmakers are fascinated by the movements of modern urban life and edit their films to establish visual comparisons.

Two short experimental films of the 1950s that grow out of the city symphony tradition are Shirley Clarke’s Bridges Go Round (1958) and Marie Mencken’s Go Go Go (1963).

Clarke’s film offers an interesting lesson in the relationship between image and sound.

Mencken made films that were an extension of her many talents. In them, surface, texture, and rhythm (including camera movement, editing, or fast motion) became central 123 .

elements. Go Go Go uses a handheld camera and stop-motion photography to record activities of New Yorkers.

One of the more recent entrants in the city symphony genre takes advantage of digital technology. Canadian artist Perry Bard has constructed “Man With A Movie Camera: Global Remake,” a public art project that continually creates a remake of Vertov’s classic film using uploaded images from around the world.

E. The Structuralist Film In the 1960s, filmmakers, like painters and Conceptual artists, developed an interest in “a ‘metaphysics’ of the cinematic apparatus.” (MacDonald, p. 37) Structuralist filmmakers explored strips of film, sound waves, cameras, and lenses.

In Wavelength (1967), Michael Snow manipulates a zoom lens in an attempt to examine film space and time. For Snow, “the camera is fixed in a mystical contemplation of a portion of space.” (Sitney, p. 350) Throughout the film’s 45-minute zoom, the shifting focal length reconfigures the space of a New York loft, from three-dimensional deep space to a two-dimensional flat surface. The shot slowly closes in on a photograph on the wall (fig. 9.35). The soundtrack is a sine wave that rises in pitch, its own wavelengths shortening over the duration of the film. The film invites viewers to focus on the way their perception of time and space shifts as a result of cinematic acts of observation.

In 2003, Michael Snow remade his own film, with an ironic twist that reflects contemporary realities. WVLNT (Wavelength for Those Who Don’t Have the Time) is a 15-minute abbreviation of the original film that consists of the three original reels of Wavelength superimposed upon one another. This compressed remake acknowledges the fact that people can’t invest 45 minutes to watch the original, and also puts an avantgarde spin on the notion of the director’s cut.

F. The Compilation Film The compilation film reuses existing film footage in an entirely new context to generate innovative ideas. The use of found footage to stimulate new ideas recalls Marcel Duchamp’s subversive aesthetic of ready-mades and objets trouvés (“found objects”).

The compilation film offers opportunities for irony and invention: since the images all originate in another context, a compilation film can create the “new reality” described in the Deren quote that begins this chapter.

In compilation films, themes and ideas can emerge from the careful sequencing and juxtaposition of vastly different images.

VII. Conducting Research on Documentary and Avant-garde Films: Locating Sources Locating avant-garde and documentary films may pose a challenge. Documentary and avantgarde films can be difficult to obtain; generally, most DVD outlets will offer a small selection at best. Some films are available only on film. Thus, the research process for scholars pursuing an interest in these films often begins with a detective story: finding film prints or locating an outlet to rent or purchase a DVD. 124 .

Conducting an online search for a director or film is one place to begin; but be aware that a great deal of information about alternative filmmaking, including articles and reviews, does not appear in online indexes. A university library may offer access to sources not readily available online.

And a university reference librarian may be able to locate film, video, and digital materials through interlibrary loan.

The list in the text is another resource. Many of these sites and organizations make documentary or avant-garde films available through rental and purchase; in some cases, materials do not circulate but may be viewed on the premises.

VIII. Interpreting Avant-garde Films: Analyzing Meshes of the Afternoon Maya Deren’s haunting experimental films have had a visible influence on everything from music videos by Madonna and Milla Jovovich to contemporary films like Inception (Christopher Nolan 2010). In 1943 Deren’s relationship with her husband, Alexander Hamid, was disintegrating. The couple made a film together that suggests their emotional turmoil, and the resulting Meshes of the Afternoon is surely one of the most important American Surrealist films. Some readers may assume avant-garde films defy any semblance of logic. But the analysis below illustrates that viewers can analyze and interpret experimental films using the terminology and approaches covered in Chapters 2 through 8.

The Study Notes point out strategies for constructing effective sentences. Current scholarship in rhetoric and composition recommends that polishing sentence-level problems should be the last step in the writing process. This chapter covers the last step in revision (excluding proofreading, of course): fine-tuning the prose. Many writers find that it’s more efficient to worry about sentence-level problems after all their ideas are in place and in order.

CHAPTER 9 (Alternatives to Narrative Fiction Film) DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1) View the dream sequence from Hitchcock’s Spellbound. Research through online resources how that sequence was created and who was involved. How does that dream relate to Surrealist films? How does it relate to Surrealist painting and the influence of Salvador Dali, who helped create Un Chien Andalou?

2) View one of Michael Moore’s films, then discuss the level or degree of objectivity you see in the film. Does Moore’s documentary fulfill or reflect the traditions and norms of documentaries? Why or why not? Provide scene examples from his film that support your opinions.

3) View random scenes from Koyaanisqatsi, or watch the complete film. Is this a documentary or an avant-garde film? Create a list of the film’s attributes/qualifications that would categorize it as one of these genres, then discuss whether the film fits in one or both of those genres, and how it does so. If it can be understood as a “cross-over” film that fits both genres, how does the film accomplish this?

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CHAPTER 9 (Alternatives to Narrative Fiction Film) LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND INCLASS EXERCISES 1) What’s showing in your community?

Ask students to keep a journal for three or more weeks, tracking what local theaters show documentary and avant-garde films. Perhaps a local independent theater shows the occasional documentary film. If your community is lucky enough to have such a theater, talk about how it differs from the larger multi-plexes in terms of the types of films it shows, its affiliation (or lack thereof) with a larger chain, and the type of audience it might attract.

If your university is in a large city or has an especially vibrant film culture, students might be able to find experimental films on campus or at galleries.

If, like too many university communities, there are no venues for such films, this can still be a useful exercise in frustration. Drive home the point that, for the most part, these films don’t garner a large slice of the market. Discuss how avant-garde films and, to a lesser extent, documentaries are made outside an industrial context, and how their modes of production affect how they are marketed and received.

2) Why call documentaries “the creative treatment of actuality”?

Screen a documentary or an extended clip, and discuss how the act of making a documentary might actually alter the course of history, or at least the way audiences perceive history.

During shooting ✓ What decisions cinematographic concerns did the director have to take into consideration to film this sequence? Do you think the director could have “steered” any of the action to accommodate the cameras? Do you think any of the action could have been staged? ✓ Are there any recreations? Who determined what the recreation should look like?

Does the director make it clear what documents or whose account this recreation is based on? ✓ Do you think these characters might have acted differently had the cameras not been on them (for example, do you think outdoor adventure enthusiasts can be spurred to act recklessly because the camera is watching and they don’t want the document to record a lapse in bravery)? ✓ Are there moments when the filmmaker should have gotten involved to help someone in distress? What are the moral obligations of a filmmaker working in a hostile environment, such as a war zone?

In the lab ✓ Does the score encourage you to respond to the details onscreen from a particular perspective? Could altering the score change the way you perceive the subject? ✓ Does the editing persuade you to respond to footage and interviews from a biased perspective? You might consider screening Capturing the Friedmans and assigning students to read Paul Arthur’s essay on the film “True Confessions, Sort Of” in Cineaste, vol. XXVIII No. 4 (Fall 2003). Arthur examines how director Andrew Jarecki edits the interviews, taking key lines and giving them a new context by 126 .

juxtaposing them with earlier home movies and interviews taken at a different time.

Arthur contends that Jarecki’s formal strategies contradict the director’s claims of his own neutrality. ✓ Has the film been marketed? What images were used to sell the film? Could these images have predetermined the audience’s response as they entered the theater? ✓ Did the film receive other forms of publicity? Were critics and news pundits discussing the film as it hit the screens? Could this discussion have influenced audience response? [Obviously, An Inconvenient Truth demonstrates how public discourse makes it nearly impossible for audiences to see a film from an innocent perspective)] 3) The ethics of representation Screen Nanook of the North and/or The Man of Aran, or direct students’ attention to the discussion of Flaherty’s work on pp. 290-91. Discuss the ethical problems that arise when one culture tries to document another. ✓ How did Flaherty influence “reality” in making his film? ✓ Why would he have made these changes? Do you think he gave Allakarillak polar bear leggings as a gift to keep him warmer? Do you think changing Allakarillak’s name to “the Bear” was a sign of respect? Who benefited from these adjustments? ✓ Whose perspective of Inuit people (or Aran people) do we get? Is this perspective objective? Why would some be offended by such misrepresentation, even though the misrepresentation romanticizes the culture? ✓ Why would some argue that Flaherty’s attempt to document a distant culture is unethical? Do Flaherty’s practices suggest the difficulties in documenting a culture from an outsider’s vantage point?

You may want to screen Nanook Revisited to examine the huge impact that film and Flaherty’s presence had on that Inuit community.

4) Recognizing form in the abstract A common misperception regarding experimental films is that they are formless, random exercises. The following exercise will encourage students to appreciate the fact that even the most abstract of films can employ distinct and recognizable patterns that can be studied and appreciated. ✓ [Screen Stan Brakhage’s Black Ice and The Dark Tower back to back. These short films are ideal for this exercise because, on the surface, they look nearly identical.

Before screening each film, ask students to consider what the titles refer to.] Do these titles give the audience a point of entry into the films? Do they guide the audience’s intellectual response to the imagery? Ask students if they think titles for avant-garde films might be more important than titles in narrative films. If so, why?

[After you have screened the films, consider showing the filmmaker’s comments about the titles, included in the Criterion Collection’s Brakhage anthology.] ✓ Ask students why one film was called Black Ice and the other The Dark Tower. If they draw a blank, encourage them to talk about any differences they noticed in the two films. ✓ [At this point, feel free to open the floor up for discussion. Ask students if they would consider these two works “films.” Chances are you will meet with lots of resistance, 127 .

at which point you can talk about their assumptions that films must tell stories.]

What are the merits of films that abandon stories altogether? ✓ [Now expose students to a broader range of experimental films. Consider screening Un Chien andalou in tandem with a city symphony such as Man With a Movie Camera.] Unlike the Brakhage films, both the surrealist film and the city symphony involve people to some degree. What, then, differentiates these films from narrative films? From each other?

5) Psycho and the avant-garde Screen the shower scene from Psycho with the sound turned off (show just the frenzied murder).

Have students discuss why the scene isn’t an example of avant-garde filmmaking—but also encourage them to consider how it comes pretty close to being one. Use the discussion to illustrate how the material essence of narrative filmmaking is the same as avant-garde filmmaking, but in the former films audiences follow a narrative thread, which ties together images that would otherwise be fragmented. Avant-garde films, on the other hand, emphasize the material construction of film itself, and value a pure sensory experience over a narrative experience. One way to illustrate the point is to ask students how they know Marion is stabbed, since Hitchcock never shows the knife penetrating her flesh. Audiences follow the narrative thread and imagine an idea that the abstract arrangement of images never explicitly reveals.

As an alternative, consider showing one of the drug montage sequences in Requiem for a Dream or the opening of Saving Private Ryan.

OUT OF CLASS EXERCISES 1) Developing a topic for a documentary Divide the class into small groups of four or five. Each group should generate an idea for a documentary film about some person, issue, or phenomenon on campus. They should explain what rhetorical strategies the film would employ: voices of authority? talking heads (who would be interviewed)? cinema vérité? self-reflexivity?

2) Experimenting with experimental film [I]: defamiliarizing space Screen and discuss Meshes of the Afternoon in class. Assign students to storyboard a short film that depicts someone entering a dorm room, only to find the space strange, disconcerting and unknown. Encourage them to think about how the imagery and editing could reflect common student anxieties.

3) Experimenting with experimental film [II]: the compilation film Divide the class into small groups of four or five. Each group should bring in an image from outside of class. The image can be clipped from a magazine or poster, it can be a photograph, or it can be a drawing. Anything is fair game.

Collect each group’s image, and distribute all of them electronically.

Each group should meet out of class and decide how to arrange any five (or, you can decide on a number more suitable for your class size) of these images in some meaningful or systematic way.

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4) Writing exercise Give students this sentence and have them re-write it using precise terminology and avoiding passive voice: The camera is placed looking down on Pete Moss. Moss is circled by the camera that moves from left to right. (A more concise version of the above description: The high angle shot of Pete Moss tracks around him from left to right.)

You can also have fun by writing famous lines of dialogue or music lyrics in passive voice. Give students the original lines and have them re-write them in passive voice, or vice-versa.

Examples: From Taxi Driver: “Am I being talked to by you?”

From Gone with the Wind: “Frankly, a damn is not given by me.”

From Star Wars: “The force should be felt, Luke.”

From Titanic: “The world is subjected to my kingship!”

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HAPTER 10: FILM AND IDEOLOGY

CHAPTER 10 (Film and Ideology) LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, students should be able to: 1) define ideology.

2) understand how scholars interested in studying ideology in film can investigate political and social influences on film production, the degree to which films rely on stereotypes, and the cinema’s ideological impact.

3) describe the variety of debates regarding how and the degree to which films can sway the audience’s ideological assumptions.

4) explore how a film can transmit ideologies about politics, race, gender, sexuality, and/or disability through its narrative content, as well as its stylistic approach.

5) explain the circumstances behind the House Committee on Un-American Activities and the Hollywood Blacklist.

6) explain how, historically, American cinema’s representation of racial difference has often reinforced commonly held assumptions about racial hierarchy.

7) explain why more empathetic depictions of African-Americans (e.g., Sidney Poitier’s characters, blaxploitation, independent cinema) provoke debate regarding the degree to which popular cinema reinforces commonly held assumptions about race.

8) describe the degree to which the feminist movement has influenced writing about film and films directed by women.

9) describe how the Production Code and generally held assumptions about homosexuality influenced the representation of gays and lesbians in Hollywood’s studio era, and how depictions of homosexuality have evolved following the abandonment of the Production Code and the growth of the gay rights movement.

10) describe the ways in which disabled characters were stereotyped in films before and after World War II. 11) discuss how and why representations of disability have evolved since World War II. CHAPTER 10 (Film and Ideology) OVERVIEW • •

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Films can influence a society’s ideology—an unquestioned basis for individual and group decisions about the proper organization of society.

Hollywood has revealed how it can reflect an overlying ideology by suppressing the stories of certain individuals or groups; by relying on stereotypes; by repeating popular formulas that have please audiences before rather than challenging the way audiences think and feel; and by developing a visual language that has global appeal.

The case of the Hollywood Ten and the Hollywood blacklist demonstrates how the confluence of history, political ideology, and the cinema can inform what audiences see onscreen.

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The history of the representation of African-Americans in American film—from The Birth of a Nation, to the heyday of Sidney Poitier’s career, to the rise of blaxploitation, and to the gangster films of the 80s and 90s--has in part been shaped by a series of responses and counter-responses to the limited range of black characters in Hollywood.

Ideologies of gender revolve around the root cause of perceived differences between men and women. Evolutionary biologists maintain that biological determinants shape these differences, whereas many social scientists contend that socialization processes play a more significant part in shaping gender roles. Nevertheless, the perceived sex differences have been used to justify the exclusion of women in politics, the workplace, and the film industry.

Feminist film critics have argued that most movies invite the audience to identify with characters in ways that reinforce patriarchal assumptions about men and women: male characters are active agents in the story, and female characters are either more passive, or dangerous.

Films have depicted homosexuality since the earliest days of the cinema; most representations of homosexuality in mainstream movies during the height of the Hollywood studio era are subtly encoded in the film’s narrative and visual systems. More overt representations of gays and lesbians usually appear in independent and underground films of the era. Homosexual characters became more visible in mainstream films at the end of the 1960s.

Before World War II, films that featured disabled characters relied on two stereotypes: presenting disability as an aberration of nature and as a marker of destructive asocial behavior. Since World War II, representations of disability have been much more sympathetic, but they still rely on stereotypes.

CHAPTER 10 (Film and Ideology) SUMMARY I. Introduction

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art Two of this textbook focuses primarily on learning how to read individual film

texts and analyzing how films provoke emotional, intellectual, and aesthetic responses. This chapter broadens the scope for analysis by considering how films can be studied as the products of social and cultural environments, and thus can be more fully understood in relation to other cultural documents and practices.

As this chapter will explore, often we are unaware of how ideologies shape the way we perceive the world. Ideologies may be invisible, yet they shape the world in important ways by influencing the actions of individuals and groups.

Ideologies derive from deep-seated feelings about the world and about human society, and, therefore, they are not necessarily bound by the rules of logic.

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Ideologies shape the relationship between an individual and culture, influencing her ideas about family structure, gender and sexuality, faith, the function of work, and the role of government, among other things. In general, what is considered “natural” is not a fixed point of reference but shifts radically from one culture to another, from one generation to the next, and from one group of people to another.

Ideologies provide the philosophical threads that weave a community together, guiding the actions of individuals, groups, and even entire societies. Yet they can also serve as the psychological and emotional justification for the differential treatment of some within a society, promoting the social dominance of one group over another.

II. Ideology and Film Analysis How is this discussion of ideologies relevant to the cinema? Many ideologies don’t appear in official state documents. Rather, they are widely held beliefs that are maintained subtly through everyday practices and conveyed through a variety of media, including film. A film presents an attitude toward its subject matter, and always reflects a particular perspective. Ideological film critics thus contend that even apparently apolitical films made purely to entertain are not free from ideology. The values that pervade a particular culture are inevitably embedded in the films made by the writers, directors, and producers who are part of that culture and who (in most cases) are hoping to attract audiences who make up that culture.

Film scholars don’t have to limit their analysis of ideological content to hot button topics. For example, Hollywood’s stories typically embrace capitalism and individualism, the two central components of the American Dream, which hold that any hardworking individual will be able to rise above humble circumstances and become successful, perhaps even famous.

An opposing view—one that emphasizes that there are destructive aspects to capitalism and individualism—treats the American Dream as a myth that disregards the limitations of a society that values competition more than communal responsibility, and one in which powerful interests threaten the ability of individuals to achieve success. Rejecting capitalist individualism, this alternative standpoint presents collective activity, including political and economic organization, as the only way to achieve lasting, democratic, social change that improves the lot of all economically disadvantaged people.

An ideology is a set of values that is not necessarily shared by all Americans or by people in other cultures. Yet these values shape the way individuals think about the world around them and thus can serve as a basis for stigmatizing those who do not share the same beliefs. Ideologies are implicated in practices of social power; they are rarely neutral.

Because movies have such a profound impact on culture, scholars and critics who consider ideology an important aspect of any film see an inherent value in thinking critically about how they shape the way we perceive ourselves and others. If the profit-driven film industry makes money by supplying viewers with films designed to make them feel good—rather than films designed to challenge their pre-existing beliefs—then popular formulas that work again and again may both shape and confirm the way people already think. Analyzing popular films in terms of their implicit ideologies can uncover the ideas and philosophies that shape culture.

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In short, critics and scholars who approach the medium with an interest in ideology recognize that Hollywood films have an enormous impact on audiences in the United States. From the 1920s through the 1950s, movies were a major socializing force in American culture, influencing the way people looked, talked, and acted (Kellner, p. 128). Hollywood’s lingering influence is readily apparent in the popular attitudes and expressions that have originated in Hollywood films.

But Hollywood’s influence extends well beyond the United States. Film scholar Miriam Hansen has argued that Hollywood cinema provided the first “global vernacular”—an everyday language through which people all over the world grapple with the contradictory experiences of modernity (Hansen, p. 68).

III. The Institutional Enforcement of Ideology: The Production Code and the AntiCommunist Witch Hunts Two occurrences from Hollywood’s past offer salient examples of how a film industry can shape content for the explicit purpose of influencing the audience’s ideological perspective: the Production Code, and the Hollywood Blacklist.

A. In the decades of the 1930s to the 1960s, filmmakers weren’t permitted to mention when characters were pregnant, much less depict lovers in the midst of heated passion. This prohibition against direct reference to or representation of sexuality was articulated in Hollywood’s Production Code. This practice of self-censorship offers a concrete example of how filmmakers and public interest groups, aware of the profound social influence of the cinema, monitored and molded the content of the movies in order to maintain what were perceived to be the United States’ normative ideologies.

Ironically, the earliest Hollywood films weren’t censored. Contemporary audiences might be shocked to see brief glimpses of nudity and risqué subject matter in early studio films.

In the early 1920s, the industry found itself increasingly under attack from church groups and conservative publications, which denounced the industry because of scandals relating to sexual deviance, avarice, drugs, and alcohol.

Hollywood established the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America (MPPDA), an organization designed to help the industry regulate its own content. While not the equivalent of a state censor, the MPPDA, under the direction of Will Hays, did ensure that the American film industry kept supposedly subversive content in check.

Initially the MPPDA offered little in the way of rules regarding appropriate and inappropriate content. In 1927, Hays drafted a list of “Don’ts and Be Carefuls” he expected studio filmmakers to consult as they developed and scripted their pictures.

Filmmakers were encouraged to “be careful” when depicting religious ceremonies, criminal behavior, the institution of marriage, and law enforcement.

The end of the 1920s saw another public backlash against Hollywood, in part because of celebrity scandals and the growing popularity of the gangster film. In 1933, The Catholic Legion of Decency was established to condemn and boycott immoral films. The MPPDA 133 .

responded by turning its list of “Don’ts and Be Carefuls” into the Production Code, a list of rules prohibiting certain images and scenarios.

Implicit in the preamble of the Production Code is the assumption that any images outside of the dominant value system could have a negative impact on audiences.

Crucially, the moral standards that films were supposed to uphold were defined by conservative groups, including members of the Catholic Church.

Increasingly challenged through the 1950s and early 60s, the Production Code ceased being enforced by the mid-1960s. In 1967, Jack Valenti, President of the Motion Picture Association of America, MPAA (as the MPPDA had been renamed), instituted the ratings system, which remains in effect today.

If the history of the Production Code offers an example of the way a film industry can self-consciously create films that propagate a value system, the case of the Hollywood Blacklist illustrates how powerful political interests attempted to intimidate those working in the film industry and to determine mainstream cinema’s political content.

B. Anti-Communist Witch Hunts and Hollywood Cinema One case study of the intersection of history, political ideology, and cinema was the investigation of the Hollywood film industry by the U.S. Congress’s House Committee on Un-American Activities (HCUA), also known as HUAC, between 1947 and 1954.

Members of the film community were called on to testify before the committee and to provide names of acquaintances and co-workers whom they believed to have been Communist sympathizers: some of the individuals named were never involved with the American Communist Party, others had been members decades earlier, still others were current members. Ten Hollywood writers and directors refused to answer questions about themselves or their friends and co-workers, citing the First Amendment. The committee charged those ten individuals, who became known as the Hollywood Ten, with contempt of Congress and they were sentenced to six months to a year in prison. More actors and technicians and directors were accused.

The group of ultimately 300 individuals whose careers and lives were interrupted or ruined became known as the Hollywood blacklist, although the practices of blacklisting moved beyond the initial group of names. Moreover, in many cases people unconnected to Communism per se, including labor union activists and gay men and lesbians, were targeted. The events mushroomed into what many historians describe as a witch hunt because the only way to clear one’s name was to sully the reputation of a friend or colleague, whether or not such accusations had any foundation in reality.

The broader social context for these events was the shift in geopolitical power after World War II. The climate of competition and mutual suspicion between the United States and the Soviet Union became known as the Cold War. Cold War ideologies played an important role in determining U.S. domestic policies well into the 1980s, when the Soviet Union disintegrated and ceased to be a superpower. Throughout the postwar era, some American politicians, foremost among them Senator Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin, exploited the anxieties that the Cold War provoked to attack their political 134 .

enemies and to suppress dissent within the country.

HUAC’s practice of relying on unfounded accusation and innuendo to cast suspicion became known as McCarthyism because of McCarthy’s relentless and unethical pursuit of supposed subversive elements.

Along with many other important lessons, this historical episode suggests that the entertainment industry is hardly immune to politics. Filmmakers, stars, and producers have always been involved in politics and current events. The powerful executives who control media corporations today have the same vested interest in protecting their brand name as those who signed the Waldorf Statement. They are eager to align themselves with popular, or at the very least, uncontroversial, political positions.

These corporate executives not only depend on the general public to consume their products, but also answer to stockholders, Wall Street financial institutions, and government agencies.

IV. Ideology and Film Spectatorship A lively debate has been taking place for some time regarding ideology and film spectatorship.

Are viewers simply held in thrall by a “message” that a filmmaker encodes in his or her film?

Are all films the equivalent of propaganda, intentionally and systematically disseminating deceptive information in order to promote an idea or cause? Some ideological critics have argued that popular films are nothing more than vacuous products of a “culture industry.” In this view, films transmit only those ideas that serve the hegemonic corporate and government interests that dominate society at large and the film industry in particular.

These critics believe that the cinema, along with other social institutions such as the media, education, and religion, interpellate members of society by defining what it means to be an individual. Films teach viewers how to be a man, woman, citizen, lover, worker, etc. Another group of critics in this period argued that the film apparatus itself confers ideological effects.

They pointed out that the cinema’s physical and mechanical attributes produce a specific form of spectatorship. For them, what makes the cinema such a powerful tool for conveying ideology is the very pleasure we experience when we go to the movies: the feeling of being absorbed in a fictional world that is so utterly compelling that we don’t think about it being a construction. For them, the solution was that films must lay bare the way the apparatus works, in self-reflexive films that constantly remind viewers they are watching films rather than allowing them to be caught up in the magical and mythical world of the narrative.

Other critics combine these apparatus arguments with psychoanalytic theories of the human subject to discuss the way the viewers respond to films on a psychological and emotional level.

One psychologist, Christian Metz, proposed that film spectatorship induces a regression to a near-infantile state and activates primal desires associated with narcissism (self-regard) and voyeurism (the desire for another, satisfied through looking).

Feminist scholars Mulvey and de Lauretis drew from apparatus, psychoanalytic, and Marxist film theorists to propose that the narrative structure of popular cinema itself, not merely its subject matter or the physical apparatus, reinforces a particular ideology: the male-dominated patriarchal system on which Western cultures are traditionally based.

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Since these lively debates of the 1970s, the range of topics in ideological criticism has expanded to include studies of race, sexuality, age, national identity, and disability, among other subjects.

Film scholars no longer characterize the cinema as an agent of total repression and generally reject the idea that there is one identifiable “message” that emanates from popular films. Most critics agree that even a single film can incorporate contradictory ideologies.

Thus, scholars and critics don’t just assume films reinforce dominant ideologies. They also analyze how some films go “against the grain,” or, subtly question mainstream beliefs.

Recent scholarly interest in spectatorship further complicates assumptions about the cinema being a monolithic tool of the power structure. Some scholars have convincingly argued that film viewers are not passive receptacles but active participants who help to construct a film’s meaning(s). Reception studies research clearly shows that not every audience member responds to the same film in the same way.

Following this tack, some critics study how films contain moments that appear to complicate inadvertently their central ideological thrust, leaving “fissures” for audiences to make alternative interpretations that undermine the film’s otherwise apparent endorsement of dominant cultural beliefs.

The discussions of film and ideology that make up the remainder of this chapter make specific reference to American cultural history. The scope of analysis is intentionally limited because ideologies tend to be culturally specific and it is usually inappropriate to generalize across such boundaries. Moreover, the discussions presented here are illustrative rather than exhaustive: readers are invited to explore additional topics for which ideological criticism is relevant.

V. Topics in Ideological Criticism As the chapter thus far might indicate, approaching film using an ideological approach opens up many possibilities for analyzing what films make us think about, and how. What follows is a brief introduction to some fruitful topics in ideological criticism. By no means is this list exhaustive, but it does explore some important arenas in film studies.

One of the assumptions that unifies this seemingly disparate collection of topics—race, gender, sexuality, and disability in the cinema—is that filmmakers are inevitably faced with the need to represent characters from many different walks of life. Ideological critics often begin their analysis by studying how filmmakers represent characters with countervailing lifestyles and worldviews.

Frequently those outside the mainstream aren’t stereotyped as much as they are ignored altogether. Often a film’s ideology is made apparent by what’s not in the film (i.e., what types of people are not represented) as by what is. As the following topics make clear, the long-running absence of particular types of characters reveals an unspoken, perhaps unselfconscious disregard for some groups’ social value and importance.

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A. Racial Ideology and American Cinema Scholars and critics still interrogate how and what the cinema teaches its audiences about racial difference. This sort of interrogation reminds readers that America’s attitudes about race have been informed by a long, vexed history of slavery and oppression.

The ideology of white supremacy that underwrote chattel slavery and Jim Crow laws has been apparent in American films and in the Hollywood film industry throughout its history. Perhaps the most remarked-on example of a film that embodies racist ideologies is D.W. Griffith’s The Birth of a Nation, a Civil War epic based on the The Klansman and The Leopard’s Spots, written by Thomas Dixon.

In general, Griffith’s film depicts African-American characters as foolish, servile, or menacing, and the white characters, with a few exceptions, as noble and courageous.

Owing to the racial segregation in the film industry at the time that The Birth of a Nation was filmed, most of the African-American characters were played by white actors in blackface. The blackface minstrel tradition itself carries connotations of white supremacist ideology because minstrelsy involved the overt representation of blacks— played by white performers with black makeup on—as lazy and ignorant.

Many Hollywood films reinforce the idea of racial hierarchy in less obvious ways. First, most classical Hollywood films revolve exclusively around the concerns of white characters because their struggles are presumed to be both appealing and universally accessible to all audiences. Second, until the 1970s, the depiction of African Americans was compromised by racist stereotyping.

Griffith’s film met with a cinematic rejoinder from an African-American perspective, however. The NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) organized public protests. Oscar Micheaux, a former Pullman porter who became a novelist and filmmaker, wrote and directed Within Our Gates (1920). Micheaux had directed the first African-American feature film, The Homesteader (1919), and would go on to direct more than forty films between 1919 and 1948. Within Our Gates explicitly contradicts Griffith’s history of the American South with a story of a young, educated African-American woman named Sylvia Landry (Evelyn Preer), who returns to her home in the South after a failed engagement, in order to help educate black children.

Within Our Gates was shown to predominantly black audiences, often at white-owned theaters whose managers allowed Micheaux to screen films for black audiences at midnight; these events were called “midnight rambles.” Independent films such as these, made by and for black audiences, came to be known as race films; they spanned a variety of genres and were produced until the 1950s. Race films provided black audiences with images of African-American experiences; they also had the goal of uplifting the race by countering the ideologies of white supremacy and its tangible effects.

In keeping with American culture’s racial hierarchy, race films have not been valued by most film historians in the same way that films by white Hollywood directors have been.

During the 1950s and 1960s, the era of the Civil Rights Movement, shifting ideologies of 137 .

racial difference gradually made an impact on Hollywood cinema. In Hollywood films, the first indication of changes in ideologies of race came about through the star system, as black actors and actresses began to achieve success in films made for white audiences.

During the 1960s, Sidney Poitier broke through the racial barrier in mainstream Hollywood films to become a huge star. He became the first African American man to win an Academy Award. He played educated, middle-class, upwardly mobile professionals in predominantly white cultural contexts.

On the other hand, televized images of black resistance to police brutality during the Watts riots of 1965 “redefined the images of African Americans on screen for both blacks and whites.” (Massood, p. 22) The response of African-American filmmakers to this development did anything but appease the sensibilities of white audiences. These blaxploitation films—whose name indicates the combination of black characters and the low-budget action aesthetic of earlier exploitation cinemas—celebrated black power and resistance to dominant white culture rather than promoting the benefits of racial integration. In this way, the films echoed the political program of black activists of the era, including Malcolm X and the Black Panther Party. In a move that suggests the complexity of racial ideologies in cinema, the NAACP (which had, decades earlier, protested Griffith’s The Birth of a Nation), combined with black civil rights groups like the Southern Christian Leadership Conference to form the Coalition Against Blaxploitation.

During the 1970s, a new generation of independent filmmakers focused explicitly on countering the ideological content of mainstream films. Collectively known as the L.A. School or the L.A. Rebellion, these directors “were interested in deconstructing Hollywood’s ideological Prisonhouse,” drawing on the Black Arts movement in the U.S. as well as various alternative filmmaking styles. Their interest in experimenting with the traditional form of narrative fiction filmmaking—not merely the subject matter— reiterates the notion presented earlier that ideologies are perpetuated by the form as well as the content of narrative cinema.

As this brief discussion suggests, historical practices of racial exclusion are important to consider when examining the way American films represent dominant culture and minority cultures. Ideological criticism now encompasses critiques of Hollywood’s representation of African American, Latino/a, Asian-American and Native American people and their cultures.

B. Gender and Cinema Gender ideologies inform the operation of the industry and shape the kinds of stories that are told, and who gets to tell them.

The view that profound differences exist between men and women has influenced American culture for centuries, justifying laws and practices that have denied women autonomy and barred them from positions of social and economic power.

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Historically, the notion that men are superior to women, or that masculinity is normative and femininity is pathological, has prevailed in many societies.

The fact that women are underrepresented in Hollywood became a widespread topic of discussion after several studios hired women as executives in the early 2000s without a discernible increase in women’s overall participation in the industry. In fact, women participated in filmmaking at much greater rates during the earliest years of cinema. More than 100 women directed films during the 1910s and 1920s. A study by Martha Lauzen of San Diego State University revealed that, in 2005, women made up only 7 percent of directors (a decline from a historical high of 11 percent in 2000) and 17 percent of directors, producers, screenwriters, cinematographers, and editors on the top 250 Hollywood films (Lauzen).

Ideologies of gender that adversely affect women’s participation in the film industry also inform the kind of stories told in Hollywood films. Feminist critics Margery Rosen, who wrote Popcorn Venus (1973), and Molly Haskell, who wrote film reviews for The Village Voice and published From Reverence to Rape (1974), criticized the stereotyped depiction of women onscreen. Laura Mulvey’s work gave rise to the field of feminist film theory— an area whose practitioners continue to forward a critique of the representations of women in mainstream films, to explore forgotten or unacknowledged work by women filmmakers, and to develop theories of gendered spectatorship.

A basic premise that serves as a good starting point for studying feminist film criticism is the argument that the vast majority of films invite audiences to identify with male characters. The foundational work in feminist criticism may have developed during the 1970s, but ideologies of gender remain an important subject within film studies.

To what degree does repeating familiar representations of male and female encourage audiences to accept essentialist arguments about gender roles? Does the film offer audience members any opportunities for broadening their concept of gendered behavior?

For example, does the fact that the male robot Wall-E is a connoisseur of classic Hollywood musicals complicate traditional notions about masculine taste? Or does the film simply reinforce age-old stereotypes?

One of the central agendas behind the rise of feminist film criticism was, quite simply, to establish an intellectual movement that would generate more demand for a wider array of roles and professional opportunities for women of all ages, shapes, and sizes in the industry.

Another development that accompanied the feminist critique of mainstream films—and which grew out of the women’s liberation movement more generally—was the feminist filmmaking movement. Film scholar Julia LeSage argued that feminist documentaries incorporate the practice of consciousness-raising in their formal organization and politicize the personal experiences of the women subjects they document.

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Men direct most Hollywood films. However, women continue to be an increasingly visible presence in the director’s chair. Scholars should appreciate that these women don’t limit their work to dealing just with “women’s issues.”

In short, thanks to the inroads made by the feminist movement in academia and filmmaking in the 1970s, women have gradually become a more visible presence behind the camera as in front of it. And while some might assume that women filmmakers would focus their attention on issues that solely relate to questions about gender, the all-toobrief list above should indicate that their approaches to filmmaking are as wide and varied as those of their male counterparts.

C. Sexuality and Cinema Ideologies of sexuality attempt to make sense of, and implicitly to regulate, sexual choices and practices. For much of the twentieth century, only two sexual orientations were recognized—heterosexual (straight) and homosexual (gay or lesbian); the former was considered normal and the latter deviant. Being gay or lesbian was not only stigmatized, but also criminalized.

Historians such as Martin Duberman, Martha Vicinus, and George Chauncey argue that gay and lesbian culture has been hidden from history, and film scholar Vito Russo coined the term the “celluloid closet” to refer to the fact that Hollywood films rarely depict gay and lesbian protagonists. During Hollywood’s heyday, the Production Code’s section II.4 stated, “Sex perversion or any inference to it is forbidden” (“Production Code of 1930”).

Throughout the era of studio Hollywood, gay and lesbian stars remained in the closet as well, sometimes dating or marrying members of the opposite sex in order to maintain for the public the illusion of heterosexuality.

Yet contemporary film scholarship by Richard Dyer, Patricia White, and Richard Barrios reveals that gay and lesbian characters make numerous appearances in cinema history, although mainstream films tend to treat characters and situations that depart from the heterosexual norm with subtle encoding. Gay and lesbian characters often function as plot devices that affirm the heterosexual coupling that occurs with great regularity at the conclusion of Hollywood films.

Although the representation of gays and lesbians in early cinema probably seems more obvious to viewers in the twenty-first century than it did in the early twentieth century, the humor of many early film comedies depended on the audience’s ability to recognize gay stereotypes (Gagne). One consideration for readers pursuing historical research on sexual ideologies and practices and cinema is the shifting social understanding of sexual identities; as with racial and gender identities, concepts of sexuality differ across historical periods and cultural contexts.

Because the Production Code strictly limited the depiction of alternative sexualities during the height of studio Hollywood (1930–60), it is far more common to find explicit references to gay and lesbian sexualities in independent and underground filmmaking.

With the breakdown of the studio system by the mid-1960s, and the abandonment of the 140 .

Production Code in favor of the ratings system in 1968, gay and lesbian subject matter slowly infiltrated mainstream cinema.

As with the civil rights and women’s movements, the late 1960s period represented a watershed moment for gay rights. During a police raid on the Stonewall Inn bar in New York on June 28, 1969, the bar’s patrons—largely drag queens—fought back. This rebellious show of community solidarity ignited the movement to assert the rights of gays and lesbians. The next decade in cinema witnessed a spate of feature films in which lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender characters occupy central positions. Critics have argued that these films may have upgraded gay and lesbian characters from mere supporting roles, but they also rely heavily on stereotypes.

By the early 1990s, following the explosion of independent filmmaking and the rise in the number of gay and lesbian film festivals, a new crop of films appeared that veteran film critic B. Ruby Rich dubbed New Queer Cinema. New Queer Cinema films are often experimental in form and unapologetically assertive in attitude. They explicitly address queer audiences rather than seeking the approval of straight audiences for their characters’ sexual and lifestyle choices, dreams, and fantasies. The unabashed style of New Queer Cinema inspired a host of less experimental, but no less risky, feature films dealing with gay and lesbian life.

A number of film critics have observed that, during the first decade of the 2000s, the energy of New Queer Cinema went mainstream, as evidenced by the popularity of, and the Oscar nominations garnered by, various films. Moreover, the accolades Penn, Heath Ledger, Charlize Theron, Philip Seymour Hoffman and others have earned playing gay roles makes it clear that such parts no longer carry the stigma they once did. But the fact that the actors above who earned praise for playing gay characters are all (presumably) straight points to another debate brewing in the critical community: are audiences as open to their favorite stars being “out of the closet” as they are to characters who are homosexual? It may be possible that audiences are willing to accept a discrepancy between a straight actor’s offscreen persona and his onscreen character, but are less able to suspend their disbelief when watching a gay man playing a straight romantic hero.

D. Disability and Cinema Following the civil rights struggles of the disabled, and the increased awareness of social issues related to disability brought about by the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, film studies has recently begun to address the ideologies implicit in cinematic representations of disability. Film history is rife with examples of popular movies in which the disabled are treated as abnormal deviants. Tod Browning’s 1932 film Freaks’ subsequent cult following and scholarly appeal make it an evocative case study for exploring questions relevant to cinematic representations of the disabled: are disabled characters developed with depth and complexity, or are they two-dimensional “curios” that function only to provide atmosphere or to act as a convenient plot device? Is a character’s disability her single defining trait? What assumptions does a film make about the impact a disability has on the quality of life? Does the industry provide access to disabled actors, and to what degree does this access affect the way disabilities are represented in film?

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The fact that this discussion begins with a description of Freaks points to a common and misguided assumption that informs perceptions of disability: that a disability is necessarily accompanied by a pronounced physical marker of difference. Even films that portray “invisible” disabilities, such as mental illness or dyslexia, assign disabled characters physical traits or make them social deviants. Some of this imagery associates the mentally ill with starkly lit windows or doors, unkempt physical appearance, cages, hidden hands, and flailing limbs. Lopez’s list details the various ways the visual arts— including the cinema—have stereotyped the disabled for centuries.

These ubiquitous visual markers of difference point to the broader tendency in the cinema to represent the disabled as strange, exotic specimens. But the story line in Freaks actually disturbs this tendency to identify the disabled as “others.” In Browning’s film, those with conventionally beautiful bodies—the strong man and the trapeze artist—are the unsympathetic figures whose behavior threatens social stability.

The film challenges traditional representations of disability in another way. Cleopatra is clearly an unsympathetic character. She is a gold digger and a potential killer. The chanting scene thus calls into question normative social attitudes, which brand the physically disabled as social pariahs. In other words, the film invites viewers to recognize and potentially repudiate their affinity with one of the film’s two contemptible antagonists.

By emphasizing the communal orientation of the so-called “freaks” while simultaneously alluding to the social pathology of the able-bodied, the episode points to the film’s challenge to the cinematic stereotype of the disabled. Paradoxically, however, the episode also illustrates how Freaks undercuts the humanity of the sideshow performers by trading on their “otherness” to generate the gothic atmosphere so critical to the horror genre.

Disability comes to symbolize monstrosity itself. Freaks demonstrates how a single film can contain competing ideologies. One dominant theme (the idea that the circus performers are more human than those with conventional bodies) is subtly contradicted by opposing ideological undercurrents (the presentation of disability as monstrous and grotesque).

Despite its contradictions, Freaks is exceptional for its treatment of the disabled as main characters, worthy of their own storyline. Most depictions of disability in the first decades of American cinema cast disabled characters as disaffected and dangerous oddities. The most superficial characterizations relied on disabled minor characters to generate eerie atmosphere or comic relief. Films that did feature conflicts involving central disabled characters focused on their sociopathic inability to “fit in.”

With the advent of World War II, the film industry’s depiction of disability grew considerably more complex. Responding to the historical circumstance of an entire generation coping with the scars of combat, studios began to explore the emotional and physical challenges of disability.

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Though Hollywood trended toward greater sensitivity in its portrayals of disabilities after the war, this did not necessarily eradicate stereotypes. Rather, a new generation of standardized treatments arose. Film scholar Colin Barnes identifies victimization as a common narrative trope of disability. Disabled characters are often victims, reinforcing “the notion that disabled people are helpless, pitiable, and unable to function without protection.” (Barnes, pp. 10–11) Yet another stereotype depicts the disabled as defeatists who wallow in self-pity, making themselves “their own worst enemies.” Some films revolve around self-loathers who must learn to “rise to the challenge,” often from others who are not disabled; this narrative strategy uses “disability as a metaphor for dependence and vulnerability.”

(Barnes, p. 14) All of these cinematic stereotypes share the assumption that a disability is a defining trait.

While other characters exhibit a range of complex emotions and reveal demonstrative emotional growth as they pursue their goals, disabled characters are frequently motivated only by their perceived physical or mental limitations.

Many stars have solidified their artistic reputation by playing disabled characters. Lon Chaney, Daniel Day-Lewis, Tom Cruise, and Angelina Jolie have had breakthrough performances playing disabled characters. But critics complain that casting able-bodied actors in such roles effectively excludes disabled actors from the industry—the equivalent of casting white actors in blackface to play African-American roles. When an actor who is not disabled garners acclaim for portraying a disabled character, it can be a sign that disability is the character’s defining trait. But, when a disabled actor plays a role that was not written with disability in mind, the casting choice confirms that disability is not the primary determinant of a character’s experiences.

The increased visibility of disabled actors in front of the camera is in part the by-product of advocacy groups and legal reforms that have encouraged a growing awareness of disability rights in the industry and among the general public.

This chapter has explored several ways that ideologies that pervade American society also influence the economics and cultural politics of the film industry (including who works in the industry and in what capacity) and shape the content of popular narrative cinema. Chapter 11 examines the relationship between social context and filmmaking not only in Hollywood cinema (arguably, the U.S. national cinema) but also in diverse national and transnational contexts.

CHAPTER 10 (Film and Ideology) DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1) Discuss the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution regarding freedom of speech. Then discuss how censorship in films, especially in pre-Code Hollywood (c. late-1927 – July 1934) versus the Hays Production Code (1934-1968) affected creativity and free expression in filmmaking of the mid to late1930s. Focus especially on the classic gangster films of Warner Brothers.

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2) Your text discusses how James Naremore’s analysis of Billy Wilder’s Double Indemnity (1944) argues that, rather than contributing to the patriotic fervor of a country embroiled in World War II, this film noir actually presents a pessimistic view of American values.

Explain how this occurs by watching the film and discussing specific scenes that support or contradict this view.

3) The chapter focuses on a few topics for ideological criticism: race, gender, sexuality, and disability. What other ideologies find their way into films? Do films reflect, reinforce, or challenge other shared values in our culture?

CHAPTER 10 (Film and Ideology) LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND IN-CLASS EXERCISES 1) Movies: A visual narcotic?

Explicating the chapter’s epigraph could provoke a lively discussion regarding the relative merits of valuing film primarily as a form of escapist entertainment.

This discussion should encourage students to think about why some filmmakers and critics argue that all films contain an ideology and that films should be more than escapist fare. ✓ What are the implications of comparing an art form to a drug? How do narcotics affect the people addicted to them? What do movies offer that has a similarly comforting effect? ✓ When Vertov says that “film drama is the opium of the people,” what people is he talking about? What does he imply about what “the people” should be doing instead of watching movies? ✓ Use this discussion to lead into an introduction of the various ideologies discussed in this chapter.

2) Unofficial and official ideological texts Examine documents through which ideologies have assumed tangible form--the most prominent cinematic example would be the Production Code. Ask students to read it (or a few of its provisions) and ask them about how they convey ideologies about gender, race, and class.

Discuss whether such ideologies are still extant, and whether there are written or unwritten rules about film content and also broadcast content. Then ask them to brainstorm for ways in which “unofficial” ideologies (e.g., beliefs that aren’t articulated in formal documents) might be influencing recent film productions. A discussion of how audiences (both domestic and abroad) are interpreting 300, I Am Legend, The Hurt Locker or Battle:Los Angeles in the post-9/11 environment might be fruitful.

3) The confluence of history, culture and film production Begin a lecture or discussion by providing details about one of the artists whose career was hindered by blacklisting. By taking a single example of one star, writer, or director, it should make more tangible the effect the practices had on the industry.

4) The ideology of racial hierarchy ✓ Consider beginning this discussion by showing scenes from The Birth of a Nation as a glaring example of how storytelling can demonize a race. The brief scene that depicts African Americans taking over the state senate is one of the most egregious examples Hollywood’s tendency to demean African Americans (the newly elected senators are slovenly, lecherous, and vindictive). Point out to students that the film’s portrayal of African 144 .

Americans was so compelling that it reinvigorated the Ku Klux Klan and galvanizing protests by the NAACP [President Woodrow Wilson supposedly said of the film, “It is like writing history with lightning. My only regret is that it is all so terribly true.”] ✓ [Refer students to the still from Gone with the Wind on p. 309.] To what degree has depiction of white/black relationships evolved? Obviously there’s no antagonism between Scarlett and Mammy, and indeed Mammy is always friendly and courteous to Scarlett. Why do so many criticize this film’s depiction of race? ✓ During 2005’s Oscar Season, Saturday Night Live joked that Morgan Freeman, then nominated for Best Supporting Actor in Clint Eastwood’s Million Dollar Baby, had made a career out of playing black characters who helped whites. What are the implications of the joke? What does it suggest about the degree to which the state of Hollywood’s depiction of African American characters has changed since Gone with the Wind? Are there counter examples (e.g., roles by Denzel Washington, Will Smith, Queen Latifah, or Halle Berry?) ✓ [Ask students to conduct a survey of films currently playing at local theaters.] How many films are playing locally? How many are about a main character who is black?

5) Sex, gender, and ideology This exercise is designed to accomplish two things. First, students should become more selfconscious of the characteristics of socially appropriate gender roles. Second, they should begin to understand why some argue that mainstream films, as a whole, reinforce these gender roles. ✓ The chapter mentions the debate between those who argue that gendered behavior is biologically determined, and others who argue that differences in behavior are learned. What difference does it make? How would it change the way we think of men and women’s relationship with one another if it were proven that behavioral differences are taught to us? ✓ What behaviors are associated with femininity? With masculinity? ✓ If a woman displays these masculine traits in a film, how are audiences usually invited to respond to her? Can you think of female protagonists with predominantly masculine characteristics? Are their masculine traits tempered by feminine traits? ✓ Critic Laura Mulvey argued that in most films, audiences are asked to identify with a male hero. Do you agree? If so, what is the primary function of women onscreen? Are audiences expected to respond to male and female characters the same way? ✓ How many of you have seen more than one movie where a woman is the main character?

How many of you have seen more than one movie where a man is the main character?

[Conduct a survey to see how many male students frequent movies about women.] ✓ What term is commonly used to describe movies about women? [“chick flick”] Why is this generally a derogatory term? What assumptions are critics invoking when they use this term? Is there a complementary term for movies primarily about men? [Try to drive this line of questioning to the following point: a common unspoken cultural assumption is that only women should be interested in stories about women, whereas everyone should be interested in stories about men.]

6) Sexuality on the screen By the end of this discussion, students should realize the following points: 1) filmmakers have been interested in depicting human sexuality since the cinema’s earliest days; 2) depictions of sexuality adhere to culturally accepted norms of behavior; and 3) the predominant sexual norm is that heterosexuality is accepted as positive and normal, whereas homosexuality is considered deviant.

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What difference does it make if sexuality is “hardwired” or chosen? Is there a reason why this is a matter of intense public debate? [Consider making the point that, frequently, when people argue that homosexuality is hardwired, their arguments (usually unintentionally) couch sexual behavior in terms of normal and abnormal.]

▪ When do you think sexuality was first depicted onscreen? [Students might be surprised when they realize that, with Thomas Edison’s The Kiss (1896), sexuality has been a subject onscreen since film’s inception.] What characterizes Edison’s depiction of sexuality?

[Emphasize that Edison’s film depicts heterosexual sex—and that its presentation is relatively genteel.]

▪ As the studio system discussed in Chapter 10 gained momentum, how was the presentation of sexuality regulated? [Emphasize that both hetero and homosexuality have been strictly regulated throughout the course of American film history. During the Classical Hollywood era, only heterosexuality could be represented explicitly and as normative. And, of course, even heterosexuality had to be handled delicately according to the production code.]

▪ Obviously, contemporary filmmakers have much more leeway when depicting sexual behavior. But how does the American film industry still regulate its depiction? How are audiences expected to respond to sexually aggressive characters that are not moving towards monogamy? In American Nightmare, a documentary on the American horror film, director John Carpenter says that he’s been accused of ending the sexual revolution with his film Halloween. What does he mean? [His quote implies that Halloween established one of the stalwart conventions of the slasher film: women and some men who have recreational sex become victims. The ideology of the convention? Sexually liberated characters are punished for their indiscretions.]

▪ What mainstream films recently have featured gay characters? Lesbian characters? How important are their roles? What traits do these characters exhibit? [Consider asking students if they are familiar with New Queer Cinema. How do these films and directors compare to mainstream films, not only textually by in terms of production costs and exhibition.]

Conclude the discussion by screening Kirby Dick's This Film is Not Yet Rated (2005)--or even a portion of it-- and discuss the difference between the Production Code and the MPAA Ratings system for the industry and for general audiences. Are most filmgoers aware of how decisions are made about the sexual and violent content of films? You might also discuss the changes to the ratings system, announced this year at the Sundance Film Festival.

7) The stereotyping of disability in contemporary film Screen Million Dollar Baby in class. Ask students to comment on their response to the argument that the film perpetuates the ideological assumption that “the quality of life of individuals with disabilities is not worth living.” Students might be resistant, and argue that Maggie’s desire to commit suicide is actually a sign of her strength—a continuation of her determination and will power that gets developed in the first half of the film. To address this perspective, ask students to think about the following questions: ✓ What admirable traits does she possess in the first half of the film? Do we see these characteristics once she is paralyzed? Is she still an active agent in determining her own destiny, or does the film emphasize that she’s victimized by various forces (both physical and social) after the accident? ✓ Study the film’s visual style before and after the accident, specifically the way Maggie is filmed. What visual techniques does the film employ to make her look admirable, strong, 146 .

and courageous as she pursues her quest? Does the film change its approach to filming Maggie after the accident? ✓ Compare the amount of screen time Maggie has before and after the accident.

Would you have been sympathetic to her desire had Maggie NOT been paralyzed?

8) The Hollywood dream of individualism Screen part (or all) of a non-Hollywood film that promotes self-sacrifice and communalism and discuss how the values it promotes contrast with American ideals of masculine individualism.

Consider using one of these examples: Zhang Yimou’s Hero provoked a minor storm of criticism for its resolution, which some critics saw as a call to sacrifice individuality in the name of nationalism; the climax and resolution of The 400 Blows, where Antoine strikes out on his own (escaping from the juvenile detention center), only to find himself alone and perplexed; and portions of Battleship Potemkin or October, both of which avoid focusing on individual heroic characters. ✓ The cowboy is one of the quintessential icons of the American cinema. What does he represent? What is the stereotypical ending? Why is it important that the image of the cowboy riding off into the sunset is such an important part of that mythology? What does the cowboy ultimately value? Would the mythology suffer if the stereotypical ending had the cowboy settling down and growing old with a family in the middle of Dodge City? ✓ What typically is the detective’s relationship with the local police? ✓ In today’s action films, how many focus on by-the-book police officers that follow all the rules to track down and capture the bad guys? ✓ What then do all three of these character types have in common? Do these movies reflect a set of values Americans espouse? ✓ What are the consequences of masculine individualism in this film made outside the Hollywood system? Does this movie suggest the limitations of individual action, or celebrate communal action? ✓ Can you notice any visual techniques that help convey these different ideologies?

Consider comparing and contrasting the resolution in Kurosawa’s The Hidden Fortress with that of Star Wars (Kurosawa’s film was a key influence on Lucas’s). Both films end with heroes being honored by the royalty they have helped to protect. Does Lucas design the mise en scène and cinematography to glorify Han Solo and Luke Skywalker for their individual accomplishment, or does it situate them comfortably in a larger social milieu?

As a point of comparison, you could show a classic “maternal melodrama” such as Stella Dallas or Mildred Pierce and discuss how Hollywood’s depiction of femininity contrasts with its depiction of masculinity. In these films, women triumph by sacrificing for their children. This might lead to a discussion of whether or not contemporary films regularly depict active women in heroic roles traditionally reserved for men? Does Lara Croft or the X-Men series represent a new direction for female characters?

OUT OF CLASS EXERCISES 1) Researching race and gender in popular movies Send students to imdb.com to find the top 30 grossing films of the previous year. Have them tally the statistics for the following questions: ✓ How many featured African American men in the leading role?

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✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

How many featured women in the leading role?

How many featured African American women in the leading role?

How many featured a character with a disability?

How many were directed by an African American?

How many were foreign films?

2) The visual impact of documentary footage on fiction film Bring in film or television images that have assumed ideological significance in movements for civil rights, equality for women, gay and lesbian rights, and/or disability rights. Examples might include footage depicting police brutality against civil rights protesters; the Rodney King beating footage; the OJ Simpson chase. Have students discuss an example of how a fiction film has utilized this documentary footage (MENACE II SOCIETY re-creates the Watts Riots for example) and whether these images function to challenge or perpetuate ideologies.

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HAPTER 11: SOCIAL CONTEXT AND FILM STYLE

CHAPTER 11: (Social Context and Film Style) LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, students should be able to: 1) recognize and describe the narrative, visual, and audio characteristics of Classical Hollywood’s “Invisible Style.”

2) explain how the Hollywood style is a product of and contributed to the efficiency of production and helped studios market their product.

3) discuss how the Production Code was the product of financial motivations, and demonstrates how Hollywood’s uniformity of style benefitted America’s film industry.

4) show how “art cinema” is a style (or collection of styles) distinct from the Classical Hollywood model.

5) identify how the “art cinema” movement was a commercial enterprise that sold itself by offering an alternative to Hollywood’s style..

6) describe how Italian Neorealism arose from a social, economic, and political context that differed dramatically from the Hollywood industry’s.

7) show how Italian Neorealism influenced the style and politics of Third Cinema.

8) explain the cultural and political motivations behind Neorealism, Third Cinema, Fourth Cinema, and Transnational cinemas.

9) describe differences in narrative form, visual style, and sound among Classical Hollywood, Art Cinema, Neorealism, Third Cinema, Fourth Cinema and National/Transnational Cinema.

CHAPTER 11: (Social Context and Film Style) OVERVIEW ✓ During the Classical Hollywood era, five major studios and three minor studios perfected a style of filmmaking often called “the invisible style” because of its emphasis on story over visual and sound technique. ✓ Economic incentives played a significant role in determining the conventions of the Hollywood style. ✓ During the Classical Hollywood era, studios developed a rigid code of self-censorship to stave off state-enforced censorship. This Production Code ensured that the American film industry kept subversive material in check. ✓ As films from the Classical Hollywood era demonstrate, even apparently apolitical films made chiefly for entertainment reflect an ideology. The relationship between ideology and profitability is complex, since films have to make money. Do films that reinforce or challenge prevailing ideologies make money? The answer depends on the era, the specific audience, and the specific film. ✓ During the 1950s and 60s, a wave of European and Asian films garnered international reputations because they departed from Hollywood’s escapist approach to filmmaking.

Many cinephiles refer to this wave of films collectively as the “art cinema” movement.

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✓ “Art cinema” is not divorced from commercial and ideological concerns. The categorization is, in part, a marketing device that attracts audiences by promoting product differentiation. ✓ Italian Neorealism was an influential style of filmmaking that was in large part determined

by Italy’s postwar economic, social, and political environment. ✓ Cinema movements emerging from Europe’s newly independent former colonies in Africa, Asia, and Latin America—sometimes dubbed “Third Cinema”-- have been influenced by Italian Neorealism and are often politically engaged. ✓ Fourth Cinema is a term that describes the filmmaking practices of indigenous people, also called aboriginal people or First Nations. These peoples are not consigned to a specific geographic area but are in a constant state of flux among competing allegiances and cultures that surround them. ✓ National and Transnational Cinemas question the concept of “home.” What determines a “national” style of cinema? Can one identify the origins of a film? Is it necessary?

CHAPTER 11: (Social Context and Film Style) SUMMARY I.

Introduction

A

t the turn of the twentieth century, New York City was the center of commercial

filmmaking. But by 1910, filmmakers began to move west from New York to Hollywood, drawn to the area’s climate, cheap real estate, and the opportunity to avoid paying equipment licensing fees to Thomas Edison’s Motion Picture Patents Company. Ever since, many people have equated Hollywood with moviemaking.

But Hollywood is not the world’s only major film industry, and its preference for larger-thanlife, escapist fantasies represents only one approach to filmmaking. This chapter discusses several cultural contexts for filmmaking by looking at the Hollywood studio system, international art cinema, Italian Neorealism, Third Cinema, and Fourth Cinema. Each of these social contexts is associated with an economic, political, and cultural approach to the art and the business of filmmaking. The films that have emerged from these locations and traditions reflect these important differences.

This discussion also engages with ideas about national and transnational cinemas, in part because so many of these social contexts for filmmaking are organized by the idea of national identity and by the economic and social practices of nation states. Cinema has played an important role in sometimes defining, and sometimes blurring the geographical and psychological borders of nationality.

II. Hollywood’s Industrial Context: The Studio System as Dream Factory American film production and reception were at their height during what has become known as the Hollywood studio era. Many film historians pinpoint 1915 as its beginning, when D.W. 150 .

Griffith released The Birth of a Nation, one of the first feature-length narrative films to demonstrate the medium’s artistic and commercial potential. The end of the Hollywood studio era was generally signaled by a 1948 Supreme Court decision, the Paramount Consent Decree, that broke up the Hollywood monopolies.

Between 1915 and 1948, five major studios (Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer [MGM], Paramount, Warner Brothers, Twentieth Century Fox, and RKO) and several minor studios (Universal, Columbia, and United Artists) perfected a mode of filmmaking that, in turn, generated a standardized film style. Hollywood’s efficient mode of production, distribution, and exhibition became known as the studio system.

A. Classical Style Classical Hollywood narratives exhibit four important traits, as discussed in Chapter 4.

Those traits include clarity (viewers should not be confused about space, time, or events), unity (cause and effect connections are direct and complete), goal-oriented characters (they are active and invite identification), and closure (loose ends are tied up, often through romantic union). All other components of a classical Hollywood film are subservient to narrative. The classical Hollywood style is often called “the invisible style,” because it relies on “unobtrusive craftsmanship.” This means the filmmaking process goes unnoticed by the viewer so they can focus on the narrative.

More specifically, in this style of filmmaking, the mise en scène depicts an external world that adheres to the norms of “realism” determined by the conditions of the story.

Similarly, the cinematography eschews exaggerated angles or flamboyant techniques.

On those occasions when a film does employ obvious visual distortions, there is almost always a narrative justification.

Classical editing follows the rules of continuity editing, as outlined in Chapter 7. It functions primarily to excise events that aren’t immediately relevant to the plot, to create a unified sense of space and time, and to punctuate the emotional content of a scene by drawing attention to characters and their actions.

Finally, a classical Hollywood film privileges dialogue over other sounds because it expresses character traits and motivations and helps to explain cause-and-effect logic.

In short, the classical Hollywood style attempts to guarantee that “at any moment in a movie, the audience [is] to be given the optimum vantage point on what [is] occurring on screen.” (Ray, p. 33) The perspective it creates is so ideal that audiences forget they are watching a carefully orchestrated fictional representation.

It might appear that the classical Hollywood style is the only logical way to approach narrative filmmaking. But as the following sections illustrate, the invisible style was as much a product of economic and political circumstances as it was a set of conscious aesthetic choices.

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B. Economic Practice and Hollywood Convention The profit-driven studio system was designed to deliver products to consumers as quickly as possible. Its mode of production was, to a large degree, the assembly line of the modern factory system. Studios relied on a division of labor to generate products rapidly and cheaply. This compartmentalization contributed to the standardization of Hollywood’s style. For example, producers used the same production teams again and again to facilitate the process of turning out a standardized product.

The classical Hollywood conventions for continuity and camera placement do not constitute an inherently superior method of conveying narrative information, but they became Hollywood’s standard partly because they too contributed to production efficiency. The “rules” provided directors with a predetermined shot set-up for each scene. In other words, Hollywood’s visual style was largely shaped by a powerful determinant: the logic of industrial capitalism.

The studios’ reliance on stars also reflected the market logic of capitalism on several levels. Stars served as a marketing device, helping the studios to pre-sell a picture to fans.

But the star system also facilitated the production and distribution of films. Put simply, in the name of efficiency, character development often depended upon typed, or standardized, performances.

Because Hollywood sold an ideal of technical perfection—the seamless reproduction of a larger than life “reality”—technological innovations became part of the economic and aesthetic enterprise of studio filmmaking as well. Hollywood adopted sound technologies in part because they were becoming part of the daily experiences of Americans. These innovations contributed to a profit-oriented industry.

Finally, the hierarchical structure of the industry itself and its profit-driven modus operandi played a key role in determining a film’s narrative structure. Some producers and studio heads would test screen movies and then re-edit, or sometimes reshoot, the films, according to audience response. The practice helped guarantee a crowd-pleasing product—but it also led to the desecration of some profound works of art.

In short, Hollywood during the studio era (and still today) was a profit-driven industry whose financial considerations played a significant role in shaping its products’ aesthetic characteristics.

C. American Values and Hollywood Style While economic concerns have always been of paramount importance to Hollywood’s profit-oriented studios, they are not the only cultural influences on Hollywood and its classical style.

The Hollywood Production Code illustrates the way that art and commerce can be shaped by non-economic factors that limit the choices screenwriters, directors, and producers are able to make. The Production Code was established in 1930—and began to be enforced in 1934 by the Production Code Administration (PCA)—with the sole purpose of regulating the content of Hollywood films.

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The Code delineated what could and could not be shown on movie screens. As such, it served as a blueprint for American morality, as articulated and interpreted by those who administered the PCA. In doing so, it defined the values that Hollywood films were forced to adhere to, and thus had an effect on the stories that could be told and the way they were presented. The fact that state-imposed and self-imposed censorship alike can produce stylistic repercussions is a topic that has inspired a number of film scholars.

Crucially, the PCA’s enforcement of the Code was, like the studios’ stylistic choices, largely motivated by financial interest. While the Code may be most famous for the way it suppressed sexuality of all kinds and demanded that those who break the law be punished, it also influenced the political issues that could be represented and the way they could be depicted.

An important thread that emerges here, but which is often overlooked, is the fact that the Production Code Administration was a uniquely American institution whose operations were aimed at both the domestic market and at potential viewers who lived outside the United States.

D. Hollywood Conquers the World?

When we consider Hollywood cinema as an industry aiming its products at a global audience, two concerns emerge: the drive for profits inherent to the capitalist mode of production and the costly nature of cinema’s dependence upon technology. These economic matters are, in fact, relevant to the type of films made in the U.S. and in every national context. A recent statistic illustrates Hollywood’s continued hegemony: in 2009, Hollywood films accounted for more than 50 percent of box office revenues in France, and 60–85 percent of revenues in Germany, Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom (Scott, p. 160).

One implication of Hollywood’s long-term dominance of international cinema is that its aesthetic conventions became something like default scenarios: the paradigms that filmmakers around the world have chosen to imitate or to resist, or both. Hollywood’s textual norms have informed the expectations and viewing experiences of filmgoers around the world for decades.

The next section of this chapter examines several cinemas that have departed in some ways from the style and the production mode of the classical Hollywood studio system: International Art Cinema, Italian Neorealism, Third Cinema, and Fourth Cinema.

III. International Art Cinema Not all cinema traditions value Hollywood’s industrial efficiency and emphasis on narrative.

During the 1950s and 1960s, a wave of European and Asian films garnered international attention because they departed from Hollywood’s commercialism, uncomplicated characters, and invisible style. Many cinephiles referred to these films collectively as the art cinema movement.

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The moniker assumes a marked distinction between Hollywood film and art film. Whereas the former is assumed to be escapist entertainment, the latter is seen to have a more serious intellectual purpose and a more sophisticated approach. Indeed, the films produced in this era addressed a number of weighty issues.

These films abandon goal-oriented characters, preferring instead to explore the psychology of complex characters who often have no sense of what they want out of life, much less how to achieve it. Rather than dedicating screen time to action, these films often dwell on scenes in which little or nothing (physical) happens. Stylistically, they flout Hollywood conventions in bold attempts to depict subjectivity or to draw the audience’s attention to film’s status as art. By no means is there a consistent narrative or stylistic model to which international art films adhere.

The single trait they have in common is their contrast from the Hollywood studio model.

A. The Industry and Ideology of Art To refer to these films as “art cinema” may imply that there were no commercial concerns associated with their production and distribution, which is not the case.

Historians attribute the expansion of art cinema in part to the public financing of national cinemas after World War II, as government policy in many countries financed productions that would stand as visible and marketable documents of national culture (Nowell-Smith, p. 567). Art films were produced in the hopes of generating a profit, and many successfully competed against the Hollywood juggernaut because their selfconscious artistry helped to distinguish them from Hollywood’s more immediate accessibility.

While many cinephiles appreciate these films as examples of high culture—sophisticated and highly intellectual art—and Hollywood films as mass culture—commercial art appealing to unrefined tastes—the distinction between the two is an oversimplification.

The case of India’s film industry illustrates how privileging high art dictates that most international audiences overlook indigenous popular cinemas. India’s film industry is the largest film industry in the world in terms of the number of films produced. The Hindi film industry has been dubbed “Bollywood” because of its Bombay location and prodigious size, rivaling Hollywood.

In short, the art cinema movement of the 1950s and 1960s provided audiences with a wide range of cinematic experiences that differed dramatically from classical Hollywood’s standard fare. Still, the production and reception of these films were profoundly shaped by cultural, historical, and economic circumstances.

Fig. 11.13 at the end of this chapter offers a brief schematic of these two filmmaking contexts, as well as others that are discussed below: Italian Neorealism, Third Cinema, and Fourth Cinema.

IV. Italian Neorealism Italian Neorealism was an influential postwar cinema whose social and economic context defined its style in crucial ways. In Italy after World War II, Roberto Rossellini, Vittorio De Sica, and Luchino Visconti, actors and directors who had trained and worked in the commercial Italian film industry before the war, produced startling and distinctive films that seemed to capture the 154 .

reality of the physical devastation, the moral degradation, and the human suffering of the war years.

Neorealism pre-dated (and in many ways influenced) the international art cinema discussed above. Its principles and visual style were even further removed from Hollywood than those of art cinema.

Neorealist filmmaking grew from real-life events—yet the films were fictionalized accounts of experiences during the war and of the hardships of postwar Italy.

According to the theorist and screenwriter Cesare Zavattini, Neorealism presented everyday life through stories involving working-class or poor protagonists, the use of location shooting, long takes, natural lighting, non-professional actors, vernacular dialogue, grainy black-and-white film stock, and unobtrusive editing (Marcus, p. 22).

Neorealist cinema was concerned with telling the stories of ordinary Italian people struggling to survive.

Italian Neorealism had a significant influence on many postwar cinemas, including Hollywood’s film noir and social problem films of the 1940s and 1950s, the British New Wave of the 1960s, and Third Cinema movements such as Cinema Novo in Brazil and post-revolutionary Cuban cinema. Its social vision and conventions were taken up by politically committed filmmakers in Africa, Latin America, and Asia during the revolutionary fervor of the 1960s.

V. Third Cinema In 1969 Argentine filmmakers Fernando Solanas and Octavio Getino relabeled cinema movements emerging from Europe’s newly independent former colonies in Africa, Asia, and Latin America as Third Cinema. Third Cinema as a concept announced its opposition to the First Cinema (commercial and industrial Hollywood) and Second Cinema (the international, authordriven art cinema). Rather than designating a specific geographical or cultural location, Third Cinema championed a political stance that favored liberation and cultural decolonization.

Third Cinema encompasses a variety of cinema practices, not all of them influenced by Italian Neorealism. In Brazil’s Cinema Novo movement, Glauber Rocha and Neorealist Nelson Pereira Dos Santos examined the material realities of poverty among the country’s minorities, indigenous peoples, and the disenfranchised.

Third Cinema encompassed a wide variety of cinematic practices that were concerned with film as both a political and an aesthetic medium. Borrowing from both Neorealism and the international art cinema of the 1960s, Third Cinema directors used cinema to examine the complex relationship between colonial power and indigenous culture during a time of revolution.

While the overriding concern with cultural decolonization drove the theory and practice of Third Cinemas, local economic, political, and cultural contexts also informed the unique films produced.

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VI. Fourth Cinema Fourth Cinema is a term coined by Maori filmmaker and theorist Barry Barclay to describe the filmmaking practices of indigenous people, also called aboriginal people or First Nations.

Aboriginal people are “outside the national outlook by definition, for Indigenous cultures are ancient remnant cultures persisting within the modern nation state.” (Barclay) Film scholar Corinn Columpar writes that the Fourth World “does not refer to a geographical terrain […] but to the absence of such a terrain […] members of the Fourth World must hold in tension competing national allegiances and negotiate cultural influences that are frequently in conflict.” (p. 466) In the last two decades, Fourth World filmmakers have been committing their experiences to film, garnering an international audience in the process.

Fourth Cinema films can transform indigenous identities into global commodities and tourist attractions that, oddly enough, symbolize nations that have long treated the indigenous population as non-citizens.

VII. National and Transnational Cinemas The example of these Fourth Cinema films raises important concerns that also animate a good deal of recent scholarship. That concern is the question of cinema’s tenuous relationship to nation.

As Valentina Vitali and Paul Willemen point out, in the earliest years of cinema, the national origin of films was inconsequential: reels were shipped from production companies directly to exhibitors who “screened them as novelty objects without paying much attention to their national provenance [origin].” (Vitali and Willemen, p. 1) Many early film companies operated in more than one country (as they do today). As Richard Abel writes, as part of their fierce struggle for industry dominance, American filmmakers and critics began to denounce the “foreignness” of French films and to champion a new American genre: the Western. Abel argues that, despite the continued habit of categorizing films according to national boundaries—often used by government and private industry to brand a product—filmmakers influence one another regardless of their nationality, and audiences are capable of being moved by films from many different cultural and national locations.

In our discussion of international art cinema and Italian Neorealism, films are categorized and discussed according to the nation in which they were produced. The theories and practices surrounding Third and Fourth cinemas also are predicated on the fact that there is some relationship between filmmaking and nation, even if that nation is a postcolonial entity, or if an indigenous individual’s multiple national and cultural allegiances are difficult to define.

Film enthusiasts are fairly comfortable with the idea of grouping films according to the nation that produced them. Can films “from” a particular national cinema be distinguished from those of other national cinemas because of the stories they tell, the languages and locations they use, by a recognizable visual style, or by a common approach to genre?

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What determines the “nationality” of a film: the nation of origin of the screenwriter or director?

It’s useful to remember that many Hollywood studio films were made by European émigrés.

Does the fact that an American production company shot a film mean it is an American film?

How should we take account of co-productions: films that are made with funding, crew, and cast from different countries? Does the location where the film was shot, or where the story is set, or the language(s) used, figure in the discussion?

Is it possible to identify a “national style” that applies to many films from the same country? And over what period of time? Are we perhaps depending upon genre or a director to define a national cinema? That would certainly be understandable, since national film industries that seek to compete with Hollywood often depend upon a marketable trait to distinguish their products from those of Hollywood.

How do propaganda films function in relation to a country’s national cinema? Or, put another way, what is the relationship between national cinema and nationalism? If a director makes a film that criticizes the beliefs or actions of her government or compatriots, does that also represent part of that country’s national cinema?

Films become a means by which a nation represents itself to itself (Hayward, p. 93).

The ongoing economic battle between Hollywood and many national film industries suggests that a great deal is at stake in the survival of national cinemas. To preserve the possibility of a local film industry, many nations adopt economic policies such as quotas and tariffs designed to protect domestic filmmaking.

While some nations might treasure national cinema industries as cultural institutions, like Hollywood, these industries are commercial as well as aesthetic enterprises.

If Third and Fourth Cinemas offer a “decisive refutation of the easy Western assumption of the coincidence of ethnic background and home,” (Crofts, p. 49) then the concept of the transnational in cinema goes one step further, to question the notion of home altogether.

Certainly many film cultures have incorporated transnational elements—even the émigré directors of the studio system (Lubitsch, Murnau, Wilder, Sirk, Von Sternberg) can be said to complicate nationality. In contemporary international cinema, filmmakers whose national identities are complicated by war, conflict, migration, or diaspora, tap into experiences of dislocation and connection common to those for whom no definitive site exists that can be called home.

This discussion of social context and style broadly considers how economic and political factors can influence filmmaking. Fig. 11.13 establishes the rough historical timeframes for classical Hollywood, art cinema, Neorealism, Third Cinema, and Fourth Cinema, and charts the different characteristics of each movement with regard to character, narrative, visual style, and mode of production. The next chapter focuses on stardom, and how this specific facet of Hollywood and other commercial cinemas affects the way audiences consume and interpret films.

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CHAPTER 11: (Social Context and Film Style) DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1) “The capital intensive nature of film production,” writes Paul Willeman, “requires a fairly large market in which to amortize costs […] any film industry must address an international market or a very large domestic one.” (Willeman, p. 35) Explore how Hollywood and its vertical integration capitalize on global marketing and distribution of its films, making it an international industry, not a large domestic one.

2) Discuss the rise and success of “Art Cinema.” If the movie theaters across the globe are an entertainment market place, what factors came into play in the 1950s and 60s to help foreign films succeed on the market?

3) Your text asks the questions, “What determines the “nationality” of a film: the nation of origin of the screenwriter or director?” Does the fact that an American production company shot a film mean it is an American film? How should we take account of coproductions: films that are made with funding, crew, and cast from different countries?

Does the location where the film was shot, or where the story is set, or the language(s) used, figure in the discussion? Discuss and answer these questions as they relate to the concept of Fourth, National and Transnational Cinemas.

CHAPTER 11: (Social Context and Film Style) LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND IN-CLASS EXERCISES 1) Recognizing the Classical Hollywood style Pair a scene from a Classical Hollywood film (such as the scene from The Maltese Falcon when Gutman slips Spade a mickey) with a scene from an “art film.” For this exercise, we recommend an art film with a strikingly unusual visual style. Try a scene from The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari, Ken Russell’s Tommy, or Terry Gilliam’s Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas. ✓ How would you describe the differences in aesthetic approach? Do these films have different sensibilities regarding what the image should look like? How the audience should respond to the image? ✓ Why do film historians call the style associated with [the Classical Hollywood example] the “invisible style”? ✓ [At this point, go over the characteristics of the classical style as described on pp. 297-298.] ✓ What is the effect of having a more ‘visible style’? Does it focus the audience’s attention on something other than story? Are there artistic advantages to exaggerating visual style so dramatically?

2) Style: Artistic choice or economic necessity?

These questions are designed to provoke a discussion about the degree to which the economic structure of the studio system determined the aesthetic choices available to filmmakers and audiences. These questions will help students think of the American film industry as an industry. ✓ How did Henry Ford’s production system revolutionize the way products are constructed?

What’s the logic of the division of labor in an automotive factory? How does the division of labor improve efficiency? ✓ How was labor divided in the studio system? How was the system designed to improve production efficiency?

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✓ [Pick a student from the class and ask this question:] If you could buy an American car right now, what would it be? What type of person would want a Dodge Caravan? What knowledge do we bring with us when we choose a make and model of car? [This line of questioning is designed to establish a central analogy between the auto industry and the studio system. Both produced a uniform product, with different makes of cars being akin to particular genres. Discuss how the different genres, like the different makes of cars, illustrates the way the industry relied on product differentiation to target a fragmented audience. Yet, each studio still maintained a particular look, or reputation. The studios relied on the star system and re-used production teams with a unique look to help distinguish their films from those produced at rival studios.] ✓ How do you think this system impacted the variety of ideas and aesthetic approaches to filmmaking audiences were exposed to? How does your film going experience compare? Is there more diversity of style and subject matter in the mainstream today? ✓ Do you think audience demand drives the market for films, or does the market shape audience demand? [It might be worthwhile discussing how major films tend to spawn a slew of sequels and “copycats.”]

3) Hollywood dreams and American ideology These questions encourage students to talk about why Hollywood films have a reputation for being escapist, and to question why this would inspire some derision from filmmakers and critics.

▪ Why do you think the chapter begins by calling Hollywood a “Dream Factory”?

▪ What does that label suggest about the relationship between Hollywood filmmaking and the actual experience of living in America?

▪ Hollywood is famous—and is often ridiculed for—its happy endings. Are happy endings an important part of “dreaming” at the movies? Why do some critics and filmmakers reject happy endings?

▪ Why would some argue, then, that Hollywood’s preference for escapist entertainment imparts an ideology?

4) Art, entertainment, and commodity This exercise is designed to help students recognize differences between the Classical Hollywood and art cinema’s approaches to filmmaking, and to appreciate that both are commercial enterprises. ✓ What’s the difference between art and entertainment? What connotations does each of these labels carry? What do some critics see in “art” that’s absent from entertainment? ✓ [If you get no response, consider this exercise:] When I call out these items, classify them as art or entertainment: Madonna DaVinci’s Mona Lisa Nat King Cole’s ballad, “Mona Lisa” A Renoir painting a Thomas Kincaid painting (the “visions of light” painter) Clint Eastwood’s Million Dollar Baby Avatar (or any other more popular film currently playing) 159 .

✓ Why did you call “ X “ art and “ Y “ entertainment? Do these labels inform or reflect how you decide what movies you’re going to see on a Friday night? ✓ Presumably, most of you seek out “entertainment” when you go to the movies. Certainly big-budget extravaganza’s take in more money at the box office. Are there any economic advantages to making an “art movie”? ✓ Do you think the two terms--mass culture/entertainment and high culture/art--are mutually exclusive? What assumptions are you making about the quality and intellectual depth of Office Space if you regard it as entertainment? [This should lead into a discussion of how Pather Panchali eclipses Sholay’s international reputation, despite the latter’s popularity.

The discussion should provoke a lively response from students, who tend to resent claims that popular films aren’t legitimate examples of rich, artistic expression.]

5) Italian Neorealism: Humanist style Help students recognize the visual and narrative characteristics of Neorealism by carefully studying the scene from The Bicycle Thieves when Antonio is being trained for his new job, hanging posters. ✓ How does this scene depart from the Classical Hollywood model? If this film were to be made in the studio system, why would the camera probably not follow the child panhandler down the street? ✓ How does this moment (when the camera follows the panhandler) reflect the film’s political leanings? ✓ Does this scene self-consciously underscore the difference between De Sica’s approach to filmmaking and the Studio System’s? Does the fact that Antonio is hanging a Rita Hayworth poster (for the film Gilda) emphasize Neorealism’s interest in making humanist films that capture the rhythms of daily life?

If you screen all of Bicycle Thieves, consider asking whether or not the film advocates a specific political perspective. In Andre Bazin’s seminal writing on the film, he argues that the film avoids politicking. Ask your students if they agree. This discussion should naturally lead to dialogue about the more overtly political Third Cinema.

OUT OF CLASS EXERCISES 1) Adhering to the Code Have students rewrite a scene from a contemporary film so that it conforms to the dictates of the Production Code. Be sure to choose a scene that would have been controversial during the Studio era (e.g., one that includes a frank discussion of sexuality).

2) Publicity and the art film Have students find a review of or publicity piece on a foreign art film published contemporaneously with its release in the United States. How was the film received? Did it receive any notoriety because of its frank depiction of sexuality? Its mature themes? Its stylistic approach? In short, what was the popular press talking about regarding this film. Is it evident that its difference from Hollywood films became part of its charm or attraction?

Encourage students to look for films that did indeed receive lots of public attention: The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari, Rashomon, The 400 Blows, The Seventh Seal, La Dolce Vita, Look Back in Anger, Breathless, Tom Jones, and Blow Up should all prove fruitful.

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HAPTER 12: FILM STARDOM AS A CULTURAL PHENOMENON

CHAPTER 12: (Film Stardom as a Cultural Phenomenon) LEARNING OBJECTIVES By the end of this chapter, students should be able to: 1) understand the distinction between a good actor and a star persona.

2) begin studying how a star’s work on a single film can be used as a marketing device to target potential audiences.

3) begin studying how a star brings to her performance a recognizable acting technique.

4) distinguish among promotion, publicity, and criticism, and understand how all of these elements contribute to a star’s persona.

5) recognize that stars function as cultural barometers, embodying the political, moral, and cultural assumptions of those fans who consume their images.

6) recognize that a star might appeal to a discrete subculture for reasons that differ completely from those that attract mainstream fans.

7) recognize that fan communities are an important publicity generating apparatus for a star and his work.

CHAPTER 12: (Film Stardom as a Cultural Phenomenon) OVERVIEW ✓ Stars are an integral part of the film industry’s fan culture and economic structure. ✓ A star’s performance can be analyzed not only at the textual level but also as a combination of star persona, marketing strategy, and capital investment. ✓ Scholars can begin to evaluate a star’s persona by identifying recognizable and recurring characteristics of her acting technique. ✓ Four arenas—films, promotion, publicity, and commentary—construct a star’s image. ✓ Scholars can explore how stars function as cultural barometers, embodying the political, moral, and cultural assumptions of those fans who consume their images. ✓ Scholars can study how individual stars can appeal to a discrete subculture, which responds to the star’s persona in ways that are not transparent to mainstream culture. ✓ Scholars can study fan communities, evaluating the ways in which these communities consume a star’s persona and contribute to the marketing of films and their product tie-ins.

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CHAPTER 12: (Film Stardom as a Cultural Phenomenon) SUMMARY I.

Introduction

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merica’s lingering obsession with figures such as Marilyn Monroe and James Dean

exemplifies the star culture that is central to the economic success of Hollywood and other film industries. Fans are so drawn to these larger-than-life figures that they imitate the attire and mannerisms of their favorite stars, they scour gossip magazines looking for them, and they even vote them into political office. Stars represent ideals of beauty, dreams of wealth, and models of masculinity and femininity.

To state the obvious, “actor” is not synonymous with “star.” In film, actors play characters onscreen, and good actors can create complex characters. But a star’s presence transcends the performance; a star doesn’t just make her character believable—a star also possesses a publicly acknowledged magnetism that lures audiences to the film and lingers in viewers’ memories after they leave the theater.

Stars are an integral part of every major film industry and play a pivotal role in production and marketing. A project created specifically with a particular star in mind, hoping to capitalize on audience expectations is called a “star vehicle,” because they showcase that star’s persona—a vehicle to be driven by the star.

From its early days the film industry has recognized the importance of the star. The film industry relies on stardom to lure audiences into the theater by marketing an actor’s biography (fictionalized or not).

Star studies explores how stardom attracts audiences and affects what audiences respond to onscreen. The appeal of celebrity is an integral part of music, sports, television, and politics in many cultures. Some of the earliest, best, and most systematic analyses of celebrity come out of film studies approaches. This chapter will introduce five basic approaches scholars use to analyze the star system: stars and the movie industry; the dynamics of performance; the star persona; stardom and ideology; and stars and subcultures.

II. Stars and the Movie Industry Stars are so instrumental that they influence the economic viability of not just individual films but entire film industries. Some film scholars explore topics such as the economic impact of studio contracts versus the “free agency” stars now enjoy, and how these trends affect overall industry output and profitability.

For example, the abolition of lengthy studio contracts following the disintegration of the Hollywood studio system in the 1950s helped facilitate a growth in independent productions.

Producers were now able to arrange star contracts for a single film or for a small cluster of films (as opposed to the old system, where stars were bound to a particular studio for years). This 162 .

arrangement—called the package-unit approach to production, since stars were “packaged” with individual projects—led to the subsequent proliferation of talent agents responsible for managing star careers (Thompson and Bordwell, p. 336).

Recent studies have suggested that, contrary to commonly held assumptions, stars are not the thing that lures audiences to the theaters. After studying the box office receipts of nearly 200 films released in the early 1990s, economist S. Abraham Ravid discerned virtually no correlation between a star’s presence and a film’s box office gross: “Stars help to launch a film. They are meant as signals to create a big opening. But they can’t make a film have legs.” (Porter and Fabrikant, p. 5) This may partly explain the rise of reality TV programming: the participants are paid much less than movie stars.

III. The Dynamics of Performance One aspect of a star’s appeal is, quite obviously, their performance on screen. Rather than attributing a star’s appeal to an enigmatic, indefinable talent, film scholars are interested in trying to explain what makes a particular performance memorable.

Stars create a following by developing a memorable and recognizable persona. Two elements of that persona are the roles a star plays and the techniques he uses to create these roles. While character actors play a variety of different roles and experiment with various acting techniques depending on the type of characters they play, many stars often play one type of character and perfect one style of performance.

IV. The Star Persona Richard Dyer argues, “the star phenomenon depends upon collapsing the distinction between the star-as-person and the star-as-performer” (1991, p. 216).

Dyer argues that a star’s image is constructed across four different public arenas: films, promotion, publicity, and commentary. The image constructed across these outlets makes up what critics call the star persona. During the studio era, studios kept stars under contract for years at a time. This allowed the studios to craft each star’s image carefully by developing appropriate movies for them and controlling (in most cases) how audiences perceived each star’s life offscreen. Today stars are free agents. They make deals with studios to make individual films, or a cluster of films, but they are not bound to a single studio for any length of time.

This persona is most obviously shaped by a canon of films. Some stars will occasionally expand their range.

Promotion refers to those materials intentionally released by a studio in order to market a particular film, but which often construct a star’s image in the process.

Whereas promotion is carefully planned and disseminated, publicity is not (or does not appear to be) intentional. Gossip columnists, paparazzi (photographers who follow celebrities to capture their candid moments), entertainment magazines, and websites like YouTube grant fans apparent intimate access to celebrities’ lives by capturing stars at their most spontaneous—although, as Dyer implies, even these spontaneous moments are often staged. In doing so, this publicity industry may blur the distinction between a star’s roles and his offscreen behavior.

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Finally, star discourse circulates through criticism and commentaries. Critics evaluate and study a star’s work, either contemporaneously or posthumously in popular reviews in magazines, newspapers, television, radio, fan websites and blogs, and academic research. Film criticism can play a crucial role in determining a star’s persona, either by reflecting public sentiment or by shaping public opinion. Academic scholarship in this area typically defines the specific dimensions of a star’s image and explores how her films, promotional materials, publicity, and criticism all converge to create this persona.

This approach to star studies does not assume that actors play themselves on screen; nor does it posit the idea that a star’s persona is defined solely by the roles she plays. Rather, a star’s persona—the image that lures audiences to theaters, that attracts their attention in fan magazines, that sells products in endorsement campaigns—is created by the interplay between the screen, media coverage, and the (selective) biographical details to which audiences gain access.

V. Stardom and Ideology Chapter 10 argued that films inevitably bear some relationship to the political and social values of the culture that produces and consumes them. Mainstream narrative films tend to express popular sentiment and often reflect the dominant ideological assumptions of their culture.

Scholars in star studies frequently explore how stars function as cultural barometers, embodying the political, moral, and cultural assumptions of those fans who consume their images.

At the most obvious level, the idealized star’s body—the visible image that fixates and arouses spectators—may reinforce dominant ideas about sex and gender.

Scholars also explore how stars reveal cultural attitudes toward race, class, religion, politics, and culture.

Star personas can embody a culture’s social, political, and religious ideals. Because the star’s body serves as the site of an entire culture’s fantasies, it reveals what that culture values.

VI. Stars and Subcultures Generally speaking, a star’s appeal reaches across a broad spectrum of fans, garnering iconic status in mainstream culture.

On occasion, however, a star can appeal to a discrete subculture, a group of fans that defines itself through its position outside of mainstream society.

When a subculture appropriates a star’s image, it often goes “against the grain,” drawing a significance from that image that may be overlooked by mainstream audiences. As Paul McDonald points out, subcultures define themselves through a common value system that sets them apart from the mainstream, and some star images come to embody this value system.

Scholars explore why a subculture reveres a star’s image in ways that defy mainstream expectations by evaluating the sometimes contradictory details that make up a star’s persona, examining historical context (of both the period of image production and the period of public consumption of that image), and cataloging viewer responses to a star’s persona.

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A. Fan Culture One important element of star system economics is fan culture. In order for stars to function as commercial products, a loyal fan base must be cultivated that will consume the films, products, and magazines that relay information about their favorite stars. Film scholars have studied the behavior of fans and theorized about the emotional investment of fans in film stars and other celebrities.

Fan cultures create communities; they also create further opportunities for profit-making.

Such fan communities underscore how stars help advertise films and may make it easier for studios to do so. Marketing campaigns rely on star images to differentiate one film from the next. Stars serve as a kind of shorthand for a film’s content and style. Film studios seek out a film’s target audience with publicity campaigns designed to address the star’s fan base, selectively advertising in magazines, on television, and on the web.

Trailers can be tailored to play up the significance of one star over another.

This chapter has focused on what is, to many viewers, the most immediately visible and emotionally compelling element of a film: its stars. It has emphasized that when audiences pay attention to a star, they watch more than a performance—they see acting technique, an accumulation of onscreen and offscreen roles that the actor has played, and the market force of that star’s persona. Stars’ ability to hold audiences in their sway underscores the power of celebrity as a cultural and economic institution.

CHAPTER 12: (Film Stardom as a Cultural Phenomenon) DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1) Movie stars have always generated controversy in their personal and professional lives.

In film criticism and star studies, is the important question how and why celebrities court controversy? Or are film scholars more interested in how these controversies shape the way audiences read film texts?

2) Discuss at least one “star” (e.g., Mel Gibson, Charlie Sheen) who has exhibited personality quirks or changed their behavior throughout their career due to what you would consider to be overexposure through promotion and publicity. How have these offscreen indiscretions changed the star’s onscreen persona?

3) The word “fan” is regarded by some scholars and authorities as the shortened version of the word fanatic. How does this correspond with the general public and their attraction, and in some cases, obsession, with celebrities? Discuss, for instance, TV shows that focus only on celebrities, including actors/actresses, and the news these people generate in our culture.

CHAPTER 12: (Film Stardom as a Cultural Phenomenon) LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND IN CLASS ACTIVITIES 1) Why use stars?

This exercise is designed to introduce students to the economic and aesthetic importance of stars in film production.

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✓ How do stars serve an aesthetic purpose? [This discussion should be a refrain of issues that have come up in chapters 5 and 10] ✓ How do they serve an economic purpose? ✓ What is the logic of Eisenstein’s quote that serves as the epigraph for this chapter? How does it point to both the aesthetic and economic logic of Hollywood’s star system? In other words, what does Eisenstein say about the audience’s relationship to stars? What does this imply about how the industry uses stars? ✓ Which stars currently have the most clout? [This question could lead into an interesting discussion of what actually counts as star material. Encourage students to debate whether certain figures are stars, or just well-known actors. Get them to discuss whether there is a difference.] Is _______________ associated with a particular type of role? Has ________________ ever been cast against type? How did the movie perform at the box office? Christian Bale or Johnny Depp would serve as fruitful examples here. ✓ Discuss Tom Cruise as Hollywood’s überstar. What do audiences expect from a Cruise film? Ask the class if there are any Tom Cruise fans. Then inquire whether or not his erratic behavior turned fans into former fans. Do students think Paramout made a wise business decision in severing its ties to the star? Consider whether Paramount’s horizontal integration (see Ch. 15) might’ve influenced the studio’s decision.

2) What contributes to a star’s persona?

This exercise is designed to help students digest Richard Dyer’s quote on p. 371: “[T]he star phenomenon depends upon collapsing the distinction between the star-as-person and the star-asperformer.” ✓ Describe Will Smith’s personality. [Just about any star would do here, but Smith’s persona is so widely-known and consistent across his career that it is an especially potent example.] ✓ [After students have listed a number of characteristics they associate with Smith, ask this follow up:] Are you describing his personality, or the personality of the characters he plays?

[At this point, discuss the characters Smith is known for and emphasize the remarkable consistency from film to film. Encourage students to recognize that their knowledge of his films informs their perception of his personality . . . and visa versa. Don’t be surprised if a student says that Smith “always plays himself.” Be ready to exploit the moment . . . if the comment comes up, ask how the student knows. At this point, refer students back to Dyer’s quote.] ✓ What shapes this perception of Smith’s star persona? Where do we get information about stars? [Wrap up this discussion by introducing the elements of star persona: films, promotion, publicity, and criticism.]

3) Stars as social barometers By comparing two stars of yesteryear, this exercise encourages students to ponder how stars reflect the values of the fans that idolize them. Ask students to explain the lingering appeal of Marilyn Monroe among their peers in light of the fact that Veronica Lake is relatively unknown. ✓ How many of you would recognize Marilyn Monroe? How many of you know something about her? How many of you think she is sexy? How many of you are interested in her for other reasons? Do any of you have a Monroe poster in your room, or know someone who does? Do any of you admire Monroe for any reason? ✓ How many of you would recognize Veronica Lake? [Be sure to have an image of Veronica Lake on hand. Consider reading her entry in Ephraim Katz’s The Film Encyclopedia (Harper 166 .

and Row Publishers, New York). Katz describes how Lake’s long hair caused a craze in the 1940s that was so pronounced that government officials asked her to cut her hair short for the duration of WWII so that emulating fans working in ammunitions factories wouldn’t risk getting hair caught in machinery.] ✓ Both women were hugely popular sex symbols in their day, and their careers were divided by a mere decade. What might explain Monroe’s lingering popularity? [You will probably get a variety of hypotheses here. Students are likely to mention her tragic and untimely death.

Ask why that would appeal to so many people. Does it reflect a culture’s obsession with youth? A change in values—a post-1960s sensibility that accepts the trauma of modern life?

Also ask students to consider the degree to which Monroe’s star persona (including her films, her nude photos, her alleged affair with President Kennedy) reflects modern attitudes toward sexuality.]

End by the emphasizing that the questions you have been considering interest scholars who study stars: what attracts fans to particular stars? What does this attraction reveal about the interests, concerns, and values of the fans themselves?

4) Stars and subcultures This exercise will help students recognize that subcultures operate according to a set of interests and values that are distinct from the mainstream’s, and that certain stars can appeal to both sets of values simultaneously. ✓ What is a subculture? [Discuss how many subcultures form as a defense mechanism to assuage fears of being rejected by mainstream society. As such, their values and interests are distinct from, if not opposed to, those of mainstream society.] ✓ According to this logic, how does the gangster rap musical community function as a subculture? Look at the description of that community’s embrace of Al Pacino’s performance in Scarface. What do Kevin Liles, Andre 3000, and Snoop Dog see in Pacino’s role that mainstream audiences might not? [Emphasize that, by definition, the values that drive a subculture are not transparent to the mainstream. For this reason, both groups may be drawn to the same star but for completely different reasons.] ✓ How/where do subcultures circulate information about stars and their appeal? [Names might show up in art produced within a subculture, blogs, websites, independently produced ‘zines.] ✓ At what point is a star’s appeal to a variety of audiences with different values no longer a subcultural phenomenon? What happens if mainstream audiences begin to recognize and talk about a star’s appeal to a subculture? [Point out how the dynamic between star and subculture changes when the phenomenon becomes common knowledge, since, once this happens, the star’s appeal is no longer a discrete property of the subculture. The case of Judy Garland can illustrate this point. At one time, mentioning an appreciation for Judy Garland would have been a discrete method of “coming out” for gay men. Once mainstream audiences became aware of Garland’s appeal to gay audiences, the actress could no longer function the same way for the gay community. Now her allure for (“outed”) gay men is “campy” and fun, but she can not function as a code among closeted men. Indeed, it might delineate yet another subculture: she appeals to older generations of gay men, but not necessarily younger ones.] ✓ What do you think can make a star iconic for a subculture? [Stars might serve as role models. They might have sex appeal for a subculture. Fans can fantasize about a star being part off their community (e.g., “Is Jodie Foster lesbian?”). Members of the community can 167 .

empathize with the star and recognize shared experiences (e.g., the case of Judy Garland described on p. 379).] ✓ Can any of you think of stars who have been valued by a particular subculture?

OUT OF CLASS EXERCISES 1) Analyzing acting technique Watch both versions of a film that has been remade (e.g., Nosferatu, Cape Fear, We’re No Angels, Shall We Dance?, Bob le Flambeur/The Good Thief, Funny Games). Analyze how the same character in each film is acted differently. Identify one distinguishing characteristic each actor brings to the role and discuss whether or not his changes the way you respond to the performance.

2) Publicity, promotion, and criticism Pick a star and find an example each of publicity, promotion, and criticism. Be prepared to answer these questions: Where did you find each example? What distinguishes these sources (e.g., who publishes them? what is their target audience?)? What language do they use to talk about the star? Are there particular words or phrases in each that reflect and reinforce the star’s persona?

3) Comparing personas Pick two stars with different personas. Both stars should be the same gender. Write a short paper that compares and contrasts the defining characteristics of these personas and explores what helped shape each persona.

4) Researching fan culture Locate fan websites for two different stars (one website for each star is sufficient). Analyze what these sites contribute to the star personas of the performers they celebrate. What do the fans talk about? What is the focus of the fans’ interest? Particular movies? Individual scenes?

“Publicity” photos and anecdotes? Does the website suggest any interaction between the stars’ promotional activities and the site itself? Who sponsors the website? Does the website do any marketing or promotion? What characteristics do fans seem to have in common? Do they use the star to further any political cause or social values?

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HAPTER 13: GENRE

CHAPTER 13: (Genre) LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, students should be able to: 1) define genre.

2) understand why the process of delineating a genre can provoke debates among scholars and critics.

3) identify the conventions of six Hollywood genres: the horror film, the Western, film noir, the action film, science fiction, and the musical.

4) explain why critics once assumed that genre films and serious art were mutually exclusive terms.

5) understand and be able to employ the four common critical approaches for analyzing genre films: the creative use of repeated formulae; the social implications of adhering to convention; the way genres are prone to change; and the relation of the individual filmmaker to the established conventions of the genre.

CHAPTER 13: (Genre) OVERVIEW ▪ ▪ ▪

▪ ▪

A genre is a group of films that share a set of narrative, stylistic, and thematic conventions.

Because these conventions are always in flux, and because some films might feature conventions from more than one genre, genres can be difficult to define with precision.

The horror film, the Western, film noir, the action film, science fiction, and the musical are a few of Hollywood’s many film genres. These six genres demonstrate how critics can categorize films by studying conventions they share, even when these conventions change over time.

Because genre films depend on repetition and are so closely linked to Hollywood’s industrial practices, critics once overlooked their aesthetic and intellectual potential.

There are four approaches critics commonly employ when they contemplate genre films: the creative use of repeated formulae; the social implications of adhering to convention; the way genres are prone to change; and the relation of the individual filmmaker to the established conventions of the genre.

CHAPTER 13: (Genre) SUMMARY I.

Introduction

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ost filmgoers choose movies they would prefer to see (and others they would

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according to genre, and audiences have grown so accustomed to what these categories represent that genres play a significant role in shaping audience expectations.

The origin of genre (derived from the Latin word for “kind”) can be traced back to the Greek philosopher Aristotle, who in the fourth century B.C. defined drama according to three types: epic poetry, tragedy, and comedy. Subsequently, genre became a useful tool for classifying works of art. Yet the process of classification, also called taxonomy, is not as simple as it may seem.

Film scholar Rick Altman has argued that genre categories in film are a continuation of literary classification methods (Film/Genre, p. 13). Thus, it may come as no surprise that the problem of irregular category distinctions haunts film studies as well.

Similarly perplexing questions arise that relate to the origin of film genres. Do filmmakers create genres when they make films? Do film critics retrospectively create these categories? Do viewers and devoted fans play any role in the shaping of genres? Some scholars have argued that genres possess a deep connection to history and cultural mythologies. Genre labels function as a marketing tool within a commercial film industry, so it becomes important to distinguish between these various definitions of genre when using the term. And, finally, how do genres change? How and when have certain genres arisen, and how have they changed and evolved over time?

This chapter explores these questions about genre by first looking at the way genres have been defined within film culture—in familiar and sometimes imprecise ways—and then by examining several key ideas that may help us to understand both the usefulness and the limitations of genre.

The chapter then describes several major film genres: the Western, film noir, the action film, science fiction, and the musical. The final section looks at some issues related to genre that have formed the basis for academic research and popular criticism.

II. What Makes a Genre? (the horror film reveals genre conventions) In film studies, a genre refers to a group of films that share a set of narrative, stylistic, and thematic characteristics or conventions. While not every film in a given genre will exhibit all of the genre’s conventions, every film in a given genre will exhibit at least some of them.

As one of the most important and beloved genres in American cinema, the horror film exemplifies how conventions define a group of films.

Film scholar Thomas Schatz postulates that narrative conventions are among the most important criteria for defining a genre. Films that belong to the same genre share character types and plot events. Without a doubt, the most crucial character type in a horror film is the monster, a figure that elicits the revulsion and fear that make the genre so compelling. In some films the source of terror is supernatural.

If monsters represent one specific character type, their victims represent another. Classical horror films of the 1930s often featured respectable members of society, such as detectives or doctors, struggling to contain the violence and vanquish the monster’s threat to the social order. Since the 170 .

1970s it has become commonplace for the monster to terrorize teenagers or young adults. Those who survive are frequently the ordinary kids or social misfits who prove to be both cautious and resourceful.

Beyond character types, another important narrative convention of any genre is its predictable set of plot events. The first act in a horror film focuses on central characters beginning a venture into a strange and ultimately threatening setting. As those who survive the initial onslaught begin to fight back, fear and fatigue provoke dissention within the group, putting them at a greater risk.

Those who have come in contact with the monster may try to warn the larger community, or they go to the authorities to muster up support, only to be met with disbelief and derision. The climax of the film generally involves a dramatic, sometimes apocalyptic, showdown between the main characters and the monster, with varying results. In contemporary horror films the resolution of the plot often leaves open the possibility of the monster’s return.

In addition to sharing similar narrative characteristics, films from the same genre exhibit the same visual and sound techniques. Horror films borrow from the visual rhetoric of German Expressionism: low-key lighting, chiaroscuro, extreme camera angles, and distorted lines function as a visual signature for the genre (fig. 13.2). These devices serve as narrative shorthand for indicating danger.

Moreover, sound often draws attention to the terrifying possibilities that neither the characters nor the audience can see.

Wes Craven’s Scream openly satirizes the predictability of the genre’s conventions. The film is funny precisely because it plays on the audience’s foreknowledge of horror conventions. The standard conventions of the horror film, identified above, cannot fully account for every single film within the genre.

Paradoxically, genres rely as much on variation as they do on repetition. Genres produce pleasure in part by meeting audience expectations. After all, who would be satisfied with a horror film if it did not depict characters who quake in fear? Yet filmmakers also understand that relying on repetition without “changing the pitch,” so to speak, produces boredom. A genre film that has no surprises becomes a cliché. Consequently, film genres are always in a state of flux.

The horror film, for example, has evolved dramatically since its infancy. Early entries delved into the realm of the fantastic. During this era, monsters were, by and large, clearly not human: vampires, werewolves, mutants, aliens, ghosts, and enormous apes (fig. 13.3). In later films of the 1950s and 60s, the monster was humanized as a serial killer or psychotic. Even later into the 1970s, subsequent horror films make so-called “normal” spaces alienating and terrifying.

Because genres change and evolve—often in response to wider cultural concerns—it is possible to identify subgenres, smaller clusters of films in which additional conventions come in play.

Further compounding the difficulty of defining a genre is that some films fuse the conventions of two or more genres into one hybrid.

Some critics rely on more than visual and narrative characteristics to categorize films. Some critics argue that horror is defined not by its conventions, but by the emotional response it elicits 171 .

from the audience. As its name implies, the horror film is designed to make the audience feel fear, revulsion, and disgust.

Some critics argue that the most effective means of defining a genre is to articulate the common themes within a group of films. For example, film scholars Richard Dyer and Robin Wood maintain that the monster has always represented the repressed desires of its potential victims … and the audience. The monster’s appearance in horror films, therefore, represents the struggle to contain unspoken—and socially destructive—impulses.

This discussion of the horror film suggests that, while we may feel we know our favorite genres quite well, these categories leave many questions open to debate. In fact, film scholar Janet Staiger repudiates the very idea of clear genre categories, arguing that, while patterns exist, in fact, “Hollywood genres have never been pure instances of genres.” (Staiger, p. 6) In attempting to classify films, sometimes narrative patterns are more important to defining a genre (the Western or the Musical), and sometimes elements of style are pre-eminent (film noir). Finally, although the film industry, including film critics, seem to manufacture genres as a marketing strategy, genres cannot exist or thrive without a community of viewers who engage with, understand, and enjoy the repetition of familiar conventions as well as the transgressions or modifications of those rules.

Rick Altman proposes one way genre critics can account for the various, and sometimes contradictory, methods for defining genre: embrace them all. For Altman, recognizing the context in which a genre is studied is what’s imperative. He presents four approaches to defining genre, each linked to a specific rhetorical purpose.

The next section of this chapter explores five major American film genres: the Western, film noir, the action film, the science fiction film, and the musical. As a survey of American film genres, this list is far from exhaustive.

III. Major American Genres A. The Western For many, the Western is the quintessential Hollywood genre. Even while younger audiences today see few Westerns, most recognize the genre’s narrative and visual conventions because the mythology and iconography of the Western form an integral part of the way the United States defines its character.

Westerns tend to fall in one of two categories. In the first, a male hero helps restore law and order to a community by killing a band of notorious outlaws. The second group portrays the bloody struggle between Native Americans and settlers for control of the land.

Perhaps more than any other genre, the Western is defined by its visual conventions. It relies on the spacious, post-Civil War, American frontier setting to emphasize the struggle to survive in an inhospitable environment. The white settlers who brave the frontier carry with them the promise (and perils) of U.S. territorial expansion and modern industrial society.

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That the cowboy at the center of the Western survives in this environment is what makes his character so admirable to fans of the genre: he is resourceful and bound to no one, fully capable of roaming the frontier on his own without having to rely on the securities of civilization. Yet he also has a code of honor.

Audiences recognize that not every movie that features horses is a Western. Rather, the genre is concerned with the tension between the contradictory impulses of individual liberty and communal responsibility.

This tension between the longing for the unencumbered freedom of the wilderness and the physical security promised by civilization forms the thematic core of the genre.

Consequently, critics are prone to call some films Westerns even when they don’t exhibit all the standard visual conventions.

An important point to consider in relation to film genres is their cultural specificity and their global address. The Western seems to be the quintessential American film and it is recognized as such around the world. If Westerns seem to define something important about American culture for American viewers, they may also define American-ness—for better and for worse—for international audiences. Furthermore, genres are adapted across national contexts, generating fruitful cross-pollination.

Inset Box: The Interdisciplinary Roots of Genre Theory During the 1970s, the burgeoning field of cinema studies struggled to earn respect as a legitimate academic discipline. Scholars expanded their field by drawing on concepts from other disciplines, adapting models from structural linguistics, political theory, and psychoanalysis in order to account for the perceptual, aesthetic, and social effects of the medium, “dignifying cinema studies as a discipline” in the process (Wexman, p. 144). In particular, models that used language as a sign system were seen as helpful for understanding the way film, a different sort of sign system, produces meaning.

Rick Altman adapted concepts from semiotics to help analyze the relationship between individual films and genre categories. To Altman, genres are formed through, and transmit meaning by, a combination of the syntactic and the semantic. In Altman’s genre theory, semantics refers to the building blocks: the clusters of film elements that form a vocabulary that coheres. Just as readers understand that certain words function logically in a sentence, viewers know that certain conventions belong together in a genre, while others don’t.

But semantics alone can’t explain how genres are produced and understood. Just as a reader looks for the proper arrangement of words to grasp the meaning of a sentence, viewers respond to the structural arrangement of a film’s syntax. Genre films organize semantic details within recognizable narrative and thematic patterns.

But Altman argues that the relationship between syntax and semantics is never fixed. Some films might display semantic elements without using the syntax typically associated with the same genre. This fluid relationship between syntax and semantics can account for genre hybridity, or, 173 .

what Altman called “differing levels of ‘genericity’.” (“Semantic,” p. 636) This theory from the 1970s can help contemporary viewers explain why Avatar has been described as a science fiction–Western. This apparent contradiction can be explained if one considers how the film fuses its sci-fi semantics with a familiar syntax belonging to a long tradition of narratives of European colonialism.

With these conceptual tools in hand, it’s possible to move a discussion of genre from an argument over whether a film is or is not a member of a genre, to a consideration of the ways a film utilizes elements from several genres in its syntax and semantics, and, perhaps, to whether such hybrids reflect the development of a new generic form.

B. Film Noir and the Hard-boiled Detective Film Most film historians link film noir’s initial popularity to a specific historical circumstance: the suppressed cynicism that followed America’s involvement in World War II. Having witnessed the industrialized slaughter of the war, audiences embraced films whose dark moodiness marked a dramatic departure from the lavish spectacle and optimism characteristic of Hollywood films in the 1930s.

Appropriately, the genre focused on characters who are down and out. These characters face grim circumstances beyond their control. Unlike the Western hero, these protagonists don’t always triumph over adversity; many wind up dead or imprisoned.

Furthermore, these protagonists wander crowded urban streets, not expansive Western plains; rather than romanticizing a distant historical past, film noir taps into anxieties about contemporary moral blight.

Whereas horror films personify evil through the monster, and the Western casts some outlaws and most Indians as vicious savages, film noir embodies amorality through the femme fatale, a sexually provocative and dangerous woman willing to lie and to use her seductive wiles to exploit others to her advantage.

The hard-boiled detective film is the most recognizable and consistently popular approach to film noir. It differs dramatically from its more genteel precursors, mysteries featuring investigators such as Sherlock Holmes and Charlie Chan. Whereas Holmes and Chan project an aura of rigorous, intellectual sophistication, hard-boiled detectives such as Philip Marlowe and Sam Spade are streetwise and brash.

In contrast to the rational optimism of Chan and Holmes, the hard-boiled detective embodies the loneliness and alienation of the modern human condition. He has few friends, and he works alone. Above all, the hard-boiled detective works apart from the law. In short, the hard-boiled detective is a figure of isolation who can trust no one.

Given his asocial lifestyle and business practices, very little distinguishes the detective from the outlaws he pursues, save for an abstract (and at times, questionable) moral code.

The criminals he encounters exacerbate the detective’s feelings of distrust. These characters tend to be the powerful elite rather than mere criminal thugs; often they carry clout in the political or legal system.

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Hard-boiled detective narratives are notoriously convoluted. Just as the detective is confused by a web of deceit, so is the audience. Often the film begins with the detective accepting a simple case, following a series of false leads, then realizing that the crime is far more complex than he suspected.

C. The Action Film As its name implies, the action film provides audiences with a visceral thrill. Whereas the horror film depicts the trauma of violence, the action film revels in the excitement produced by mayhem and carnage. The genre encompasses a wide variety of approaches.

But action films are united by two defining characteristics: an emphasis on masculine heroics and over-the-top violence.

Like the Western and the detective film, the action film is predominantly about male heroes facing a potent villain who threatens to rupture social stability.

Action film plots place the hero (or a small group of heroes) in increasingly thorny, and violent, confrontations. Consequently, action sequences become the central organizing feature of the genre and violent spectacle becomes the vehicle for expressing character development: “The [action] film pares down its story and the interactions between characters to the absolute minimum required to suture viewers into the rhythm of the action.” (Gallagher, p. 207) Crucially, while the depiction of violent action has become increasingly graphic (reflecting, in part, a desire to exploit the latest digital technologies), the audience reads these sequences as merely “cartoonish.” Because of the generic context, “viewers learn to enjoy displays of violence as displays rather than as violence.” (Gallagher, p. 205) One of most distinctive subgenres of the action film is the paranoid conspiracy film. The paranoid conspiracy film focuses exclusively on innocent individuals who stumble on a devious plot. These films typically begin by depicting the daily routine of a blissfully ignorant citizen. Through an arbitrary act, he stumbles upon the conspiracy.

The genre’s narrative then unfolds, following a fairly regular pattern. Although the protagonist is initially ignorant of what he has witnessed, he finds himself pursued by the conspirators.

The film builds to its climax when the hero stops passively fleeing danger and begins proactively dismantling the conspiracy, utilizing his unique skills or behavioral idiosyncrasy.

The genre’s primary visual characteristic is an urban setting, which is crucial for underscoring the protagonist’s justified paranoia: she is surrounded by people, any of whom might be trying to murder her. Complementing the urban setting is the genre’s reliance on rapid transportation systems: cars, trains, subways, even scooters.

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From the 1930s to the early 1960s, paranoid thrillers reflected a preoccupation with the threat to established order posed by external forces. During the politically turbulent 1960s, the genre began to depict evil emanating from within the U.S. government or the corporate world.

D. The Science Fiction Film Of the many popular film genres, science fiction is perhaps the most difficult to define through a set of conventions. It’s possible to associate science fiction with stories about space travel or futuristic societies—stories that take place in settings where technology plays a dominant role in the characters’ lives.

How can a single genre accommodate Frankenstein (James Whale 1931), The Fly (Kurt Neumann 1958), The Thing from Another World (Christian Nyby and Howard Hawks 1951), and Star Wars? The genre does not have the visual and narrative conventions so readily locatable in the Western. Instead, what links the wide array of science fiction films is a thematic interest in the relationship between technology and humanity.

In the most general terms, science fiction films begin with protagonists confronting a problem associated with their over-reliance on rational thought. In some cases the conflict is literally the product of scientific inquiry. The conflict is resolved only when protagonists learn to balance the scientific approach with a more humanistic one. Often the solution doesn’t necessitate completely abandoning scientific thought. Rather, the protagonist must adopt a balanced approach that utilizes rationality alongside spontaneity, emotions, spirituality, and creativity.

Science fiction can be subdivided into four subgenres, each of which is distinguishable by narrative and visual conventions. The first is the exploration film. Another strain of science fiction is more concerned with invaders encroaching on supposedly safe territory.

The third subgenre explicitly criticizes unbridled scientific inquiry. This subgenre grows out of the legendary Faust myth. The fourth subgenre, films about dystopias, suggests how an entire society can be corrupted if “progress” goes unchecked.

In short, science fiction is a diverse genre unified by a central conceit—to explore the possibilities and potential dangers of technological advancement.

E. The Musical For some, the Hollywood musical is the most cinematic of genres. The musical is the perfect showcase for cinema’s magic, thanks to its uncanny ability to integrate characterdriven romances with visual and aural sensation.

Yet the musical’s requisite song-and-dance numbers present an inherent problem to Hollywood’s standard narrative model: how can a filmmaker include a lot of singing and dancing without diverting attention away from the story? Early musicals dispensed with narrative logic altogether. But the most important musicals during the Hollywood studio era fused story and song by making the struggle to produce music central to the story.

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Many musicals follow The Jazz Singer ’s lead and depict performers struggling to stage a musical show. These so-called “backstage musicals” consistently incorporate two plotlines: the romantic and the professional. The eruption of musical numbers is narratively justified by the theatrical plotline. The characters burst into song because they are performers, and they deliver their performances on stage or to an attentive private audience.

Although the musical numbers are usually performed on a stage within the diegesis, the lyrics reflect the emotional undercurrents circulating offstage. Typically, a performer struggles to express his romantic longing for a woman while simultaneously working to attain success and fame in the theater.

In contrast, integrated musicals show characters who do not need an audience—or a visible orchestra for that matter—to make music. Other integrated musicals abandon the theatrical plotline altogether. The Hollywood musical is rife with characters who have no professional connection to the stage but who nevertheless feel compelled to express their joy, heartache, and desire through melody.

Since 1927 the popularity of the musical has come and gone, with the genre reaching its creative and economic zenith in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Though still a formidable presence, musicals in the latter half of the 1950s and through the 1960s were less common and less consistently well received, both critically and financially.

Despite its lapses in popularity in the United States, the musical has shown remarkable resilience. Just when critics deliver the genre’s obituary, new musicals prove to be surprisingly popular and revitalize the genre.

IV. Using Genre to Interpret Films The proliferation of genres in Hollywood’s studio era can be explained, at least in part, by the major studios’ industrial filmmaking strategies, described in Chapter 11. Genre films allowed the studios to conceptualize, produce, market, and distribute their products efficiently and rapidly.

For any given genre film, a studio might be able to reformulate popular storylines and reuse sets, costumes, and even production units. In turn, genre films lured audiences into theaters by offering them familiar pleasures. Thus, repetition was, and still is, a crucial component of any genre, from both the industry’s and the audience’s perspective.

Because genre films depend on repetition and are so closely linked to Hollywood’s industrial practices, critics overlooked their aesthetic and intellectual potential until the 1960s. Until then, genre automatically connoted mindless, homogeneous entertainment. Now genre films inspire a wide array of provocative academic analysis and popular criticism. The remainder of the chapter will explore four approaches that critics employ when they contemplate genre films: the use of repeated formulae; the social implications of adhering to convention; the way genres themselves are prone to change; and the relation of the individual filmmaker to the established conventions of the genre.

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A. Genre Film and Aesthetic Appeal: Cliché or Strategic Repetition?

Popular film critics regularly measure the degree to which a given film relies on conventional plot devices and visual details. While following convention is an integral part of any genre film, good genre films rely on more than sheer repetition. Any film that merely rehashes tried and true strategies quickly lapses into cliché. Genres thrive when filmmakers find ways to modify the conventions.

For most critics, the most pronounced criterion for evaluating a film is how much originality it injects into the formula without totally abandoning the conventions of the genre.

Altering the conventions of a genre may entertain viewers with a new combination of familiarity and novelty. But it can also provoke ideas. Meaning in a genre comes in part from measuring one film against its antecedents. Films converse with other films in the same genre. Scholars and fans can’t fully appreciate the aesthetic worth and intellectual depth of a genre film unless they recognize how it is adding to and departing from what other films have already contributed to the genre.

Typically, genre films develop their ideas by making minor adjustments to convention.

But sometimes a film might boldly reject the basic patterns of a genre. The result can be described as a revisionist film, which has the effect of changing a genre…it expands our sense of what a genre can do and may send the genre off in a new direction entirely.

B. Genre and the Status Quo Another approach to genre criticism considers the social implications of a reliance on repetition. By repeatedly telling the same types of stories over and over again, these tales begin to inform the way audiences interpret the world around them. Genre films capture, and at the same time reinforce, cultural values. Genre films are a popular, mass-produced form of entertainment. They are the modern equivalent of a cultural mythology—a set of narrative formulas told and retold as a way of transmitting basic social lessons.

Robert Warshow, for example, argues that the characteristics of the Western hero—his solitude, his commitment to unfettered movement across the plains, his reluctant but morally clarified use of violence—make him “the last gentleman.”

Often a more critical perspective informs this approach. Marxist film scholar Judith Hess Wright, for example, argues that genre films lull audiences into complacency by their promise to be nothing more than mere entertainment. As a result, viewers are little more than passive receptacles, mindlessly absorbing a reassuring cultural mythology that celebrates the status quo. In the Western, she argues, such a conflict arises over the issue of whether violence is justifiable. The genre naïvely solves this conflict by boiling its characters down into two simplistic types: guilty and innocent.

These perspectives share the assumption that, at their core, genre films contain certain unchanging elements. What makes a genre potent, in other words, is its consistency. By analyzing this consistency one can measure its aesthetic and social impact. However, 178 .

making such assumptions about how audiences respond to what they see is too reductive because it discounts the fact that a film might provoke contradictory responses.

C. Genres as Culturally Responsive Artifacts Another mode of criticism measures how genres gradually change, or evolve. While on one level genres retain their basic conventions, over time certain conventions will give way to others.

Some critics try to account for and evaluate such shifts in convention by exploring how a popular genre at a given point in time reflects the immediate, albeit unacknowledged, concerns of its audience. This approach is predicated on the assumption that genre films attract audiences because they appeal to popular sentiment, whether or not viewers are aware of their concerns and anxieties.

Consequently, the subtext of a genre at any point in time may grant critics and filmgoers alike access to a culture’s approach to complex social issues. Genre films are akin to a mass-produced ritual, wherein cultures see their fantasies acted out on screen. When a culture’s fantasies evolve, so do its generic conventions.

Instead of assuming that genres remain static, this approach focuses on the way the flexibility of a genre’s conventions ensures its adaptability for popular culture’s shifting interests.

D. Genre and Film Authorship A fourth approach to genre criticism looks at how notable directors or auteurs work with genre conventions to assert a personal vision. This approach assumes that good genre films distinguish themselves from the rest, and that a director may be responsible for a particular genre film’s originality.

The work of the auteur underscores the complexities of genre criticism. On the one hand, definitions of genres require stasis and consistency. On the other hand, economic, cultural, and artistic forces inevitably undermine such assumptions. The next chapter explores in more detail the theoretical underpinnings (and the fallacies) of the auteur theory—the argument that some directors have the ability to inscribe their own personal signature on the films they direct.

CHAPTER 13: (Genre) DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1) Discuss the following list of actors and directors as their names suggest the genre of movie you would expect to see them in or from them respectively. Explain why just the mere mention of names immediately evokes associations with a genre. a. Robert De Niro b. George Lucas c. Matt Damon d. Quentin Tarantino e. Scarlett Johansson f. Ricky Gervais g. Ben Stiller h. The Coen Brothers i. George Clooney j. Michael Bay k. Nicolas Cage l. Denzel Washington m. Julia Roberts n. Cameron Diaz

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2) List and discuss your own top three genres of films that you consistently seek out and watch. What attracts you to those genres? Why? Which genres do you have absolutely no interest in? Why? 3) What is a biopic? Discuss the conventions of a biopic that make it unique from other films, and that might make it valid as a genre category.

CHAPTER 13: (Genre) LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND IN-CLASS ACTIVITIES 1) Conventions: a culture’s common language?

This exercise will help students recognize that (some) genres enable filmmakers and audiences to share a common language, and to appreciate how this language can serve as a shorthand method for conveying important narrative information. ✓ Look at still 13.1 on p. 381. How many of you would have recognized this image as a still from a western if you didn’t have a caption telling you so? Why? [This discussion should lead to a definition of “genre conventions” and a consideration of how some genre conventions are visual.] ✓ Is there something counterintuitive about liking genre films? About liking movies that repeat formulas? [Encourage students to ponder what audiences get from repetition. What prevents it from being boring, or clichéd?] ✓ Refer to Leo Braudy’s quote that serves as the chapter’s epigraph. Why aren’t genre films “unique”? What does he mean when he says that critics prefer “the unique”? ✓ [Here the line of questioning begins to emphasize that genre films produce pleasure by altering some conventions and upsetting audience expectations.] How many of you have enjoyed to pleasure of guessing what’s going to happen in a horror film (or some other genre film) only to be surprised? To have your expectations upset? Why does that happen?

What’s the dynamic between audience and the screen in a good genre film? ✓ What, then, is the aesthetic value of relying on character types and narrative conventions that audiences have seen before? [Emphasize two points here: first, genre conventions function as an expedient method of conveying a wealth of narrative information. Audiences, for example, know offhand that opposites will attract in the screwball comedy. The pleasure lies in seeing when and how opposites will realize they are complementary. Second, as the questions above suggest, genre conventions create audience expectation; one of the sublime pleasures of a good genre film is experiencing those moments when a film veers away from these conventions and upsets expectations.] ✓ [At this point, it could be useful to emphasize the difficulty of delineating a genre.] If some genre films depend on upsetting convention, what are the ramifications for those critics and audiences who try to classify films according to genre? Look at still 13.6 on p. 389. How many of you would think of this as an image from a western? Why not? Yet some critics argue that Brokeback Mountain is because it focuses on the tension between society and individualism. ✓ [Wrap up the discussion by introducing subgenres, genre hybrids, and revisionist films.]

How does this difficulty affect your experience as a spectator? What genres do you seek out at the theater? Do you have notions of what you expect to see when you buy a ticket for a _______________ film? Where do you get these expectations? [Emphasize the point made on p. 385: even though the definition of any genre is in flux, audiences develop notions about particular genres from their movie-going experiences, from marketing, and from media 180 .

coverage. When a viewer considers a film in terms of genre, she is exploring how it creates meaning via its relationship to other films and other forms of cultural expression.]

2) Genre evolution and culture A discussion about how the horror film has evolved since the 1930s can illustrate why critics can study genres as culturally responsive artifacts. These questions focus on the horror film—the genre that we feel students are most familiar with—but you can adapt them to work with any genre. The paranoid thriller might be an effective alternative (begin by comparing North by Northwest and Enemy of the State, I, Robot or Manchurian Candidate.) ✓ [Begin by showing a scene from Frankenstein that prominently features the Monster. Then show the opening scene from Night of the Living Dead. These films are suggestions, but almost any pairing of a Classical Hollywood and a modern example will work. The key is to pick a modern film where the monster is nearly indistinguishable from the protagonists.] Do you notice a difference in the presentation of horror in these two scenes? How do the monsters compare? Are there pronounced differences in the settings for these films? [The discussion should emphasize that, in modern horror, the source of terror is often more ‘everyday.’ If you show the opening scene from Night …, note that Barbara mistakes the first zombie for a live human.] How does the protagonist’s relationship to the monster change if the monster appears to be “normal”? To the audience’s relationship with the monster? ✓ What cultural factors might explain why audiences in the late 1960s would no longer be scared by Frankenstein’s monster? What was happening in America during the late 1960s?

What else had Americans witnessed since the original release of Frankenstein? [The point here is to suggest how, after experiencing the industrial slaughter of the holocaust and WWII, the assassinations of King, Kennedy, and Malcolm X, and the televised brutality of the Vietnam War, American audiences perhaps recognized that human behavior was the real locus of horror.] ✓ [Consider showing the scene from the resolution of Night . . . where helicopters are brought in to help gun down the remaining zombies. Because the Vietnam War marked the first time helicopters were used substantively in combat, this imagery can serve as a potent example of why many critics interpret the film as a meditation on the horrors of the war. Be sure to remind students that, for the first time, images of war were broadcast on TV news, so the film’s audiences would certainly have drawn a mental connection between TV news images and the film.] ✓ What are the sources of terror in The Blair Witch Project, The Ring, and Pulse? [After some discussion, students should see that, in each film, fear is connected to digital video media.]

Keeping this in mind, how has the genre evolved since the days of Night . . . and Psycho?

How do these films reflect our cultural values? [Stress that many of the most recent horror films reflect a cultural anxiety about seeing horror on TV and video, and about the ubiquity of digital video technology in general. Most students are very familiar with the Scream series, so encourage them to discuss the cultural significance of the all-too-human monsters in the first film].

3) Genre and the status quo This exercise is a variation of one that appeared in Chapter 11.

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✓ In American Nightmare, a documentary on the American horror film, director John Carpenter says that he’s been accused of ending the sexual revolution with his film Halloween. What subgenre did Carpenter’s film help inspire? [The slasher film] ✓ What are the conventions of this subgenre? Who tend to be the first victims in the slasher film? If you’ve seen copycat slasher films, explain how they reflect a conservative attitude toward sexuality. [Explain that those characters who are sexually active are inevitably victims.] ✓ [Consider discussing how the Scream series pokes fun at the genre conventions. The crucial point to emphasize here is that one of the most infamous conventions of the genre is that sexually active teenagers get killed. This discussion can also expand to cover other conventions dictating who gets killed in the slasher film.] ✓ Does the fact that isolated events in a single film became conventional lend credence to Carpenter’s notion that he ended a social movement? [Emphasize that, for critics interested in genre’s relationship to the status quo, the crucial point is that ideas get reinforced through repetition in genre films.]

If you screen Halloween in class, you should spend class time discussing whether Carpenter’s film is conservative in its presentation of sexual values, or if it’s a critique of conservative sexual values.

As an alternative, look at how a recent spate of horror films reflects anxieties about immigration, foreign invasion, and terrorism post-9/11. Titles to consider: 30 Days of Night, I Am Legend, Cloverfield.

4) Genre and film authorship These questions will introduce students to the concept that critics can explore how some directors explore personal themes and demonstrate their individual stylistic tendencies even while working within the confines of a genre. As such, these questions serve as a bridge between Chapter 13 and Chapter 14, on auteur theories. ✓ [Screen the famous crop-dusting sequence from North by Northwest.] Read Alfred Hitchcock’s account on p. 404 of developing this famous scenario. Why did Hitchcock not want to set this confrontation in a dark alley? In other words, what is he opting to do while working within an established genre? [Make sure students employ the vocabulary of genre studies here: they need to say that he is departing from the thriller’s visual conventions]. ✓ Does refusing to adhere to audience expectations suggest any thematic significance to this scene? What is noteworthy about the setting here? What is out of the ordinary? What space becomes threatening? Where would you expect someone to fall victim to international espionage? [Steer students to recognize that the thing that is extraordinary about the setting is its very ordinariness. The Cold War threatens every part of the United States, not just its urban areas. If you have taught other Hitchcock films, or students are familiar with his work, consider linking this discussion to one or two of his other titles. Encourage students to see the thematic connection that links a number of his films: that terror is prone to erupt in “everyday America.”] ✓ Are there contemporary directors associated with a particular genre? Do they have recognizable style? Do they use the genre to explore a definable theme? Can you think of a director associated with a particular genre or style of filmmaking who explores another genre (e.g., Scorsese abandoning the gangster genre to make a musical (see p. 405)? Do the director’s themes appear?

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OUT OF CLASS ACTIVITIES 1) Identifying genre films Drawing from films you have seen in or outside of class, identify at least one example of each of the five genres. For each genre, briefly list the conventions the film repeats and identify conventions that the film alters or does not repeat.

2) Genre and popular criticism Find a movie review that discusses a film in terms of its status as a genre film. Of the four common approaches to genre (the creative use of repeated formulae; the social implications of adhering to convention; the way genres are prone to change; and the relation of the individual filmmaker to the established conventions of the genre), which tack does the review adopt?

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HAPTER 14: FILM AUTHORSHIP

CHAPTER 14: (Film Authorship) LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, students should be able to: 1) describe how auteur theory developed as an intellectual movement.

2) identify and apply Andrew Sarris’s criteria for determining an auteur toward an analysis of a single film or a group of films.

3) describe the limitations of the auteur theory.

4) describe how the careers of Orson Welles and Alfred Hitchcock offer two distinct models of how a studio era director’s reputation as an auteur could develop.

5) describe how auteur theory has become a useful marketing tool.

6) identify and utilize four ways film critics can employ the auteur theory as they evaluate and analyze individual films or groups of films.

CHAPTER 14: (Film Authorship) OVERVIEW ▪ ▪

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The auteur theory proposes that, in some cases, the director is the primary creative source for (or author of) a film.

The auteur theory emerged out of postwar intellectual movement in French film criticism. André Bazin, Alexandre Astruc, and François Truffaut were three of the important figures writing for the French journal Cahiers du Cinéma whose criticism evolved into the theory that some directors transform pre-existing material into a personal statement.

Film critic Andrew Sarris revised the theory and made it popular in the United States.

According to Sarris, a director has to meet three criteria to be considered an auteur. The director has to 1) be technically competent; 2) demonstrate a distinguishable personality; and 3) make films that all share an “interior meaning.”

Other American critics, most notably Pauline Kael, challenged Sarris’s theory by arguing that it valued repetition over originality and overlooked the collaborative nature of filmmaking.

Orson Welles, whose desire to make personal and inventive films led to repeated clashes with movie studios, personifies the creativity and fierce independence of an auteur.

Alfred Hitchcock made highly inventive and personal films, but because they were so popular, many critics regarded him as a master craftsman, not an artist of original work.

Auteur critics rescued his reputation by arguing that his works should be taken seriously.

Steven Spielberg and George Lucas are two examples of how the auteur theory has become an entrenched part of the Hollywood film industry, which markets films by touting directors as celebrities.

Writers who use auteur theory can adopt three common rhetorical approaches: she can claim that an individual film is typical of (or an aberration of) the director’s oeuvre; she can argue that a director’s films reveal biographical influence; she can argue that a film, which appears to be a departure in terms of a director’s typical work, actually is in step 184 .

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with his other work; she can compare the work of two directors and point out the artistic influence one has had on the other.

Criticism written about Ousmane Sembene, Kathryn Bigelow, Wes Anderson, and Akira Kurosawa demonstrates how critics can use the auteur theory to describe, compare, evaluate, and interpret individual films and groups of films.

CHAPTER 14: (Film Authorship) SUMMARY I.

Introduction

P

eople decide which films to see by reading film reviews in newspapers, magazines,

and journals, and on websites. They listen to their friends. Many fans flock to see movies featuring their favorite star; others line up for a film by a director whose work they enjoy. These viewers use their knowledge of a director’s oeuvre as well as historical and biographical information to analyze, interpret, and evaluate her latest film.

The common practice of using a film’s director as an organizing principle is based on the auteur theory, developed by French cinephiles in the 1940s and 1950s. At its most basic, the theory proposes that a director is the author of the film: auteur translates as “author.” The term implies that the director is the primary creative source and his films express his distinctive vision of the world.

The French critics who argued on behalf of the auteur did not just extol the work of recognized French writer–directors. Instead, they argued for the artistry of Hollywood directors. Their theory claimed that even commercial Hollywood directors (whose films others disparaged as mass entertainment, made in an assembly-line fashion) could be viewed as artists.

The customary use of the auteur approach to film should be tempered by an understanding of its full implications. This chapter examines the idea of film authorship as it developed in France and, later, in the U.S., and the way the auteur can be used as a marketing tool. Then it looks at the application of this approach when writing about film and provides examples of four contemporary international auteurs in the context of research questions raised by auteur theory.

This chapter explores both the value and limitations of the auteur approach.

II. The Idea of the Auteur: From Cahiers du Cinéma to the Sarris-Kael Debate The auteur theory emerged from a specific cultural milieu: postwar France. During the 1940s and 1950s in Paris, intellectuals who loved cinema, made films and contributed to film theory in addition to using it to explore aesthetic and philosophical questions. Their early arguments in favor of the auteur approach to film criticism were published in the influential film journal Cahiers du Cinéma.

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One of these intellectuals, François Truffaut, favorably compared Hollywood films with the French cinema’s “tradition of quality.” To him, Hollywood provided models for daring cinematic creativity whereas the latter produced dull translations of literary works. Truffaut and Bazin elevated Hollywood studio filmmakers who they thought had been neglected, though Bazin also warned against making the director a cult hero.

The auteur theory challenged the prevailing view of the aesthetic superiority of European cinema over American. The theory not only reconsidered popular films as potential works of art; it also spurred debates about which directors deserved to be called auteurs. In the United States the discussion of authorship appeared in the journal Film Culture and The New Yorker magazine, in a well-known debate between film critics Andrew Sarris and Pauline Kael.

According to Sarris, a necessary (but not sufficient) criterion for an auteur is technical competence; a director must be capable of creating a well-made film. Second, the director must demonstrate a distinguishable personality. Finally, Sarris argued that the films in an auteur’s body of work share an interior meaning, defined as an underlying tension between the director’s vision and the subject matter.

Sarris did not define this last criterion to the satisfaction of many critics, but it can be thought of as the continuing elaboration of a director’s perspective on the world through the treatment of themes.

New Yorker critic Pauline Kael challenged Sarris. She argued that technical competence was a weak criterion: it failed to acknowledge the true masters of technique, such as Antonioni. She also pointed out that the distinguishable personality criterion penalized directors who risked venturing beyond a familiar genre or style, and she found the “interior meaning” criterion impossibly vague. She pointed out that the auteur approach might lead critics to overvalue trivial films, elevating them simply because they had been made by a recognized auteur.

Kael also criticized the auteur approach for refusing to take into account the collaborative nature of filmmaking. The theory ignores the fact that many people’s creative decisions are part of the process of making films. Kael claimed that in many cases the director was not the driving creative force.

One additional limitation of the approach should be considered. Auteur criticism implies that the director possesses conscious intentions and, perhaps, unacknowledged ideas, all of which combine to produce a film, and, eventually, a body of work. The approach views the director as the primary source of meaning. But film theorists such as Peter Wollen argue that the meaning of any text, whether it is a film, novel, short story, television show, or a billboard, exceeds the intentions of the person or people who created it. Wollen questions whether anyone—even the author—can fix any film’s meaning definitively for all time. To him, a strict auteurist approach may ignore the complexity inherent in any text by insisting that the only authorized readings be linked to some notion of what a director meant to convey.

Despite many shortcomings, the auteur approach remains central to film scholarship and criticism. Moreover, the powerful notion of film authorship exerts an influence on filmmaking as an economic practice, as the next section will show.

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III. Auteur as Marketing Strategy: Old and New Hollywood The potential commercial appeal of the auteur drives many marketing campaigns. In 2006 Paul Greengrass became the first director to address the fraught subject matter of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, in a mainstream feature film, United 93 (fig. 14.2). To appeal to potential viewers concerned that a film about September 11 would exploit the events for entertainment, the studio touted only the films that helped to solidify Greengrass’s reputation as a compassionate and conscientious director.

Other examples point to the ubiquity of using a director to market a film. DVD box sets are packaged by director: Hitchcock, Kubrick, Scorsese, Kurosawa, and Tarantino. As film theorist André Bazin predicted, the film director has become something of a cult celebrity.

But in fact, commerce has always informed the idea of film authorship. The next section looks at the careers of Orson Welles and Alfred Hitchcock to examine the way the auteur has been used by the commercial film industry during the studio era and in post-studio Hollywood.

A. Studio-era Auteurs: Welles and Hitchcock Orson Welles personified the creativity and fierce independence of the auteur. When he began making films in the 1940s, the U.S. film industry was in its heyday. The demand for features was so great that studios also hired independent producers and directors, as RKO did when they hired Welles in 1939. Because of Welles’s reputation, RKO studios granted him unprecedented creative control to make three films. Over the course of the next three decades, Welles rejected the notion that studio executives knew how to make good films, but periodically he submitted to studio discipline (as an actor and director) in order to make his own films.

Welles became notorious as an outsider reviled by the Hollywood power structure. No other American director before or since has so epitomized the genius who flouted the profit-oriented commercial system. One example of Welles’s importance as a marketing tool is the 1998 re-release of Touch of Evil. As was the case with most of his studio films, Welles clashed with Universal over its decisions regarding editing and sound. The impetus for the project was financial gain: Universal would “get more value out of an old chestnut.” Thus, Universal used Welles’s reputation as a fiercely independent artist to entice viewers to see the restored film, one that promised to be superior to the original because it hewed more closely to the auteur’s intentions. A lesser director’s work might not receive the same commitment.

Like Orson Welles, Alfred Hitchcock is a celebrated auteur. Like Welles, Hitchcock clashed with producers and corporate executives in Hollywood, and particularly the independent producer David O. Selznick.

Unlike Welles, however, Hitchcock earned a reputation as a popular and prolific director.

Hitchcock’s authorial persona was used to market his films at the time they were released. Trailers advertising some of his films follow the director around the set, as he mugs for the camera and exaggerates his dour personality. Hitchcock performs his “Master of Suspense” persona to entice viewers to see his films. Film companies used the 187 .

audience’s idea of Hitchcock—and not the stars, genre, or plot line—as the hook. In other words, even during the studio era, some directors were celebrities used as fodder for the studio marketing machine.

B. Blockbuster Auteurs: Spielberg and Lucas The shift to a corporate entertainment environment in the 1980s and 1990s did not eradicate the idea of the auteur, but modified its profile. Jon Lewis cites Steven Spielberg and George Lucas as examples of the successful blockbuster auteur (p. 25). This is the director who is savvy about exploiting the economic potential of vertically and horizontally integrated film corporations in post-studio Hollywood, including product tieins and DVD sales. The director functions as a brand name to signify a consistent product.

Another economic and technological development that exploits the auteur as brand name is the marketing of DVDs and Blu-ray. The director’s cut solidifies the director as auteur, particularly on commentary tracks where he describes the film in detail.

Thus far, this chapter has concentrated on the origins and implications of film authorship.

The remainder of the chapter examines methods of incorporating the auteurist approach into research and writing and presents examples of the auteur approach by analyzing the careers of several established and up-and-coming auteurs.

IV. Using the Auteur Approach to Interpret and Evaluate Films The concept of the film auteur functions in practical terms as an organizing principle, helping scholars and fans to explore and evaluate films by categorizing them according to their director.

Other concepts that can be used to classify films according to aesthetic and historical characteristics include genre, studio, national contexts, production or industrial contexts and historical eras. Each of these frameworks contains implicit assumptions about the aspects of cinema that the scholar believes are most important to study.

This last section of the chapter explores specific models for using auteur theory as the basis for film interpretation.

A. The Auteur and the Consistency Thesis The idea that an individual film director possesses a stylistic sensibility that makes his or her films recognizable and distinct from those of other filmmakers should be treated as a hypothesis that we posit whenever we utilize auteur theory. One goal of analyzing many films by a single director is to prove or disprove this hypothesis. There is an implicit belief that true auteurs possess a compelling vision for their work that emerges from all their films, despite often challenging circumstances of collaboration in industrial filmmaking contexts.

The career of Japanese director Akira Kurosawa (1910–98) offers an instructive case study of a director whose filmmaking approach and visual style remains discernible across a substantial number of films (fig. 14.7). A discussion of Kurosawa (or any director) that forwards a claim of consistency should present a precise descriptive rubric that identifies the key components of a director’s style and that encompasses the vast 188 .

majority of her or his films. It may also seek to identify certain influences on those components of style, possibly in historical events and the director’s biography. Finally, this type of analysis may trace the way a director’s visual or narrative concerns develop over time.

Akira Kurosawa directed thirty-one films in a fifty-year career spanning the second half of the twentieth century. His importance as a major international filmmaker became undeniable with his 1950 film Rashômon. Kurosawa was the first Japanese director to garner international acclaim through major awards from England and America.

Kurosawa earned screenwriting credits on all the films he directed, often adapting screenplays from literary works and collaborating with one or two other writers. His adaptations draw from diverse sources. Kurosawa is often credited with reinventing the American Western.

Kurosawa’s films influenced international directors for many decades. Kurosawa made sketches, storyboards, and paintings throughout his life, many of which have been exhibited in museums around the world since his death in 1998. These art works are an important clue to Kurosawa’s distinctive visual style: the director trained as a painter at the Doshusha School of Western Painting prior to becoming a filmmaker.

The significance of Kurosawa’s artistry as a painter is that it helps to explain the way he approaches the film frame as a two-dimensional canvas. His distinctive style is defined by his frequent use of widescreen compositions. Moreover, Kurosawa typically situates his actors so that they fill the screen horizontally and orchestrates movement across the screen. The use of wipes as transitions contributes to the emphasis on the horizontal dimension of the film frame in Kurosawa’s films.

One additional visual signature of Kurosawa’s—the use of multiple cameras to shoot a single scene—is a technique that allows for rapid cuts on action and introduces fragmentation, mobility, and kinetic energy, all of which contribute to dramatic action scenes.

Moving from visual style to issues related to theme and genre also reveals Kurosawa’s consistency. He is best remembered for his sweeping, epic samurai action films, made in the tradition of the Japanese jidai-geki, or historical drama. Kurosawa always focuses on the difficult moral choices individuals make.

In a career that spanned decades, Akira Kurosawa made films that remain instantly recognizable, due in large part to his consistent visual style, which is rooted in his wide screen compositions and use of the telephoto lens, and his repeated engagement with questions of morality, choice, and individual responsibility.

B. The Life and Work of an Auteur: Studying Biographical Influence A second approach to using this theory of authorship as a method of interpretation is to consider how biographical experiences have shaped a director’s career. Typically, scholars who pursue this line of interrogation analyze a director whose reputation as an auteur has already been established. In this mode, explaining what influenced a director’s 189 .

sensibility is as important as spelling out recurring themes and stylistic techniques. In the discussion below of Ousmane Sembene (1923–2007), the author explores how the director’s experiences growing up in Senegal, a French colony in Africa, which attained independence in 1960, influenced his work.

In 1963, novelist and essayist Sembene (fig. 14.9) turned to filmmaking, partly because he realized that most of his fellow Senegalese were illiterate. His style was influenced by both Italian Neorealism and indigenous Senegalese traditions, evident in the way his films often critically examine French colonialism as well as post-independence Senegal.

Sembene’s career was shaped by the historical context of his childhood and his experiences in Senegal and in France as a young man. Caryn James identifies a common theme in the director’s oeuvre: the depiction of Sengalese and African histories through a central character.

Embracing the biographical approach to auteur criticism, Pym educates the audience about Sembene’s youth, arguing that Sembene’s pursuits as a political activist and author are relevant details for interpreting his cinema.

Bérénice Reynaud’s reading of Sembene’s Moolaadé (2004) takes this approach one step further, demonstrating the possibilities of reading a film in light of a director’s professional experiences within a film industry.

Sembene, she explains, used his status as Senegal’s foremost director to make films that give voice to women in his culture. Because he was a man, Sembene had the power and privilege to champion women’s rights. At the same time, Sembene’s status as a colonized African subject laboring to finance his films diminished his capacity to fully articulate a progressive vision. Sembene relied on French subsidies for his early films, putting his need to finance his career at odds with his interest in exploring anti-colonialist themes.

As Sembene’s work became more radical, he found it more difficult to secure funding.

James, Pym, and Reynaud all interpret Sembene’s work in light of the director’s life experiences. Film scholars interested in pursuing this approach inevitably conduct research, scouring libraries and archives for any information that might be relevant for understanding the director’s outlook. Family life, biographical anecdotes, education, and cultural and economic conditions are but a few of the many possible fruitful areas of inquiry.

C. Auteurs and Anomalies: Studying Aberrational Films Accounting for and exploring the differences between films that epitomize a director’s creative signature and those that seem anomalous is another way scholars and critics approach auteur theory. Writers who adopt this approach might begin by asking questions.

Sometimes writers discover that a film that appears incongruous at first glance is actually in step with a director’s other work. The process of attempting to uncover similarities between the anomalous film and the director’s established films may or may not yield 190 .

this conclusion. A scholar might meditate on how obvious shifts in a director’s approach signal that he’s taken his work in a new direction—perhaps the changes noted in a particular film mark the beginning of a new stage in his career, or perhaps they represent a one-time experiment.

Wes Anderson’s animated Fantastic Mr. Fox (2009) serves as a useful example of how an apparent departure can actually be understood to cohere with a director’s earlier work.

Before the release of Mr. Fox, Anderson had earned a reputation as one of American cinema’s most distinctive auteurs after having made just five features. The fact that Anderson wrote or co-wrote all of his screenplays and repeatedly returned to a stalwart cast of loveable misfits (including Owen and Luke Wilson, and Bill Murray) helped shape his authorial signature.

But Fantastic Mr. Fox marked a dramatic departure for Anderson. For the first time, he adapted someone else’s work, developing his film from British novelist Roald Dahl’s children’s novel. This fact invited questions about whether or not Anderson could maintain his cinematic identity while working with material someone else had composed.

Furthermore, Anderson was venturing into animated film for the first time; the decision to use stop motion animation seemed like a complete abandonment of the style that had made him famous.

What unites Anderson’s most endearing characters is their immature vanity, which reveals itself in the controlling and condescending manner with which they treat others.

With Fantastic Mr. Fox, Anderson maintains several other key ingredients of his distinctive style. Two are particularly relevant: Anderson’s scrupulous attention to costuming and his emphasis on literary, theatrical, and cinematic talent and invention.

Anderson repeatedly fashions characters who are creative artists. Their involvement in creative endeavors complements Anderson’s interest in characters who want to take creative control over their lives. This interest in characters who literally see all the world as a stage resonates with the stylized and synthetic quality of Anderson’s costumes and sets. Expressionist set design is one way Anderson’s visual style underscores the fact that his characters abandon authentic, messy emotions, and instead try to live out perfectly crafted storybook lives.

As this brief reading of Fantastic Mr. Fox demonstrates, explaining why a text that appears to be uncharacteristic actually adheres to a director’s usual mode can be a useful way to employ auteur theory. Locating similarities across a director’s work, and making a special attempt to include seemingly eccentric texts, can help the fan, student, or scholar recognize themes at work and more fully appreciate a director’s visual and narrative choices in every film.

D. Auteurs and Ancestors: The Question of Influence A fourth way to develop a scholarly understanding of a director’s body of work using auteur theory is to explore the influence of one director on another. Many auteurs are recognized as such because their distinctive style endures in the work of subsequent generations of filmmakers who borrow ideas from them. Critics and fans are usually 191 .

delighted to recognize an hommage to a beloved auteur. Some influences can be overt, appearing in obvious references, while others may become apparent only with careful, close analysis.

Adopting this approach requires the writer to first identify the stylistic profile of the director whose status as an auteur is well-established, and then to argue that these traits re-appear in another director’s films. The purpose behind this exercise isn’t necessarily to argue that the latter filmmaker is a lesser artist whose work is derivative, though film critics may pursue this line of logic. Rather, exploring the role of artistic influence can provide a useful framework for interpreting new films by comparing and contrasting them with older works.

Whereas many critics have focused their analysis of Kathryn Bigelow’s much-admired The Hurt Locker (2008) on the question of whether or not the film is pro- or anti-war, careful consideration of the director’s artistic influences helps draw attention to her central theme. Bigelow (fig. 14.11) is more interested in exploring the psychological impact of combat on individual soldiers than she is in debating ideological questions regarding the ethics of the U.S. war in Iraq. As this analysis will demonstrate, understanding how Bigelow’s film incorporates the visual strategies and thematic ideas associated with the directors that influenced her opens the door to a new and compelling angle for interpretation.

One of the most obvious influences on Bigelow’s films is the work of Sam Peckinpah, famous for gracefully choreographed and violently bloody Westerns. The comparison with Peckinpah is an apt one, since the bomb defusers in The Hurt Locker look and act like modern day cowboys. Addiction to the adrenaline rush and an existential ambivalence toward the meaning of life propel these men as much as any sense of loyalty or obligation. Like Peckinpah, Bigelow works in the arena of the taut male action film, which, in her case, also coincided historically with the hardbody action flick, analyzed by scholars Susan Jeffords and Yvonne Tasker.

Just a casual glance at Bigelow’s use of cinematography reveals Peckinpah’s influence.

In The Hurt Locker and in The Wild Bunch, both directors carefully frame their male protagonists in wide shots, often with telephoto lenses. This technique situates the men in unfriendly settings while also emphasizing their singular composure under pressure. The camera’s unrelenting surveillance in these moments evokes the men’s mental agility and stamina, adjuncts to the physical prowess typically associated with strong masculinity.

When action does erupt, Peckinpah and Bigelow dissect and multiply the violence; they cut quickly to capture from multiple points of view the surreal choreography of bodies under assault. But they also punctuate rapid barrages of imagery with slow-motion shots, which transform the rituals of violence into a bloody ballet.

Earlier in her career, Bigelow identified another influence on her style, which is less obvious than the Peckinpah connection, but potentially more provocative, given that Bigelow makes action films. She noted her indebtedness to Douglas Sirk. Sirk is known for directing melodramatic Hollywood “weepies” in the 1950s. Claiming Peckinpah and 192 .

Sirk as one’s lineage might appear contradictory, since these directors are a study in contrasts: the former is associated with male-oriented action spectacles, whereas the latter specialized in stylized family dramas centering on women facing tragic romantic and familial dilemmas. Nevertheless, Sirk’s work has been an influence on Bigelow since her first feature.

Peckinpah’s and Sirk’s competing aesthetics run throughout The Hurt Locker, revealing the way Bigelow’s film grapples not just with the physical mechanics of defusing bombs, but also with the emotions at the heart of Sergeant James’s motivations.

In The Hurt Locker Bigelow treats these conflicting impulses of Peckinpah and Sirk— action and melodrama—as a structuring device. This portrait of masculinity as selfdefeating posturing has more in common with Sirk’s brand of melodrama than Peckinpah’s outlaw heroes.

Sirk’s films are justifiably famous for the stunning beauty of his imagery. While his characters lead lives of desperate misery, they at least manage to do so in immaculate houses stuffed with ornate objects. Indeed, it is this tension between visual beauty and tragic circumstance that fascinates Bigelow, who is drawn to the “interesting juxtaposition between [the character’s] nihilistic interior and this lush, almost exotic exterior.” (Beyond Melodrama) Put another way, Sirk surrounds characters with the material goods that replace the emotional connections missing in their lives. His characters value their homes as symbols of middle class success, but these spaces also come to represent the characters’ inner emptiness.

As this discussion of Kathryn Bigelow demonstrates, studying an auteur’s artistic ancestry involves careful consideration of how the interior meaning and cinematic techniques running throughout one director’s canon of films appear in another director’s work. Students should appreciate how this approach doesn’t require an exact correspondence from one director to the next. Rather, the most thoughtful analysis will typically explore how a director pays respect to her influences while also updating or adapting the approach. Bigelow doesn’t just ape Peckinpah’s portrait of male violence; she transforms his vision into something new, in part by also drawing on Sirk’s legacy of melodrama. When a director pays tribute to those who influenced her, in a sense she is engaging in a dialogue: acknowledging, elaborating on, and sometimes even challenging or contradicting another’s powerful artistic statements.

CHAPTER 14: (Film Authorship) DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1) How do the cameos of Hitchcock in his own films reinforce the notion of director as marketer and auteur? Discuss this quirky, tongue-in-cheek marketing maneuver by Hitchcock and whether or not it was successful. Did it degrade his status as an auteur?

Explain your decision.

2) Discuss how Orson Welles, Hollywood’s “golden boy” director/producer/actor image became his own worst enemy in Hollywood. What led to his downfall? Why did film companies continually put a leash on this genius and ruin his work?

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3) Director David Lynch created several films that stand out as unique, artistic and controversial, including Eraserhead, The Elephant Man, Blue Velvet, The Straight Story, and Mulholland Drive. Could Lynch be considered an auteur? Consider this and explain your decision. Also, discuss where he might fit into one of the specific “models for using auteur theory as the basis for film interpretation” found within this chapter.

4) Who are the major auteurs in Hollywood today?

CHAPTER 14: (Film Authorship) LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND IN-CLASS ACTIVITIES 1) Introducing the auteur theory This brief exercise will encourage students to recognize that this theory has entered into the popular consciousness so completely that young cinephiles can’t imagine a time without it. It begins with a discussion of the theory at work today and concludes with a brief summary of its history. ✓ [Bring a list of the films currently playing to class. Project the list or make sure everyone has a copy to look at.] Do you know who directed any of these films? [This question assumes that there will be a film by a well-known director showing in your area!]. How are you aware of this information? Do you know this director? Does knowing who directed this film give you any indication of what to expect if you go see it? ✓ Are there other directors whom you know by name? Do any of you seek out work by a particular director? Why? ✓ What assumptions are you making when use the director’s name as a way of characterizing a film? Who becomes the most significant voice in the film’s production? [At this point, introduce and define the term auteur.] ✓ What does it suggest that you don’t know the directors of these other films currently playing?

[Have a list of directors’ names on hand. Read them out to confirm that, in most cases, the students will not have heard of these other directors.] What might explain the reason why you haven’t heard of them? [At this point, introduce the idea that not every director is an auteur.] If these directors don’t have a distinctive “signature,” who is responsible for these films? [Emphasize the collaborative nature of the medium.] ✓ [After pointing out to students that they actually use this theory to some degree already, summarize its history briefly. Consider covering these points: • Before the late 1950s, the theory did not exist. It has always been the case that some directors were heralded as the driving force behind their films, but these few directors were those who clearly had control over nearly every stage of production (e.g., D.W. Griffith), those who clashed with studios in their attempt to make personal films (e.g., Orson Welles), and those who worked outside the Hollywood studio system (e.g., Sergei Eisenstein). Other studio directors, such as Alfred Hitchcock, developed a popular reputation, but in general they were assumed to be “master craftsmen,” not “authors.”

What made the auteur theory so groundbreaking was that it argued that directors (like Hitchcock) could develop a personal vision even while working within the industrial context of the studio system.

• Introduce the major French critics who developed the theory. Discuss how many went on to make their own films, often emulating the Hollywood directors and genres they admired.

• Discuss Andrew Sarris and his criteria.]

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Conclude with a discussion of the theory’s limitations. Ask students to hypothesize why some, like Pauline Kael, would have vigorously disagreed with Sarris’s criteria (see pp. 40910).]

2) Writing about auteurs This short discussion will show students three common rhetorical strategies for employing the auteur theory in their work. ✓ In 2004, acclaimed director Martin Scorsese released The Aviator, a biopic based on the life of aircraft mogul (and occasional film director) Howard Hughes. Scorsese is famous for his violent gangster films (Goodfellas, Casino, The Gangs of New York, The Departed) and his interest in brooding, self-destructive masculinity (Taxi Driver, Raging Bull). If you were a critic who wanted to talk about Scorsese’s status as an auteur as it relates to The Aviator, what questions might you ask? [Prod students to generate a number of ideas. Be sure to emphasize these approaches:] 1) Does The Aviator look like Scorsese’s earlier work, both in terms of its themes and its stylistic approach? [A number of reviews for the film argued that it’s not reminiscent of his earlier work, and point to the fact that he took the helm when Michael Mann dropped out of the project as evidence that The Aviator is not the work of an auteur.]

2) How does The Aviator compare with other similar films? [In particular, you might suggest that critics could compare the film to other biopics (like Kinsey) released during the same time period in terms of theme and style.]

3) Can you bolster your interpretation of The Aviator by demonstrating that the same themes and techniques you’ve identified show up in Scorsese’s earlier work as well? ✓ Which of these rhetorical approaches shows up? [Continue this line of questioning for the readings on the other directors in this section. Allow students to discuss the flexibility of the theory and to recognize that critics can employ different combinations of the approaches listed above. Emphasize that several of the discussions actually consider biographical details—further underscoring the assumption that an auteur’s personal vision informs her work.]

Obviously, you should feel free to substitute any film for The Aviator. Scorsese’s more recent horror film Shutter Island would be a good choice. Opting to focus on Clint Eastwood’s Letters from Iwo Jima would give you an opportunity to provide (or to ask students to find their own) examples of auteur criticism in popular reviews. Another fruitful example (and challenging one) would be Spike Lee’s Inside Man. The thriller marked quite a departure (or, it appeared to) from the director’s usual interest in racial and gender politics in American culture.

OUT OF CLASS EXERCISES 1) Marketing the auteur Identify a film whose ad campaigns prominently feature the director’s name. Is she an auteur, or is her name being touted as if she were to lend prestige to the film? Locate the titles of other films by the director (refer to imdb.com). Does there appear to be a common interest or theme that links them? Do reviewers point to a consistent style?

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2) One theme, two approaches Sofia Coppola (The Virgin Suicides, Lost in Translation, Marie Antoinette, Somewhere) and Wes Anderson (The Royal Tenenbaums, The Life Aquatic, The Fantastic Mr. Fox) have both developed a reputation for their movies exploring the lives of outsiders and outcasts. Compare and contrast how they depict the displaced members of society. Consider these questions to get you started: What types of characters interest the directors? What prevents these characters from “fitting in?” What emotions are associated with this sense of displacement? Do the characters try to fit in? Do they succeed? What visual and sound techniques does each director employ?

[This assignment could be revised so that students compare any two directors who explore similar themes. Students might find comparing Clint Eastwood’s Million Dollar Baby with Martin Scorsese’s Raging Bull an especially compelling assignment.]

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C

HAPTER 15: CINEMA AS INDUSTRY:

ECONOMICS AND TECHNOLOGY CHAPTER 15: (Cinema as Industry) LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, students should be able to: 1) distinguish between writing that focuses on films as texts to be evaluated and interpreted, and writing that discusses the production, marketing, and exhibition of film as an industrial product.

2) describe how and why Hollywood studios moved from distributing daring independent productions in the 1960s and 1970s to relying on blockbuster releases since the mid1970s.

3) define and provide examples of the “high concept film.”

4) identify and describe business practices that have enabled Hollywood studios to saturate foreign markets with its products.

5) identify and describe three labor trends that have emerged as a result of the global marketplace for labor and ideas.

6) define the relationship between “blockbusters” and “independent film,” and explain why some critics argue that the difference between independent films and major studio releases is growing imperceptible.

7) identify how three recent developments in digital technology—digital storage, digital cameras, the Internet--are changing the way films are marketed and consumed, and explain why some critics feel these changes are detrimental to film culture.

CHAPTER 15: (Cinema as Industry) OVERVIEW • • •

•

•

In addition to studying films as texts and cultural artifacts, scholars can consider them from a strictly economic perspective, as products to be consumed.

During Hollywood’s golden age, studios were vertically integrated, where a few powerful companies controlled the industry’s production, distribution, and exhibition.

After a Supreme Court ruling dismantled the studios’ vertical integration, major studios invested more money in distributing independent productions made by smaller studios. This led to a period of stylistic innovation and thematic complexity during the late 1960s and early 1970s.

The popularity of 1970s blockbusters revitalized the major studios and vertical integration.

In addition, film studios are now horizontally integrated into large conglomerates, which align complementary businesses and allow companies to expand ‘across’ the entertainment industry.

The rise of international conglomerates has enabled the Hollywood film industry to strengthen its presence in foreign markets, often overwhelming local film industries in the process.

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• • •

•

The globalization of the Hollywood film industry has led to three important trends in labor practices: the outsourcing of labor, runaway productions, and the concentration of creative and intellectual control.

Hollywood industry practices now favor blockbuster releases and the high concept film.

In the 1980s, audiences and filmmakers alike began to identify an independent film movement opposed to corporate filmmaking. The rise of the Sundance Institute and Miramax pictures helped promote independent filmmaking to a broader audience, but some critics argue that the independent movement’s popularity has led to its absorption by the major conglomerates.

Technological advances have also changed the way audiences consume films. The rise of digital technologies is changing the way films are made, marketed and exhibited.

CHAPTER 15: (Cinema as Industry) SUMMARY I.

Introduction

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ow budget, do-it-yourself filmmaking through films such as Paranormal Activity is

still possible in the age of technology-driven, special effects extravaganzas like Avatar. Though Avatar and Paranormal Activity seem to be polar opposites in many ways, the media coverage surrounding each film’s release was remarkably consistent. In other words, critical and journalistic discourses surrounding both Avatar and Paranormal Activity emphasized the fact that filmmaking is a business: while fans and critics may be drawn to the creative aspects of the film enterprise, there is no denying the fact that money matters in this multi-billion dollar industry. And plenty of journalists, critics, and film scholars have made it their business to investigate and write about the economics of the film industry.

Although economic practices have always shaped the film industry, increasingly, the business side of filmmaking determines the way fans think and talk about movies. Newspapers, television news, entertainment magazines, and blogs publicize statistics on box office receipts, ensuring that a film’s financial success or failure gets as much public scrutiny as aesthetic considerations.

In terms of popular and scholarly research and writing, journalists and academics have begun to focus more and more on the way the film industry functions as an industry. This type of research does not involve deciphering motifs, themes, or structural attributes of individual films; instead, this body of scholarship examines the business practices of film studios and the international conglomerates that own them.

This final chapter considers films from a strictly economic perspective, as products to be consumed. It looks at films as commodities whose quality, appeal, and profitability are shaped by the structure of the industry, by methods of production, distribution, and marketing, and by technological developments.

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II. The Changing Structure of the Film Industry A. From Oligopolies to Conglomerates During Hollywood’s golden age, from the 1920s through the 1940s, five major studios dominated the industry. Vertical integration—where a few powerful companies controlled the industry from the top down by making, distributing, and exhibiting films in their own theaters—helped the studios guarantee stable box office receipts through practices such as block booking (forcing exhibitors to rent a studio’s less lucrative films along with the sure box office successes). But the Supreme Court’s 1948 Paramount Decree declared that the five majors and three minors had been engaged in monopolistic practices, colluding to keep independent producers out of their theaters. This decision forced Paramount, Warner Brothers, Loew’s/MGM, Twentieth Century Fox, and RKO to divest themselves of their theater holdings. But although the majors relinquished their theater chains, they maintained their hold over distribution to seek methods for increasing profits through distribution.

The majors began investing in and distributing smaller, independent films rather than producing their own. This defensive economic practice had implications for film style and culture more generally, which reduced risk. At the same time, independent directors were emboldened to explore challenging subject matter and to experiment with style.

During the late 1960s and 1970s, American films became more adventurous. “Hollywood Renaissance” filmmakers addressed social and political issues head-on and rejected the classical style.

By the early 1970s, Hollywood studios had made significant headway in reviving themselves commercially through the work of independent directors, such as Francis Ford Coppola, whose Godfather production marked the studios’ re-emergence and renewed an emphasis on production rather than distribution. Since then, all of the major studios and several minors have been absorbed into larger media corporations. Under the laissez-faire economic policies of the Reagan administration in the 1980s, studios were allowed to merge with conglomerates that also owned theater chains, thus reintroducing vertical integration.

Media conglomeration effectively re-established vertical integration because mergers provided studios with distribution and exhibition outlets, including cable and satellite television, video and DVD rental chains, and Internet service providers. Pro-business government policies effectively rendered the Paramount Decree irrelevant and encouraged virtual monopolies on production and distribution, only now on a global scale.

B. Horizontal Integration: Merchandise and Games The corporate mergers that began in 1966 and continued unabated through the 1980s and 1990s not only revived vertical integration; they also produced horizontal integration, aligning complementary businesses and allowing companies to expand “across” the entertainment industry. This industrial shift has influenced the way films function as 199 .

cultural experiences: for one thing, movies are rarely seen as discrete aesthetic experiences but, rather, are part and parcel of large-scale acts of consumption.

The reason for this is that studios take advantage of market synergy: they use movie releases to make money in many venues simultaneously: Licensing, taking a share of profits from shirts, toys, and other merchandise, showing the film on cable companies throughout the country, selling the soundtrack album through record labels, and selling videos and DVDs. An allied industry that has grown dramatically in importance in the twenty-first century is gaming. In 2010, more than fifty video games had been created based on theatrically released feature films, and the number is sure to grow.

The relationship between film and gaming is not a one-way street, however. Film scholar Will Brooker has analyzed the influence of video games on film style. Scholars have remarked upon the fact that a generation of people raised on Playstation has contributed to the development of numerous interactive media forms, including games, websites, and interactive CD-ROMs, which, in turn, may affect narratives in feature films. While narrative circularity is not brand new to cinema, director Christopher Nolan attributes the more frequent use of non-linearity to the contemporary era, arguing “people’s ability to absorb a fractured mise en scène is extraordinary compared to forty years ago” (quoted in Harkin). Nolan’s comment points to developments in cinematic storytelling over the past forty years, as the classical model of a linear narrative has been modified by narratives influenced by postmodern concepts of fracture and irrationality, and non-linear story structures from the world of gaming.

C. Globalization Another effect of the wave of mergers has been the globalization of the Hollywood film industry. The nature of corporate structure is transitory. Every major Hollywood studio is part of some foreign conglomerate, whether it be a French, Australian or Asian company.

Corporate conglomeration has bolstered Hollywood’s ability to compete in the domestic and foreign markets; its position of dominance is unrivaled. According to the MPAA, domestic (U.S. and Canada) receipts for the Hollywood film industry were $10.6 billion in 2009, whereas foreign box office revenues reached $19.3 billion Hollywood films dominate international screens. They account for more than 50 percent of box office receipts (and in some cases, far more than that) in Australia, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom (Scott, p. 160).

D. Industry Labor Practices As in any industry, the film industry’s labor force, its location, and its wages all play critical roles in determining the quality and profitability of the product. In the contemporary Hollywood industry, four trends have emerged with respect to labor practices: the outsourcing of labor, restructured contracts with stars, runaway productions, and the concentration of creative control.

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1) Outsourcing In the studio era, major studios kept production within the confines of studio back lots, which contained the sets, equipment, costumes, and personnel needed to complete a project. Today, studios outsource much of the labor involved in shooting a picture. On a given production, one independent firm might handle lighting, while another might construct the required sets. The motivation for subcontracting the work is financial.

2) Star Compensation Historically, the highest proportion of labor costs is paid to movie stars in the form of huge fees and percentages of profits. Popular stars cannot be replaced or outsourced, and their involvement can make or break a movie at the box office.

During the economic downturn that began in 2008, however, film studios began revising the way they compensated stars. Agreements called “cash-break zero” deals represent a major departure from contracts that paid stars a percentage of first dollar gross receipt.

As part of a larger concern over compensation, actors and their agents are also worried about the performance capture technology James Cameron employed in Avatar, arguing that it might allow directors to replace human actors with their captured performances. In 2010, the Screen Actors Guild announced that it plans to examine compensation and recognition issues for actors in performance capture roles and in video games. Steven Spielberg touted the fact that performance capture allowed him to cut his shooting time in half because he avoided the time consuming set-ups typical of live action scenes. Here again, financial concerns motivate decisions about technology’s role in the creative process.

3) Runaway Productions In the 1990s and 2000s, rising costs, coupled with tax and other financial incentives offered by state governments in the U.S. and by foreign governments have lured productions out of Southern California and, in many cases, out of the U.S. altogether. For studio executives, so-called runaway productions—films shot outside the U.S.—make economic sense because it can be less expensive to move a production overseas and use local technicians than it is to pay the location costs and requisite union wages in the United States.

A Canadian production incentive program initiated in 1998 was responsible for a significant increase in the number of runaway productions, and this program encouraged many other countries to follow suit.

Runaway productions cost an estimated 47,000 jobs in the U.S. between 2000 and 2006 and untold billions of dollars in economic benefits (McNary).

The fierce competition to attract major film productions is not merely a high stakes international game: states and localities within the U.S. engage in the same tactics.

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Runaway productions may be more important to the industry, for economic reasons, than they are to film audiences. Even locations selected because of favorable tax incentives will be scouted beforehand; that is, a pre-production team will choose sites that look appropriate for the film.

4) Creative Centralization Although the film industry’s labor force is now decentralized via the practice of outsourcing, the production of ideas has become more centralized, owing to the horizontal organization of the industry.

As outsourcing, contract negotiation, runaway productions, and creative consolidation illustrate, film industry practices that may at first glance seem to have little to do with social or aesthetic issues do in fact have a significant impact on film and culture.

III. Films as Products To illustrate the way industrial practices shape viewers’ experiences of film, this section discusses how film industry practices of the 1970s and 1980s created the blockbuster and the high concept film. Those industrial products, and the saturation marketing used to promote them, in turn prompted a backlash: the independent film culture of the late 1980s.

A. The Blockbuster The Godfather taught the studios the importance of the blockbuster: a film that swamps all competition, in part by the sheer number of prints in circulation at once.

The Godfather, Jaws, and Star Wars transformed the way Hollywood distributed and marketed its product to the public. During the 1950s and 1960s, studios commonly used a tactic called roadshowing. A film would have a lengthy run in a few premier theaters to generate word-of-mouth publicity before being distributed more broadly. With The Godfather, studios began booking prints in as many theaters as possible, saturating the market with a single film to make a film’s opening weekend an event.

In fact, one of the economic justifications for the multiplex was not to offer patrons more diversity or convenience but, rather, to guarantee that major releases could open on many screens simultaneously.

The goal of guaranteeing a blockbuster has had a tremendous impact on film style.

Hollywood catered to general audiences by producing less risky material, often based on novels or television series that have a built in or “pre-sold” audience.

B. The High Concept Film Hollywood’s movement away from complexity and ambiguity and toward simple entertainment coalesced in the high concept film, which fuses star power, genre appeal, and a basic scenario into a bankable package. High concept appropriates and combines the most identifiable traits from other films, stars, and popular trends into a twenty-fiveword marketable pitch that appeals to financially minded studio executives.

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The practice allows studios to combine already established and successful ingredients into one enticing morsel that the domestic and international markets will find easy to digest. The appeal of the high concept film is that audiences, both domestic and foreign, can readily understand its basic premise and admire its stars, thus improving its chances of profitability.

C. New Modes of Marketing The rise of the blockbuster film coincided with the rise of national marketing campaigns.

Studios launched nationwide marketing blitzes, which bombarded the public with ads in newspapers, magazines, television, and radio.

The winning synergetic strategy for marketing a blockbuster, according to MCA/Universal marketing executive Elizabeth Gelfand, is to make merchandising deals in three venues: toys, fast food, and video games (Seagrave, p. 242).

As film historian Peter Bart puts it, movie releases are highly orchestrated events: “Today a movie is unveiled, not with a quietly orchestrated build, but with a cosmic paroxysm, a global spasm of hype involving giant marketing partners like McDonald’s and a profligate network on the Super Bowl or the Olympics.” (quoted in Allen, p. 55) Saturation marketing led to the expansion of advertising budgets for most Hollywood productions.

By 2009, however, movie studios began to implement cost-saving measures to reduce the size of their advertising budgets, partly in response to shrinking sales of DVDs. Other new sources of revenue, including iTunes and video on demand had not generated significant profits.

To compensate for reductions in traditional advertising, and to take advantage of new opportunities to advertise created by the proliferation of digital media, studios have come to depend more and more on “earned media”: free spots on television, magazines, newspapers, and the Internet. Interviews with stars on popular television talk shows also provide advertising for upcoming film releases; in many cases the fact that movie studios and television networks are owned by the same parent company, such as Disney and ABC, makes this a seamless process. Blogs, and social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter have changed the landscape of advertising as well. This trend may offer critics and scholars a way to examine the changing nature of stardom, as these technologies purport to provide fans greater access to and interactivity with their favorite stars.

D. Independent Film Culture Independent filmmaking has always been a part of American film culture, but in the 1980s, audiences began to identify, and identify with, a movement opposed to corporate filmmaking. A number of independent filmmakers who debuted low-budget, idiosyncratic films in the 1980s garnered larger audiences and international reputations for their work.

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In the most literal sense, an independent film is not financed by a major Hollywood studio. Independent filmmakers secure funds by seeking out sponsors, drumming up investors, or borrowing money from friends and relatives. They often present an alternative sensibility, in terms of both their low production values and their autonomy from large-scale corporate interests.

Independent filmmakers are freer to explore complex topics and social issues that may be off-limits to major studios afraid of offending their general audience. Smaller independent films can earn a modest gross but still make a profit.

The box office success of blockbusters like Avatar and Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen (Michael Bay 2009), together with changes in the industry’s distribution practices, have had a significant adverse impact on art house films and art house theaters in recent years.

This shift from limited to wide releases, along with the rush to release films to more quickly reap the benefits of DVD sales, has hurt small art theaters and undermined the thriving independent film culture that blossomed in the 1990s. The demarcation between multiplex and art house fare is less strict than in the past (partly because multiplexes can devote one screen to Precious and three or four to Avatar), offering a further challenge to art house film culture.

1) Two Independent Institutions: Sundance and Miramax In 1981 actor and director Robert Redford founded the Sundance Institute, a nonprofit organization providing training and financial support for emerging screenwriters and directors. The institute was long associated with the Sundance Film Festival in Park City, Utah, a showcase for independent filmmaking. The independent movement gained momentum in the early 1990s, when a string of small films became box office hits.

Audiences in the 1990s gained greater access to independent films, thanks to an increasing number of film festivals as well as more opportunities to see independent films on cable and satellite TV. By the end of the decade, independent film was a household phrase, familiar even to those with the most conventional tastes.

Some critics argue that the popularity of the movement has made independent cinema just another part of the mainstream, threatening the idiosyncratic approach to filmmaking that attracted audiences in the first place. Large conglomerates now seek to maximize profits by distributing lower-budget independent films.

Connections between Sundance and studio conglomerates have created a perception (accurate or not) that the festival showcases only directors with potentially profitable films or those who are interested in making conventional industry films.

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The history of Miramax pictures contributes to the perception that truly independent cinema is difficult to sustain. Disney acquired Miramax, a pioneer in independent film, in the mid-1990s, and many critics allege that the parent company’s need to promote “family values” soon overshadowed alternative perspectives. Moreover, Miramax became infamous for mounting lavish campaigns designed to promote its Academy Award-nominated films. In the fall of 2005, the Weinstein brothers left Disney (a public statement suggested the break was by mutual agreement), which retained Miramax. Bob and Harvey Weinstein took the Dimension film label with them and went on to form the Weinstein Company.

In early 2010, Disney put Miramax up for auction, following the trend of larger studios to close down or reduce the size of their independent film divisions in the 2000s. It would seem that studios are betting on big budget digital-effects driven and 3D features, as well as their investment in local filmmaking in foreign markets, to shore up their fiscal balance sheets in the near future.

In short, the industry’s horizontal and vertical integration has filmmakers, film lovers, and film scholars alike wondering whether alternative forms of filmmaking can continue to challenge Hollywood hegemony in any meaningful way.

Inset Box: The Dream Palaces The earliest venues for watching a program of short one-reelers were vaudeville theaters, lecture halls, and churches. Around 1905, permanent storefront theaters called nickelodeons emerged.

Then, after the popular success of Italian spectacles such as Quo Vadis? (Enrico Guazzoni 1913) and Cabiria (Giovanni Pastrone 1914), the industry turned to feature-length films.

As comic shorts gave way to these dramatic feature-length epics, exhibitors built monumental movie theaters to attract and accommodate middle-class audiences (fig. 15.10). The Regent and Strand theaters in New York City, which opened in the 1910s, were the first such “dream palaces.” With more than 3,000 seats and a thirty-piece orchestra, the Strand’s lavish interior was appointed with a marble foyer and crystal chandelier (Cook, p. 39). By the late 1920s, most movie theaters were air-conditioned and summertime became the peak season for film going (Gomery, p. 51).

Inset Box: Inventive Voices Mumblecore refers to a collection of extremely low budget independent films, usually (but not always) shot on digital video formats, which focus on the lives of educated and somewhat aimless young people, who are often played by the filmmaker’s friends, family, and acquaintances. Central narrative conflicts revolve around relationships and sexuality. The term Mumblecore, which was somewhat jokingly coined in 2005 by Eric Masunaga, a member of Bujalski’s crew on Funny Ha Ha, suggests a quality of slightly confused inarticulateness, and this tends to be an attribute of most characters in these films. Whereas Lim is hesitant to describe Mumblecore as a movement, other critics compare this do-it-yourself approach to other twentieth-century new wave cinemas. What unites the often idiosyncratic directors associated with these diverse new waves is their approach to filmmaking rather than a common subject 205 .

matter or set of aesthetic principles. One key aspect of Mumblecore that distinguishes it from the cinemas that came before is digital production, editing, and distribution that has made filmmaking viable for millions of people who would otherwise have no access to this art form.

These directors are able to take advantage of twenty-first century distribution channels. By 2007, 2007, Mumblecore had sparked enough interest that New York’s Independent Film Center (IFC), mounted a ten-film retrospective.

In response to the IFC’s retrospective, film critic Amy Taubin invited readers of Film Comment to bid farewell to “the indie movement that never was more than a flurry of festival hype and blogosphere branding.” (Taubin) She suggested that the designation of Mumblecore as a movement was mostly an advertising strategy, arguing that the work of these directors attracted attention because the films were considered part of a new movement—or a new brand—rather than simply being interesting work by new filmmakers.

Taubin also laments the way that the politics of defining a new movement can involve the imposition of a strict, and unproductive, uniformity on directors and subject matter. In this case, she criticizes the narrowly American and overtly male perspective that seems to define Mumblecore films.

New York Times critic Lynn Hirschfield has heralded the emergence of a second generation of Mumblecore directors. In 2010, Paramount announced the creation of Insurge Pictures, a unit designed to distribute micro-budget films, with an initial slate of ten films budgeted at $100,000.

Although the moment for Mumblecore as an oppositional movement may have passed, it’s clear that the digital technologies that enable cheaper and faster shooting, editing, and distribution of films are here to stay. In other words, this is the age of the digital auteur.

IV. Film and New Technology Digital technologies and the convergence of communication and information technologies promise to play important roles in marketing and exhibition. Digital technology is literally changing films themselves, as well as the circumstances of their consumption.

From an economic perspective, films are just one among many entertainment commodities in the marketplace. Whereas early film exhibitors created beautiful movie palaces for audiences to watch movies in high style, contemporary studios, eager to sell the movies as both an experience and a product, have embraced old, new, and “old made new again” technologies of exhibition, from the resurgence of 3D and IMAX in digital formats, to DVDs and Blu-ray, to cable television and streaming video on broadband. They maximize profits by selling a film many times over. However, in the process, they are changing the way the medium is perceived as an aesthetic and cultural institution.

Until the advent of television in the 1950s and the VHS tape in the 1970s, movie theaters were the primary venues for seeing Hollywood films. Although the industry has initially feared that every new development in viewing technology will undermine profitability, these fears repeatedly prove to be unfounded. Audiences haven’t stopped going to the movies. More importantly, the studios have learned how to diversify and capitalize on each new development.

In 2009, the DVD market accounted for 65 percent of the major film corporations’ revenues worldwide; theatrical releases accounted for 35 percent.

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A. The Rise of the DVD and Blu-ray Home-viewing technology entered the digital age in the 1990s. DVDs allow studios to sell films multiple times: at the theater, with the initial DVD release, and with any subsequent releases of “Collector’s Editions” that include new bonus features.

Not everyone considers technological change neutral in its impact on the film medium.

James Morrison suggests that the DVD has adversely affected film culture. In his view, the DVD encourages commodity fetishism (endowing consumer goods with mystical qualities), enabling viewers to think of films as collectable items prized only for their connection to celebrated personalities.

Many of these issues also apply to Blu-ray, the latest home viewing technology. The blue laser’s shorter wavelength offers more precise focus, allowing the data to be packed more tightly. Blu-ray discs can hold up to six times the data that DVDs hold. Blu-ray also offers greater possibilities for interactivity. Film spectatorship on Blu-ray promises to become a far more interactive, integrated, and networked activity than ever before.

B. Film and Digital Technologies Digital technologies have transformed the film business, from production to distribution to exhibition; digital formats have driven the recent resurgence of 3D as well. Exhibitors increased ticket prices for 3D movies in 2009 by as much as 25 percent. (McClintock and Stewart). These price increases benefit both exhibitors and distributors.

In terms of theatrical exhibition, the shift to digital projection is well underway, with the fastest growth occurring in Europe. In terms of home exhibition, DVD players, Blu-ray players, and televisions are no longer the only hardware for viewing films. Personal computers provide an array of viewing experiences. Beyond playing DVDs, computers grant access to trailers and full-length films on the Internet. This is one reason why cinephiles and critics widely tout the Internet’s ability to democratize film culture.

Initially, the web was used primarily as a marketing vehicle for films, but its role in film culture continues to evolve. The web continues to be an important venue for marketing films, but its inherent ability to promote interactivity (such as video games that allow viewers to determine the ending of a story) gives the web a new role to play in filmmaking.

Websites also provide an alternative to traditional venues for film distribution.

Atomfilms.com and YouTube permit amateur filmmakers to upload their own videos for others to watch for free. The fact that broadband allows users to download feature films as digital files makes executives who helm entertainment conglomerates uneasy. Digital copies are perfect copies: there is no degradation of image or sound quality with each subsequent generation.

Film corporations have responded to the threat of digital piracy by raising the technological barriers against duplication (including regional coding on DVDs) and by pursuing legal action against unauthorized downloading. In 2010, the MPAA and seven 207 .

Indian film studios formed an alliance to fight piracy—in large part by cracking down on the policing of camcorders that are brought into movie theaters.

A further development in distribution is the shortening of the theatrical window—the length of time between the theatrical release of a film and the date on which it becomes available on DVD or on broadcast on cable channels—so that audiences will obtain authorized access to a major release rather than pirating it. In 2010, the standard theatrical window was four months and thirteen days (Smith, p. 15).

The digital era has transformed many aspects of film culture. Hollywood had one of its most profitable years ever in 2009, but it’s clear that the tension surrounding theatrical exhibition versus Blu-ray and DVD releases, not to mention new opportunities for streaming media, will remain, as the industry determines how best to protect the profitability of each of these modes of exhibition.

In terms of exhibition, the digital era has its costs as well as benefits. The technological advances that digital media offers on the production side can be countered with issues surrounding the aesthetics of cinematography (the director’s intent of the viewing experience on a large screen), and the less than satisfying aspect of viewing film on mobile devices such as Smartphones.

Given the substantial growth of investment in digital and 3D screens around the world, it’s clear that the exhibitor chains are betting that their multiplexes will remain a viable choice as a venue for watching movies. Home cinemas, now enhanced with large format, high definition televisions and the Internet streaming possibilities of Blu-ray, may be the movie theater’s biggest competitor. But one aspect of the cinema’s future is clear: a plethora of opportunities exist for viewing all types of films on a vast number of websites and other digital media.

There seem to be no limits to the possibilities afforded to film culture by digital technologies. Yet, the fundamental questions in film studies remain the same ones that fans, critics, and scholars have been tackling for decades: does technological change drive film style or does it work the other way around?

Cinema is an art form and social practice is not dependent upon any single type of technology. Film studies in the broadest sense is a field that examines, from a variety of methods and perspectives, the way people interact with the imaginary worlds created by people they may know, and people they will never meet. The aesthetic challenges and social character of cinema will continue to inspire admiration and disapproval, awe, wonder, and curiosity, across all of these modes of engagement

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CHAPTER 15: (Cinema as Industry) DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1) Discuss which media you prefer to use to view films. Explain why younger viewers are opting to watch movies on mobile devices (Smartphone, iPad, etc.). What are the advantages of these new platforms over going to traditional theaters? How does the experience of watching a movie change? In 2010, the film industry experienced revenue losses. Do you think mobile technology contributed to that decline?

2) Youtube, in some ways, has become a “storage vault” for film collectors; it has a substantial collection of silent film clips, and entire older and classic movies that many people would otherwise never know about. Is Youtube, and websites like it (e.g., Vimeo), in your opinion, the future of filmmaking, film history and film education?

Discuss the positives and negatives of this issue.

3) Discuss the “blockbuster” phenomenon, and how it defines the success or failure of the Hollywood film revenue machine. Summer and holiday seasons typically are considered the highpoints of Hollywood’s fiscal year, almost to an obsession. Would Hollywood do better to abandon this approach? What would work in place of it?

CHAPTER 15: (Cinema as Industry) LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND IN-CLASS ACTIVITIES 1) The fall and rise of the studios This discussion will guide students through a brief history of the Hollywood industry since the 1960s. ✓ [Begin by describing how, during the studio era, the major studios controlled production, distribution, and exhibition.] Why is this antithetical to American policies governing business practices? How would this have affected the consumer? [Encourage discussion of how monopolization effectively limits the types of films most audiences would have had access to.] ✓ [Remind students of the Paramount Decree and the advent of television. Describe how studios tried to recuperate by emphasizing distribution over production. This opened the doors for smaller independent productions that, because of their modest budgets, could take more risks. Show one of the more stylistically audacious scenes from Easy Rider, The Wild Bunch, Bonnie and Clyde, Petulia . . . any example of “the Hollywood Renaissance.”] How does this scene’s visual and/or audio style compare with what you saw in [refer them to a studio era film you have already screened in class]? What has happened to the so-called “invisible style”? Why do you think this approach to filmmaking would have appealed to younger audiences in the late 1960s? ✓ How does the sudden popularity of such independently produced films during this era confirm the logic of the United States’ anti-monopoly laws? [Stress how the virtual disintegration of the studios paved the way for more divergent approaches to film.

Audiences had more choices as more independent and foreign films entered the market.] ✓ [Describe the success of The Godfather, Jaws, and Star Wars (see pp. 437) and how these films reestablished the hegemony of major studios and big-budget filmmaking] What are the major blockbuster films of the past year? Does Inception adhere to the “invisible style” described throughout the book?

The discussion should end with students linking the success of The Godfather to the style of filmmaking they have grown up with.

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2) The look of horizontal integration This discussion focuses on the economic logic (and aesthetic impact) or horizontal integration. ✓ Weeks before the release of the final installment of the Star Wars saga, George Lucas stirred up a minor controversy when he okayed a video game based on the film to be released before the film itself. Some die-hard fans complained because the game contained “spoilers”—that is, it revealed information about the film’s plot. Why would Lucas risk angering loyal fans by releasing the game in this fashion? How do products like video games increase profitability? [Discuss how horizontal integration promises profits through licensing deals, profits from products produced and sold by another wing of a studio’s conglomerate, and “free” marketing (since each game sold is an ad for the movie)]. ✓ [Over the course of the semester, be on the lookout for “cross-marketing.” If a popular magazine like Time, Newsweek, or Entertainment Weekly runs a high-profile cover story on a film, see if the magazine is part of the studio’s conglomerate. Bring the magazine into class and discuss how both products are designed to sell each other: the popularity of the film sells the magazine featuring it on the cover, while the magazine offers free advertising for the film. The discussion could well lead to some consideration of the ethical and aesthetic questions that arise from horizontal integration.] ✓ [Define high concept film and explain how it’s designed to take advantage of horizontal integration.] What are some recent films that you think are “high concept?” How do you think they were pitched? [After the class his created a list of “high concept” films, consider breaking the class into groups and have them recreate the pitch for a few of the titles.]

3) Cinema in the digital age In this discussion, students will explore how the digital age has had an effect on film culture.

The questions are designed to get students to talk about their own experiences with digital media, and to weigh its relative advantages and disadvantages. ✓ [Begin by reminding students of what celluloid is. Bring in a print to show students if at all possible.] With the rise in digital technology, all (or a lot of) the visual information contained in these photos can be translated into numbers. Where do you as audiences experience this new technology? [DVDs, Blu Ray, the Internet, theaters with digital sound systems] ✓ What are the advantages of DVDs over celluloid film? [Allow students plenty of time to discuss the advantages DVDs and Blu Ray discs have over film. They might discuss how the medium is more accessible than celluloid prints. They will probably mention its durability compared to videotape and film. Encourage them to discuss how and why they like bonus material.] ✓ How does James Morrison’s analysis of the cult of the DVD adopt a critical view of DVDs? What aspect of the new technology does he find fault with? What do you think he means by “cultish knowledge”? [At this point you might play a portion of a director’s commentary to illustrate—or challenge—Morrison’s point.] ✓ [Consider projecting a short scene on film, and then project a DVD image of the same scene.

Ask students if they can notice any difference in visual quality.] ✓ J.P. Telotte argues on p. 446 that the Internet is changing the way we view films. How many of you surf the web for information related to movies? What do you seek out? How many of you have downloaded a movie to watch on the web?

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✓ Are there advantages of seeing movies the traditional way . . . in a crowded theater?

[Encourage students to debate the relative merits of seeing film in a public setting—thinking of movie going as a public experience. Do they enjoy watching movies more by themselves or with groups of people?]

OUT OF CLASS EXERCISES 1) The return of vertical integration?

Research your local theaters. Identify the parent company for each theater. Is it part of a conglomerate that also owns a Hollywood studio? How many theaters does your town have?

How many are parts of entertainment conglomerates? Are there any independently owned theaters? Is there a difference in the types of films each shows?

2) Market saturation and variety Compare the total number of films playing this week in your community with the total number of screens available. How many films are playing on more than one screen in the same multiplex?

How many films are playing in more than one theater? How many films are showing at only one location? [If you wanted to turn this assignment into a research project, ask students to find a list of the films released in a given month.] How many are playing in your area? Which of the films do you think might not make it into local theaters? What percentage of films do audiences have access to in the theaters?

3) Film studios and their conglomerates Pick a film studio and research its financial structure. Is it part of a conglomerate? What is the parent company? What other companies are parts of the conglomerate?

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Test Bank Chapter 1 1.1 Multiple Choice Questions 1) Maxim Gorky referred to the world that film transported the viewer to as the "kingdom of ________."

A) dreams B) thought C) art D) shadows E) imagination Answer: D Topic: Introduction

Page Ref: 3

2) Essential tools for developing a critical approach to the film medium should be based on ________.

A) knowledge about the way films are made B) knowledge about how films are interpreted in aesthetic contexts C) knowledge about how films are interpreted in cultural contexts D) all of these Answer: D Topic: Introduction

Page Ref: 4

3) The Kinetograph, a camera that recorded motion pictures on rolls of film, was invented by ________.

A) Eadweard Muybridge and Leland Stanford B) Thomas Edison and William Dickson C) Louis Lumiere and August Lumiere D) Maxim Gorky Answer: B Topic: Introduction

Page Ref: 5

4) The studio system established in Hollywood in the 1930s has been often referred to as a(n) _________model of industrial production.

A) artisinal B) cooperative C) “assembly line” D) antiquated Answer: C Topic: Introduction

Page Ref: 4

5) The contemporary history of cinema is, in part, a history of attempts to stave off the 212 .

competition from newer entertainment technologies such as: A) television B) records C) radio D) CDs Answer: A Topic: Introduction

Page Ref:

1.2 True or False Questions 1) One of the goals of the textbook is to teach students that their emotional response to a film isn’t as important as their intellectual engagement with the text.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Introduction Page Ref: 4 2) During the late nineteenth century, technological advances in photography established the basis for recording moving images on film.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Introduction

Page Ref: 4

3) Alternative modes of filmmaking and spectatorship, including independent art cinema, experimental films and documentaries, have only come into existence in the last 10-20 years of film history.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Introduction

Page Ref: 5

4) Digital technologies have had an enormous impact on both the economics and aesthetics of cinema.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Introduction

Page Ref: 6

5) During the 1910s and the 1920s, the actualité film began to eclipse other types of movies.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Introduction

Page Ref: 5 213 .

1.3 Short Answer Essay Questions 1) The film industry has emphasized exciting new technological developments in part because it becomes more and more difficult with each passing year to lure customers into movie theaters.

Why? Answer: We can watch films in the comfort of our homes, with DVDs, Blu-ray discs or streaming video, or catch the latest flick on a computer or cell phone.

Topic: Introduction Page Ref: 6

2) In general, what do the study notes accompanying end of chapter essays emphasize?

Answer: Strategies for writing about film .Topic: Introduction

Page Ref: 7

3) Explain the Kinetograph and the Kinetoscope.

Answer: They were, respectively, a camera that recorded motion pictures on rolls of film, and a machine with a peep-hole viewer that an individual looked through to see those films.

Topic: Introduction

Page Ref: 5

1.4 Essay Questions 1) Discuss how Eadweard Muybridge’s work in motion photography led to the development of filmmaking.

Answer: Muybridge’s experiments in serial photography had as much to do with scientific discovery as they did with film as an art form. Muybridge’s famous photographs of horses in motion (1878) were inspired by a question that Leland Stanford (later Governor of California) hired Muybridge to answer: do horses lift all four feet off the ground when running? (The answer was yes.) Muybridge set up a bank of still cameras, each of which captured a shot of the horse as it moved by. These sequences of still shots offered insight into the details of human and animal movement.

Topic: Introduction

Page Ref: 4-5

214 .

2) Discuss why Maxim Gorky called the cinema a “kingdom of shadows.”

Answer: Because audiences immerse themselves in the lives of fictional characters and story worlds that are created by the artistic combination of color, light and sound.

Topic: Introduction

Page Ref: 3

215 .

Test Bank Chapter 2 2.1 Multiple Choice Questions 1) A viewer's ability to find meaning in a film is based on ________.

A) knowledge B) cultural experience C) preferences D) all of these Answer: D Topic: An Approach to Film Analysis Page Ref: 10 2) Which of the following would be an example of an “interpretive claim”?

A) A casual viewer discusses his or her enjoyment of a particular actor's performance.

B) A film critic discusses whether or not a film is "good" or "bad."

C) A film scholar discusses a recurring theme present throughout the film.

D) All of these are interpretive claims.

Answer: C Topic: An Approach to Film Analysis Page Ref: 26-9

3) Audiences typically expect fiction films to offer __________________.

A) open endings B) closure C) explicit social commentary D) radical experimentation with story structure Answer: B Topic: Understanding Audience Expectations Page Ref: 12

216 .

4) When directors conclude their films with an unhappy ending, one potential side effect is ________.

A) audiences will be alienated B) other directors will emulate the narrative innovation C) the film will be criticized for being too derivative D) the film will appeal more to women than men Answer: A Topic: Understanding Audience Expectations Page Ref: 11 5) When audiences go to the cinema, they bring with them expectations about ________.

A) how the film will be organized B) the type of story the film will tell C) the kind of character the star will play D) all of the above Answer: D Topic: Understanding Audience Expectations Page Ref: 9-13 6) ________ filmmakers explore the aesthetic possibilities of the film medium itself, rarely telling stories or presenting arguments.

A) Narrative fiction B) Documentary C) Avant-garde D) Horror Answer: C Topic: Understanding Audience Expectations Page Ref: 11 7) The arrangement of visual elements in the frame is called ________.

A) composition B) mode of operation C) cinematography D) frame situation Answer: A Topic: Understanding Audience Expectations Page Ref: 12 8) ________ is a marketing process that studios, talent agencies and the press use to transform actors into brand-name products.

A) The star system B) Method acting C) Mass-production D) Green lighting Answer: A Topic: Understanding Audience Expectations Page Ref: 13

217 .

9) Viewer expectations of a film directed by Woody Allen might include ________.

A) European settings B) neurotic characters C) elaborate costuming D) sparse dialogue Answer: B Topic: Understanding Audience Expectations Page Ref: 13-14 10) Any detail that takes on meaning through repetition is called a ________.

A) motif B) signifier C) element D) pattern Answer: A Topic: The Orchestration of Detail Page Ref: 15 11) Motifs can encourage viewers to compare and contrast ________.

A) characters B) plot events C) objects D) all of these Answer: D Topic: The Orchestration of Detail Page Ref: 15 12) In Citizen Kane, newspaper magnate Charles Foster Kane's last spoken word is ________, which serves a motif throughout the film.

A) "rosebud" B) "xanadu" C) "snow" D) "lily" Answer: A Topic: The Orchestration of Detail Page Ref: 15 13) In the film Notorious, Alfred Hitchcock uses a ________ motif to suggest the change and development of a "party girl" character.

A) dress B) dancing C) drinking D) musical Answer: C Topic: The Orchestration of Detail Page Ref: 15 14) In order to suggest how poverty makes two Indian children outsiders in their own country, Slumdog Millionaire use _________________ as a motif.

A) a composition, with the children in the foreground looking toward something in the background B) Coke bottles C) Sore feet 218 .

D) a popular Bollywood musical number

219 .

15. A __________ arises when two characters, events, or locations are compared through the use of a narrative element or visual or sound device.

A) motif B) parallel C) cut D) clip Answer: B Topic: The Orchestration of Detail Page Ref: 16 16) A parallel is when a film emphasizes the similarities between characters, events or locations through the use of a: A) narrative element B) visual device C) sound device D) any of the above could establish a parallel Answer: D Topic: The Orchestration of Detail Page Ref: 16 17) In Steamboat Bill, Jr., Bill Jr. and a female friend are shown to have identical ________, a parallel suggesting that Bill is not manly.

A) haircuts B) outfits C) shoes D) cars Answer: A Topic: The Orchestration of Detail Page Ref: 16 18) A turning point is a moment that signals an important shift in ________.

A) a film's commercial potential B) a star's persona C) the narrative D) the audience's perception of which characters are good and which are evil Answer: C Topic: The Orchestration of Detail Page Ref: 18 19) In the documentary In a Dream, filmmaker Jeremiah Jagar indicates the emotional cost of his father’s marital infidelity by ______________________.

A) inserting a shot of his father that parallels an earlier moment, only with muted colors B) playing a downbeat song whose lyrics focus on betrayal C) showing his father out drinking obsessively D) none of the above Answer: A Topic: The Orchestration of Detail Page Ref: 19

220 .

20) ________ films may depict characters and stories, but may draw attention to their status as works of art, often using unusual visual and sound techniques to explore abstract ideas.

A) Formalist B) Realist C) Classical D) Post-modern Answer: A Topic: Creating Meaning Through the World Beyond the Film Page Ref: 24 21) An allusion to another film or work of art is called ________________________.

A) cribbing B) artistic quotation C) an intertextual reference D) plagiarism Answer: C Topic: Creating Meaning Through the World Beyond the Film Page Ref: 21 22) Avatar repeatedly makes reference to what historical event?

A) the attack on Pearl Harbor B) dropping the atomic bomb on Hiroshima C) the first Earth Day D) the U.S. wars in Iraq and Afghanistan Answer: D Topic: Creating Meaning Through the World Beyond the Film Page Ref: 21 23) What motif is associated with the Captain in Pan’s Labyrinth?

A) a pocket watch B) straight lines C) controlling food and supplies D) all of the above Answer: D Topic: Reading significant details Page Ref: 31-34 24) Ofelia’s stealing the key from the toad in Pan’s Labyrinth parallels ____________.

A) the Captain stealing a watch from his father B) the resistance movement’s attempt to get supplies from the Captain’s storeroom C) her mother’s risky pregnancy D) the Pale Man’s overflowing banquet table Answer: B Topic: Reading significant details Page Ref: 34 25) Pan’s Labyrinth concludes with an intertextual reference to _______________.

A) Citizen Kane B) It’s a Wonderful Life C) Let the Right One In D) The Wizard of Oz Answer: D 221 .

Topic: Reading significant details

Page Ref: 36

2.2 True or False Questions 1) Expectations influence filmmakers' choices and viewers' experiences of films.

Answer: TRUE Topic: An Approach to Film Analysis Page Ref: 9 2) Some critics and scholars argue that our ability to embrace new innovative filmmaking practices can be hampered by the fact that most of us have grown up seeing only one type of filmmaking practice .

Answer: TRUE Topic: Understanding Audience Expectations Page Ref: 11 3) Every film viewer brings expectations to their experience of a film.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Understanding Audience Expectations Page Ref: 10 4) The distinction between art and entertainment is an artificial one.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Understanding Audience Expectations Page Ref: 10 5) Open-ended conclusions or circular narratives often leave audiences with a feeling of closure.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Understanding Audience Expectations Page Ref: 11 6) The distinction between art and entertainment is very important to film scholars, as art films are more worthy of serious analysis than popular movies.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Understanding Audience Expectations Page Ref: 10 7) Documentary films abandon stories in favor of capturing real world events.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Understanding Audience Expectations Page Ref: 11 8) Aesthetically successful films will work to avoid upsetting audience expectations.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Understanding Audience Expectations Page Ref: 13 9) When creating films that reference historical events, filmmakers risk being accused of forwarding an interpretation of events rather than an accurate representation of facts.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Creating Meaning Through the World Beyond the Film Page Ref: 20 222 .

10) A descriptive claim presents a judgment, expressing the author's belief that a film is good, bad or mediocre.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Creating Meaning Through the World Beyond the Film Page Ref: 26 11) Ofelia is associated with circles in Pan’s Labyrinth Answer: True Topic: Reading significant details Page Ref: 33-4 12) As the Captain grows more and more hostile in Pan’s Labyrinth, Ofelia grows to trust the mysterious Faun, who nurtures her and encourages her to follow her own feelings.

Answer: False Topic: Reading significant details Page Ref: 35

2.3 Short Answer Questions 1) If viewers went to see a(n) ________ film, they might not expect to see a story at all.

Answer: avant-garde Topic: Understanding Audience Expectations Page Ref: 11 2) The film Once captivated audiences by challenging expectations about what type of film?

Answer: musicals Topic: Understanding Audience Expectations Page Ref: 11 3) The feeling of satisfaction that film viewers experience from a conclusion that resolves conflicts is termed ________.

Answer: closure Topic: Understanding Audience Expectations Page Ref: 11 4) Audiences automatically associate actor John Wayne with what type of movie?

Answer: Westerns Topic: Understanding Audience Expectations Page Ref: 14 5) A painting prominently featured in Run Lola Run makes reference to what Alfred Hitchcock movie?

Answer: Vertigo Topic: Creating Meaning Through the World Beyond the Film Page Ref: 23 6) An avant-garde film composed entirely of scenes taken from other films is called a ________ film.

Answer: compilation Topic: Creating Meaning Through the World Beyond the Film Page Ref: 23 7) How does Pan’s Labyrinth draw a parallel between the Captain and the Pale Man? Answer: both hoard food and sit at the end of banquet tables Topic: Analyzing significant details Page Ref: 35 223 .

2.4 Essay Questions 1) Using a film we have screened in class, discuss the different ways it may be analyzed by a casual viewer, a film critic and a film scholar. Discuss the framework each of these viewers might use to evaluate this film and the role that viewer expectation plays in each of these analyses.

Answer: to be judged by instructor Topic: An Approach to Film Analysis Page Ref: 9-10 2) Using a title we have screened in class as an example, discuss a motif that contributes to the film in some significant way. In your answer, be sure to define "motif" and explore how that motif is used in this film to develop an idea or convey important story information.

Answer: to be judged by instructor Topic: The Orchestration of Detail Page Ref: 14-15 3) Analyze a film we have screened in class using three different forms of statements. First, make and explore a descriptive claim about this film. Second, make and explore an evaluative claim about this film. Third, make and explore an interpretive claim about this film.

Answer: to be judged by instructor Topic: An Approach to Film Analysis Page Ref: 27-28

224 .

Test Bank Chapter 3 3.1 Multiple Choice Questions 1) ________ has contributed to the fact that a wider array of film writing has become available to the general public in the last decade.

A) Independent zines B) The Internet C) Increased coverage in mainstream press D) all of these Answer: D Topic: Writing About Film Page Ref: 37

2) A crucial first step in writing a film analysis essay is crafting a strong ________.

A) thesis B) title C) opinion D) plot summary Answer: A Topic: Getting Started Page Ref: 38 3) The ________ relies heavily on evaluative statements.

A) scene-analysis paper B) research paper C) popular review D) film analysis Answer: C Topic: Four Types of Writing About Film Page Ref: 58 4) One of the benefits of a film journal is that it ________.

A) provides opportunities for personal exploration B) helps film students study for exams C) helps one generate ideas for papers D) all of these Answer: D Topic: Getting Started Page Ref: 38

225 .

5) When writing about a film, film scholars should usually __________________ to manage verb tense.

A) employ present tense throughout B) alternate between past and present tense for variety C) rely solely on past tense throughtout D) because film studies is a relatively new field, there are no established conventions for managing verb tense Answer: A Topic: Managing Verb Tense Page Ref: 39 6) A strong thesis for a formal, academic argument will ________.

A) propose a debatable argument B) center on an evaluative claim C) will not reveal a writer’s understanding of themes too early D) all of these Answer: A Topic: Getting Started Page Ref: 39

7) ________ is a term which denotes a genre of American films with a downbeat tone that emerged in the 1940s.

A) Film noir B) hard boiled C) Revisionist Western D) Social realism Answer: A Topic: Four Types of Writing About Film Page Ref: 40 8) The ________ relies heavily on evaluative statements.

A) scene analysis B) research paper C) popular review D) film analysis Answer: C Topic: Four Types of Writing About Film Page Ref: 58

226 .

9) In The Big Heat, gangster's moll Debbie redeems herself by ________.

A) saving Bannion's life B) committing herself to charity C) deciding not to go through with the planned heist D) committing murder Answer: D Topic: Four Types of Writing About Film Page Ref: 41

10) What image is an outward symbol of The Big Heat’s interest in the duality of Debbie’s moral character?

A) She always carries the queen of spade from a deck of cards B) She always carries the two of diamonds from a deck of cards C) Half of her face is scarred D) She refuses to commit a murder, even after police officer Dave Bannion has asked her to Answer: C Topic: Four Types of Writing About Film Page Ref: 42

11) The Big Heat draws a parallel between the gangster’s moll Debbie and the wife of a corrupt police officer by showing ___________________.

A) both women in mink coats B) both women carrying the queen of spades from a deck of cards C) both women ridiculing the film’s protagonist, Dave Bannion D) both women with scarred faces Answer: A Topic: Four Types of Writing About Film Page Ref: 42 12) The sample film analysis of Steamboat Bill, Jr. opens with a comparison of the film to ________.

A) Romeo and Juliet B) As You Like It C) Macbeth D) Hamlet Answer: A Topic: Four Types of Writing About Film Page Ref: 44 227 .

13) According to the sample film analysis on Steamboat Bill, Jr. Bill's father associates his son with ________.

A) elitism B) old ways C) masculinity D) modernity Answer: D Topic: Four Types of Writing About Film Page Ref: 44 14) Many of the gags in Steamboat Bill, Jr. center on the father's fear that his son is too ________.

A) effeminate B) snobby C) masculine D) obese Answer: A Topic: Four Types of Writing About Film Page Ref: 45 15) In the essay on The Big Heat, Debbie's half-scarred face visually represents the idea of ________, integral to the author's thesis.

A) beauty B) duality C) ugliness D) honesty Answer: B Topic: Four Types of Writing About Film Page Ref: 41

228 .

16) In a research paper, students should focus on a(n) ________ claim.

A) evaluative B) descriptive C) narrative D) interpretive Answer: D Topic: Four Types of Writing About Film Page Ref: 47 17) Which of the following details is an example of how Bill Jr. from Steamboat Bill Jr. embodies modern values?

A) He drives a fancy car.

B) His father owns the county's new riverboat.

C) He wears a carnation when he meets his father at the train station.

D) His stocky build stands in sharp contrast to his father's diminutive stature.

Answer: C Topic: Four Types of Writing About Film Page Ref: 45 18) According to the essay, Steamboat Bill Jr. repeatedly draws attention to Bill Jr.'s small stature to emphasize his __________.

A) sense of displacement B) lack of masculinity C) ineffectualness D) all of the above Answer: D Topic: Four Types of Writing About Film Page Ref: 45 19) According to the sample research paper, which of the following statements explains how American Psycho is a textbook example of Piñedo’s theory of postmodern horror?

A) It borrows its central conceit from a European film rather than developing a new idea.

B) It ends on a dismal, ambiguous note rather than offering audiences a satisfying conclusion.

C) Its exploration of the moral questions surrounding vampirism is dated.

D) Its main character is initially perceived as being normal, perfect and above reproach, but is quickly revealed to be mentally unstable, thus demonstrating that “the monster can reside within anyone.”

Answer: D Topic: Four Types of Writing About Film Page Ref: 49-50 20) A scholar conducting archival research might study ________.

A) internal studio memos B) published scholarship on a film C) post-screening audience responses to a film D) secondary sources Answer: A Topic: Four Types of Writing About Film Page Ref: 57 21) Let the Right One In creates an uncanny vision of childhood horror by showing a vampire _____________________.

A) doing jumping jacks 229 .

B) reading romance novels C) playing with a Rubik’s cube D) playing with a pocket knife Answer: C Topic: Four Types of Writing about Film Page Ref: 52 21) Let the Right One In draws a parallel between what two characters by placing them both in separate but adjacent windows in an apartment complex?

A) a vampire and a little boy who becomes her friend B) a vampire and the police officer trying to find her C) a little boy and the police officer who’s trying to apprehend the vampire D) a little boy and the thugs who torment him Answer: A Topic: Four Types of Writing About Film Page Ref: 55

230 .

21) According to Scott Foundas, District 9 is a commentary on ______________________.

A) racism B) consumer culture C) media saturation D) the U.S. presence in the Middle East Answer: A Topic: Four Types of Writing About Film Page Ref: 61

3.2 True or False Questions 1) Film Journals, unlike formal writing, demand that an author stays focused on a central, clearly-defined argument.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Getting Started Page Ref: 38 2) In the past decade, less written material has become available to people interested in learning about film.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Writing About Film Page Ref: 37 3) The crucial first step in writing a film analysis essay is crafting a strong thesis.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Getting Started Page Ref: 39 4) The scene analysis paper relies heavily on evaluative statements.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Four Types of Writing About Film Page Ref: 40 5) Reading about film is generally not considered a part of film culture.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Writing About Film Page Ref: 37 6) Film journals might include evaluative claims, as well as interpretive claims.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Getting Started Page Ref: 38 7) The most important component of a strong thesis is a clear, detailed descriptive claim.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Getting Started Page Ref: 39 8) The following might serve as a good thesis because it is a good example of an interpretive claim: “Inception is utterly compelling thanks largely to its unconventional narrative structure, and its dynamic editing.”

Answer: False Topic: Getting Started Page Ref: 38-9 231 .

9) In The Big Heat, gangster's moll Debbie redeems herself by saving Bannion's life.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Four Types of Writing About Film Page Ref: 41 10) The primary function of a research paper is for students to show professors they have read and understood a wide array of articles on a single film, and to demonstrate an ability to summarize these articles for a general audience.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Four Types of Writing About Film Page Ref: 47 11) According to the sample research paper, throughout Let the Right One In, Tomas Alfredson’s unique combination of elements of the classical and postmodern horror film reflects the modern vampire’s ambiguity.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Four Types of Writing About Film Page Ref: 57 12) The writer of a popular review should understand who her readers are and consider their values as she evaluates films.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Four Types of Writing About Film Page Ref: 57 13) T or F: Oskar, the boy in Let the Right One In, repeatedly quotes lines of dialogue from violent American movies, suggesting that childhood innocence is a myth.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Four Types of Writing About Film Page Ref: 52 14) T or F: Unlike Twilight and other contemporary vampire films, Let the Right One In clearly portrays the monster as an unsympathetic creature.

Answer: False Topic: Four Types of Writing About Film Page Ref: 52

3.3 Short Answer Questions 1) Briefly explain (in 1-3 sentences) why the following sentence would NOT make an effective thesis statement for a formal academic analysis of a film: "Batman Begins, a compelling account of how Bruce Wayne transformed himself into the 'caped crusader,' is a comic book fan's ideal film, full of rousing fight scenes, lively villains, and eye-popping special effects."

Answer: The sentence evaluates the film and is full of descriptive claims, but it does not offer an interpretive claim.

Topic: Getting Started Page Ref: 38-39 2) Identify three common rhetorical approaches for constructing thesis statements in academic writing about film.

Answer: see chart on p. 40 Topic: Formulating a Thesis Page Ref: 38-40 232 .

3) A good research paper does not merely collect and repeat the information contained in these sources. Serious research involves a process whereby the writer gathers information and ideas that may support and contest the working __________.

Answer: thesis Topic: Four Types of Writing About Film

Page Ref: 47

4) Of the genres of film writing that students are commonly asked to read and/or write, the __________is the one that is not strictly academic.

Answer: Review Topic: Four Types of Writing About Film Page Ref: 58 5) In The Big Heat, gangster moll Debbie and the wife of a corrupt police officer are “sisters under the ________________.”

Answer: mink Topic: Four Types of Writing About Film Page Ref: 42 6) The name of Bill Sr.’s steamboat is __________________, a detail linking him to outdated, rural Southern values.

Answer: Stonewall Jackson Topic: Four Types of Writing About Film Page Ref: 46 7) These letters “ls,” “ms,” “ts,” “la,” are a few examples of ____________________.

Answer: shorthand system for taking notes Topic: Taking Notes Page Ref: 47 8) The term ____________ refers to the effect horror films sometimes create when they make something that was once familiar seem strange and terrifying.

Answer: uncanny Topic: Four Types of Writing About Film Page Ref: 46

3.4 Essay Questions 1) Using a film that has been screened in class, craft an evaluative claim about it. Then craft a descriptive claim about the same film. Last, craft an interpretive claim about this film. Briefly describe each.

Answer: Student responses should be based off definitions and examples given throughout Chapter 3.

Topic: Four Types of Writing About Film Page Ref: 39-61 2) What are the five common rhetorical approaches for crafting a thesis statement about a film?

Using one of the films screened in class, propose two possible interpretive claims that use these approaches as models ?

Answer: Students refer to the chart on p. 40 233 .

Topic: Four Types of Writing About Film

Page Ref: 40

3) What are three common rhetorical approaches to writing a research paper? Using a film that has been screened in class, propose and describe two possible arguments about the film that use different rhetorical approaches.

Answer: Answers will vary. See the portion of Chapter 3 on scene and film analysis for examples.

Topic: Page Ref: 39-60

234 .

Test Bank Chapter 4 4.1 Multiple Choice Questions 1) The opening scenes of a film, during which a great deal of information about characters and situations is imparted, is known as the ________.

A) exposition B) backstory C) prelude D) denouement Answer: A Topic: Narrative Form Page Ref: 66 2) The organizing storytelling framework of a film is known as its ________.

A) narrative form B) plot C) foundation D) theme Answer: A Topic: Narrative Form Page Ref: 66

3) Russian narrative theorist Tzvetlan Todorov argued that all narratives involve ________.

A) romantic entanglements B) people C) both personally and politically motivated action D) the disruption of stability Answer: D Topic: Defining Narrative Page Ref: 67 4) The Russian term ________, or "plot," refers to the selection and ordering of events as they unfold onscreen.

A) syuzhet B) fabula C) plodtz D) potemkin Answer: A Topic: Defining Narrative Page Ref: 69 5) The Russian term ________ refers to the complete, chronological story of a film, including events that occur on and off screen.

A) fabula B) chronotsz C) plodtz D) syuzhet Answer: A 235 .

Topic: Defining Narrative

Page Ref: 70

6) A character's formative experiences before the beginning of the syuzhet but included in the fabula are known as ________.

A) memories B) flashback C) backstory D) exposition Answer: C Topic: Defining Narrative Page Ref: 69 7) Which of the following is an example of how a film's syuzhet might differ from its fabula?

A) Events from the future may interrupt the film's present tense.

B) The same event can be repeated several times.

C) Important details of a character's backstory may not be presented onscreen.

D) all of the above Answer: D Topic: Defining Narrative Page Ref: 69 8) The ________ is the day-to-day guide the director and cinematographer use during production. This document includes information regarding camera placement, cuts, and sound cues.

A) screenplay B) spec script C) shooting script D) production script Answer: C Topic: Defining Narrative Page Ref: 68 9) The standard pattern that shapes narrative films is the ________ structure A) three-act B) five-act C) eight-act D) one-act Answer: A Topic: Narrative Structure Page Ref: 72

236 .

10) The ________ is a series of events in the third act of the film that resolves the conflicts that have arisen.

A) denouement B) conclusion C) exposition D) climax Answer: A Topic: Narrative Structure Page Ref: 72 11) The narrative technique used in The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari in which a character narrates an embedded tale to someone onscreen is called ________.

A) frame narration B) layered narration C) denouement D) episodic Answer: A Topic: Narrative Structure Page Ref: 73 12) In ________ narratives, events are not tightly connected in a cause and effect sequence and characters do not focus on a single goal.

A) homeric B) classical C) expressionist D) episodic Answer: D Topic: Narrative Structure Page Ref: 73 13) When a narrative concludes without resolving its conflicts, the film is said to be ________.

A) open-ended B) abstract C) experimental D) up-for-grabs Answer: A Topic: Narrative Structure Page Ref: 73 14) The 400 Blows is a good example of an ________.

A) episodic narration B) classical narration C) open-ended narrative D) B and C E) A and C Answer: E Topic: Narrative Structure Page Ref: 74

237 .

15) Which of the following traditions is most commonly associated with classical narration?

A) art films B) independent cinema C) commercial Hollywood cinema D) non-Western films Answer: C Topic: Variations on Narrative Conventions: Beyond Structure Page Ref: 77 16) Narrative that limits viewers to a single character's knowledge and understanding of events is known as ________.

A) restricted narration B) second person C) third person D) omniscient Answer: A Topic: Perspective and Meaning Page Ref: 79 17) Details that are part of the story world the characters inhabit are _________________.

A) expository B) diegetic C) non-diegetic D) omniscient Answer: B Topic: Framing the Fictional World Page Ref: 68 18) Most films employ a system of ________ narration, which conveys external events as well as the knowledge, thoughts and feelings of one or two major characters without the intervention of an explicit narrator.

A) restricted B) open-ended C) episodic D) first-person Answer: A Topic: Perspective and Meaning Page Ref: 79 19) A(n) occurs when the audience temporarily shares the visual perspective of a character or a group of characters.

A) establishment shot B) point-of-view shot C) close-up shot D) medium shot Answer: B Topic: Perspective and Meaning Page Ref: 80 20) Which of the following is an example of sound aligning viewers with a character at a less conscious level than point-of-view shot?

A) The sinking of Marion’s car in Psycho.

238 .

B) The wine cellar scene in Notorious C) The abrupt transition from training camp to combat in Full Metal Jacket D) In the opening shot of The Conversation.

Answer: D Topic: Perspective and Meaning Page Ref: 83

21) Slumdog Millionaire relies on ______________ to tell the story of two impoverished boys in India.

A) episodic narration B) open ending C) a frame story D) unconventional characterization Answer: C Topic: Analyzing narrative structure

Page Ref: 86

22) The use of wipes throughout Slumdog Millionaire helps ___________________.

A) disorient the viewer B) emphasize the tight causal connection between past and present C) distance the audience from the characters D) all of the above Answer B Topic: Analyzing narrative structure

Page Ref: 88

4.2 True or False Questions 239 .

1) In Finding Nemo, the exposition shows what motivates Marlin's fears and insistence that his son play it safe, allowing viewers to feel sympathetically toward what otherwise might seem an uptight character.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Introduction Page Ref: 66 2) A narrative is an account of a string of events connected by the logic of cause and effect.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Introduction Page Ref: 66 3) A non-character voice-over narrates The Royal Tenenbaums, while a visual device opens new "chapters" of the film, creating an analogy between the narration and the act of reading stories aloud to children. These elements are part of the film's diegesis.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Framing the Fictional World Page Ref: 68 4) Music always functions as a non-diegetic element.

Answer: FALSE Topic:Framing the Fictional World Page Ref: 69 5) The standard pattern that shapes narrative films is the three-act structure, though it has recently been argued that classical and contemporary Hollywood films actually exhibit a fourpart structure.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Narrative structure Page Ref: 72 6) The "exposition" of a film is synonymous with a film's "first act."

Answer: FALSE Topic: Narrative structure Page Ref: 72 7) Typically, critical transitions between acts are marked by lines of dialogue, changes in setting or major events that suggest a shift in character or circumstance, such as Evey having her head shaved in V for Vendetta.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Narrative structure Page Ref: 73 8) Stagecoach can be analyzed as having both a three part narrative structure and a four part narrative structure.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Narrative structure Page Ref: 76 9) In unconventional narratives, turning points can still signal important shifts, even though if they do not form the basis for a three (or four) act structure.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Narrative structure Page Ref: 76 10) Classical Hollywood filmmakers commonly used first-person narration throughout entire 240 .

films, but the technique has fallen out of fashion recently.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Perspective and Meaning Page Ref: 80 11) Point-of-view shots always result in the audience understanding or sympathizing with a character.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Perspective and Meaning Page Ref: 83 12) Audiences learn late in The 400 Blows, that Antoine’s mother had wanted to have an abortion, a detail in the backstory that helps explain why the boy has difficulty getting along with her.

Answer: True Topic: Narrative structure Page Ref: 77 13) Like Rashomon and Citizen Kane, Slumdog Millionaire uses an elaborate flashback structure to create multiple perspectives and leave the audience’s interpretation of the events confused.

Answer: False Topic: Analyzing Narrative Structure Page Ref: 90 14) Despite the use of an elaborate frame narrative in Slumdog Millionaire, the film is fairly conventional in terms of providing characters with clear motivations and goals.

Answer: True Topic: Analyzing Narrative Structure Page Ref: 87-90

4.3 Short Answer Questions 1) Identify the two central plotlines, or lines of action, in Stagecoach.

Answer: the stagecoach journey and Ringo's quest for revenge Topic: Narrative Structure Page Ref: 74

2) Briefly describe the dramatic shift in narrative perspective that occurs a third of the way through Psycho?

Answer: The perspective shifts from Marion Crane (who is subsequently murdered) to Norman (and then to the investigators).

Topic: Perspective and Meaning Page Ref: 82 3) Explain how Notorious manipulates the audience’s emotions by exploiting moments of omniscience.

Answer: Sample answer: We know that Alex and his mother have discovered her identity even though she doesn’t.

Topic: Perspective and Meaning Page Ref: 79 241 .

4.4 Essay Questions 1) Identify some ways that a film might exhibit unconventional characterizations. Incorporate examples from a film or films we have screened in class and explore the ways in which these characterizations relate back to overall themes of their film.

Answer: Answers will vary but might include: * audience is distanced rather than invited to identify with characters * characters are inactive * characters' goals are unclear * narrators can be unreliable Topic: Perspective and Meaning Page Ref: 78 2) Identify a moment from a film that has been discussed in class or in your textbook when the narration shifts from restricted to omniscient. What are some of the effects that this shift has on the film? On the audience? What might filmmakers' intentions be in creating such a shift?

Answer: Answers will vary, depending on film chosen. Some mention should be made regarding information that the characters are aware of versus information that the audience is made aware of and how this might effect audience understanding and experience of the events of the scene.

Topic: Narrative Form Page Ref: 66-85 Scene Analysis View a scene from a film you have discussed in class. Then answer the following question(s).

3) In what way(s) is this scene a turning point in the film? In other words, explain why this scene is so important in terms of the film's narrative structure. Identify at least one cue (visual or sound) that draws attention to the structural importance of this moment.

Answer: Answers will vary depending on the film screening and how it has been taught in class.

Students should note an important change that occurs in character relationships, character selfidentity or plot.

Topic: Narrative Form Page Ref: 66-85

242 .

Test Bank Chapter 5 5.1 Multiple Choice Questions 1) Which of the following is not a component of mise en scène?

A) setting B) human figures C) lighting D) camera angles Answer: D Topic: Mise en Scène Page Ref: 92 2) Filmmakers can design a set using forced perspective to ________.

A) encourage the audience to identify with one character B) guarantee that the audience notices an important detail in the frame C) withhold important information about screen space from the audience D) exaggerate the audience's perception of depth.

Answer: D Topic: Setting Page Ref: 94 3) The primary function of setting is to ________.

A) establish time and place B) introduce ideas and themes C) create mood D) all of the above Answer: D Topic: Setting Page Ref: 96 4) In Full Metal Jacket, how does the mise en scene change when the soldiers get to Vietnam?

A) the soldiers spend more time in their fatigues, indicating the immersion in a world of military order B) the acting turns Brechtian, suggesting the alienating effect of life in a war zone C) the lines and details in the setting are no longer geometrical, emphasizing the breakdown of order D) all of the above Answer: Topic: Same Film, Different Settings

Page Ref: 97

4) ________ play supporting roles in many films but do not achieve the recognition of lead actors.

A) Extras B) Character actors C) Method actors D) Cameo actors Answer: B 243 .

Topic: The Human Figure

Page Ref: 103

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6) Acting in a way that shatters the theatrical illusion for the purpose of eliciting an intellectual response in the audience is known as ________.

A) postmodern mise en scène B) method acting C) Brechtian distanciation D) deconstructionism Answer: C Topic: The Human Figure Page Ref: 103 7) A character who occupies the ________ of a scene gains visual prominence through their apparent proximity to the viewer.

A) lowground B) background C) highground D) foreground Answer: D Topic: The Human Figure Page Ref: 104 8) In Citizen Kane when the adults discuss the future of young Charles Kane, the figure placement and movements convey the idea that ________ is the most powerful figure in Charles's life.

A) Mary Kane (Charles's mother) B) Jim Kane (Charles's father) C) Mr. Thatcher (the banker) D) Charles himself Answer: A Topic: The Human Figure Page Ref: 104

9) Which is NOT an attribute that light exhibits?

A) quality B) glow C) placement D) contrast Answer: B Topic: Lighting Page Ref: 112

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10) ________ light, from a large light source that is diffused before it strikes the subject, minimizes unwanted facial details such as wrinkles.

A) Available B) Hard C) Soft D) Low key Answer: C Topic: Lighting Page Ref: 109 11) Using a strong ________ appears to separate the subject from the background and produces a silhouette effect.

A) available light B) rear projection C) back light D) natural-key light Answer: C Topic: Composition Page Ref: 111 12) ________ eliminates virtually all shadows and provides an even illumination of the subject.

A) High-key lighting B) Low-key lighting C) Natural-key lighting D) Back-key lighting Answer: A Topic: Composition Page Ref: 112 13) Which of the following does NOT contribute to a balanced composition?

A) distributing bright and dark areas equally across the frame B) centering actors in the shot C) distributing actors and objects equally across the frame D) All of the above could contribute to a balanced composition.

Answer: D Topic: Composition Page Ref: 114-115 14) A shot of James Dean sprawled on the pavement in Rebel Without a Cause was inspired by________________.

A) the closing shot from Citizen Kane B) a painting of a dead bullfighter C) a news headline of the actor’s own death, which occurred just weeks before the film’s release D) images of wounded soldiers in WW II Answer: 115 Topic: Composition Page Ref: 115

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15) ________ describes an image in which figures have a great deal of open space around them, often suggesting either freedom or isolation.

A) Loose framing B) Tight framing C) Spacial framing D) Fit framing Answer: A Topic: Composition Page Ref: 116 16) Named after a classical painting technique, the term ________ refers to the use of contrasting areas of lightness and darkness to create compositional effects.

A) fresca B) chiaroscuro C) focaccia D) cinecitta Answer: B Topic: Composition Page Ref: 118 17) ________ colors are vibrant, rich, and bright.

A) Saturated B) Desaturated C) Warm D) Cool Answer: A Topic: Page Ref: 120 18) Critics have argued that German Expressionism reflects ________.

A) German interest in mysticism B) the German industry's desire to distinguish itself from Hollywood C) the characters' extreme states of subjectivity D) all of the above Answer: D Topic: Page Ref: 121 19) In Thelma and Louise, the men who pursue the main characters are associated with ________.

A) open spaces B) confined spaces C) desolate landscapes D) the desert Answer: B Topic: Page Ref: 128

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20) In Thelma and Louise, the main characters' decision to drive over the side of the Grand Canyon represents the women's ________.

A) continuing pursuit of independence and freedom B) inability to cope with modern technology C) desire to destroy all their ties to material things D) all of the above Answer: A Topic: Page Ref: 128

5.2 True or False Questions 1) Both of the wedding scenes in The Godfather utilize lavish d cor and an exotic setting to underscore the Corleone's consistently wealthy lifestyle.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Mise en Scène Page Ref: 92 2) Filming "on location" means that filming is done in the exact geographical location where the story's events take place.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Setting Page Ref: 95 3) Location shooting is often less expensive than shooting on a constructed set.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Setting Page Ref: 94 4) One setting, such as a beach or a national monument, can produce very different meanings when placed in the context of individual films.

Answer: TRUE Topic: The Human Figure Page Ref: 98-99 5) In silent films, subtlety of expression and movement was the primary style actors used to convey the story to the audience.

Answer: FALSE Topic: The Human Figure Page Ref: 101 6) Method actors, who play each role with a consistent approach and form, were popular during the classical Hollywood era because studios could bank on audiences recognizing the actors' familiar personas.

Answer: FALSE Topic: The Human Figure Page Ref: 102 7) A filmmaker inspired by Bertolt Brecht's approach to theater would encourage her actors to immerse themselves in their roles, creating performances designed to provoke audience identification with the characters.

248 .

Answer: FALSE Topic: The Human Figure

Page Ref: 103

8) Directors during the Hollywood studio era preferred working with available light to give their films a more realistic look.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Lighting Page Ref: 112 9) Three-point lighting was a technique used early in cinema to ensure that actors' faces could be seen. Later, more sophisticated film stock was developed, eliminating the need for this complicated lighting.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Lighting Page Ref: 113 10) French Poetic Realist films are known for their extensive use of on-location filming.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Page Ref: 122 11) French Poetic Realism put great emphasis on the movement of the camera.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Page Ref: 122 12) In Thelma and Louise, the men who pursue the main characters are associated with tight, confined spaces.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Page Ref: 128

5.3 Short Answer Questions 1) The places in which a film's action unfolds are known as the ________.

Answer: setting Topic: Setting Page Ref: 93 2) Identify two advantages of shooting on a set instead of shooting on location.

Answer: (could include) no bad weather, noise, or unreliable lighting conditions Topic: Setting Page Ref: 93 3) Briefly (in 1-2 sentences) explain how the two different settings in Full Metal Jacket suggest the breakdown of order.

Answer: Students should identify the two settings (the barracks and Vietnam) and explain that the first half of the film emphasizes rigid lines and precise compositions. This careful geometry disappears when the men go to Vietnam.

Topic: Setting Page Ref: 97-98 4) The Piano, The 400 Blows, and Black Girl all include scenes taking place at ________.

Answer: the beach 249 .

Topic: The Human Figure

Page Ref: 98-99

5) ________ is when an actress is repeatedly cast in a kind of role she has played before.

Answer: Typecasting Topic: The Human Figure Page Ref: 101 6) Identify two advantages of repeatedly casting an actor in similar roles.

Answer: (could include) such roles can play to an actor's strengths; can reinforce his image; can minimize the studio's risk by meeting audience expectations; can attract those audiences familiar with his other work Topic: The Human Figure Page Ref: 101 7) Brief appearances in films by well-known actors playing themselves are called ________.

Answer: cameos Topic: The Human Figure Page Ref: 103 8) Identify two things a character's costuming might reveal.

Answer: (could include) information about time and place; the cultural climate in which the filmmaker worked; the character's personality and social milieu Topic: The Human Figure Page Ref: 106 9) Moveable objects owned or used by characters are ________.

Answer: props Topic: The Human Figure Page Ref: 106 10) Three dimensional makeup attached to faces and bodies is called ________.

Answer: prostheses Topic: The Human Figure Page Ref: 107 11) Name the three attributes that light exhibits.

Answer: quality, placement and contrast Topic: Lighting Page Ref: 109 12) Identify two characteristics of German Expressionism's visual style as evident in The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari.

Answer: (could include) chiaroscuro; diagonal lines; jagged lines; irregular shapes; artificial sets Topic: Composition Page Ref: 118-121

5.4 Essay Questions Scene Analysis In Citizen Kane, view the shot just as Kane enters Susan's bedroom in Xanadu (the camera is positioned over his shoulder in the doorway and she is in the background). Then answer the following question(s): 1) Discuss two elements of composition in this shot that help convey the dynamics of Susan's 250 .

relationship with Charles. Be sure to DESCRIBE these elements and to ANALYZE how they help develop the characters.

Answer: The use of foreground/background and tight framing suggests his dominance over her; the use of chiaroscuro in the foreground--Charles's space--underscores the dramatic differences between their personalities, as do the diagonal lines in her bedroom.

Topic: Composition Page Ref: 114-120 2) Explain the differences between Susan's and Charles's personalities. Then illustrate how the use of setting in this shot illustrates these differences.

Answer: Look for students to discuss how her room--essentially a little girl's room--differs from the rest of Xanadu.

Topic: Setting Page Ref: 93-97 3) Briefly describe the two wedding scenes that are depicted in The Godfather. What factors of each scene make up its mise en scène? How does the mise en scène in these different scenes inform our understanding of the characters?

Answer: Students should note different settings, props and costumes (lavish wedding vs. rural ceremony) that identify the different personalities and values of the two Corleones.

Topic: Mise en Scène Page Ref: 91-93

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Test Bank Chapter 6 6.1 Multiple Choice Questions 1) Guillermo del Toro uses a different ________ to distinguish between each milieu in Pan’s Labyrinth.

A) color palette B) lens C) camera angle D) camera movement Answer: A Topic: Cinematography Page Ref: 130 2) Which of the following is NOT an element of cinematography?

A) camera movement B) lenses C) film stock D) setting Answer: D Topic: Cinematography Page Ref: 131 3) The films used in movie theaters are known as ________.

A) release prints B) master prints C) negative prints D) optical prints Answer: A Topic: Cinematography Page Ref: 131 4) The ________ projects the image from developed film onto raw film stock and was, until recently, the primary way of creating special visual effects .

A) aperture B) charge coupler device C) optical printer D) progressive scanner Answer: C Topic: Cinematography Page Ref: 131

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5) To produce _____________________ , the camera records images at a speed faster than that at which it is projected.

A) fast motion B) go motion C) slow motion D) time-lapse Answer: C Topic: The Camera in Time and Space

Page Ref: 134

6) A single, uninterrupted series of frames is known as a ________.

A) scene B) shot C) take D) serial Answer: B Topic: The Camera in Time and Space Page Ref: 133 7) Depth of field refers to ________.

A) the horizontal scope of the image B) the distance between foreground and background C) the number of complex characters in a screenplay D) the degree to which the space in front of and behind the primary subject that is in sharp focus Answer: D Topic: Lenses and Filters: The Frame in Depth Page Ref: 149 8) A(n) ________ projects photographs or footage onto glass so that images can be traced by hand as templates for cartoon characters.

A) rotoscope B) optical printer C) pixilator D) stop-motion projector Answer: A Topic: The Camera in Time and Space Page Ref: 137

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9) A canted, or Dutch angle is often used to ________.

A) emphasize the tenderness of a scene B) capture three actors in the frame simultaneously C) evoke feelings of triumph D) signify a moment of imbalance or loss of control Answer: D Topic: The Camera in Time and Space Page Ref: 141 10) A(n) ________ is accomplished by moving a camera along a specially built track.

A) tracking shot B) crane shot C) swish pan D) aerial shot Answer: A Topic: The Camera in Time and Space Page Ref: 145 11) A wide angle lens will ________.

A) exaggerate depth B) appear to accelerate movement toward the camera C) make parallel lines appear to bend D) all of the above Answer: D Topic: Lenses and Filters: The Frame in Depth Page Ref: 149-50 12) ________ focus is a change of focus from one plane of depth to another. As the example from Ratcatcher illustrates, initially the background is in focus, but slowly the foreground comes into focus (and the background grows blurry).

A) jump B) switch C) rack D) split Answer: C Topic: Lenses and Filters: The Frame in Depth Page Ref: 152 13) The trombone shot was created by ________.

A) Alfred Hitchcock B) Orson Welles C) Haskell Wexler D) Francis Ford Coppola Answer: A Topic: Lenses and Filters: The Frame in Depth

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Page Ref: 154

14) ________ increase color saturation and contrast in outdoor shots.

A) Fog filters B) Diffusion filters C) Neutral-density filters D) Polarizing filters Answer: D Topic: Lenses and Filters: The Frame in Depth Page Ref: 155 15) ________ "bend" the light coming into the lens, blurring the image and creating a soft visual look.

A) Diffusion filters B) Polarizing filters C) Telephoto lenses D) Neutral-density filters Answer: A Topic: Lenses and Filters: The Frame in Depth Page Ref: 155 16) The ________ is responsible for all aspects of the photographic process.

A) best boy B) DP C) gaffer D) camera operator Answer: B Topic: Film Stock Page Ref: 161 17) Film stock is composed of ________.

A) emulsion and a base B) a base and grain C) emulsion and grain D) none of these Answer: A Topic: Film Stock Page Ref: 162 18) A film stock's speed refers to ________.

A) the rate at which it runs through the camera B) the amount of time it takes to be developed C) its sensitivity to light D) the rate at which it deteriorates Answer: C Topic: Film Stock Page Ref: 162

255 .

19) ________ results in an image notable for its high contrast, glaring light and washed-out shadows.

A) Overexposure B) Underexposure C) Slow film D) Fast film Answer: A Topic: Film Stock Page Ref: 163 20) Color film processing became the industry standard ________.

A) because of the stability of Eastmancolor's image quality B) after WW II C) because the studios needed to compete with television D) B and C Answer: D Topic: Film Stock Page Ref: 166 21) A major difference between Technicolor and Eastmancolor was ________.

A) Eastmancolor combined three filmstocks as opposed to Technicolor's use of two B) Eastmancolor produced less saturated colors C) Eastmancolor was more stable D) all of the above Answer: B Topic: Film Stock Page Ref: 165 22) The ________ lenses used by CinemaScope and Panavision squeeze an image at a ratio of 2:1 horizontally into a standard film frame.

A) anamorphic B) panoramic C) omniramic D) cineramic Answer: A Topic: Film Stock Page Ref: 168 23) ________ is a widescreen process that uses three cameras, three projectors and a wide, curved screen.

A) maskin B) Cinerama C) Vista Vision D) CinemaScope Answer: B Topic: Film Stock Page Ref: 169

256 .

24) The act of scraping the surface of the film to create the look of old, worn footage is called ________.

A) antiquing B) aging C) scratching D) patination Answer: C Topic: Film Stock Page Ref: 169 25) Briefly exposing film to a small amount of light to desaturate the color is called ________.

A) forced development B) bleach bypass C) flashing D) popping Answer: C Topic: Film Stock Page Ref: 171 26) Which of the following is a technique used to project a separately filmed background behind the actors?

A) front projection B) Vista Vision C) rear projection D) A and C Answer: D Topic: Special Visual Effects Page Ref: 174 27) ________ refers to the creation of a single image by combining elements filmed separately.

A) Compositing B) Masking C) Set extension D) Doubling up Answer: A Topic: Special Visual Effects Page Ref: 176 28) Which of the following aspects of cinematography can NOT be enhanced by digital technology?

A) compositing B) the ability to capture character movement in action sequences C) animation D) Digital technology can enhance ALL of the above.

Answer: D Topic: Digital Cinema: Post-Production Page Ref: 179-181

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29) To combine an actor and a background filmed separately, filmmakers obscure part of the frame during shooting, creating complementary ________ that prevent exposure in one area of the film stock.

A) maskings B) mattes C) superimpositions D) cut outs Answer: B Topic: Special Visual Effects Page Ref: 176 30) In Ratcatcher, James is haunted by his friend Ryan’s death because _______________.

A) James saw the killer and is afraid B) James fears that his own father is responsible C) James is responsible for his friend’s death D) Ryan’s ghost visits James Answer: C Topic: Cinematography as a storytelling device Page Ref: 185 31) What motif in Ratcatcher emphasizes the social status of Maryhill’s residents?

A) tea and cookies B) piles of trash C) Anne Marie’s spectacles D) wheat fields Answer: B Topic: Cinematography as a storytelling device Page Ref: 187 32) How does the cinematography change when James visits the unfinished apartment complex in Ratcatcher? a) low angle shots emphasize the blue sky in the background b) handheld shots emphasize James’s excitement c) a slow tracking shot through a windowsill emphasizes James’s dumbstruck amazement d) all of the above e) A and C Answer: D Topic: Cinematography as a storytelling device Page Ref: 188-9

6.2 True or False Questions 1) During the first 100 years of cinema, cinematography was synonymous with photography.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Cinematography Page Ref: 131 2) Cinematography can include many non-photographic processes, such as computer-generated imagery.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Cinematography Page Ref: 131 258 .

3) One of the advantages of video technology is that videotape can store more information than film, thus producing a denser image.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Cinematography Page Ref: 133 4) A long take describes a shot where the camera is placed at a great distance away from the subject; the subject's entire body appears in the frame.

Answer: FALSE Topic: The Camera in Time and Space Page Ref: 135 5) After nearly a century of great popularity, animation began to experience a decline in the 1990s, from which it has yet to recover.

Answer: FALSE Topic: The Camera in Time and Space Page Ref: 136 6) Anime can be distinguished from most styles of animation because it is not necessarily aimed at young audiences.

Answer: TRUE Topic: The Camera in Time and Space Page Ref: 137 7) To produce fast motion, the camera will actually record images at a speed slower than that at which the developed film will be projected.

Answer: TRUE Topic: The Camera in Time and Space Page Ref: 138

259 .

8) Offscreen space refers to space visible in a shot but beyond the foreground.

Answer: FALSE Topic: The Camera in Time and Space Page Ref: 139 9) Low-angle shots often exaggerate the size and volume of a subject, including the human body.

Answer: TRUE Topic: The Camera in Time and Space Page Ref: 141 10) An extreme long shot is said to distance a viewer emotionally from the story or the characters.

Answer: TRUE Topic: The Camera in Time and Space Page Ref: 143 11) Paths of Glory makes extensive use of deep focus to emphasize the rigid hierarchy of military command.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Lenses and the Creation of Space Page Ref: 158 12) A two shot is a standard technique for filming conversations by alternating back and forth between close-up shots of the two characters talking to one another.

Answer: FALSE Topic: The Camera in Time and Space Page Ref: 143 13) In Do The Right Thing canted angles are used to emphasize conflict between characters.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Lenses and Filters: The Frame in Depth Page Ref: 150 14) The focal length of a lens is the measurement of the distance from the surface of the lens to the surface of the film.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Lenses and Filters: The Frame in Depth Page Ref: 152 15) A telephoto lens approximates the vision and perspective of the human eye.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Lenses and Filters: The Frame in Depth Page Ref: 152 16) When a telefoto lens is used, the distance between foreground and background appears to be shortened.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Lenses and Filters: The Frame in Depth Page Ref: 154 17) Zoom lenses appear to lengthen the distance between the subject and the camera.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Lenses and Filters: The Frame in Depth Page Ref: 155 18) In Do the Right Thing, DP Ernest Dickerson switches from high angle shots of Da Mayor to low angle shots, suggesting how he has earned Mother Sister’s respect.

Answer: TRUE 260 .

Topic: Patterns of Camera Placement and Movement Page Ref: 151 19) Filters can affect both the sharpness of the image and its color.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Lenses and Filters: The Frame in Depth Page Ref: 155 20) When used on black and white film, color filters allow a single-color tint to be added.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Film Stock Page Ref: 158 21) In M*A*S*H, Robert Altman and cinematographer Harold Stine use telephoto and zoom lenses to create a sense of military order and compartmentalization.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Lenses and Filters: The Frame in Depth Page Ref: 157 22) The DP will often work with the editor during post-production in order to ensure that the desired look is achieved.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Film Stock Page Ref: 163 23) In the 1950s the base that had been used for the earliest film stocks was replaced with cellulose nitrate, a substance that is highly flammable but sturdier than what was in use before.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Film Stock Page Ref: 164 24) 35 mm film has traditionally been associated with documentary, experimental and independent filmmakers because it offers lighter cameras and less expensive processing.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Film Stock Page Ref: 164 25) If a filmmaker can exercise a great deal of control over the light, as in the case of a studio set, then she would likely choose slow film in order to sharp, fine-grained images.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Film Stock Page Ref: 165 26) By the 1920s, more than 80% of films employed color techniques.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Film Stock Page Ref: 167 27) Eastmancolor films made before 1983 are considered to be the most superior in terms of color stability.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Film Stock Page Ref: 165 28) When analyzing color in film, scholars recognize that red is the universal symbol for danger.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Film Stock Page Ref: 169 261 .

29) The 1.85:1 is known as the “Academy Ratio” after becoming the industry standard because it gives audiences a fuller image than TV's aspect ratio of 1.33:1.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Film Stock Page Ref: 168 30) Intentionally underdeveloping, or "pulling," a film will reduce the contrast of the image.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Special Visual Effects Page Ref: 171 31) Special effects, also called mechanical effects, are created after filming has been completed, during post-production.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Special Visual Effects Page Ref: 172 32) One noticeable effect of digital cinematography on film style is a resurgence of epic films using crowd scenes.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Digital Cinematography and Film Style Page Ref: 181

6.3 Short Answer Questions 1) The measurement of an image's width in relation to its height is called ________.

Answer: aspect ratio Topic: The Camera in Time and Space Page Ref: 133 2) Any shot not used in the final cut of a film is called a(n) ________.

Answer: out-take Topic: The Camera in Time and Space Page Ref: 133 3) A series of drawings that lay out a film sequentially is called a(n) ________.

Answer: storyboard Topic: The Camera in Time and Space Page Ref: 133-4 4) Editing several shots together produces a ________, which is a coherent narrative unit: one that has its own beginning, middle and end.

Answer: scene Topic: The Camera in Time and Space Page Ref: 134 5) Robert Altman's The Player uses a continuous, eight minute shot, called a ________, to pay homage to Orson Welles's Touch of Evil.

Answer: long take Topic: The Camera in Time and Space Page Ref: 134 6) The standard technique for animated films until the 1990s involved using transparent overlays, known as ________, to separate moving figures from static backgrounds.

262 .

Answer: cels Topic: The Camera in Time and Space

Page Ref: 136

7) A process of recording a very small number of images over a long period of time--such as one frame per minute or per day--is called ________.

Answer: time-lapse photography Topic: The Camera in Time and Space Page Ref: 135 8) In a ________ angle shot, the camera is positioned above the subject and films at a downward angle; this is not to be confused with an overhead shot, which films the subject from directly above.

Answer: high Topic: The Camera in Time and Space Page Ref: 139 9) A ________ shot films the subject from the waist up.

Answer: medium Topic: The Camera in Time and Space Page Ref: 142 10) The horizontal turning motion of a camera fixed to a tripod, a movement typically used to show the expanse of a landscape is a(n) ________.

Answer: pan Topic: The Camera in Time and Space Page Ref: 144 11) The technique of tipping a camera vertically while it remains fixed to a tripod is called a(n) ________.

Answer: tilt Topic: The Camera in Time and Space Page Ref: 145 12) Describe two common functions of camera movement (not to be confused with types of camera movement).

Answer: (could include) revealing information in a dramatic way, establishing a character's perspective, conveying a sense of space, suggesting a mood or emphasizing the continuity of space and time.

Topic: The Camera in Time and Space Page Ref: 144-147 13) Briefly (in a sentence) explain how viewers can distinguish between a tracking shot and handheld camerawork.

Answer: tracking shots are fluid, whereas handheld cameras produce a jittery image Topic: Lenses and Filters: The Frame in Depth Page Ref: 147

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14) A ________ lens dramatically distorts images so that most straight lines appear to be curved.

Answer: extreme wide-angle or fish-eye Topic: Lenses and Filters: The Frame in Depth Page Ref: 150 15) ________ change the quality of light entering the lens by absorbing certain wavelengths.

Answer: Filters Topic: Film Stock Page Ref: 155 16) In ________ objects, remain in focus from points very close to the camera to positions at some distance from it.

Answer: deep-focus cinematography Topic: Film Stock Page Ref: 156 17) What does it mean to compose in depth?

Answer: to arrange sets to make the most out of foreground and background Topic: Film Stock Page Ref: 156 18) Film footage exposed on a given day that is printed and screened by the filmmakers to determine whether changes are necessary is called ________.

Answer: dailies Topic: Film Stock Page Ref: 161 19) Briefly (in 1-2 sentences) define second unit.

Answer: a group of technicians responsible for filming at a remote location, or for getting insert shots Topic: Film Stock Page Ref: 161 20) ________ refers to the practice of shooting during the day but using filters and underexposure to create the illusion of nighttime.

Answer: Day for night Topic: Film Stock Page Ref: 162 21) ________ refers to the size of film, measured horizontally across the stock.

Answer: Gauge Topic: Film Stock Page Ref: 162 22) The standard feature film projected in commercial theaters has a gauge of ________.

Answer: 35 mm Topic: Film Stock Page Ref: 162 23) ________ refers to the amount of light striking the light-sensitive emulsion layer of film stock.

Answer: Exposure Topic: Film Stock Page Ref: 163

264 .

24) Identify one technique for producing "color" in films before the development of Technicolor's two-strip additive process in 1922.

Answer: (could include) tinting, toning, handpainting Topic: Film Stock Page Ref: 167 25) Briefly describe (in 1-2 sentences) why actors in the early decades of cinema were required to wear heavy theatrical make-up.

Answer: The film stock of the day did not register red tones so actors needed to wear thick make-up in order for their faces to be seen.

Topic: Film Stock Page Ref: 167 26) ________ a film is another term for intentionally leaving it longer in development.

Answer: Pushing, or Overdeveloping Topic: Film Stock Page Ref: 171 27) A ________ results from copying a fade-out from the end of a scene onto the fade-in of the next scene.

Answer: dissolve Topic: Special Visual Effects Page Ref: 175 28) ________ is achieved in the camera by exposing film frames then rewinding the film and exposing them again.

Answer: Double-exposure Topic: Special Visual Effects Page Ref: 175 29) Identify one cinematographic technique used to suggest rising tension in Do the Right Thing.

Answers could include: swish pans, low angle/high angle shots, tracking to characters as they hurl racist epithets, canted angles Topic: Patterns of Camera Placement and Movement Page Ref: 150-1 30) What happens when James returns a second time to his fantasy apartment in Ratcatcher?

Answer: He’s locked out Topic: Cinematography as a storytelling device Page Ref: 189 31) In Ratcatcher, what is James unable to retrieve from the canal for Anne Marie?

Answer: Her spectacles Topic: Cinematography as a storytelling device Page Ref: 187 32) How does Ratcatcher defy traditional coming of age stories?

Answer: James’s failure to overcome his circumstances, or his failure to rescue Anne Marie, or his failure to move into adulthood (answers will vary) Topic: Cinematography as a storytelling device Page Ref: 188

6.4 Essay Questions 265 .

1) Identify two common functions of camera movement, and discuss an example of each from a film we have screened in class this semester.

Topic: The Camera in Time and Space Page Ref: 147 2) Study this scene (to be decided by the instructor) and analyze how two aspects of cinematography play a role in how audiences might interpret this moment.

3) Study this image (to be decided by the instructor). What type of lens is used in this shot?

Describe one characteristic of the image that supports your assertion.

Topic: Lenses and Filters Page Ref: 148-152

Test Bank Chapter 7 7.1 Multiple Choice Questions 1) The conventional motion picture camera magazine holds less than ________ worth of film stock at a time.

A) 5 minutes B) 15 minutes C) 45 minutes D) 90 minutes Answer: B Topic: Editing Page Ref: 192 2) The principle that the meaning of a shot is determined not only by the material content of the shot, but also by its association with the preceding and succeeding shots is known as the ________ effect.

A) Kuleshov B) Pudovkin C) Hitchcock D) Eisenstein E) Welles Answer: A Topic: Editing Page Ref: 192 3) Which of the following is NOT an attribute of editing?

A) tempo B) collage C) timing D) scale Answer: D Topic: The Attributes of Editing: Creating Meaning Through Collage, Tempo, and Timing Page Ref: 193 4) A ________ is when two shots are juxtaposed in a way that emphasizes their visual similarities.

A) two shot 266 .

B) match shot C) gemini shot D) graphic match Answer: D Topic: The Attributes of Editing: Creating Meaning Through Collage, Tempo, and Timing Page Ref: 195

267 .

5) The tempo in editing can be effected by which factor?

A) the length of each shot B) the type of shot transition C) the musical accompaniment or score D) A and B E) A and C Answer: D Topic: The Attributes of Editing: Creating Meaning Through Collage, Tempo, and Timing Page Ref: 196 6) Increasingly short average shot lengths change the way viewers experience film because ________.

A) they allow the audience to respond only to the rhythm of the editing B) they do not allow audiences to fully comprehend the visual information in each shot C) they may explain why younger audiences don’t appreciate older films D) All of these are true.

Answer: D Topic: The Attributes of Editing: Creating Meaning Through Collage, Tempo, and Timing Page Ref: 195 7) Which is NOT a type of shot transition?

A) dissolve B) fade-out/fade-in C) wipeout D) iris Answer: C Topic: The Attributes of Editing: Creating Meaning Through Collage, Tempo, and Timing Page Ref: 197 8) In order to evoke the meandering lifestyle of the main characters in Stranger than Paradise, Jim Jarmusch uses only ________ to transition between scenes.

A) fades B) wipes C) irises D) dissolves Answer: A Topic: The Attributes of Editing: Creating Meaning Through Collage, Tempo, and Timing Page Ref: 197 9) Narrative sequencing allows filmmakers to shape the audience's perception of time by ________.

A) condensing or expanding time B) suggesting that events in different places are happening at the same time C) rearranging the order in which audiences see events D) all of these Answer: D Topic: Story-Centered Editing and the Construction of Meaning Page Ref: 201 268 .

10) A tableau shot, common in very early cinema, gives the audience a perspective that ________.

A) is constantly focused on microscopic details B) is similar to what it would be if the audience were watching a play C) produces Brechtian distanciation D) B and C Answer: C Topic: Story-Centered Editing and the Construction of Meaning Page Ref: 205 11) The standard shot pattern that directors use to film conversations between two characters is ________.

A) shot/reverse shot B) dialogue shot C) cross-cut shot D) back-and-forth shot Answer: A Topic: Story-Centered Editing and the Construction of Meaning Page Ref: 206 12) In Psycho's parlor scene between Marion and Norman, Hitchcock emphasizes when Marion's words upset Norman by ________.

A) cutting away to a close-up shot of a knife B) cutting away to a close-up of a stuffed bird of prey C) cutting to a two-shot of both characters D) changing the shot/reverse shot pattern Answer: D Topic: Story-Centered Editing and the Construction of Meaning Page Ref: 207-210 13) In The Ghost and Mrs. Muir, an eyeline match just before Mrs. Muir undresses for bed allows the audience to see the ________ that has caused her to hesitate and encourages the viewer to share her thought process.

A) portrait B) dog C) clock D) shadow Answer: A Topic: Story-Centered Editing and the Construction of Meaning Page Ref: 209 14) A scene edited in the Hollywood tradition begins with a(n) ________.

A) montage B) close-up C) establishing shot D) initiating shot Answer: C Topic: Beyond Narrative: Creating Meaning Outside the Story Page Ref: 211

269 .

15) Which of the following is an effect of breaking the 180-degree rule?

A) the direction of movement onscreen is reversed B) the background of the shot changes C) characters will switch sides of the frame D) all of the above Answer: D Topic: Beyond Narrative: Creating Meaning Outside the Story Page Ref: 212-214 16) An abrupt shift in the time and space of an action that is not signaled by an appropriate shot transition is a ________.

A) jump cut B) split cut C) flop cut D) bump cut Answer: A Topic: Beyond Narrative: Creating Meaning Outside the Story Page Ref: 214 17) Failure to adhere to the 30-degree rule can cause editing to feel ________.

A) continuous B) fragmented C) dramatically weighted D) like the tempo is too slow Answer: B Topic: Beyond Narrative: Creating Meaning Outside the Story Page Ref: 214 18) A ________ shot is a shot that covers the entire scene. The final cut of the scene will combine portions of this shot with reaction shots, cutaways, and B-roll footage.

A) tableau B) master C) establishing D) Foley Answer: B Topic: Beyond Narrative: Creating Meaning Outside the Story Page Ref: 213 19) One way in which Band of Outsiders breaks the rules of continuity in order to comment on the nature of cinema is ________.

A) repeating details of a scene from different vantage points B) quoting a famous poet C) paying homage to American cinema D) suggesting the young male characters are motivated primarily by their desire to emulate their favorite movies Answer: A Topic: Beyond Narrative: Creating Meaning Outside the Story Page Ref: 216

270 .

20) Editing in The Godfather draws from the tradition of ________.

A) Soviet montage B) continuity C) German Expressionism D) A and B Answer: D Topic: Techniques in Practice: Soviet Montage Aesthetics in The Godfather

Page Ref: 222

21) Editing in the climax of The Godfather compares images of mob hits with ________.

A) a wedding B) state sanctioned executions C) buzzards flying D) none of the above Answer: D Topic: Techniques in Practice: Soviet Montage Aesthetics in The Godfather Page Ref: 223 22) The editing of the race track scene in Notorious allows the viewer to ________.

A) see Alicia from Devlin’s point of view B) see Devlin from Alicia’s point of view C) see Alicia and Devlin from Alex’s point of view D) all of these Answer: B Topic: Techniques in Practice: Soviet Montage Aesthetics in Notorious Page Ref: 224

7.2 True or False Questions 1) The development of digital video and computer technology has only recently made the concept of a feature-length, one-shot film possible.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Editing Page Ref: 192 2) One reason why filmmakers rely on editing is because it's easier to work with actors who might forget important lines of dialogue or blocking.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Editing Page Ref: 192 3) Action pictures generally rely on longer takes in order to elicit anticipation in the viewer.

Answer: FALSE Topic: The Attributes of Editing: Creating Meaning Through Collage, Tempo, and Timing Page Ref: 195 4) The average shot length in contemporary films is shorter than the average shot length in older films.

Answer: TRUE Topic: The Attributes of Editing: Creating Meaning Through Collage, Tempo, and Timing Page Ref: 196 271 .

5) The editing throughout Bonnie and Clyde contrasts the integrity and innocence of the young outlaws with the deceitfulness of the authorities who pursue them.

Answer: TRUE Topic: The Attributes of Editing: Creating Meaning Through Collage, Tempo, and Timing Page Ref: 200 6) One way narrative sequencing helps develop themes is by inviting comparisons between two distinct points in time.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Story-Centered Editing and the Construction of Meaning Page Ref: 201 7) Flashbacks typically emphasize important causal factors in a film's fabula.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Story-Centered Editing and the Construction of Meaning Page Ref: 204 8) Like many French New Wave films, Band of Outsiders distinguishes itself from American genre films, preferring instead to cultivate its status as part of France’s tradition of serious art.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Beyond Narrative: Creating Meaning Outside the Story Page Ref: 215-6 9) In Battleship Potemkin, editing emphasizes the brutality of the Tsar's troops by juxtaposing extreme close-ups of the soldiers' grimacing faces with long shots of their anonymous victims.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Beyond Narrative: Creating Meaning Outside the Story Page Ref: 218-219 10) The end of the “Odessa Steps Sequence” in Battleship Potemkin fuses shots of three different statues to create a metaphor for the slumbering people waking up to fight tyranny.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Beyond Narrative: Creating Meaning Outside the Story Page Ref: 219 11) The Godfather uses montage editing to show that the Mafia justifies its dishonorable activities, such as murder, by linking them to honorable values, such as the importance of family and values.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Techniques in Practice: Soviet Montage Aesthetics in The Godfather Page Ref: 222 12) The Godfather demonstrates the sharp contrast between Hollywood’s editing aesthetic in the 1970s and Soviet Montage.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Techniques in Practice: Soviet Montage Aesthetics in The Godfather Page Ref: 223 13) The title of the film Notorious refers to the film's antagonist, a leader of a group of Nazis actively trying to develop nuclear technology in the years following World War II. Answer: FALSE Topic: Techniques in Practice: Soviet Montage Aesthetics in Notorious Page Ref: 224 14) The use of point of view shots in the racetrack scene from Notorious encourages the 272 .

audience to identify with both Alicia and Devlin, making it clear that both characters are at fault for their failing relationship.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Classical Editing Page Ref: 225 15) Notorious establishes a parallel between the American agent Devlin and Alex, the Nazi activist he’s supposed to capture.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Classical Editing Page Ref: 226

273 .

7.3 Short Answer Questions 1) ________ is the attribute of editing that invites audiences to compare the visual qualities of two or more joined shots.

Answer: Collage Topic: The Attributes of Editing: Creating Meaning Through Collage, Tempo, and Timing Page Ref: 193 2) A shot taken from opposite the angle of the preceding shot is known as a ________.

Answer: reverse shot Topic: The Attributes of Editing: Creating Meaning Through Collage, Tempo, and Timing Page Ref: 195 3) In 1-2 sentences, explain the difference between a dissolve and a fade.

Answer: a fade will take the screen to black (or some other color); a dissolve involves the brief superimposition of imagery Topic: The Attributes of Editing: Creating Meaning Through Collage, Tempo, and Timing Page Ref: 196 4) A(n) ________ occurs when a circular mask appears over shot A. The mask gradually constricts around the image until the entire frame is black.

Answer: iris in Topic: The Attributes of Editing: Creating Meaning Through Collage, Tempo, and Timing Page Ref: 196 5) Akira Kurosawa’s use of wipes influenced what important science fiction film?

Answer: Star Wars Topic: The Attributes of Editing: Creating Meaning Through Collage, Tempo, and Timing Page Ref: 197 6) A ________ is when shot B appears to push shot A off the screen; shot B appears and moves from one side of the screen to the other, thus removing shot A. Answer: wipe Topic: The Attributes of Editing: Creating Meaning Through Collage, Tempo, and Timing Page Ref: 197 7) ________ is the attribute of editing in which shot transitions are choreographed with other visual or sound elements, such as lines of dialogue.

Answer: Timing Topic: The Attributes of Editing: Creating Meaning Through Collage, Tempo, and Timing Page Ref: 199 8) The arrangement of images to depict a unified story time is called ________.

Answer: narrative sequencing Topic: Story-Centered Editing and the Construction of Meaning Page Ref: 201 9) The Seventh Seal superimposes an image of ________ over an image of chessboard to suggest the tenuous quality of life.

274 .

Answer: ocean's tide (with a setting sun) Topic: Story-Centered Editing and the Construction of Meaning

Page Ref: 203

10) A ________ emphasizes the process of time passing by joining several shots, each occurring at a different point in time, to create the illusion of hours, days, months, or even years passing.

Answer: montage sequence Topic: Story-Centered Editing and the Construction of Meaning Page Ref: 203 11) ________ is when a filmmaker cuts back and forth between two events occurring in different spaces.

Answer: Parallel editing or cross-cutting Topic: Story-Centered Editing and the Construction of Meaning Page Ref: 203 12) A ________ interrupts events taking place in the present with images of events that have taken place in the past.

Answer: flashback Topic: Story-Centered Editing and the Construction of Meaning Page Ref: 204 13) Briefly (in 1-2 sentences) define eyeline match.

Answer: A shot of a character looking offscreen is followed by a shot of the object or person being observed.

Topic: Story-Centered Editing and the Construction of Meaning Page Ref: 208 14) Shots that focus the audience's attention on precise details are ________.

Answer: cutaways Topic: Story-Centered Editing and the Construction of Meaning Page Ref: 209 15) The Hollywood standard for editing is called ________ editing.

Answer: invisible, or continuity Topic: Beyond Narrative: Creating Meaning Outside the Story Page Ref: 210 16) An unintentional discrepancy from shot to shot in costuming, character posture, or prop placement is called a ________.

Answer: continuity error Topic: Beyond Narrative: Creating Meaning Outside the Story Page Ref: 215 17) ________ is a style of editing built around the theory that editing should exploit the differences between shots to produce meaning.

Answer: Soviet montage Topic: Beyond Narrative: Creating Meaning Outside the Story Page Ref: 217 18) Briefly explain the historical significance of The Gay Shoe Clerk.

Answer: It included an early example of cutting from a tableau shot to a close-up Topic: Editing and Space Page Ref: 206 19) Briefly explain how the editing in the scene at Dry Fork from Stagecoach emphasizes group dynamics.

Answer: Cuts isolate the two outsiders (outlaw and prostitute) from those who are part of the 275 .

upper class Topic: Editing and Space

Page Ref: 209

20) Sergei Eisenstein’s October uses collage to compare Kerensky, the leader trying to curtail the revolution’s momentum, with a statue of ____________________to suggest that he’s become the new emporer.

Answer: Napoleon Topic: Associational Editing Page Ref: 220

7.4 Essay Questions Scene Analysis View the baptism scene from The Godfather and answer the following questions.

1) This sequence in which the film cuts back and forth between lines of action happening simultaneously is an example of ________.

Answer: parallel editing 2) Analyze an example of how collage establishes the idea that the infant isn’t the only one getting baptized: Michael is also being baptized in blood.

Answer: any example of how the ritual of the baptism parallels the ritual of the assassination 3) Analyze an example of how the timing in this scene emphasizes Michael’s hypocrisy.

Answer: (might include) The first murders take place just as Michael promises to renounce Satan

276 .

Test Bank Chapter 8 8.1 Multiple Choice Questions 1) A soundtrack includes ________.

A) dialogue B) music C) sound effects D) all of these Answer: D Topic: Sound Page Ref: 228 2) The process of combining dialogue, music and sound effects into one soundtrack is known as ________.

A) mixing B) meshing C) building D) weaving Answer: A Topic: Sound Page Ref: 228 3) When films during the silent era were shown in theaters they were accompanied by ________.

A) music B) live narration C) sound effects D) all of these Answer: D Topic: Film Sound: A Brief History Page Ref: 229 4) The Big Five Agreement stated that the major exhibitors of films would jointly agree to ________.

A) adopt a single sound system for the entire film industry B) distribute musical cue sheets with all of their films C) compose individual scores for each of their films D) all of these Answer: A Topic: Film Sound: A Brief History Page Ref: 229

277 .

5) The 1927 film Sunrise was ________.

A) the last film of the silent era B) the first feature-length film to include synchronized dialogue and musical numbers C) a visual tour de force featured a synchronized pre-recorded score but no dialogue D) the first film to feature a score composed specifically for it Answer: C Topic: Film Sound: A Brief History Page Ref: 230 6) Which of the following developments in film sound technology arrived in the 1930s and consequently freed cinema from the idea that "everything seen on the screen must be heard on the soundtrack"?

A) Dolby B) DTS C) multi-track recording D) post-synchronization Answer: D Topic: Film Sound: A Brief History Page Ref: 232 7) ________ produce many of a film's sound effects by creatively manipulating various materials.

A) Foley artists B) Gaffers C) Best boys D) Score composers Answer: A Topic: Freeing Sound from Image Page Ref: 233 8) Sound recorded on location is called ________.

A) dub B) diegetic C) non-diegetic D) direct sound Answer: D Topic: Freeing Sound from Image Page Ref: 233 9) Sounds that are not part of the story world (those which characters cannot hear) are called ________.

A) non-diegetic B) sound effects C) conceptual D) ADR Answer: A Topic: Freeing Sound from Image Page Ref: 234 10) A sound bridge can be ________.

A) the aural equivalent of a dissolve B) a dominant sound at the end of one scene that carries over into the next scene C) the gradual emergence of the next scene's dominant sound 278 .

D) all of these Answer: D Topic: The Relationship Between Sound and Image Page Ref: 237 11) The conclusion of Dr. Strangelove combines the song "We'll Meet Again" with images of ________.

A) the two central characters getting on separate planes B) nuclear annihilation C) the two central characters reuniting D) the main character wistfully reminiscing about her time with a former lover Answer: B Topic: The Relationship Between Sound and Image Page Ref: 238 12) Clunky dialogue that states the obvious is called ________.

A) on-the-nose dialogue B) off-the-cuff dialogue C) tip-of-the-tongue dialogue D) back-of-the-hand dialogue Answer: A Topic: Three Components of Film Sound Page Ref: 239 13) The unstated meaning behind spoken words is called ________.

A) subtext B) text C) intertext D) all of these Answer: A Topic: Three Components of Film Sound Page Ref: 239 14) Which of the following sentences is describing a vocal tic?

A) Kane's voice reverberates down the empty hallways of Xanadu.

B) The gangsters in Pulp Fiction repeatedly utter foul words.

C) Owen Wilson speaks in slow, fluid phrases with offbeat intonation.

D) In Alien, Ripley's voice is soft, conveying her calm, rational approach to the crew's problems.

Answer: C Topic: Three Components of Film Sound Page Ref: 242 15) The original soundtrack of the French version of March of the Penguins featured ________.

A) an academic, non-diegetic voice-over B) no music C) voice-over dialogue "spoken" by the penguins themselves D) A and B Answer: B Topic: Three Components of Film Sound Page Ref: 244 16) Differences in the sound of ________ in Alien and Star Wars evoke the gritty industrial setting of the former and the idealized, highly efficient setting of the latter.

A) computers whirring 279 .

B) doors opening C) weaponry being fired D) air whooshing through empty corridors Answer: B Topic: Three Components of Film Sound

Page Ref: 247

17) ________ refers to the degree to which a sound effect is "true to life," or realistic.

A) Verisimilitude B) Veracity C) Veritiserum D) Verification Answer: A Topic: Three Components of Film Sound Page Ref: 253 18) The use of Wagner's "The Ride of the Valkyries" during a helicopter attack on a Vietnamese village in Apocalypse Now is an intertextual reference to ________.

A) Leni Riefenstahl's Triumph of the Will B) the Ku Klux Klan's triumphant charge in Birth of a Nation C) John Wayne's favorite song in The Green Berets D) F.W. Murnau's expressionist classic Faust Answer: B Topic: Three Components of Film Sound Page Ref: 260 19) Which of the following is an example of how music carries a cultural significance?

A) The lyrics to Van Morrison's "Wild Night" speak to the giddy anticipation both women feel.

B) Public Enemy's lyrics to "Fight the Power" echo Buggin' Out's demand that Sal put pictures of African American heroes on the wall.

C) For Star Wars, John Williams developed two distinct melodies, each associated with opposing sides in the inter-galactic battle.

D) After Richie tries to commit suicide in The Royal Tenenbaums, audiences hear Nick Drake, a folk singer who killed himself at an early age.

Answer: D Topic: Three Components of Film Sound Page Ref: 264 20) Harpo Marx, one of the members of the outrageous comedy act the Marx Brothers, was associated with ______________________.

A) Communism B) Zany, sexually-suggestive dialogue C) the harp D) all of the above Answer: C Topic: Instrumentations Page Ref: 262 21) What happens to the score at the climax of Taxi Driver to suggest that Travis Bickle’s romantic chivalry and his seething anger are complementary mindsets?

A) a romantic jazz tune plays during the bloody shootout B) the two musical motifs running throughout the film fuse 280 .

C) the score includes an intertextual reference to The Birth of a Nation D) the musical score disappears, leaving the soundtrack oddly silent during the bloody shootout Answer: B Topic: Bernard Hermann’s Score and Travis Bickle’s Troubled Masculinity in Taxi Driver Page Ref: 266 22) In No Country for Old Men, the sound effects that typically connote modern urban spaces__________________.

A) occur throughout the movie’s most exciting chase scenes B) disappear in the second half of the film C) are noticeably absent D) were digitally added to the soundtrack Answer: C Topic: Film Analysis: Sound in No Country for Old Men Page Ref: 272 23) The title for No Country for Old Men is an intertextual reference to ___________________.

A) The Birth of a Nation B) Taxi Driver C) a poem by W.B. Yeats D) a famous speech by President Ronald Reagan Answer: C Topic: Film Analysis: Sound in No Country for Old Men Page Ref: 274

8.2 True or False Questions 1) A cardinal rule of using sound in film is that sound must always correspond with what's happening on screen.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Sound Page Ref: 228 2) As the term "Silent Era" implies, films during the early years of cinema were free from dependence upon the relationship between sound and image.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Sound Page Ref: 228 3) The distinction between early silent cinema and later sound cinema rests on the difference between live sound and recorded sound affixed to the image track.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Film Sound: A Brief History Page Ref: 229 4) The arrival of pre-recorded, synchronized sound in 1927 allowed filmmakers at last to begin making cinema into a highly sophisticated visual medium.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Film Sound: A Brief History Page Ref: 229 5) The new sound technology of "talking pictures" sacrificed visual inventiveness, placing a 281 .

higher value on the novelty of hearing actors speak.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Film Sound: A Brief History Page Ref: 230 6) Soviet filmmakers, like Eisenstein, Pudovkin and Alexandrov, were some of the earliest supporters of sound technology.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Film Sound: A Brief History Page Ref: 231 7) Almost all commercial films use dialogue re-recorded in post-production.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Film Sound: A Brief History Page Ref: 232 8) The most commonly manufactured sound effect in films is walking.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Freeing Sound from Image Page Ref: 233 9) The most effective uses of film sound will replicate the image, giving audiences an aural equivalent of what's onscreen.

Answer: FALSE Topic: The Relationship Between Sound and Image Page Ref: 237 10) The primary function of spoken dialogue is to externalize a character's thoughts and feelings.

Answer: TRUE Topic: The Relationship Between Sound and Image Page Ref: 238 11) In Days of Heaven, sound effects help establish for the audience the pleasure the main character takes escaping the bustling world of Chicago for the tranquility of the Southwest.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Three Components of Film Sound Page Ref: 253 12) The sound of the adding machine in Days of Heaven disrupting the farmer's relaxation shows that, despite their class differences, the farmer is just as overwhelmed by the industrial system that engulfs the main characters, Abbey and Bill.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Three Components of Film Sound Page Ref: 253 13) A musical phrase can function as a motif in film, just as any visual or narrative detail can.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Three Components of Film Sound Page Ref: 255 14) The score of Taxi Driver emphasizes that Travis Bickle's romantic longing for Betsy, hatred for the city and desire to rescue Iris are all contradictory aspects of a fractured personality that are unable to coalesce.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Three Components of Film Sound Page Ref: 265 15) The soundtrack in No Country for Old Men suggests that the violent drug wars of the 1980s 282 .

are simply part of a long tradition of violence in the American West.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Film Analysis: The Human Voice and Sound Effects Page Ref: 270 16) The voice-over in No Country for Old Men is unusual because it is non-diegetic, delivered by a character looking back in time at events onscreen instead of narrating from the present tense.

Answer: FALSE Film Analysis: The Human Voice and Sound Effects Page Ref: 269 17) In No Country for Old Men, a historical reference in the dialogue links the carnage caused by the bloody drug war to the shootout at the O.K. Corral.

Answer: TRUE Film Analysis: The Human Voice and Sound Effects Page Ref: 270

8.3 Short Answer Questions 1) Music specifically composed or arranged to accompany a film is called a ________.

Answer: score Topic: Film Sound: A Brief History Page Ref: 229 2) ________ are any noises that form part of a film's soundtrack, apart from dialogue and music.

Answer: Sound effects Topic: Freeing Sound from Image Page Ref: 233 3) The process of having actors re-record lines for a scene with sound that needs to be reworked is called ________.

Answer: ADR, or automatic dialogue replacement or looping Topic: Freeing Sound from Image Page Ref: 233 4) Identify three common ways sound may differ from the imagery onscreen.

Answer: (could include) onscreen vs. offscreen space; objective vs. subjective sound diegetic vs. non-diegetic sound image mood vs. sound mood Topic: Page Ref: 245 5) Whereas a sound bridge allows a sound to extend beyond a scene, a ________ emphasizes sonic parallels in adjacent scenes. For example, in Citizen Kane, the sound of Charle Kane applauding Susan’s musical performance gives way to a crowd applauding at a political rally.

Answer: lightning mix Topic: The Relationship Between Sound and Image Page Ref: 238 6) ________ is the way an actor says a line, including pauses, intonation and emotion.

Answer: Line reading Topic: Three Components of Film Sound Page Ref: 239 7) A sound's ________ refers to its frequency, or its position on a musical scale.

Answer: pitch 283 .

Topic: Three Components of Film Sound

Page Ref: 240

8) The ________ of a sound can convey perspective and details about the environment surrounding a character. An echoing voice might suggest an empty space.

Answer: acoustic qualities Topic: Three Components of Film Sound Page Ref: 244 9) Identify two common functions of sound effects.

Answer: (could include) define location; lend mood to an environment; portray the environment's impact on characters; Topic: Three Components of Film Sound Page Ref: 245 10) Identify two common functions of film music.

Answer: (could include) establish historical context; shape space; define character; shape emotional tenor Topic: Three Components of Film Sound Page Ref: 255 11) Briefly (in 1-2 sentences) explain why film scholar Claudia Gorbman calls soundtrack music "unheard melodies."

Answer: The music shouldn't be too intrusive.

Topic: Three Components of Film Sound Page Ref: 255 12) Identify one example from your textbook or in-class screenings of how music can shape space.

Answer: (example) Diminished volume of the party music in Notorious reminds the audience that, while Alicia and Devlin spy, enemies are just one flight up.

Topic: Three Components of Film Sound Page Ref: 256 13) Briefly (in 1-2 sentences) describe the two themes associated with Travis Bickle in Taxi Driver.

Answer: militaristic, percussive and romantic, jazzy saxophone Topic: Three Components of Film Sound Page Ref: 265

8.4 Essay Questions Scene Analysis View the opening scenes of Days of Heaven, beginning with the argument in the foundry and continuing up until the point when the main characters get off the train in Texas.

Then answer the following question(s).

1) Describe two characteristics of sound effects at the foundry.

Answer: (could include) metallic pounding; repetitive, regular rhythm, loud volume overwhelms dialogue and increases when the violence intensifies 2) Describe one characteristic of the music that plays as the three main characters leave Chicago.

Analyze (in 2-4 sentences) how this detail suggests the characters' emotions or state of mind at this point.

284 .

Answer: (could include) acoustic guitar suggests the movement to a rural, open setting; uptempo playing evokes their sense of excitement 3) What sound in this sequence becomes a motif that reveals how these characters will be unable to escape their working class status? Be sure to explain how the motif establishes this point.

Answer: Students should discuss how pounding metal is an important motif. Look for them to discuss when and why the same sounds (or similar sounds) reappear once the characters get to Texas (students should be explicit that the motif establishes a parallel between Texas and Chicago).

Topic: Techniques in Practice: Sound Effects and the Construction of Class in Days of Heaven Page Ref: 253-54

285 .

Test Bank Chapter 9 9.1 Multiple Choice Questions 1) The three modes of filmmaking are ________.

A) commercial fiction, documentary and avant-garde B) comedy, drama and documentary C) commercial fiction, avant-garde and experimental D) commercial fiction, commercial nonfiction and avant-garde Answer: A Topic: Three Modes of Filmmaking: A Comparison Page Ref: 276 2) ________ is a principle concern that dominates among avant-garde filmmakers.

A) Desire to explore the artistic and technological capabilities of the medium B) Profitability in the lucrative art house market C) Desire to tell a story in an aesthetically pleasing way D) all of these Answer: A Topic: Three Modes of Filmmaking: A Comparison Page Ref: 276 3) Most films shot before 1907 were short documentaries called ________.

A) actualités B) realities C) newsreels D) narratives Answer: A Topic: Documentary Film: “The Creative Treatment of Actuality” Page Ref: 279 4) John Grierson described the documentary mode of filmmaking as ________.

A) "an unflinching glimpse at reality" B) "the creative treatment of actuality" C) "the truth behind the apparent" D) "the objective view on the world" Answer: B Topic: Documentary Film: “The Creative Treatment of Actuality” Page Ref: 280

286 .

5) ________ documentaries rely on cause-and-effect logic and present subjects who seem like characters.

A) Talking heads B) Narrative C) Compilation D) Visionary Answer: B Topic: Documentary Film: “The Creative Treatment of Actuality” Page Ref: 281 6) All documentaries present ________.

A) an argument B) an unbiased truth C) people who serve as "characters" to the audience D) a clearly delineated narrative arc Answer: A Topic: Documentary Form Page Ref: 282 7) Documentaries that promote a single position without allowance for competing perspectives are called ________.

A) voice of authority B) propaganda C) talking heads D) direct cinema Answer: B Topic: Documentary Form Page Ref: 283 8) Documentaries that rely exclusively on interviews are called ________ documentaries.

A) conversational B) commentary C) voice of authority D) talking head Answer: D Topic: Documentary Form Page Ref: 283 9) Documentaries that attempt to present events without any evidence of the director's perspective or judgments are called ________.

A) observational documentaries B) direct cinema C) cinema verite D) all of these Answer: D Topic: Documentary Form Page Ref: 285

287 .

10) Which of the following is a visual technique associated with direct cinema?

A) interviews with experts B) intentionally bringing the subject of the frame in and out of focus C) The filmmaker appears onscreen and forcefully approaches those he wants to interview.

D) none of the above Answer: D Topic: Documentary Form Page Ref: 285-286 11) Grizzly Man could best be categorized as a ________ documentary because it calls attention to the process of filmmaking in order to expose the ways the medium constructs reality.

A) direct cinema B) talking head C) self-reflexive D) propaganda Answer: C Topic: Documentary Form Page Ref: 286-287 12) Fiction films that pose as documentaries by using its familiar conventions are ________.

A) outfoxumentaries B) faux-mentaries C) mockumentaries D) self-reflexive documentaries Answer: C Topic: Documentary Form Page Ref: 287 13) In making Nanook of the North, Robert Flaherty ________.

A) insisted on calling the main subject of the film by his real name, "Nanook," even after his producers urged him to translate the name for impatient audiences B) staged events C) made his preference for industrial culture clear D) introduced the gramophone (or, record player) into Inuit culture Answer: B Topic: Two Theoretical Questions Page Ref: 290 14) A technique that regularly appears in avant-garde films is ________.

A) slow, fast and reverse motion B) superimposition C) non-synchronized sound D) all of these Answer: D Topic: Avant-garde film Page Ref: 292

288 .

15) ________ filmmakers such as Luis Bunuel and René Clair explored the irrational, unconscious mind "beneath the surface of reality."

A) Abstract B) Compilation C) Structuralist D) Surrealist Answer: D Topic: Avant-garde film Page Ref: 293 16) Un Chien Andalou mocks narrative form by ________.

A) parodying the conventions of documentary form B) inserting intertitles with useless information C) being an avant-garde film but with characters who have clear goals or conflicts D) all of these Answer: B Topic: Avant-garde film Page Ref: 293 17) Abstract films ________.

A) focus on the dream state B) rely on characters that represent archetypes and symbols C) abandon human figures all together D) all of these Answer: C Topic: Avant-garde film Page Ref: 294 18) Artist Marcel Duchamp, who transformed "found objects" into works of art, influenced the aesthetic principles behind the ________ film.

A) compilation B) structuralist C) surrealist D) abstract Answer: A Topic: Avant-garde film Page Ref: 299 19) Films like Michael Snow's Wavelength, which is primarily interested in the material properties of the medium, are called ________ films.

A) compilation B) structuralist C) surrealist D) abstract Answer: B Topic: Avant-garde film Page Ref: 299

289 .

20) Maya Deren's film Meshes of the Afternoon can be interpreted as a meditation on ________.

A) the death of a child B) the disintegration of a marriage C) the beauty of nature D) all of these Answer: B Topic: Film Analysis: Interpreting Avant-garde Films Page Ref: 303 21) The sequence of events the woman dreams about in Meshes of the Afternoon are repeated ________ times.

A) two B) three C) four D) five Answer: B Topic: Film Analysis: Interpreting Avant-garde Films Page Ref: 303 22) In Meshes of the Afternoon, the key is replaced by a ________.

A) coin B) candle C) flower D) knife Answer: D Topic: Film Analysis: Interpreting Avant-garde Films Page Ref: 304

9.2 True or False Questions 1) Documentary filmmakers are just as motivated by profitability as their commercial fiction film counterparts.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Three Modes of Filmmaking: A Comparison Page Ref: 276 2) Most documentary filmmakers do not conduct their own research, instead relying on highlytrained research teams put together for the production, usually by a major studio.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Three Modes of Filmmaking: A Comparison Page Ref: 276 3) The increasing popularity of documentary film is evident in the growing number of Academy Award categories developed to honor different aspects of documentary film production in recent years.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Three Modes of Filmmaking: A Comparison Page Ref: 277

290 .

4) In general, documentaries capture an unmediated (or unbiased) reality.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Documentary Film: “The Creative Treatment of Actuality” Page Ref: 280 5) Unlike commercial films, documentaries abandon narrative in favor of capturing lived experience.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Documentary Film: “The Creative Treatment of Actuality” Page Ref: 281 6) All documentaries present an argument of some kind.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Documentary Form Page Ref: 282 7) Michael Moore (Fahrenheit 9/11) would be an example of a director-participant.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Documentary Form Page Ref: 284 8) Ethnographic documentaries, like Robert Flaherty's Nanook of the North, were groundbreaking for their unsentimentalized portrayal ethnic cultures and subcultures.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Two Theoretical Questions Page Ref: 290 9) A technique commonly used in avant-garde film is super-imposition.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Avant-garde film Page Ref: 292 10) Man with a Movie Camera reflects fears about the dangers of the mechanical age.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Avant-garde film Page Ref: 297 11) Editing in Meshes of the Afternoon equates a husband’s kiss with a knife entering a woman’s mouth.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Film Analysis: Interpreting Avant-garde Films Page Ref: 305 12) T or F: Stan Brakhage’s abstract film Black Ice consists of nothing but extreme close-ups of ice, steam and water, creating a poetic evocation of the three states of H20.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Techniques in Practice: Interpreting Abstract Films Page Ref: 295 13) Man With a Movie Camera uses editing to equate the fluttering motion of blinking eyes with the aperture of a camera.

Answer: TRUE Topic: The City Symphony Page Ref: 296 14) Phenomenologist film critics like Vivian Sobchack has studied how some moments in fiction films might evoke audience responses similar to what people experience when they watch documentaries.

291 .

Answer: TRUE Topic: Two Theoretical Questions

Page Ref: 289

9.3 Short Answer Questions 1) A documentary such as Robert Flaherty's Nanook of the North, whose purpose is to present a way of life of a culture or subculture, is called a(n) ________ film.

Answer: ethnographic Topic: Two Theoretical Questions Page Ref: 290 2) ________ combines documentary and experimental approaches to film to celebrate the vibrancy of urban life. Dziga Vertov's Man with a Movie Camera is a famous example.

Answer: City symphony Topic: Avant-garde film Page Ref: 297 3) The _____________ film reuses existing film footage in an entirely new context to generate innovative ideas.

Answer: compilation Topic: Avant-garde film Page Ref: 299 4) Films made with the sole intent of persuading viewers of the rightness of a single view are referred to as _______________.

Answer: propaganda films Topic: Documentary Form Page Ref: 283

5) ___________ films engage viewers by showing them some aspect of the real world.

Answer: Documentary Topic: Documentary Film: “The Creative Treatment of Actuality” Page Ref: 280

9.4 Essay Questions 1) How do the motivations behind commercial fiction films, documentaries and avant-garde films differ? How do these differing motivations affect the types of films that are created?

Answer: Students should discuss economic factors, as well as the driving force of creating a personal statement or "art" versus creating a viable commercial product. Other factors may include the desire/intention to inform the audience and the desire/intention to entertain, among other factors.

Topic: Alternatives to Narrative Fiction Film: Documentary and Avant-garde Films 292 .

Page Ref: 276-301 2) Explain why the production process employed by avant-garde filmmakers allows them to experiment with and change the very language of the cinema itself.

Answer: Working outside the commercial industry allows for experimentation; there’s no motivation to please large audiences just to recoup investments.

Topic: Alternatives to Narrative Fiction Film Page Ref: 276-7 Page Ref: 276-301 3) Explain why the idea of "truth" is not necessarily a static concept when it comes to looking at documentary films. How was the direct cinema/cinema verite movement an attempt to combat this issue? To what extent were the filmmakers of the direct cinema movement successful?

Answer: Students should mention the idea that no film is free of politics or filmmaker intention in relation to the common expectation that documentary films are "neutral" and intended solely to inform. Regarding direct cinema, students should include ideas such as uncut long takes and attempts to create a "fly-on-the-wall"/"as-it's-happening" appearance and discuss how, despite these aesthetic techniques, no film is free from bias and all the subjects of these films are aware of/effected by the presence of a camera crew.

Topic: Alternatives to Narrative Fiction Film: Documentary and Avant-garde FilmsPage Ref: 276-301 4) Why do some argue that a filmmaker’s decision to film another culture or a group of people always involves questions of ethics?

Answer: Is it possible to accurately represent a culture outside your own? Does the act of filming change the subject that’s being documented?

Topic: Two Theoretical Questions

Page Ref: 290

5) What is the difference between an abstract film and a surreal film? Use examples drawn from class screenings and/or the textbook to illustrate your answer.

Answer: Abstract films abandon recognizable people and objects altogether.

Topic: Avant-garde film

Page ref: 292-4

293 .

Test Bank Chapter 10 10.1 Multiple Choice Questions 1) A self-reflexive film ________.

A) constantly reminds viewers that they are watching a film B) allow viewers to be caught up in the world of the narrative C) enforce only the ideologies that dominate society at large D) all of these Answer: A Topic: Ideology and Film Spectatorship Page Ref: 318 2) "Apparatus" arguments made by critics deal specifically with ________.

A) the physical means by which a film is exhibited to audiences B) the ways in which government influence impacts film content C) the stereotyping of minority groups in popular films D) none of these Answer: A Topic: Ideology and Film Spectatorship Page Ref: 318 3) Systems of beliefs, values and opinions based on underlying assumptions about the way the world should be are known as ________.

A) biases B) theoretical models C) ideologies D) cultures Answer: C Topic: Ideology and Film Analysis Page Ref: 310 4) Which of the following describes the U.S. Congress's House Committee on Un-American Activities (also known as "HUAC") ?

A) It was established in the 1930s to investigate Nazi propaganda.

B) It was concerned with charges that Communist propaganda had infiltrated Hollywood films.

C) It called on many people in the film industry to testify before congress and provide names of acquaintances who may have been involved with the American Communist Party.

D) all of these Answer: D Topic: Ideology and Film Spectatorship Page Ref: 320

294 .

5) The group of individuals whose careers and lives were interrupted or ruined by having been listed in The Waldorf Statement were known as ________.

A) the Hollywood reds B) HUAC C) the Hollywood blacklist D) the Don'ts and Be Carefuls Answer: C Topic: Ideology and Film Spectatorship Page Ref: 321 6) In The Birth of a Nation, African Americans are ________.

A) played by non-professional African American actors B) characterized as rapists who threaten white women C) depicted as the victims of the South Carolina legislature following the Civil War D) all of these Answer: B Topic: Topics in Ideological Criticism Page Ref: 322 7) Some critics complain that studio-era films like Gone with the Wind and Shirley Temple's childhood films (e.g., The Little Colonel) are racist because they ________.

A) avoid presenting black characters B) present black characters in a demeaning way C) overlook racial difference altogether instead of trying to explore the problems inherent in the United States' racial hierarchy D) all of the above Answer: B Topic: Topics in Ideological Criticism Page Ref: 323 8) Following the 1915 release of The Birth of a Nation, ________.

A) the Ku Klux Klan organization, whose numbers had been dwindling for more than a decade, had a major revival B) the NAACP embraced the film for its progressive portrait of life in the South after the Civil War C) African American actors found more parts in Hollywood studio films D) all of these Answer: A Topic: Topics in Ideological Criticism Page Ref: 323 9) ________ directed the first African-American feature film.

A) Oscar Micheaux B) D. W. Griffith C) Sidney Poitier D) Charles Burnett Answer: A Topic: Topics in Ideological Criticism Page Ref: 324

295 .

10) Oscar Micheaux was ________.

A) the first African-American director to make a feature film B) a white filmmaker whose portrait of African Americans after the Civil War infuriated members of the NAACP, which organized protests following the film’s release C) a white filmmaker who was sympathetic to the African-American cause D) a French cinematographer who captured the racial tension in the American South with an outsider’s eye Answer: A Topic: Topics in Ideological Criticism Page Ref: 324 11) Films screened late at night for black audiences in white-owned theaters during the era of segregation were known as ________.

A) midnight revivals B) black-outs C) white-outs D) midnight rambles Answer: D Topic: Topics in Ideological Criticism Page Ref: 325 12) "Blaxploitation" films ________.

A) promoted the benefits of racial integration B) celebrated black power and resistance to dominant white culture C) often featured actor Sidney Poitier playing educated, middle-class, upwardly mobile professionals D) all of these Answer: B Topic: Topics in Ideological Criticism Page Ref: 326 13) A society structured by the ideologies of male supremacy is called a ________.

A) patriarchy B) matriarchy C) oligarchy D) monarchy Answer: A Topic: Topics in Ideological Criticism Page Ref: 327 14) Before Kathryn Bigelow won an Oscar for The Hurt Locker, ________ women had won the Academy Award for Best Director.

A) three B) two C) six D) zero Answer: D Topic: Topics in Ideological Criticism Page Ref: 332

296 .

15) The term "celluloid closet" refers to the fact that ________.

A) Hollywood films rarely depict gay and lesbian protagonists B) many gay and lesbian stars in the film industry have maintained an illusion of heterosexuality for the public C) Hollywood has traditionally used sexuality and gender play to provoke humor D) all of these Answer: A Topic: Topics in Ideological Criticism Page Ref: 330 16) The Edison film The Gay Brothers from 1895 depicts two men ________.

A) kissing B) holding hands C) dressing in women's clothing D) none of these Answer: D Topic: Topics in Ideological Criticism Page Ref: 333 17) The feminist filmmaking movement ________.

A) preceded the feminist critique of mainstream films B) grew out of the women's liberation movement C) devalued documentary films because they didn’t reach as many women as those manufactured by Hollywood D) all of these Answer: B Topic: Topics in Ideological Criticism Page Ref: 332 18) Criticism that examines the ideologies of sexuality may consider films that ________.

A) are primarily concerned with homosexual characters B) films that acknowledge only heterosexual couples C) films that seem to avoid issues of sexuality altogether D) all of the above Answer: D Topic: Topics in Ideological Criticism Page Ref: 332 19) Following __________________, the film industry's depiction of disabled characters became considerably more complex, as evident in films like The Best Years of Our Lives.

A) World War I B) World War II C) the Vietnam War D) FDR’s presidency Answer: B Topic: Topics in Ideological Criticism Page Ref: 337

297 .

20) Contemporary film scholarship reveals that gay and lesbian characters ________.

A) make appearances throughout the history of cinema B) often function as plot devices that affirm heterosexual coupling C) are frequently meant to provoke humor or pity D) all of these Answer: D Topic: Topics in Ideological Criticism Page Ref: 333

10.2 True or False Questions 1) When someone analyzes a film in light of its ideological content, the criteria used may be biased by the critic's own political values.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Ideology and Film Spectatorship Page Ref: 319 2) The most important conveyers of a country’s ideologies are its laws and its constitution.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Ideology and Film Analysis Page Ref: 311 3) The "Hollywood Ten" were a group of writers and directors who were blacklisted because they gave names to congress of their friends and co-workers who were known to be members of the American Communist Party.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Ideology and Film Spectatorship Page Ref: 320 4) The events of the communist "witch hunt" of the late 1940s and early 1950s illustrate that Hollywood strives to be immune to politics.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Topics in Ideological Criticism Page Ref: 322 5) The 1915 release of The Birth of a Nation has been linked to a revival of the Ku Klux Klan organization, whose numbers had been dwindling for more than a decade.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Topics in Ideological Criticism Page Ref: 323 6) "Midnight rambles" is the term used to describe events staged by the Ku Klux Klan protesting the exhibition of films sympathetic to African-American causes.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Topics in Ideological Criticism Page Ref: 325 7) Female directors in Hollywood were most numerous during the 1910s and the 1920s.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Topics in Ideological Criticism Page Ref: 328 8) The aim of feminist critics is to focus analysis solely on female characters and films that target female audiences, as it is believed that these have traditionally been ignored in film scholarship.

298 .

Answer: FALSE Topic: Topics in Ideological Criticism

Page Ref: 329

9) The 1932 film Freaks was banned because the director's decision to have "normal" actors portraying dwarves, siamese twins and people with missing limbs was considered demeaning to the disabled community.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Topics in Ideological Criticism Page Ref: 336 10) John Schlesinger’s Midnight Cowboy (1969) was the first film to depict gay characters.

Answer: False Topic: Topics in Ideological Criticism Page Ref: 333 11) Animated films like Wall-E are able to avoid the pitfalls of gender stereotyping, largely because they don’t focus on human characters and thus don’t have to adhere to arbitrary standards of ‘realism’ in terms of character development.

Answer: False Topic: Topics in Ideological Criticism Page Ref: 328 12) Initially black audiences applauded the depiction of aggressive African American men in blaxploitation movies like Shaft and Superfly because these characters challenged the squeaky clean image fostered by Sidney Poitier.

Answer: True Topic: Topics in Ideological Criticism

Page Ref: 326

10.3 Short Answer Questions 1) Systems of beliefs, values and opinions based on underlying assumptions about the way the world should be are known as ________.

Answer: ideologies Topic: Film and Ideology Page Ref: 310 2) The House Un-American Activities Committee called on many people in the film industry to testify before congress and provide names of acquaintances who may have been involved with ________.

Answer: the American Communist Party Topic: The Institutional Enforcement of Ideology: The Production Code and the AntiCommunist Witch Hunts Page Ref: 316 3) How does the storyline in Freaks disturb the tendency to identify the disabled as "others"?

Answer: Those with conventionally beautiful bodies are the unsympathetic characters Topic: Topics in Ideological Criticism Page Ref: 337 4) Robin Woods’ analysis of It’s a Wonderful Life contends that, “It’s a Wonderful Life manages a convincing and moving affirmation of the values (and value) of bourgeois family life.” But 299 .

what is revealed when “disaster releases George’s suppressed tensions”?

Answer: The intensity of his resentment of the family and desire to destroy it—and with it, in significant relationship, his work.

Topic: Ideology and Film Spectatorship Page Ref: 321 5) During the 1950s and 1960s, what political movement had a significant impact on Hollywood’s depiction of African Americans?

Answer: The Civil Rights Movement.

Topic: Topics in Ideological Criticism Page Ref: 325 6) How did The Birth of a Nation depict the black politicians who ran the South Carolina legislature?

Answer: Relying on stereotypes and painting the men in demeaning ways.

Topic: Topics in Ideological Criticism Page Ref: 323 7) Explain why some, like Rupert Everett, argue that contemporary film industry is still biased against openly gay actors, despite the proliferation of gay characters on film and television.

Answer: Audiences are unwilling to accept gay actors playing straight characters Topic: Topics in Ideological Criticism Page Ref: 325

10.4 Essay Questions 1) Using a film that has been screened in class, articulate an ideology that you feel it presents. In what ways does it do this overtly? In what ways does it do this implicitly?

Answer: Answers will vary but students should be able to point to certain values that the film promotes, regarding character and behavior; what this ideology holds as "good" attributes and actions and "bad" attributes and actions.

Topic: Film and Ideology Page Ref: 309-340 2) Both Million Dollar Baby and Avatar feature disabled central characters. Why do some critics argue they reflect different ideologies of disability?

Answer: Students should discuss how Million Dollar Baby presents Maggie’s paralysis as a soulcrushing defeat, whereas Avatari avoids idealizing or patronizing Jake Sully.

Topic: Topics in Ideological Criticism Page Ref: 339-340 3) What is a stereotype and what is the relationship between stereotyping and ideology in cinema?

Answer: Students should note that stereotypes are a simple way of identifying ideologies present in a film because they illustrate common and oft-repeated ideas about people as viewed by (and valued by) those of the predominating ideology.

Topic: Film and Ideology Page Ref: 309-340

300 .

Test Bank Chapter 11 11.1 Multiple Choice Questions 1) Filmmakers ventured to California in the early 1900s because ________.

A) Los Angeles was already a theater hot spot, and industry moguls were seeking acting talent B) Thomas Edison’s production facilities were there, making it easier for industry moguls to purchase equipment without paying shipping costs C) they wanted to avoid licensing fees D) all of these Answer: C Topic: Social Context and Film Style Page Ref: 343 2) Since the 1920s ________ has dominated the international film market.

A) Hollywood B) Bollywood C) Hong Kong D) Cannes Answer: A Topic: Social Context and Film Style Page Ref: 343 3) American film production and reception were at their height during what has become known as the Hollywood ________ era.

A) silent B) international C) celluloid D) studio Answer: D Topic: Hollywood’s Industrial Context Page Ref: 344 4) One of the first feature-length narrative films to demonstrate cinema's artistic and commercial potential, ________ was released in 1915, the year many critics pinpoint as the beginning of the Hollywood studio era.

A) The Birth of a Nation B) The Great Train Robbery C) A Trip to the Moon D) The Gay Shoe Clerk Answer: A Topic: Hollywood’s Industrial Context Page Ref: 344

301 .

5) Hollywood's studio system was defined by the fact that ________.

A) two major distribution companies handled 80% of the production studios' output B) one major studio controlled production, one major studio controlled distribution and one major studio controlled exhibition C) all foreign films had to be distributed in the U.S. via a tightly-structured theater system operated by MGM Studios D) five major studios developed an efficient mode of production, distribution, and exhibition.

Answer: D Topic: Hollywood’s Industrial Context Page Ref: 344 6) ________ signaled the end of the studio era in Hollywood.

A) The Paramount Consent Decree B) The migration of American filmmaking from New York to California C) World War II D) all of these Answer: A Topic: Hollywood’s Industrial Context Page Ref: 344 7) ________ is a trait of classical Hollywood narrative style.

A) Bold innovation in editing B) Unobtrusive craftsmanship C) Psychologically ambiguous characters D) all of these Answer: B Topic: Hollywood’s Industrial Context Page Ref: 344 8) Classical Hollywood films privilege ________ over other sounds.

A) sound effects B) score C) dialogue D) diegetic music Answer: C Topic: Hollywood’s Industrial Context Page Ref: 345 9) Which of the following statements offers a partial justification for why the studios developed the "invisible style"?

A) in competing with foreign industries, the Hollywood industry naturally flocked to the superior mode of storytelling B) demanding continuity helped ensure production efficiency, since directors had a predetermined set of "rules" to follow C) studios polled audiences as they exited the theaters to see what they liked D) studios couldn't afford to build elaborate sets or choreograph complicated camera movements like their German and French competition could Answer: B Topic: Hollywood’s Industrial Context Page Ref: 346 10) Which of the following was prohibited by the MPPDA's "Don'ts and Be Carefuls" list (which preceded the Production Code)?

302 .

A) interracial romance B) profanity C) childbirth D) all of these Answer: D Topic: Hollywood’s Industrial Context

Page Ref: 348

11) The Production Code _____________________.

A) demonstrates how Hollywood business interests had an uncomfortable relationship with the Catholic Church, largely because of the Pope’s attempt to stifle content.

B) demonstrates how Jewish interests dictated the ideological content of Hollywood’s films C) was an example of how government censors influenced the content of Hollywood films D) was a tool Hollywood producers used to ensure the world wide marketability of their films Answer: D Topic: Page Ref: 349 12) Which of the following films was not one of the five major studios during the studio era?

A) MGM B) Paramount C) Warner Brothers D) Disney Answer: D Topic: Page Ref: 344 13) Fourth Cinema is a term coined by Maori filmmaker and theorist Barry Barclay to describe the filmmaking practices of A) independent filmmakers, regardless of nationality B) aboriginal people C) French filmmakers D) Russian films after the collapse of the Soviet empire Answer: B Topic: Fourth Cinema Page Ref: 357 14) Pather Panchali was a ground breaking art film from ____________________.

A) Holland B) Russia C) India D) France Answer: C Topic: International Art Cinemas Page Ref: 350

303 .

15) In Breathless, director Jean-Luc Godard uses ________ to visibly interrupt time, even though the song the character is singing remains intact and unaffected on the soundtrack.

A) jump cuts B) slow-motion C) fast-motion D) dissolves Answer: A Topic: International Art Cinema Page Ref: 350 16) The most popular films in India ________.

A) are Hollywood films B) are shot on location C) reflect the influence of American filmmaking practices D) none of the above Answer: D Topic: International Art Cinema Page Ref: 352 17) Italian Neorealism developed ________.

A) before World War II as part of a political movement dedicated to overthrowing Benito Mussolini B) after World War II, capturing the physical devastation and moral degradation of the war years C) in the 1950s, to demonstrate the destructive effects of American foreign policy on Italy D) in the 1960s to protest the Vietnam war Answer: B Topic: Italian Neorealism Page Ref: 354 18) Bicycle Thieves depicts the story of ________.

A) a poor man and his son B) a group of fashionable Italian rebels C) rival bicycle manufacturers D) the rise of Mussolini Answer: A Topic: Italian Neorealism Page Ref: 354 19) Italian Neorealism is associated with ________.

A) elaborate camera movement B) its use of non-professional actors C) its suggestive editing inspired by Soviet Montage D) all of the above Answer: B Topic: Italian Neorealism Page Ref: 355

304 .

20) What film movement was the primary influence on The Battle of Algiers?

A) Italian Neorealism B) French New Wave C) German Expressionism D) British Free Cinema Answer: A Topic: Third Cinema Page Ref: 356 21) _____________________ films complicate the notion of national identity and the very idea that audiences can link a film to a fixed national origin.

A) Neorealist B) Expressionist C) Transnational D) Geo-fluidic Answer: C Topic: National and Transnational Cinema Page Ref: 359

11.2 True or False Questions 1) New York City was the center of commercial filmmaking until the 1950s.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Social Context and Film Style Page Ref: 343 2) Classical Hollywood style is often called "the invisible style."

Answer: TRUE Topic: Hollywood’s Industrial Context Page Ref: 344 3) Cinematography in classical Hollywood style often uses exaggerated angles or flamboyant movement that draw attention to the films’ glamorous, epic sensibility.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Hollywood’s Industrial Context Page Ref: 345 4) From the early 1920s on, Hollywood practiced self-censorship to ensure that subversive content was kept in check.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Hollywood’s Industrial Context Page Ref: 348 5) The Motion Pictures Producers and Distributors of America (MPPDA) was a governmentcontrolled organization which regulated the content of films being produced and distributed by Hollywood.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Hollywood’s Industrial Context Page Ref: 348 6) The Production Code linked Catholic doctrine to Hollywood’s formula.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Hollywood’s Industrial Context Page Ref: 348 305 .

7) Hollywood studios would rely on the Production Code to justify cutting out content that might be controversial overseas.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Hollywood’s Industrial Context Page Ref: 349 8) Hollywood's reliance on the star system is symptomatic of how studios developed a system of filmmaking practices that encouraged efficiency.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Hollywood’s Industrial Context Page Ref: 346 9) The only element of classical Hollywood style films that the international art cinema movement kept was the goal-oriented central character.

Answer: FALSE Topic: International Art Cinema Page Ref: 350 10) Because many of the international film productions received government financing, the filmmakers were not influenced or motivated to make a profit as their counterparts in Hollywood were.

Answer: FALSE Topic: International Art Cinema Page Ref: 352 11) Italian Neorealism was highly influenced by the popularity of the international art cinema movement.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Italian Neorealism Page Ref: 354 12) The international success of Pather Panchali surprised those in the Indian film industry because insiders didn’t expect the so-called masala film to have any appeal outside India.

Answer: FALSE Topic: The Industry and Ideology of Art Page Ref: 352 13) The term “Third Cinema” loosely refers to cinema movements emerging from Europe’s former colonies in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Third Cinema Page Ref: 355

11.3 Short Answer Questions 1) Identify one reason why filmmakers ventured to California in the early 1900s, establishing Hollywood as the United States' filmmaking center.

Answer: (could include) climate; cheap real estate; to avoid licensing fees Topic: Social Context and Film Style Page Ref: 343 2) Explain how Hollywood dominates international cinema, not just in terms of profitability but 306 .

in terms of style as well.

Answer: Responses should touch on the idea Hollywood’s textual norms have informed the expectations and viewing experiences of most viewers.

Topic: Hollywood Conquers the World Page Ref: 349 3) Explain the concept of “compartmentalization,” and discuss how this manufacturing concept shaped Hollywood.

Answer: Responses should discuss the rapid output of film and the standardization of film style.

Topic: Hollywood’s Industrial Context Page Ref: 346 4) The wave of popular films from Europe and Asia in the 1950's and 1960's has been called the ________ cinema movement, hinting at a perceived distinction between the serious intellectual purpose behind many of these films and Hollywood's escapist fare.

Answer: art Topic: International Art Cinema Page Ref: 351 5) If "First Cinema" refers to the Hollywood industry and "Second Cinema" refers to the international, author-driven cinema, to what does "Third Cinema" refer?

Answer: a politically charged cinema made in formerly colonized cultures Topic: Third Cinema Page Ref: 355

11.4 Essay Questions 1) Using a film that has been screened in class, discuss whether or not you believe it fits into the "classical Hollywood" style. What elements of the film signal this? If it does not fit into the "classical Hollywood" style, how might it be seen as a reaction against it?

Answer: Answers will vary, but students should be sure to note whether or not their selected film contains elements particular to classical style, such as a three-act structure, cause and effect logic and an ending with "closure."

Topic: Hollywood’s Industrial Context Page Ref: 344-349 2) Explain what it means to say that films from the “art cinema” movement are made and consumed in an industrial context, but titles linked to the Third Cinema movement aren’t?

Answer: Students should explain that art cinema was marketed as an alternative to Hollywood, but Third Cinema is politically motivated.

Topic: Art Cinema and Third Cinema Page Ref: 350-357

3) Explain how either Whale Rider or Smoke Signals reflects Fourth Cinema’s interest in the “tension between competing national allegiances.”

Answer: Students should discuss how characters respond to various, conflicting assumptions others make about their about cultural and ethnic identities.

Topic: Fourth Cinema

Page Ref: 357 307 .

Test Bank Chapter 12 12.1 Multiple Choice Questions 1) According to legend, Florence Lawrence became one of the earliest film stars when ________.

A) her studio accused a competing studio of starting the rumor that the actress had been killed B) she appeared in a brief but suggestive nude scene in a film C) she was discovered having an affair with director D.W. Griffith D) while working as a waitress in a roadside diner, she was discovered by an agent Answer: A Topic: Film Stardom as a Cultural Phenomenon Page Ref: 367 2) For audiences of all ages, James Dean has become synonymous with _________________.

A) rock and roll’s first foray into the movies B) conservative values C) teenage puppy love D) modern angst and youthful rebellion Answer: D Topic: Film Stardom as a Cultural Phenomenon Page Ref: 365 3) Hollywood generates and maintains interest in stars by ___________________.

A) marketing an actor’s biography B) focusing publicity solely on an actor’s performance C) casting actors in different types of roles to highlight their dramatic range D) ensuring that the public never links a star to a controversy Answer: A Topic: Film Stardom as a Cultural Phenomenon Page Ref: 366 4) A star's pay for a film may come in the form of ________.

A) up-front fees B) percentages of grosses C) percentages of profits D) all of these Answer: D Topic: Film Stardom as a Cultural Phenomenon Page Ref: 366 5) A project developed with a specific star in mind in order to showcase their established star persona is known as a ________.

A) vanity project B) star vehicle C) blockbuster D) publicity stunt Answer: B Topic: Film Stardom as a Cultural Phenomenon Page Ref: 366 6) ________ explores how stardom attracts audiences and affects what audiences respond to on 308 .

screen.

A) Media studies B) Cinema of attraction studies C) Publicity studies D) Star studies Answer: D Topic: Film Stardom as a Cultural Phenomenon

Page Ref: 367

7) During the Hollywood studio era, stars were ________.

A) under lengthy contracts with one particular studio B) less of an economic factor than they are today C) typecast less often D) all of these Answer: A Topic: Stars and the Movie Industry Page Ref: 367 8) In 2006, Tom Cruise demonstrated the central role stars play within the Hollywood economic structure by ________.

A) making the most successful movies of his career B) successfully blocking the airing of an episode of South Park C) signing a long term contract with a major Hollywood studio, reinstating a financial practice out of fashion since the 1940s D) guaranteeing the box office failure of a film by refusing to honor a contractual agreement to star in the picture Answer: B Topic: Stars and the Movie Industry Page Ref: 368 9) After studying box office receipts of nearly 200 films released in the early 1990s, economist S. Abraham Ravid found ________.

A) no correlation between a star's presence and a film's box office gross B) a strong correlation between a star's presence and a film's box office gross C) a significant drop in the correlation between a star's presence and a film's box office gross D) a significant increase in the correlation between a star's presence and a film's box office gross Answer: A Topic: Stars and the Movie Industry Page Ref: 369 10) ________ developed the signature "Little Tramp" character and, due to the character's continuing appeal, is one of the few silent film stars still recognizable to mainstream audiences today.

A) Buster Keaton B) Mary Pickford C) Charlie Chaplin D) Lillian Gish Answer: C Topic: The Dynamics of Performance Page Ref: 370

309 .

11) In his analysis of Charlie Chaplin's performance in The Gold Rush, James Naremore discusses the famous scene when the actor eats a ________.

A) glove B) hat C) boot D) pair of pants Answer: C Topic: The Dynamics of Performance Page Ref: 370 12) Audiences of the silent era nicknamed Buster Keaton's signature character the "Great Stoneface" due to his ________.

A) perceived lack of facial expression B) resemblance to one of the faces on Mount Rushmore C) heavy white make-up D) lack of sympathy for female characters Answer: A Topic: The Dynamics of Performance Page Ref: 371 13) The star phenomenon relies on collapsing the distinction between ________.

A) an actor's most successful films and his best performances B) actor and audience C) an actor's professional and personal lives D) high art and low art Answer: C Topic: The Star Persona Page Ref: 371 14) A star persona consists of ________.

A) the catalog of an actor's roles B) biographical information C) studio efforts to advertise an actor's films D) all of the above Answer: D Topic: The Star Persona Page Ref: 372 15) Materials intentionally released by a studio in order to market a particular film are called ________.

A) promotion B) packages C) word-of-mouth D) propaganda Answer: A Topic: The Star Persona Page Ref: 372

310 .

16) Maria LaPlace demonstrates that Bette Davis's star persona defined her as ________.

A) fragile and innocent B) talented, determined, and independent C) glamorous and sexy D) driven by her desire for fame Answer: B Topic: The Star Persona Page Ref: 375 17) Heather Addison's study measures the rise and fall of Clara Bow's popularity at the box office in relation to ________.

A) her hair color B) her weight C) her male costar D) her presence in gossip columns Answer: A Topic: The Star Persona Page Ref: 376 18) Lata Mangeshkar's star persona in India ________.

A) thrives even though many fans might not know what she actually looks like B) even though her performances reflect her adherence to Western value systems C) demonstrates how a star’s biographical background influences the way audiences “read” her work D) all of the above Answer: A Topic: The Star Persona Page Ref: 376 19) Gay audiences identify with Judy Garland because ________.

A) there is a discrepancy between her onscreen image and her personal life B) she was not allowed to marry the person she loved C) she had a larger-than-life "campy" persona D) her star persona was not especially feminine Answer: A Topic: Stars and Subcultures Page Ref: 379 20) Al Pacino’s performance as Tony Montana in Scarface is still heralded as iconic in ______________more than twenty-five years after its release.

A) Hispanic culture B) professional working women C) lesbian fans D) gangster rap circles Answer: D Topic: Stars and Subcultures Page Ref: 377

311 .

12.2 True or False Questions 1) For audiences of all ages, James Dean has become synonymous with modern angst and youthful rebellion.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Film Stardom as a Cultural Phenomenon Page Ref: 365 2) Industry economists agree that star culture is central to the economic success of Hollywood.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Stars and the Movie Industry Page Ref: 369 3) Florence Lawrence became one of Hollywood’s first stars after being killed by a hit and run driver.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Film Stardom as a Cultural Phenomenon Page Ref: 367 4) Stars represent a significant portion of a film's overhead costs.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Film Stardom as a Cultural Phenomenon Page Ref: 366 5) A project developed with a specific star in mind in order to showcase his established star persona is known as a "vanity project."

Answer: FALSE Topic: Film Stardom as a Cultural Phenomenon Page Ref: 366 6) Hollywood is the only film industry that relies on stars as an integral part of its profits.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Film Stardom as a Cultural Phenomenon Page Ref: 366 7) The abolition of lengthy studio contracts helped facilitate a growth in independent pictures.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Film Stardom as a Cultural Phenomenon Page Ref: 367 8) Until the 1950s, stars were most often tied to lengthy contracts with a single studio.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Stars and the Movie Industry Page Ref: 367 9) After studying box office receipts of nearly 200 films released in the early 1990s, economist S. Abraham Ravid found a strong correlation between a star's presence and a film's box office gross.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Stars and the Movie Industry Page Ref: 369 10) Silent film comedian Buster Keaton was nicknamed "The Great Stoneface" by fans because of his unusually heavy white make-up.

Answer: FALSE Topic: The Star Persona Page Ref: 371 312 .

11) Studying how The Wrestler exploits actor Mickey Rourke’s decaying looks demonstrates how audiences can respond to a performance on two levels: on the level of the diegesis and in the context of a star’s personal history.

Answer: TRUE Topic: The Star Persona

Page Ref: 373

12.3 Short Answer Essay Questions 1) Occasionally writers, directors, and producers design a project specifically with a particular star in mind, hoping to capitalize on audience expectations. What are these projects called and why?

Answer: Such projects are called “star vehicles,” because they showcase that star’s persona—a vehicle to be driven by the star.

Topic: Film Stardom as a Cultural Phenomenon Page Ref: 366 2) How do recent studies question the economic logic of spending so much money to secure performances from big stars?

Answer: There is virtually no correlation between a star’s presence and a film’s box office gross.

The star may impact the opening of a film but not the long term box office receipts.

Topic: Stars and the Movie Industry Page Ref: 369 3) Richard Dyer argues that a star’s image is constructed across four different public arenas.

What are those “arenas”?

Answer: Films, promotion, publicity, and commentary.

Topic: The Star Persona Page Ref: 371 4) By the 1920s, slenderness became the key physical standard of beauty, thus filmmakers began casting slim actors and actresses in lead roles. Actresses in particular were bound by clauses in their studio contracts, which required them to maintain a particular weight and size. What was the cultural impetus for this change of attitude and appearance?

Answer: America’s first fitness craze in the 1920s took hold, suddenly popularizing slenderness and visible musculature.

Topic: Stardom and Ideology Page Ref: 376 5) Explain how Bette Davis’s career demonstrates how the star phenomenon depends on collapsing an actor’s private life into her performances.

Answer: Publicity emphasized her independence, which complemented the strong-willed characters she tended to play.

Topic: The Star Persona Page Ref: 374 6) Describe Indian star Lata Mangeshkar’s unusual star persona.

Answer: She never appears onscreen; she’s a famous Bollywood singer.

Topic: Stardom and Ideology Page Ref: 376 313 .

7) Explain how publicity played a part in generating the public’s interest in Jennifer Anniston’s performance in The Break-Up. Answer: The film’s plot mirrored Anniston’s own breakup with Brad Pitt; viewers read the film as being “about” Anniston’s own romantic troubles.

Topic: The Star Personal Page Ref: 373

12.4 Essay Questions 1) Explain how one of these figures demonstrates the way the star persona collapses the boundary between performance and biography: Jodie Foster, Mickey Rourke, or Jennifer Anniston Answer: Students should discuss how the parts these actors have played parallel the way audiences perceive their personal lives.

Topic: Film Stardom as a Cultural Phenomenon Page Ref: 367-380 2) Using Al Pacino’s performance in Scarface or Judy Garland as examples, explain how some stars might appeal to a subculture, which responds to the star differently than the way mainstream audiences do.

Answer: Answers will vary Topic: Stars and Subcultures Page Ref: 377-380

314 .

Test Bank Chapter 13 13.1 Multiple Choice Questions 1) The origin of the term "genre" can be traced back to ________.

A) ancient Greek Philosophy B) post-war French film criticism C) 19th century American literary theory D) Shakespeare Answer: A Topic: Genre Page Ref: 382 2) Smaller clusters of films within a genre in which additional conventions come into play are called ________.

A) microgenres B) neogenres C) subgenres D) intergenres Answer: C Topic: What Makes a Genre?

Page Ref: 385 3) Alien uses the narrative conventions of the ________ genre but employs the visual iconography of the ________ genre.

A) horror/science-fiction B) western/horror C) horror/film noir D) science-fiction/paranoid conspiracy Answer: A Topic: What Makes a Genre?

Page Ref: 385 4) The ________ genre deals chiefly with the tensions between the freedom the wilderness represents and the security promised by civilization.

A) Action B) Western C) Sci-fi D) Disaster Answer: B Topic: Major American Genres Page Ref: 388

315 .

5) The “final girl” is a familiar character type, which appears in many ___________.

A) Westerns B) science fiction films C) horror films D) screwball comedies Answer: C Topic: What Makes a Genre? Page Ref: 383 6) The convention which ties Brokeback Mountain most closely to the Western genre is ________.

A) the visual convention of the lead characters with six-shooters and rifles.

B) the depiction of a romance that spans several decades C) the idea that the remote Western landscape represents unbridled freedom D) a protagonist unable to commit to a traditional relationship Answer: C Topic: Major American Genres Page Ref: 389 7) Most film historians link film noir's initial popularity with a period of cultural cynicism and dark mood following America's involvement in ________.

A) World War I B) World War II C) The Cold War D) The Vietnam War Answer: B Topic: Major American Genres Page Ref: 389 8) Paranoid conspiracy films are generally set ________.

A) in creepy, remote locations B) in suburban America C) in crowded urban centers D) in Washington D.C. Answer: C Topic: Major American Genres Page Ref: 394 9) The genre of ________ films are united by a thematic interest in the relationship between technology and humanity.

A) science fiction B) action C) neo-noir D) paranoid conspiracy Answer: A Topic: Major American Genres Page Ref: 395

316 .

10) Many science fiction films are based off of the myth of ________ in which man trades his eternal soul for knowledge, then learns that knowledge divorced from wisdom is destructive.

A) Sisyphus B) Oedipus C) Faust D) Icarus Answer: C Topic: Major American Genres Page Ref: 396 11) In a(n) ________ musical, characters with no professional connection to music or the stage spontaneously break out into song.

A) integrated B) backstage C) inter-textual D) classical Answer: A Topic: Major American Genres Page Ref: 398 12) The musical reached its creative and economic peak during ________.

A) the early 1970s B) the early 1920s C) the late 1940s D) the mid 1980s Answer: C Topic: Major American Genres Page Ref: 399 13) _________________ films like Alien fuse the conventions of two or more genres.

A) multi-generic B) revisionist C) deconstructive D) hybrid Answer: D Topic: What Makes a Genre?

Page Ref: 384 14) For critics like Richard Dyer and Robin Wood, who define genre in terms of theme more than visual conventions, the horror film is inevitably interested ________________.

A) the stark difference between good and evil B) how the monster represents the feelings the protagonist represses C) the conflict between scientific rationality and the chaos of nature D) how humans allow themselves to be consumed by fantasies of grandeur Answer: B Topic: What Makes a Genre?

Page Ref: 387

317 .

15) One reason Hollywood studios liked producing genre films is because ________.

A) they could reuse sets B) they could easily dub them for overseas exhibition C) they would succeed overseas, since genre films were uniquely American D) all of these Answer: A Topic: Major American Genres Page Ref: 401 16) Most film critics didn't value genre films until the 1960s because ________.

A) they associated these films with mass-production practices B) they were turned off by the often gory violence C) this was the era when sophisticated revisionist films became popular D) all of these Answer: A Topic: Major American Genres Page Ref: 401 17) Critics like Robert Warshow and Judith Hess Wright argue that genre films are a modern mythology because ________.

A) as a mass-produced form of entertainment, they can reflect and/or influence cultural beliefs B) a genre's character types are larger than life, idolized by children and adults alike C) the most important genres (e.g.,the Western, the screwball comedy, science fiction) repeat storylines that grow directly out of classical Greek narratives D) like classical myths, they provide directors a standard template to work with but allow room for the "storyteller's" individual input Answer: A Topic: Using Genre to Interpret Films Page Ref: 402 18) When a film radically modifies a genre's conventions, critics refer to it as ________.

A) hybrid B) nostalgic C) revisionist D) complementary Answer: C Topic: Using Genre to Interpret Films Page Ref: 402 19) Studying genre films from an auteurist approach would involve ________.

A) looking at how acclaimed directors lose their personal vision when they are forced to work within a genre B) looking at how acclaimed directors assert a personal vision even while working within a genre C) looking at how and why some studios became associated with particular genres D) looking at how audience appeal has the power the shape the evolution of film genres Answer: B Topic: Using Genre to Interpret Films Page Ref: 404

318 .

20) In his review of Martin Scorsese's New York, New York, Richard Combs argues that the film is a success because ________.

A) it drew audiences back to the once-forgotten musical B) it allowed Scorsese to explore themes he was unable to consider in the gangster film (the genre Scorsese is most closely associated with) C) it allowed Scorsese to pay homage to studio-era directors whom he admired D) Scorsese was able to pursue his unique interest in self-destructive masculinity Answer: D Topic: Using Genre to Interpret Films Page Ref: 405 21) Rick Altman equates a genre’s visual conventions with a sentence’s _________________; just as we know that some words don’t logically work together, we also sense that a menacing castle doesn’t fit in the Western.

A) punctuation B) semantics C) linguistic arrangement D) structure Answer: B Topic: The Interdisciplinary Roots of Genre Theory Page Ref: 390 22) Avatar fuses science fiction with the syntax of ________________________.

A) the paranoid conspiracy film B) the horror film C) the gangster film D) the Western Answer: D Topic: The Interdisciplinary Roots of Genre Theory Page Ref: 390

13.2 True or False Questions 1) Genres play a significant role in shaping audience expectations.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Genre Page Ref: 381 2) To be included within a given genre, a film must exhibit all of the characteristics and conventions associated with that genre.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Genre Page Ref: 382 3) The convention of the teen or young adult protagonist in the horror genre has been standard since the classic horror films of the 1930s.

Answer: FALSE Topic: What Makes a Genre?

Page Ref: 383 4) In addition to sharing similar narrative characteristics, films from the same genre often exhibit the same visual and sound techniques.

Answer: TRUE 319 .

Topic: What Makes a Genre?

Page Ref: 383

5) Cultural resonance of genres such as the Western (closely identified with America ideology) and the samurai film (closely identified with Japanese ideology) greatly limit their appeal to international audiences.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Major American Genres Page Ref: 391 6) Unlike the common criminals they pursue, hard-boiled detectives patiently work through mysteries as if they were games of cat and mouse rather than relying on physical stamina to catch their opponents.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Major American Genres Page Ref: 392 7) Science fiction films usually explore the dangers of scientific inquiry and suggest that the most advanced societies are those that repudiate technology.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Major American Genres Page Ref: 396 8) In an integrated musical, characters with no professional connection to music or the stage spontaneously break out into song.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Major American Genres Page Ref: 399 9) One reason Hollywood studios liked producing genre films is because they could reuse sets.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Major American Genres Page Ref: 401 10) One drawback of the genre films is that their adherence to fixed conventions prevents them from addressing contemporary concerns.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Genre as Culturally Responsive Artifacts

Page Ref: 404

13.3 Short Answer Questions 1) Genre films share narrative, stylistic, and thematic characteristics called ________.

Answer: conventions Topic: Genre Page Ref: 382 2) Describe how the "monsters" of the horror genre changed during the 1960s .

Answer: moved from fantastic monsters (vampires, werewolves, etc.) to humanized monsters (serial killers, zombies, etc.)

Topic: What Makes a Genre?

Page Ref: 385 3) Identify two characteristics of the Western narrative.

320 .

Answer: (could include) plot events: build to climactic shootout; villains terrorize a town, etc; character types: outsider male hero, brutal male villain; etc. See textbook for more examples.

Topic: Major American Genres Page Ref: 388-391 4) In a sentence, explain why most film critics didn't value genre films until the 1960s.

Answer: Critics associated genre films with studio mass-production practices--they connoted mindless, homogeneous entertainment.

Topic: Major American Genres Page Ref: 401 5) Why did American audiences embrace the film noir, with its dark moodiness that marked a dramatic departure from the lavish spectacle and optimism characteristic of Hollywood films in the 1930s?

Answer: It reinforced the suppressed cynicism that followed America’s involvement in World War II, which revealed the industrialized slaughter of the war.

Topic: Major American Genres Page Ref: 392 6) What international film movement helped influence the visual conventions of the horror film?

Answer: German Expressionism Topic: What Makes a Genre?

Page Ref: 384 7) What’s the difference between the way audiences respond to violence in horror films and the way they respond to violence in action films?

Answer: Horror films use violence to scare; action films use violence as choreographed spectacle that helps develop characters 8) What is the relationship between rationality and emotions in most science fiction films?

Answer: Characters must learn to find the balance between the two.

Topic: The Science Fiction Film Page Ref: 396 9) Explain the difference between the backstage musical and the integrated musical.

Answer: Backstage musicals link the song and dance routines to the characters’ careers as entertainers; integrated musicals feature characters who spontaneously breakout in song.

Topic: The Musical Page Ref: 399 10) In a sentence, explain Robert Warshow’s argument about the Western’s relationship to the status quo.

Answer: The cowboy reflects the United States’ heritage of valuing independence and strength.

Topic: Genre and the Status Quo Page Ref: 402 11) How did Alfred Hitchcock upset audience expectations in North By Northwest?

Answer: By staging a suspenseful attack on the protagonist in the middle of nowhere on a sunny day, rather than adhering to the cliché of setting the scene in a dark alleyway.

Topic: Genre and Film Authorship Page Ref: 404

13.4 Essay Questions 321 .

1) Identify and explain two approaches a film scholar might adopt when studying a genre.

Answer: Genre film and aesthetic appeal; genre and the status quo; genres as culturally responsive artifacts; genre and film authorship.

Topic: Using Genre to Interpret Films Page Ref: 401-405 2) What role do the conventions of a genre play in its relationship with its audience? Why might a filmmaker choose to stick to those conventions? Why might that filmmaker choose to go against those conventions? How might this effect audience response?

Answer: Students should discuss the fact that audiences to some extent enjoy knowing what is going to happen, based off of the conventions they have experienced that make up a given genre and that a filmmaker would choose to please an audience and fulfill these expectations.

Conversely, a filmmaker may choose to surprise an audience by going against these expectations, the reception of which could be either positive or negative.

Topic: Genre Page Ref: 382-403 3) Using a film that has been screened in class, discuss the difference between Rick Altman’s concept of semantics and syntax.

Answer: Answers will vary.

Topic: The Interdisciplinary Roots of Genre Theory Page Ref: 390-491

4) Using the horror film as an example, explain how a genre might be studied as a culturally responsive artifact.

Answer: Students should discuss how the conventions have evolved to reflect shifting cultural fears; the changing shape of the monster suggests the changing nature of our shared anxieties.

Topic: Genre as Culturally Responsive Artifacts

322 .

Page Ref: 403-4

Test Bank Chapter 14 14.1 Multiple Choice Questions 1) Auteur theory proposes that the ________ is the primary creative source for a film.

A) star B) screenwriter C) producer D) director Answer: D Topic: Film Authorship Page Ref: 408 2) ________ would be considered an auteur.

A) John Wayne B) John Ford C) Andre Sarris D) Pauline Kael Answer: B Topic: Film Authorship Page Ref: 408 3) Auteur theory emerged from the culture of ________.

A) post-WWII France B) wartime Italy C) pre-WWII Germany D) post-WWII Great Britain Answer: A Topic: The Idea of the Auteur Page Ref: 408 4) Cahiers du Cinema is/was ________.

A) an influential film journal B) an important production company C) a famous movie theater in Paris D) the official association of French film critics Answer: A Topic: The Idea of the Auteur Page Ref: 408 5) Auteur theory emerged from French film critics' study of ________.

A) American literature B) Japanese cinema C) American cinema D) Japanese literature Answer: C Topic: The Idea of the Auteur Page Ref: 409

323 .

6) Early auteur critics championed ________.

A) directors working within the Hollywood studio system B) directors making internationally recognized European "art films" C) screenplay adaptations of literary classics D) stars acting in adaptations of literary classics Answer: A Topic: The Idea of the Auteur Page Ref: 409 7) Which of the following would NOT be used as a criterion to evaluate the work of an auteur according to the American version of the theory?

A) the auteur's demonstrated ability to change her thematic and stylistic approach from one film to the next B) technical competence C) the auteur's recognizable and consistent "personality" from film to film D) an "interior meaning" evident from film to film Answer: A Topic: The Idea of the Auteur Page Ref: 408-409 8) Who among the following was NOT a vocal advocate auteur theory?

A) Andrew Sarris B) Pauline Kael C) François Truffaut D) André Bazin Answer: B Topic: The Idea of the Auteur Page Ref: 409 9) In the marketing campaign for the film United 93, Paul Greengrass was characterized as a (an) ________ writer/director.

A) compassionate and socially aware B) exploitative "badboy" C) sterile and objective D) politically liberal Answer: A Topic: Auteur as Marketing Strategy Page Ref: 410 10) Alfred Hitchcock's career epitomized the director as auteur because ________.

A) his studio gave him complete control over his own features following the success of Rear Window B) he was an artistic genius who flouted the profit-oriented studio system C) he became famous for making adaptations of critically acclaimed literature D) he used his celebrity status to market his films Answer: D Topic: Auteur as Marketing Strategy Page Ref: 412

324 .

11) Universal released a "director's cut" of Orson Welles’s ________ in 1998, basing the changes to the original release on notes outlined by the director in a detailed memo written to the studio written before the film's original release.

A) Psycho B) Touch of Evil C) American Graffiti D) Close Encounters of the Third Kind Answer: B Topic: Auteur as Marketing Strategy Page Ref: 412 12) What director best exemplifies Tim Corrigan’s argument of how Hollywood’s blockbuster approach to filmmaking has exploited the concept of the auteur?

A) Alfred Hitchcock B) George Lucas C) Orson Welles D) Martin Scorsese Answer: B Topic: Auteur as Marketing Strategy Page Ref: 413 13) Osumane Sembene turned to filmmaking in part because ________.

A) he realized many of his fellow Senegalese were illiterate B) he wanted to become a part of the thriving Senegalese film industry C) he wanted to bring the great works of Senegalese literature to the screen D) all of these Answer: A Topic: Using the Auteur Approach to Interpret and Evaluate Films Page Ref: 417 14) Japanese auteur Akira Kurosawa made a name for himself internationally with the release of ___________________.

A) Chunking Express B) Moolaadé C) Rashomon D) gendai-geki Answer: C Topic: The Consistency Thesis Page Ref: 416 15) Critic Jonathan Rosenbaum states that Universal Studios agreed to the idea of restoring Welle’s Touch of Evil to ________.

A) emphasize the collaboration with his cinematographer B) show Welle’s artistic vision C) “get more value out of an old chestnut” for financial gain D) none of the above Answer: C Topic: Auteur as Marketing Strategy Page Ref: 412

325 .

16) The early auteur critics did NOT ________.

A) extol the work of French writer-directors B) argue for the artistry of Hollywood directors C) disparage Hollywood films as assembly-line mass entertainment D) argue that directors should be viewed as authors of their own films Answer: C Topic: The Idea of the Auteur Page Ref: 408 17) What American film critic is chiefly responsible for popularizing auteur theory in the United States?

A) Pauline Kael B) John Simon C) Wes Anderson D) Andrew Sarris Answer: D Topic: The Idea of the Auteur Page Ref: 409 18) The case of Ousmane Sembene demonstrates how the auteur critic can ______________________.

A) look at how atypical films fit into the director’s ouvre B) consider how biographical details influence a director’s work C) argue that the auteur can exist only in a non-industrialized film culture D) study the tension between a filmmaker’s national origin and the style he develops to cultivate an international audience Answer: B Topic: Studying Biographical Influence Page Ref: 417 19) The promotional materials for United 93 neglected to mention the fact that the film's director, Paul Greengrass had ________.

A) directed a spy thriller that trades on excitement generated by violence B) directed an earlier version of the film as a student filmmaker C) directed an romantic comedy that contained a sub-plot about terrorism D) directed campaign ads for politicians who supported the US entry into war in 2003 Answer: A Topic: Auteur as Marketing Strategy Page Ref: 411 20) Studying Kathryn Bigelow’s The Hurt Locker demonstrates how a critic could use the auteur theory to pursue a scholarly understanding of a director’s body of work by exploring the influence of ____.

A) historical circumstances B) another director C) literature D) the screenwriter Answer: B Topic: Using the Auteur Approach to Interpret and Evaluate Films Page Ref: 421

326 .

14.2 True or False Questions 1) François Truffaut favored Hollywood films over the French cinema’s tradition of quality adaptations of literary masterpieces.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Film Authorship Page Ref: 408 2) François Truffaut feared that French cinema of the 1950s was in danger of becoming dull and trite, like American cinema.

Answer: FALSE Topic: The Idea of the Auteur Page Ref: 409 3) While the notion of the auteur is popular among film critics, industry insiders generally do not acknowledge its importance because it creates no additional commercial appeal for a film.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Auteur as Marketing Strategy Page Ref: 410 4) The shift to a corporate entertainment environment in the 1980s and 1990s eradicated the hope that Hollywood could cultivate a culture of the film auteur.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Auteur as Marketing Strategy Page Ref: 413 5) Orson Welles's career illustrates how a director embraced by the public as an auteur could use this popularity to wield control within the Hollywood studio system.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Auteur as Marketing Strategy Page Ref: 411 6) Pauline Kael argued that Orson Welles demonstrates the fallibility of the auteur theory, because screenwriter Herman Mankiewicz is just as responsible for Citizen Kane’s brilliance as Welles .

Answer: TRUE Topic: Auteur as Marketing Strategy Page Ref: 413 7) Kathryn Bigelow is noted as a contemporary auteur for her idiosyncratic romantic comedies.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Auteurs and ancestors Page Ref: 422 8) Kathryn Bigelow’s war film The Hurt Locker reveals the influence of both Sam Peckinpah, famous for his bloody Westerns, and Douglas Sirk, famous for his melodramatic ‘weepies.”

Answer: TRUE Topic: Auteurs and ancestors Page Ref: 425 9) The auteur theory emerged from the cultural milieu of postwar Italy.

Answer: FALSE Topic: The Idea of the Auteur Page Ref: 408 10) Peter Wollen argues that the meaning of any text may exceed the intentions of the person or people who created it.

327 .

Answer: TRUE Topic: The Idea of the Auteur

Page Ref: 410

11) Despite being an animated film, Fantastic Mr. Fox has much in common with Wes Anderson’s earlier live action comedies like The Royal Tenenbaums.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Auteurs and Anomolies Page Ref: 419 12) Wes Anderson’s Fantastic Mr. Fox demonstrates how auteur critics value a director’s ability to explore new stylistic devices and subject matter from film to film.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Auteurs and Anomolies Page Ref: 419 13) Wes Anderson’s obsession with carefully dressing his characters in distinctive clothing is part of his artistic signature.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Auteurs and Anomolies Page Ref: 419

14.3 Short Answer Questions 1) In 1-2 sentences, briefly describe how an "average" director differs from an auteur director, according to François Truffaut's 1954 essay, "A Certain Tendency in French Cinema."

Answer: an average director merely translates a pre-existing work onto film but an auteur transforms the material and makes it her own Topic: The Idea of the Auteur Page Ref: 409 2) Describe (in 1-2 sentences) ONE of the commonly used arguments against the auteur theory.

Answer: See Pauline Kael's complaints (p. 410).

Topic: The Idea of the Auteur Page Ref: 410-412 3) When they were marketing United 93 (one of the first films to tackle the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001), why did studio heads try to hide the fact that director Paul Greengrass had directed two entries in the extraordinarily popular Bourne trilogy?

Answer: They wanted to highlight the director’s earlier “serious” dramas and avoid charges that they were exploiting the events for entertainment.

Topic: Auteur as Marketing Strategy Page Ref: 411 4) Where did Akira Kurosawa develop his unique approach, which emphasized the film frame as a two-dimensional canvas?

Answer: His training as a painter.

Topic: Using the Auteur Approach to Interpret and Evaluate Films Page Ref: 415 5) Fantastic Mr. Fox marked a dramatic departure for director Wes Anderson. How? Answer: For the first time, he adapted someone else’s work and made an animated film.

Topic: Using the Auteur Approach to Interpret and Evaluate Films Page Ref: 419 328 .

6) What two directors have had a profound influence on Kathryn Bigelow’s work, including her film The Hurt Locker?

Answer: Sam Peckinpah and Douglas Sirk Topic: Auteurs and ancestors Page Ref: 421-26

14.4 Essay Questions 1) Describe how Auteur Theory came about. Be sure to note the geographical region in which it developed, the time period and some key figures.

Answer: Students should note the theory's base in post-war France and that it was developed by French film critics/filmmakers interested in American cinema. Notable names that might be included are: Andre Bazin, Francois Truffaut, Andrew Sarris or Jean-Luc Godard.

Topic: Film Authorship Page Ref: 408-426 2) Identify and describe two ways a film scholar could use the auteur theory to study the work of a director. Use an example from a film screened in class to support your ideas.

Answer: Arguing for consistency, situating an aberrational film, exploring biographical influence on a director’s work, and exploring the artistic influences on a director’s work.

Topic: Using the Auteur Approach to Interpret and Evaluate Films Page Ref: 413-428

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Test Bank Chapter 15 15.1 Multiple Choice Questions 1) The dramatic contrast between the press coverage of the independent film Paranormal Activity and the coverage of the epic blockbuster Avatar demonstrates ________.

A) how popular writing about independent and mainstream film tends to focus on budget and profits B) how writing about independent film avoids focusing on budget issues and focuses more on aesthetic issues C) how writing about budgets and profits has fallen out of fashion in the film industry D) how both films draw from conventions of the 50s science fiction films that focused on alien invasion Answer: A Topic: Cinema as Industry Page Ref: 429 - 430 2) From the 1920s through the 1940s Hollywood's industry was dominated by ________ major studios.

A) four B) five C) three D) eight Answer: B Topic: The Changing Structure of the Film Industry Page Ref: 431 3) When a company makes, distributes and exhibits its own films in its own theaters, it is said to be practicing ________.

A) vertical integration B) block booking C) horizontal integration D) consolidation Answer: A Topic: The Changing Structure of the Film Industry Page Ref: 431 4) The practice of forcing exhibitors (theater owners) to rent a studio's less lucrative films in order to get its sure-fire box office successes is called ________.

A) block busting B) vertical integration C) block booking D) bully booking Answer: C Topic: The Changing Structure of the Film Industry Page Ref: 431

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5) In 1948, the Supreme Court's Paramount Decree ________.

A) determined that movies were constitutionally protected from censorship B) determined that movies were not constitutionally protected from censorship C) upheld Paramount's right to maintain a monopoly on film production and distribution D) forced the major studios to divest themselves of their theater holdings Answer: D Topic: The Changing Structure of the Film Industry Page Ref: 431 6) The "Hollywood Renaissance" refers to ________.

A) a period during which major Hollywood studios began investing in and distributing small, independent pictures B) a period during the late 1960s and 1970s when American films became more adventurous C) a period when American filmmakers began to reject classical style in favor of techniques borrowed from international art cinema D) all of these Answer: D Topic: The Changing Structure of the Film Industry Page Ref: 431 7) Which of the following was NOT an effect of the studios' decline in the 1960s?

A) Studios began investing in smaller, independently produced films.

B) Studios limited their investments to a handful of big-budget releases.

C) American filmmaking began to address challenging social and political issues.

D) American filmmaking began to experiment with style.

Answer: B Topic: The Changing Structure of the Film Industry Page Ref: 432 8) Aligning complementary businesses and allowing companies to expand across the entertainment industry is known as ________.

A) expansion integration B) negative integration C) horizontal integration D) diagonal integration Answer: C Topic: The Changing Structure of the Film Industry Page Ref: 432 9) Time-Warner earned massive amounts of money from the release of Batman in 1989, not just from box-office revenue, but also from merchandise sold at Time-Warner outlet stores, from the soundtrack album distributed by Time-Warner music, and by selling TV exhibition rights to Time-Warner cable. This demonstrates the advantages of ________.

A) horizontal integration B) vertical integration C) outsourcing D) runaway productions Answer: A Topic: The Changing Structure of the Film Industry Page Ref: 432 10) When a studio hires an independent firm to handle a portion of production (such as lighting or set construction) rather than using their own employees, this is called ________.

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A) outsourcing B) contracting C) expansion D) conglomeration Answer: A Topic: The Changing Structure of the Film Industry

Page Ref: 434

11) Historically, the highest proportion of labor costs is paid to movie stars in the form of huge fees and _________.

A) marketing kickbacks B) free trips and meals C) percentages of upfront costs D) percentages of profits Answer: D Topic: The Changing Structure of the Film Industry Page Ref: 435 12) A runaway production is ________.

A) a film that has gone wildly over its budget B) a Hollywood film shot outside of the United States C) a film production that has jumped from one major studio to another D) a film that has lost its financing Answer: B Topic: The Changing Structure of the Film Industry Page Ref: 435 13) A film that swamps all competition, in part by the sheer number of prints all in circulation at once is known as a ________.

A) blockbuster B) sleeper hit C) bomb D) vanity project Answer: A Topic: Films as Products Page Ref: 437 14) ________ was the studio-era practice of generating word-of-mouth publicity by opening films in a few premiere theaters before distributing them more broadly.

A) Blockbustering B) Audience shopping C) Roadshowing D) In-house marketing Answer: C Topic: Films as Products Page Ref: 437

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15) The practice of bombarding the public with ads in newspapers, magazines, television, radio, and fast food restaurants is called ________.

A) overflow marketing B) saturation marketing C) blitzkrieg marketing D) overkill marketing Answer: B Topic: Films as Products Page Ref: 438 16) Which of the following films is widely credited with helping to convince Hollywood to open a film in theaters across the country on the same day instead of unrolling films from city to city?

A) The Moon is Blue B) The Godfather C) E.T. D) Raiders of the Lost Ark Answer: B Topic: Films as Products Page Ref: 437 17) The term “mumblecore” is used to describe _______________________.

A) the canon of films before the rise of digital sound B) the first wave of blockbuster films in the 1970s C) a collection of low-budget independent films D) the last remnants of the French New Wave Answer: C Topic: Inventive Voices Page Ref: 443 18) According to James Morrison, the proliferation of ________ ultimately compromises a director's vision.

A) "director's cut" DVDs B) illegal DVD copies from Asia C) unauthorized "studio cut" DVDs D) DVDs featuring poorly transferred images Answer: A Topic: Film and New Technology Page Ref: 445 19) By the late-1920s, the peak season for film attendance was summer because _____________.

A) kids were out of school B) the advent of daylight savings time C) theaters were air-conditioned D) that’s when studios released their best work Answer: C Topic: The Dream Palaces Page Ref: 442 20) The term “bubble” refers to ___________________________________.

A) inflated value of DVDs in the 1990s B) the inflated budget for the average summer blockbuster C) the amount of time between a film’s theatrical release and the time when it’s available for home viewing 333 .

D) the marketing strategy of using websites and viral marketing to advertise a film Answer: C Topic: Film and Digital Technologies Page Ref: 447

15.2 True or False Questions 1) The dramatic contrast between the press coverage of the independent film Paranormal Activity and the coverage of the epic blockbuster Avatar demonstrates how popular writing about mainstream film tends to focus on budget and profits, whereas writing about independent film focuses more on aesthetic issues.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Cinema as Industry Page Ref: 429 - 430 2) From the 1920s through the 1940s, one major studio (MGM) dominated Hollywood's industry.

Answer: FALSE Topic: The Changing Structure of the Film Industry Page Ref: 431 3) Pro-business government policies of the 1980s effectively rendered the Paramount Decree irrelevant.

Answer: TRUE Topic: The Changing Structure of the Film Industry Page Ref: 432 4) Media conglomeration encourages vertical integration on a global, rather than simply national, level.

Answer: TRUE Topic: The Changing Structure of the Film Industry Page Ref: 432 5) The high concept film is the epitome of the art cinema-influenced Hollywood renaissance picture: complex, challenging and ambiguous.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Films as Products Page Ref: 437 6) Due to their dependence on financing from sponsors and investors, independent productions are often less free to explore complex topics and social issues than their major studio competitors, for fear of offending their financial backers.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Films as Products Page Ref: 439 7) Some critics think that video games are partially responsible for audiences’ increasing willingness to embrace the fractured narratives once almost solely associated with foreign art films.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Horizontal Integration Page Ref: 433 8) Hollywood studios make more money at the box office overseas than in the United States.

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Answer: TRUE Topic: Globalization

Page Ref: 434

9) The Blair Witch Project is notable for the way its internet marketing campaign blurred the distinction between fact and fiction.

Answer: TRUE Topic: Film and New Technology Page Ref: 441 10) In recent years the length of time between when a film is released in theaters and when it is released on DVD has grown longer so that studios do not cut short any chance they have to make money off of a theatrical print of the film.

Answer: FALSE Topic: Film and New Technology Page Ref: 447 11) Critics have explored the similarities between the French New Wave and Mumblecore’s ultra low-budget films, most of which have been shot on digital video.

Answer: True Topic: Inventive Voices

Page Ref: 443

12) In 1946, the average American filmgoer saw twenty-nine films in the theater every year. By 2007, that number had dropped to eight.

Answer: True Topic: Film and New Technology

Page Ref: 442

15.3 Short Answer Questions 1) Explain how Hollywood’s production of ideas has been “creatively centralized.”

Answer: Screenwriters who aren’t already hired to write for one of the media conglomerates have a hard time getting producers to read their work.

Topic: Creative Centralization Page Ref: 436 2) When a studio hires an independent firm to handle a portion of production (such as lighting or set construction) rather than using their own employees, this is called ________.

Answer: outsourcing Topic: The Changing Structure of the Film Industry Page Ref: 434 3) In a sentence or two, explain how the rise of the multiplex contributed to the rise of the blockbuster.

Answer: Studios could release a film on more screens, thus generating huge opening weekend 335 .

revenues (and press).

Topic: Films as Products

Page Ref: 437

4) Explain in a sentence one reason why some critics complained that Disney's acquisition of Miramax, a pioneer in independent film, would curtail the independent cinema movement.

Answer: Disney's need to maintain its family-friendly image would conflict with the studio's reputation for tackling controversial issues.

Topic: Films as Products Page Ref: 441 5) Describe (in 1-2 sentences) one reason why the blockbuster mentality made Hollywood movies more infantile by the 1980s.

Answer: To earn a return on investment, studios had to appeal to a broad, general audience that included children and adults.

Topic: Film and New Technology Page Ref: 438 6) Identify one potential economic advantage of the film industry switching to digital cinema.

Answer: (could include) less expensive than distributing a $2,000 print; provides theater owners with more flexibility Topic: Film and New Technology Page Ref: 446 7) Identify one of the institutions that developed in the 1980s and 90s which contributed to the growing profitability of independent film, but which also threatened to water down the movement’s ability to take risks.

Answer: Sundance or Miramax Topic: Two Independent Institutions Page Ref: 440-41

15.4 Essay Questions 1) Define "vertical integration" and "block booking." Explain their importance in the development of the Hollywood studio system.

Answer: Students should provide definitions from the text and describe the ways in which they allowed studios to create a monopoly of the film industry, controlling production, distribution and exhibition and to become economic powerhouses.

Topic: The Changing Structure of the Film Industry Page Ref: 431-432 2) What was The Paramount Decree? What effect did it have on the film industry? Is that effect still visible today?

Answer: The Paramount Decree, passed by the US congress in the late 1940s was intended to break the monopoly the film studios had over the industry and essentially led to the break-down of the studio system and the rise of the independent producer. Students should note that it led to a rise in independent-produced and independent-minded cinema in the 1960s and the 1970s and that the blockbuster films of the 1980s and 1990s, as well as certain pro-business law changes have lessened this significantly. Students may include the ideas of horizontal integration and conglomeration that have come to replace the older methods.

Topic: The Changing Structure of the Film Industry Page Ref: 431 336 .

3) Explore why some critics compare Mumblecore with the French New Wave, even though Mumblecore is closely associated with cutting edge digital technology whereas the New Wave featured filmmakers who loved celluloid.

Answer: Filmmakers in both movements used cutting edge technologies which allowed them to act on their “can do” mentality Topic: Inventive Voices

Page Ref: 443

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