Discovering the Life Span, 5th edition Robert S Feldman Solution Manual

Instructor’s Resource Manual for

Discovering the Life Span Fifth Edition Robert S. Feldman, University of Massachusetts at Amhurst Prepared by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University

Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION CONTENTS Chapter-at-a-Glance

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Learning Objectives

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Chapter Outline

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Lecture Launchers

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Student Activities

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Supplemental Reading

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Revel Multimedia

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Handouts

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CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE Chapter Outline An Orientation to Lifespan Development Characterizing Lifespan Development Cohort and Other Influences on Development

Instructor’s Resources

Revel Resources

Learning Objectives 1.1, 1.2 Lecture Launcher 1.1 Student Activities 1.1, 1.2

Key Issues and Questions: Determining the Nature--and Nurture--of Lifespan Development Continuous Change Versus Discontinuous Change Critical and Sensitive Periods Lifespan Approaches Versus a Focus on Particular Periods The Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture on Development

Learning Objectives 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6

The Psychodynamic, Behavioral, and Cognitive Perspectives The Psychodynamic Perspective The Behavioral Perspective The Cognitive Perspective

Learning Objectives 1.7, 1.8, 1.9

Crash Course: Freud

Lecture Launchers 1.2, 1.3 Student Activity 1.3

The Humanistic, Contextual, and Evolutionary Perspectives The Humanistic Perspective The Contextual Perspective Evolutionary Perspectives Why “Which Approach Is Right?” Is the Wrong Question

Learning Objectives 1.10, 1.11, 1.12, 1.13

Crash Course: Psychotherapy: Humanistic Psychology

Theories, Hypotheses, and Correlational Studies Theories and Hypotheses Choosing a Research Strategy Correlational Studies

Learning Objectives 1.14, 1.15, 1.16

Scientific Research Methods

Lecture Launchers 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7

How to Answer Psychological Questions

Evolutionary Psychology

Student Activities 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7 Experiments: Determining Cause and Effect The Basics of Experiments Theoretical and Applied Research Measuring Developmental Change Ethics and Research

Learning Objectives 1.17, 1.18, 1.19, 1.20

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES LO 1.1

Describe the scope of the field of lifespan development.

LO 1.2

Describe cohorts, and explain how they influence development.

LO 1.3

Explain the differences between continuous change and discontinuous change.

LO 1.4

Distinguish between critical periods and sensitive periods.

LO 1.5

Describe how the study of lifespan development expanded.

LO 1.6

Summarize the influence of nature and nurture on development.

LO 1.7

Describe the fundamentals of the psychodynamic perspective.

LO 1.8

Describe the fundamentals of the behavioral perspective.

LO 1.9

Describe the fundamentals of the cognitive perspective.

LO 1.10 Describe the fundamentals of the humanistic perspective.

LO 1.11 Describe the fundamentals of contextual perspective.

LO 1.12 Describe the fundamentals of the evolutionary perspective.

LO 1.13 Explain the value of using multiple perspectives to describe human development.

LO 1.14 Explain the role theories and hypotheses play in the study of development.

LO 1.15 Contrast correlational and experimental research.

LO 1.16 Explain the types of studies and methods used in correlational research.

LO 1.17 Analyze how experiments can be used to determine cause and effect.

LO 1.18 Explain how theoretical and applied research complement each other.

LO 1.19 Compare longitudinal research, cross-sectional research, and sequential research.

LO 1.20 Describe some ethical issues that affect psychological research.

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CHAPTER OUTLINE MODULE 1.1 – BEGINNINGS I.

An Orientation to Lifespan Development A. Characterizing Lifespan Development: The Scope of the Field 1. Topical areas in lifespan development include: a. Physical development b. Cognitive development c. Personality development d. Social development 2. Age ranges and individual differences a. The lifespan is usually divided into broad age ranges, such as infancy and toddlerhood, adolescence, or late adulthood b. Individual differences in rate of maturation, timing of significant life events, and so on, also characterizes development 3. The links between topics and ages a. Developmentalists may focus on one area of study (physical development, for example) or on a particular age range (emerging adulthood, for example) B. Cohort and Other Influences on Development: Developing with Others in a Social World 1. A cohort refers to a group of people born at around the same time in the same place a. Cohort effects are a type of history-graded influence i. This refers to biological or environmental influences associated with a historical event b. Age-graded influences are similar for people in a particular age group c. Sociocultural-graded influences influence a particular person at a particular time d. Non-normative life events are specific, atypical events that affect an individual II. Key Issues and Questions: Determining the Nature—and Nurture—of Lifespan Development A. Continuous Change Versus Discontinuous Change 1. Gradual development, or distinct steps and stages?

B. Critical and Sensitive Periods: Gauging the Impact of Environmental Events 1. Critical period: A specific time during development when an event has its greatest consequences 2. Sensitive period: A period of susceptibility to stimuli, but absence of those stimuli is not dire C. Lifespan Approaches Versus a Focus on Particular Periods 1. Significant events happen to people across the entire range of the lifespan 2. Those events represent the complex interaction of social, biological, cultural, and other forces D. The Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture on Development 1. Nature represents genetics and inheritance a. Maturation is the predetermined unfolding of genetic information 2. Nurture represents the influence of environmental factors on development 3. Nature and nurture represent poles of a continuum rather than forces in opposition 4. Nature influences nurture, and nurture influences nature MODULE 1.2 – THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT I.

The Psychodynamic, Behavioral, and Cognitive Perspectives A. The Psychodynamic Perspective: Focusing on the Inner Person 1. Freud’s psychoanalytic theory a. Behavior is motivated by inner forces outside of conscious awareness and control b. Personality is composed of the id, ego, and superego c. Children pass through stages of psychosexual development i. Fixation at a particular stage is a possibility 4 .

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2. Erikson’s psychosocial theory a. Psychosocial development reflects changes in our interactions with and understanding of others i. Eight stages of development across the entire lifespan 3. Assessing the psychodynamic perspective a. Lack of research validation for many psychoanalytic concepts b. A focus on men to the exclusion of women c. Difficult to make predictions based on theory B. The Behavioral Perspective: Focusing on Observable Behavior 1. Classical Conditioning: Stimulus Substitution a. An organism learns to respond in a particular way to a neutral stimulus 2. Operant conditioning a. A voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by consequences i. Behavior modification applies these principles in a variety of contexts 3. Social-cognitive learning theory: Learning through imitation a. Observation of a model provides information about how the observers should behave 4. Assessing the behavioral perspective a. Significant contributions, but internal dissension among theorists i. Conditioning approaches can be at odds with observational approaches C. The Cognitive Perspective: Examining the Roots of Understanding 1. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development a. Changes in quality and quantity of information occur during a fixed set of stages b. Assimilation ad accommodation are the primary principles driving the theory 2. Assessing Piaget’s theory a. Enormous influence, but some cracks in the theory i. Some skills emerge earlier in development than Piaget predicted ii. Cultural variations need to be understood and appreciated iii. Cognitive development may not be as discontinuous as Piaget proposed 3. Information processing approaches a. A focus on encoding, storage, and retrieval of information b. Quantitative changes in development take precedence over qualitative changes c. Neo-Piagetian approaches hybridize the best of classical Piaget and contemporary information processing 4. Assessing information processing approaches a. A central part of cognitive theory b. Often ignore a range of other important behaviors, and so offer an incomplete explanation c. Little emphasis on the social context in which cognition occurs.

5. Cognitive neuroscience approaches a. Cognitive development driven by brain processes i. Greater understanding of autism spectrum disorder, schizophrenia, are examples 6. Assessing cognitive neuroscience approaches a. Technological advances open a range of avenues toward greater understanding b. Technology may be providing more description than explanation for various processes II. The Humanistic, Contextual, and Evolutionary Perspectives A. The Humanistic Perspective: Concentrating on Uniquely Human Qualities 1. Growth, full potential, free will, self-actualization, positive regard all take center stage 2. Assessing the humanistic perspective a. Little impact on the field i. Lack of specific predictions ii. Lack of empirical evidence iii. Lack of any broad developmental change produced by its principles B. The Contextual Perspective: Taking a Broad Approach to Development 1. Bioecological approach 5 .

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a. Five interconnected systems (microsystem, macrosystem, etc.) b. Changes in one system affect all other systems c. Cultural context is recognized and incorporated 2. Assessing the bioecological approach a. Tends to be more “ecological” than “bio” 3. Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory a. Cognitive development in a social and cultural context, driven by social interaction i. Reciprocal transaction between a child and people in the child’s environment ii. Scaffolding by parents, teachers, and others, to promote competence 4. Assessing Vygotsky’s theory a. Influential in highlighting the importance of environment, context, culture, social forces b. Biological influences on development receive little acknowledgement C. Evolutionary Perspectives: Our Ancestors’ Contributions to Behavior 1. Genetic inheritance and adaptation to the environment play a central role a. Ethology and behavioral genetics make important contributions to this approach 2. Assessing the evolutionary perspective a. Little emphasis on environmental and social factors influencing behavior b. Experimental tests of long-evolved traits may be difficult D. Why “Which Approach Is Right?” Is the Wrong Question 1. Different perspectives emphasize different aspects of development a. A sociocultural approach can’t be faulted for not offering a comprehensive biological component b. Emphasizing cognition doesn’t mean social development is unimportant i. Eclecticism is valuable in this regard c. Different approaches provide different lenses for understanding complex behaviors MODULE 1.3 – RESEARCH METHODS I.

Theories, Hypotheses, and Correlational Studies A. Theories and Hypotheses: Posing Developmental Questions 1. The scientific method involves three steps a. Identifying a question b. Formulating an explanation (theory construction) c. Conducting research (hypothesis testing) B. Choosing a Research Strategy: Answering Questions 1. Correlational research identifies associations among variables but not causality 2. Experimental research provides the possibility of causal explanations C. Correlational Studies 1. Three ways to explain any correlation coefficient a. Changes in the first variable are responsible for causing changes in the second variable b. Changes in the second variable are responsible for causing changes in the first variable c. Some third variable is responsible for causing changes in both of the other two 2. The correlation coefficient a. Signifies both magnitude (-1.00 through .00 to +1.00) and direction (positive or negative) 3. Types of correlational studies a. Naturalistic observation: Recording behavior as it naturally occurs, without intervention b. Ethnography and qualitative research i. Ethnography is a technique borrowed from anthropology ii. Qualitative research involves narrative description of a set of events (a) Case studies involve extensive interviews with a person or small group (b) Diary studies ask participants to keep a record of their behavior (c) Surveys measure attitudes, cognition, or behavior in a sample drawn from the 6 .

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population 4. Psychophysiological methods a. Electroencephalogram (EEG): Electrodes record brain wave activity b. Computed tomography (CT): X-rays construct an image of the brain c. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): Imaging brain activity in real time II. Experiments: Determining Cause and Effect A. The Basics of Experiments 1. Independent and dependent variables a. An independent variable (IV) is manipulated by the experimenter b. A dependent variable (DV) is a measured outcome c. Random assignment is used to equate participants at the start of the experiment d. Confounding variables are held constant e. Differences in the DV between the experimental and control group attributed to IV 2. Choosing a research setting a. A sample is drawn from a population of interest b. Locations have advantages and disadvantages i. Field studies occur in natural settings ii. Laboratory studies provide a greater degree of control over variables B. Theoretical and Applied Research: Complementary Approaches 1. Theoretical research tests a developmental explanation, with an eye toward advancing knowledge 2. Applied research seeks to provide practical solutions to an immediate problem C. Measuring Developmental Change 1. Longitudinal studies: Measuring individual change a. A single group is measured over a period of time i. Significant investment of time and resources ii. Attrition can be a problem iii. Participants may become test-wise over time 2. Cross-sectional studies a. Different groups of people of different ages are compared at a single point in time i. Takes less time than a longitudinal study ii. Cohort effects are a potential problem iii. Selective attrition can foul interpretation of results 3. Sequential studies a. Different age groups are examined at multiple points in time i. A compromise solution between longitudinal and cross-sectional designs ii. Age change versus age difference can be disentangled D. Ethics and Research 1. Governing bodies and professional organizations establish guidelines for ethical conduct of research a. Protection from physical and psychological harm b. Informed consent c. Deception must be justified d. Privacy must be maintained

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LECTURE LAUNCHERS Lecture Launcher 1.1: Activities for the First Day of Class Humanity: Individually and Collectively Present the following quotation to your students (on a PowerPoint slide, handout, or simply written on the blackboard): Every person is like every other person.

Every person is like some other person.

Every person is like no other person.

Ask students to write three examples of each statement in their notebooks and then volunteer their answers.

Explain to the class that during the semester you will be discussing how developmental psychologists attempt to discover: 1. Universal human qualities over the course of the life span (the first statement); 2. How membership in social groups (gender, religion, ethnicity, nationality, age) affects human development (the second statement); and 3. That researchers cannot definitively know the answer to the third statement because all humans are individuals with unique qualities.

I Once Was Blind…

Table 1-1 in the textbook offers a fine summary of the major perspectives on lifespan development. Share that table with your students as you distribute Handout 1-1, which reprints John Godfrey Saxe’s The Blind Men and the Elephant, a poem found in the public domain.

This poem is a good introduction to why there are so many theoretical perspectives in developmental psychology. As Feldman states in the text, “…the same developmental phenomenon can be looked at from a number of perspectives simultaneously. And in fact, some lifespan developmentalists use an eclectic approach, drawing on several perspectives simultaneously.”

Although the textbook briefly introduces the major theories of development (psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, humanistic, and evolutionary) in Chapter 1, later chapters to go into greater depth on each. You may want to introduce these theories in depth in the beginning of the semester. Some students may be confused by the various theories and an early, in-depth introduction provides more opportunities for your students to understand the similarities and differences among the approaches.

Lecture Launcher 1.2: Biographies of Major Theorists Students often find theories more meaningful and understandable when they understand how each theorist’s life influenced the development of a theory. You may want to supplement your introduction to the various theories by relating germane points from each theorist’s life.

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Freud Gay, P. (2006). Freud: A life for our time. New York: Norton.

For additional information, please explore: https://www.loc.gov/ and search for information on Sigmund Freud Erikson Hopkins, J. R. (1995). Erik Homburger Erikson (1902–1994). American Psychologist, 50 (9), 796-797.

For additional information, please explore: https://www.erikson.edu/ Skinner Skinner, B. F. (1976). Particulars of my life. New York: Knopf.

Skinner, B. F. (1979). The shaping of a behaviorist. New York: Knopf.

Skinner, B. F. (1983). A matter of consequences. New York: Knopf.

For additional information, please explore: https://www.bfskinner.org/ Piaget Piaget, J. (1952). Autobiography. In E. Boring (Ed.) History of psychology in autobiography. Vol. 4. Worcester, MA: Clark University Press.

Piaget, J. (1976). Autobiographie. Revuee Européenne des Sciences Sociales, 14 (38-39), 1–43.

For additional information, please explore: http://www.piaget.org Vygotsky Blank, G. (1992). Vygotsky: The man and his cause. In L. C. Moll (Ed). Vygotsky and education: Instructional implications and applications of sociohistorical psychology. New York: Cambridge University Press.

For additional information, please explore: https://www.marxists.org

Lecture Launcher 1.3: Introducing Developmental Theories Pose these questions to your students: • • • • •

What is a theory?

What is developmental theory?

Of what value is developmental theory?

How are facts and theories related?

What are the main issues of developmental psychology?

Focus the class discussion not so much on methodology, but more on the core issues: What does it mean to explain human development? If development is a process, can we ever explain what’s happening at any specific moment in time? Moreover, if two theories make competing predictions about what happens between Time X and Time Y…can’t we just wait until Time Y and see what resulted? Keeping the discussion at a higher, theoretical level should help your students master the nitty-gritty of specific theoretical approaches.

Lecture Launcher 1.4: How Do We Know What We Know?

Dependence on observation is one of the hallmarks of science, but it is not the only way humans acquire knowledge. There are, in fact, many questions that cannot be answered by scientific methods and for which other means of acquiring knowledge are more appropriate. Begin your discussion by asking students the following questions: • •

How do you know that George Washington was the first president of the United States?

How do you know that you really have a stomach?

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• • • •

What makes you so sure the sun will rise tomorrow?

How do you know the color of the shirt I’m wearing?

How can you be sure that there aren’t little creatures inside computers that are responsible for the things computers do?

Are you sure you don’t have a big hole in the back of your pants or skirt?

Authority is one source of knowledge. We know, or believe, that Washington was the first president because we trust the authority of historians and history books. During the centuries that Western civilization was dominated by the church, the authority of holy writings was believed to be the only dependable way of knowing.

Reason was considered by Renaissance scholars to be the most reliable source of knowledge. If you say, “All humans have stomachs; I am human; therefore, I have a stomach,” you have used deductive reasoning. If you say, “The sun rose today, yesterday, the day before yesterday, and for as long as I or anyone can remember,” you are using inductive reasoning.

Observation is yet another way of acquiring knowledge. You know the color of my shirt because you can see the shirt. You assume that you do not have a hole in the posterior of your clothing because you have not observed stares and giggles from others.

One might use any of these ways of knowing to deny the existence of little creatures in computers. People you perceive to be authorities about computer innards may have told you how they work. You may have reasoned that creatures need nourishment and there is no food supply inside microprocessors. Or you may have looked inside a computer and failed to see little creatures waiting to solve your problems. But there is no way one can absolutely refute the computer-creature hypothesis; so if you want to keep your computer running, maybe you should find out what the little creatures eat.

All these ways of knowing—authority, reason, and observation—are used by scientists, but observation must be the basis for knowledge that is scientific. Science puts greater emphasis on evidence provided by the senses than on the authority of others or reasoning. In short, science relies on empirical evidence.

Lecture Launcher 1.5: Correlation and Causality There seems to be a general human tendency to attribute causality to correlated events. Laypeople, like psychologists, often impose patterns of (apparently) lawful regularity on observed events. Given what is perceived as an “effect,” we search for causes. Events are more likely to be singled out for attention and analysis when they are unusual, anomalous, and discontinuous with our prior experience. When such events are natural phenomena, they are typically relegated to the status of “cause” and then the search is directed toward their aftereffects.

One of the most persistent instances in which pseudo-correlations of behavioral consequences are reported to flow from salient natural and human events is the “baby boom” syndrome. For example, the allegation of increased birthrate nine months after a major power blackout in New York is well known, as is the baby boom in Israel nine months after their war with Egypt.

Invariably, when base rate data are used to compare the assumed “increase in births,” the effect vanishes. That is, when seasonal fluctuations in births are taken into account, there is no unusual effect left to relate to the ninemonths-earlier unusual event. But that does not deter the correlation seekers. Three University of North Carolina sociologists attributed a 1955 drop in Southern birth rates to the Supreme Court’s 1954 school desegregation decision (Rindfuss, Reed, & St. John, 1978). They theorized that uncertain prospects for the future “demoralize” prospective parents (both whites and, to a lesser extent, blacks), causing them to postpone any children they might otherwise have conceived in the three- or four-month period immediately following the decision. The 10 .

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subsequent recovery in the birth rate is attributed to the realization that desegregation would in fact proceed slowly.

Rindfuss, R. R., Reed, J. S., & St. John, C. A. (1978). A fertility reaction to a historical event: Southern white birth rates and the 1954 desegregation ruling. Science, 201, 178–180.

Lecture Launcher 1.6: Damned Lies, Damned Statisticians Joel Best has written an excellent book examining the misuse and abuse of statistics, especially those asserted in the public forum and used for social and political decision-making. The book is a great source of lecture ideas and demonstrations; an anecdote from the introduction will illustrate the kind of material you might draw from.

Best served on the dissertation committee of a student who asserted the following claim in the first sentence of her or his dissertation prospectus: “Every year since 1950, the number of American children gunned down has doubled.” This dramatic statistic certainly attracts attention and would seem to call for strong, unambiguous, immediate legislation of all sorts. But as Best points out, there’s a certain stink hanging over this claim. Let’s say, for example, that in 1950 only one child was gunned down in America. That would mean that in 1951 two children were gunned down, in 1952 four children were gunned down, in 1953 eight children were gunned down, and so on. If this statistic were accurate, by 1965 there would have been 32,768 children gunned down (Best notes that FBI statistics for 1965 revealed only 9,960 criminal homicides of any kind in the entire country). By 1970 the number of deaths would have passed 1 million, and by 1980 it would have passed 1 billion. By 1983 there would have been 8.6 billion gunned down children (more than twice the population of the planet at that time), and by 1995, when this student made this assertion, the number of American children gunned down would have been 35 trillion—a staggering statistic indeed, but for a very different reason!

A little digging by Best revealed the error of the student’s ways. The statement was harvested verbatim from a published article in a journal in the student’s field, but the original statement was made by the Children’s Defense Fund. However, the original statement read, “The number of American children killed each year by guns has doubled since 1950.” Notice that this is a very different statement with a very different meaning: In 1994 the number of children “gunned down” was twice what it was in 1950. Some creative license on the part of the article’s authors (and the student’s lifting of it) led to the combinatorial confusion revealed by Best.

But there’s more to the story. As Best points out, the population of the United States also rose between 1950 and 1994, by about 73 percent. We might therefore expect all kinds of events to increase, including the number of childhood fatalities. Because the population had nearly doubled, the number of childhood shootings (and number of cars purchased, and children born, and television sets bought, and books written, and any number of things) might indeed have seemed to increase just because there were more people. Moreover, there’s some fuzziness about the claim itself. “Child” is a little sticky, given that some Children’s Defense Fund statistics include anyone under the age of 25. Also, “died by gunshot” could include suicides and accidents as well as homicides. Finally, it’s not clear who has compiled the information on these childhood deaths or how the counting was done.

Unfortunately, there are more than enough of these types of statistical missteps that you can share with your students. Use these examples to stress the importance of critical thinking and a keen evaluation of dubious claims.

Best, J. (2012). Damned lies and statistics (updated ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Lecture Launcher 1.7: Theoretical Research vs. Applied Research For fiscal year 2019, about $1.6 billion was requested by the president of the United States for The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). The money budgeted to the NIMH is used to fund psychology research 11 .

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around the country. In broad terms, these research projects can be divided into two categories: basic and applied.

The goal of basic research is simply to expand our understanding and increase our knowledge. For example, a basic research project sponsored by the NIMH may study the function of a single protein in the brain to figure out what it does. The goal of applied research, on the other hand, is to solve a particular problem, such as developing pharmaceutical agents to treat depression. How much taxpayer money should go to basic versus applied research can be a contentious issue. Some feel that basic research wastes money pursuing “knowledge for knowledge’s sake,” and that this money would be put to better use developing treatments for psychological and neurological problems. Supporters of basic research argue that practical treatments often arise from the knowledge gained from basic research, and that applied researchers wouldn’t know where to begin if not for basic research.

After introducing students to the debate over funding for basic versus applied research, ask for volunteers to share their opinions with the class. How would they distribute the NIMH budget? As students discuss the issue, you may want to pose the following questions: When Congress appropriates funds to the NIMH, should it be allowed to specify what percentage goes to basic or applied research? Can the United States afford to fund research that may have no clear benefit to society? What role does serendipity play in scientific discovery?

Make sure students come away from the lesson with an understanding of the importance of both types of research.

For additional information, please explore: https://www.nimh.nih.gov and search for current and past budgets

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STUDENT ACTIVITIES Student Activity 1.1: Perceptions of Aging Distribute copies of Handout 1-2 to your students. Tell them you are going to collect the handouts and save them until you get to Chapter 9 on late adulthood (and then put their responses where you will remember to find them!). You can tell your students that late adulthood is a relatively new area of study in developmental psychology. Those who study this life stage are called gerontologists. The reason it is becoming such a popular field of study is that more people are living longer than ever before. Most of your students can expect to live into their 80s or beyond. You might want to ask the class why they think people are living longer.

Student Activity 1.2: Critical Thinking Exercises Here are a few ways you can incorporate critical thinking into your class.

•

Write a critical thinking question (or several) on the board just before class begins. As students enter, they should take out a piece of paper and try to answer the question. This is useful for motivating them to read the relevant chapter before class if you give them credit for their answers. You can add additional motivation if you tell them some of the critical thinking questions will be on the test. It’s helpful for grading purposes if you decide ahead of time the three or four main points you are looking for in each question.

•

You can choose a critical thinking question as an “exit pass.” Discipline yourself to stop lecturing about five minutes before class ends and pose a thoughtful question related to the day’s material. Students must answer the critical thinking question to exit class. Give them credit for their answers. This is also helpful as a means of taking attendance and preventing students from leaving class early without a good reason.

Student Activity 1.3: How to Think Like a Psychologist Donald McBurney has examined some fundamental principles, vocabulary, and common misconceptions about psychology. Here are a few critical-thinking exercises adapted from his book that relate to Chapter 1. You might also consider making the other titles in the References optional reading, or the basis for an extra-credit assignment.

1. Name several theories of science (or, in particular, developmental psychology) that are “facts” in the everyday sense because they are universally accepted as true.

2. How might considering child development as a puzzle to figure out, rather than a mystery to wonder about, lead one to take a different approach to working with children?

3. How would defining violent incidents operationally help one to study the amount of violence on different TV programs? How would that reduce the subjectivity involved in comparing different programs?

4. If you asked one of your grandparents how child-rearing practices have changed in her or his lifetime, how might she or he explain the changes? What do you think your grandparents would think of them?

5. How does psychology relate to other sciences, such as biology, chemistry, and physics?

McBurney, D. H. (2002). How to think like a psychologist: Critical thinking in psychology (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

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Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e DiYanni, R. (2014). The Pearson guide to critical and creative thinking. Hoboken, NJ: Pearson Education.

Ruggiero, V. R. (2015). The art of thinking: A guide to critical and creative thought (11th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Pearson Education.

Student Activity 1.4: Design a Research Study An appropriate collaborative learning activity for teaching about research methods is to allow students the opportunity to design their own study. Divide your class into groups with the assignment to design a study in some area related to human development. Some suggestions are: What foods do infants prefer? Why are children aggressive? Why do adolescents like to hang out at malls? What methods of quitting smoking are most effective? Why do we fall in love? Does having a pet increase the well-being of elderly people? Groups can also develop ideas of their own.

Using Handout 1-3, ask each group to design a study to investigate the topic of their choice. Groups can share their designs with the class, and other groups can critique the designs.

Student Activity 1.5: Reading Professional Journals Handouts 1-4 and 1-5 are designed to acquaint students with research published in the field of developmental psychology. This assignment also familiarizes students with the scientific method and the tone of professional writing. Students can learn to use computer databases to select topics of interest and find various journals.

It’s even better to have a selection of journals on hand for the students to browse through. This is a good opportunity to have students check out the methods section and determine whether experimental research or correlational research was used. An alternative way of using this assignment is to have students find two research reports on the same topic and compare how each study was conducted. Which study was preferred, and why?

Student Activity 1.6: Understanding Correlations This exercise on correlations can be used as a classroom demonstration or as a take-home assignment following a lecture on the nature and uses of correlations. The student handout for this exercise is included as Handout 1.6. Suggested answers are provided below; however, there are other reasonable explanations.

1.

Positive. Mutual influence. Similar life experiences.

2.

Negative. Orphanage environment has an adverse effect on cognitive development. Intelligent children are more likely to be adopted.

3.

Positive. Violent pornography stimulates violent behavior. Both the violent crime and the number of stores are related to the size of cities. Violent criminals are attracted to violent pornography.

4.

Negative. Absent students miss pearls of wisdom from the mouth of the instructor. Students with jobs or other responsibilities find it difficult both to get to class and to find time to study.

5.

Positive. The money appropriated to control crime was poorly spent. The city grew during the eight years, resulting in more crime and more tax revenues.

6.

Positive. Both variables are related to socioeconomic factors; children from affluent homes have both intellectual and physical advantages over children from substandard home environments. Age is the third variable that accounts for scores on both variables; older children have bigger vocabularies and are also stronger and better coordinated.

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Student Activity 1.7: Reflective Journals Keeping a journal throughout the course is a good way for students to integrate material learned in class with their own lives. Determine ahead of time how often students will hand in their journals for comment. Keep in mind that if students are graded on their reflections, they will make a greater effort to give you higher-quality work. Realize also that it may take a few weeks for students to feel comfortable sharing their lives with you.

Stress that any journal material is strictly confidential and will only be read by the instructor. Note: You might want to assign a particular type of notebook or binder so that you can carry all the journals on the day students turn them in. Use Handout 1-7 to guide the first reflective journal assignment.

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SUPPLEMENTAL READING Bucx, F. (2018). Child development: Theories and critical perspectives. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 10(1), 304–308.

Bukowski, W. M., Laursen, B., & Rubin, K. H. (Eds.). (2018). Handbook of peer interactions, relationships, and groups. New York: Guilford Publications.

Chung, D. (2018). The eight stages of psychosocial protective development: Developmental psychology. Journal of Behavioral and Brain Science, 8(06), 369.

Congdon, E. L., Novack, M. A., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2018). Gesture in experimental studies: How videotape technology can advance psychological theory. Organizational Research Methods, 21(2), 489–499.

Demetriou, A. & Spanoudis, G. (2018). Growing minds: A developmental theory of intelligence, brain, and education. New York: Routledge.

Genovese, J. E. (2018). Evidence of a Flynn effect in children's human figure drawings (1902–1968). The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 1–7.

Illeris, K. (2018). An overview of the history of learning theory. European Journal of Education, 53(1), 86–101.

Kenny, D. T. (2018). Bringing up baby: The psychoanalytic infant comes of age. New York: Routledge.

Lerner, R. M. & Lerner, J. V. (2018). An idiographic approach to adolescent research: theory, method, and application. In Reframing Adolescent Research (pp. 39-52). New York: Routledge.

McKenney, S. & Reeves, T. C. (2018). Conducting educational design research. New York: Routledge.

Mercer, J. A. (2018). Child development: concepts and theories. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Mukherji, P. & Albon, D. (2018). Research methods in early childhood: An introductory guide. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Owen, I. R. (2018). On attachment: The view from developmental psychology. New York: Routledge.

Shelton, L. (2018). The Bronfenbrenner primer: A guide to develecology. New York: Routledge.

Solan, R. (2018). The enigma of childhood: The profound impact of the first years of life on adults as couples and parents. New York: Routledge.

Taylor, S. & Workman, L. (2018). The psychology of human social development: From infancy to adolescence.

New York: Routledge.

Von Tetzchner, S. (2018). Child and adolescent psychology: Typical and atypical development. New York: Routledge.

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REVEL MULTIMEDIA Crash Course: Freud

A brief overview of psychoanalytic theory

1. What did Freud assume about people’s awareness of their own motives, wishes, and desires?

2. Briefly explain how free association and dream analysis contribute to the goals of psychoanalytic therapy.

Crash Course: Psychotherapy: Humanistic Psychology

A brief overview of the humanistic perspective

1. What is the main focus of the humanistic perspective? What points do humanists emphasize?

2. Explain why both humanistic and psychoanalytic theorists agree that insight is the key to self-awareness and growth?

Evolutionary Psychology

David Buss discusses the central elements of this perspective

1. What is the central question asked by psychologists who adopt the evolutionary perspective?

2. Why are survival and reproduction core concepts in the evolutionary perspective?

Scientific Research Methods

Variables, random assignment, and other procedures are discussed

1. What is the difference between an independent variable and a dependent variable?

2. Why is random assignment to conditions necessary in order to reach valid conclusions from an experiment?

How to Answer Psychological Questions

Wondering how? This video tells you

1. Why is it important to select the appropriate research strategy for a question of interest? Provide an example where the question asked would not be well-served by the method used to answer it.

2. Briefly explain the key elements of any two research techniques commonly used by psychological scientists.

Ethics and Psychological Research

A very brief overview of ethical guidelines is presented

1. What primary considerations need to be balanced when planning an ethical research study?

2. Why is deception sometimes necessary when conducting experiments in psychology?

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Handout 1-1

The Blind Men and the Elephant

By John Godfrey Saxe Is mighty plain”, quoth he; “’Tis clear enough the elephant Is very like a tree.”

It was six men of Indostan To learning much inclined, Who went to see the elephant (Though all of them were blind), That each by observation Might satisfy his mind.

The Fifth, who chanced to touch the ear, Said, “E’en the blindest man Can tell what this resembles most; Deny the fact who can, This marvel of an elephant Is very like a fan!”

The First approached the elephant, And, happening to fall Against his broad and sturdy side, At once began to bawl: “God bless me! but the elephant Is nothing but a wall!”

The Sixth no sooner had begun About the beast to grope, Then, seizing on the swinging tail That fell within his scope, “I see,” quoth he, “the elephant Is very like a rope!”

The Second, feeling of the tusk, Cried, “Ho! what have we here So very round and smooth and sharp?

To me ’tis mighty clear This wonder of an elephant Is very like a spear!”

And so these men of Indostan Disputed loud and long, Each in his own opinion Exceeding stiff and strong, Though each was partly in the right, And all were in the wrong!

The Third approached the animal, And, happening to take The squirming trunk within his hands, Thus boldly up and spake: “I see,” quoth he, “the elephant Is very like a snake!”

So, oft in theologic wars The disputants, I ween, Rail on in utter ignorance Of what each other mean, And prate about an elephant Not one of them has seen!

The Fourth reached out his eager hand, And felt about the knee: “What most this wondrous beast is like

https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:John_Godfrey_Saxe

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Handout 1-2 Perceptions of Aging Circle T for true or F for false.

T

F

1.

The majority of old people have substantial memory disruptions.

T

F

2.

Vision, hearing, and taste all tend to weaken in old age.

T

F

3.

The majority of old people have no capacity for sexual relations.

T

F

4.

Lung capacity declines steadily in old age.

T

F

5.

The majority of old people feel lonely most of the time.

T

F

6.

Physical strength declines rapidly in old age.

T

F

7.

Over 25 percent of elderly people live in nursing homes or other specialized facilities for the aged.

T

F

8.

Older drivers have fewer accidents per driver compared to people under age 65.

T

F

9.

Older workers don’t complete tasks as efficiently as younger workers.

T

F

10.

Over 75 percent of people over the age of 65 are healthy enough to complete their usual daily activities.

T

F

11.

Most old people are unwilling to adapt to change.

T

F

12.

Compared to young people, old people take longer to learn a new skill.

T

F

13.

It is virtually pointless to try to teach the average old person something new.

T

F

14.

Older people tend to have slower reactions than younger people.

T

F

15.

Old people tend to be pretty much alike in their attitudes, behaviors, and values.

T

F

16.

The majority of old people report that they are seldom bored.

T

F

17.

The majority of old people live their daily lives in social isolation.

T

F

18.

Older workers have fewer accidents compared to younger workers.

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 1-3 Design a Research Study Working with your group members, design a study related to human development. In doing so, address the following issues: 1.

What is your research problem or question?

2.

Are you seeking to establish cause and effect (an experimental design) or looking for a relationship between variables (a correlational design)?

3.

What are your variables? Is there a need to identify one as the independent variable and one as the dependent variable? If so, what are they? How are the variables operationally defined?

4.

What is your hypothesis?

5.

What major developmental design are you using? Note whether you are incorporating longitudinal, cross-sectional, cross-sequential, or cross-cultural methods.

6.

Who are the members of your population? How did you draw your sample? Will you have an experimental and control group? If so, how are participants assigned to each group?

7.

What data gathering strategies will you use?

8.

Describe, diagram, or explain your research procedure.

9.

What do you think your results will be?

10.

How did you minimize bias in your study?

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 1-4 Professional Journal Assignment 1. Choose an empirical article from a professional journal where the authors describe the purpose, method, and results of a scientific investigation. Some examples of relevant journals in developmental psychology are: Adolescence Aging and Cognition Child Development Death Studies Developmental Psychology Developmental Review Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences Human Development Journal of Black Psychology Journal of Marriage and the Family Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Journal of Youth and Adolescence Merrill-Palmer Quarterly Psychology and Aging Research on Aging Note that not all research articles are complicated reading. As a novice, it might help to browse through the journals until you come upon one that is of interest as well as readable.

2. Identify your article by including a full APA style reference of it at the top of your assignment.

3. Briefly summarize the research article using the headings most common to such empirical reports.

These include the Introduction, which generally states a rationale for the investigation and the purpose of the study. The Introduction also reviews relevant research. Next is the Method section, which includes a description of the participants, instruments, and procedures. The Results section which comes next, addresses the significant findings of the study. Finally comes the Discussion, where the authors summarize the findings and future directions.

Note that in writing an abstract you do not want to reproduce or summarize the entire article. Rather, you want to provide the most salient information as succinctly as possible in each of the aforementioned areas. Further, in some instances you might choose to replicate or incorporate part of the original text. In these cases you MUST put quotation marks around the words you are copying, followed by the page number in parentheses.

4. Type your one-page abstract.

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 1-5 Sample Abstract Oltjenbruns, K. A. (1991). Positive outcomes of adolescents’ experience with grief. Journal of Adolescent Research, 6(1), 43–53.

INTRODUCTION Reports suggest that by the time youngsters finish high school, 90 percent of them will have experienced the death of a family member or friend. Yet, there is very little grief-related literature examining adolescent populations, particularly in terms of possible positive outcomes to grief. Thus, the purpose of this research was to “examine the perceptions of older adolescents regarding positive outcomes, if any, to the grief experience” and “to determine if there are significant differences in responses related to ethnicity, gender, or the personality variable of locus of control.”

METHOD Participants Research packets were mailed to a computer-generated random sample list of 1,200 addresses. A total of 336 individuals returned consent forms and completed surveys; however, only 93 fit the criteria for inclusion in the study. Of these 93 participants, 37 percent were Mexican-American, 63 percent were Anglo-American, 28 percent were male, and 72 percent were female. The age range of participants was 16 to 22 years old.

Procedure Participants responded to the question “What positive outcomes, if any, do you feel were the result of your grief experience(s)? Check all that apply” (p. 47). Seven checklist options were included; for example, “have a deeper appreciation for life, developed emotional strength, and increased empathy for others” (p. 47). In order to measure the personality variable, participants also responded to the Rotter I-E Locus of Control Scale.

RESULTS Results indicated that 96 percent of the participants identified at least one positive outcome. The most frequent positive outcomes were “deeper appreciation of life (74 percent), greater caring for loved ones (67 percent), strengthened emotional bonds with others (56 percent), and developed emotional strength (53 percent)” (p. 48). The less-noted positive outcomes were “increased empathy for others (47 percent), better communication skills (28 percent), and enhanced problem solving skills (9 percent)” (p. 48). Chisquare tests with Yates correction formula were computed to determine if there were significant differences in responses between ethnic groups or gender. No differences were found. However, “significantly more persons with an internal locus of control orientation reported that better communication skills were a positive outcome of their grief experience (X2 = 4.153 [1, N = 93], p < .05)” (p. 48). Some participants added positive outcomes that were not included in the list, for example, “put priorities in a different perspective and made me more independent” (p. 49).

DISCUSSION It is suggested that learning more about adolescent grief reactions, both painful and positive outcomes, can be beneficial for both the griever and helper. It is also suggested that more research be conducted.

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout Master 1.6 Understanding Correlations Correlational studies show relationships between variables. If high scores on one variable predict high scores on the other variable, the correlation is positive. If high scores on one variable predict low scores on the other variable, the correlation is negative.

Showing that two variables are related does not justify claiming that a causal relationship exists. There may be a causal relationship, but other explanations usually exist. For example, the variables may be related because both have a causal relationship with a third variable.

For each of the correlational studies described below, decide whether the correlation is positive or negative, and give two alternative explanations for each finding.

1. A study of married couples showed that the longer they had been married, the more similar their opinions on social and political issues were.

Positive or negative?

Explanation 1:

Explanation 2:

2. An intelligence test was given to all the children in an orphanage. The results showed that the longer children had lived in the orphanage, the lower their IQ scores.

Positive or negative?

Explanation 1:

Explanation 2:

3. In a study of American cities, a relationship was found between the number of violent crimes and the number of stores selling violence-depicting pornography.

Positive or negative?

Explanation 1:

Explanation 2:

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4. A college professor found that the more class absences students have, the lower their grade in the course tends to be.

Positive or negative?

Explanation 1:

Explanation 2:

5. A politician running against a candidate who had been in office for eight years pointed out that violent crime had increased steadily during those eight years even though the administration appropriated more and more money to fight crime.

Positive or negative?

Explanation 1:

Explanation 2:

6. It was found that elementary-school children who made high scores on a vocabulary test also tended to make high scores on a test of physical strength and muscular coordination.

Positive or negative?

Explanation 1:

Explanation 2:

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 1-7 Reflective Journal Exercise 1 Think of yourself at a particular time in your childhood (e.g., age 10). Using Urie Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological perspective, reflect in your journal about the following: microsystem Describe: your family your school and teacher your peer group the media: favorite TV shows, books, movies your surrounding community mesosystem Describe: how your parents interacted with your peers how your parents interacted with your school whether your parents helped with schoolwork how your community supported your school or activities (e.g., sports) exosystem Describe: your parents’ jobs vacations you took whether there was a divorce in your family macrosystem Describe: your ethnic heritage your religious affiliations whether you lived in an urban (city) or rural (country) setting your social class (poor, working class, middle class, wealthy) what was going on in the world at the time (e.g., international conflicts, who was president) chronosystem Describe: how you were impacted by an historical event (such as the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001) or more gradual historic changes (the change in the number of women who work outside of the home)

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Chapter 2 THE START OF LIFE CONTENTS Chapter-at-a-Glance

2

Learning Objectives

3

Chapter Outline

4

Lecture Launchers

7

Student Activities

13

Supplemental Reading

16

Revel Multimedia

17

Handouts

18

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CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE Chapter Outline Earliest Development Genes and Chromosomes The Basics of Genetics Genetic Counseling

Instructor’s Resources Learning Objectives 2.1, 2.2, 2.3 Lecture Launchers 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5 Student Activities 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4

The Interaction of Heredity and Environment The Role of the Environment in Determining the Expression of Genes Genetics and the Environment Can Genes Influence the Environment?

Learning Objectives 2.4, 2.5, 2.6

The Prenatal Period The Moment of Conception and the Onset of Development Pregnancy Problems The Prenatal Environment

Learning Objectives 2.7, 2.8, 2.9

Revel Resources An Introduction to Embryonic and Fetal Development Genetics and Prenatal Development

Family and Twin Studies

Student Activity 2.1

Drinking While Pregnant

Lecture Launchers 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5 Student Activities 2.3, 2.5, 2.6

Birth From Labor to Delivery Approaches to Childbirth

Learning Objectives 2.10, 2.11 Lecture Launchers 2.6, 2.7 Student Activity 2.3

Birth Complications Preterm Infants and Postmature Babies Cesarean Delivery Stillbirth, Infant Mortality, and Postpartum Depression

Learning Objectives 2.12, 2.13, 2.14 Lecture Launchers 2.8, 2.9 Student Activity 2.7

The Highly Competent Newborn Physical Competence Sensory Capabilities Early Learning Capabilities Social Competence

Learning Objectives 2.15, 2.16, 2.17, 2.18 Student Activities 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9

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Are Home Births Safe?

Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e

LEARNING OBJECTIVES LO 2.1

Describe how genes and chromosomes provide our basic genetic endowment.

LO 2.2

Explain the mechanisms by which genes transmit information.

LO 2.3

Describe the role of genetic counselors and differentiate between different forms of prenatal testing.

LO 2.4

Explain how the environment and genetics work together to determine human characteristics.

LO 2.5

Explain how genetics and the environment jointly influence physical traits, intelligence, and personality.

LO 2.6

Describe ways in which genes influence the environment.

LO 2.7

Explain the process of fertilization and the three stages of development.

LO 2.8

Describe some of the physical and ethical challenges that relate to pregnancy.

LO 2.9

Describe the threats to the fetal environment and what can be done about them.

LO 2.10 Describe the normal process of labor and the events that occur in the first few hours of a newborn’s life.

LO 2.11 Describe the major current approaches to childbirth.

LO 2.12 Describe the causes of, consequences of, and treatments for preterm births and the risks that postmature babies face.

LO 2.13 Describe the process of cesarean delivery, and explain the reasons for its increase in use.

LO 2.14 Explain the factors that lead to stillbirth, infant mortality, and postpartum depression.

LO 2.15 Describe the physical capabilities of the newborn.

LO 2.16 Describe the sensory capabilities of the newborn.

LO 2.17 Describe the learning capabilities of the newborn.

LO 2.18 Describe the social competencies of newborns.

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CHAPTER OUTLINE MODULE 2.1 – PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT I.

Earliest Development A. Genes and Chromosomes: The Code of Life 1. Genes are composed of DNA molecules and are arranged in 23 pairs of chromosomes a. Sex cells (sperm and ovum) bring contributions from mother and father to help form the zygote b. Mitosis and meiosis are fundamental processes relevant to cell division and combination c. There are tens of trillions of possible genetic combinations.

2. Multiple births: Two – or more – for the genetic price of one a. Monozygotic twins are genetically identical, and result from a splitting of an original zygote b. Dizygotic twins share the same genetics as any siblings, and result from fertilization of two ova 3. Boy or girl? Establishing the sex of the child a. The father’s sperm determines the sex of the child b. XX pairing is female, XY pairing is male B. The Basics of Genetics: The Mixing and Matching of Traits 1. Dominant and recessive traits a. Dominant traits are those expressed when two competing traits are present b. Recessive traits are present in an organism but not expressed 2. Genotype and phenotype a. Genotype is the underlying combination of genetic material in an organism b. Phenotype is the set of observable traits in an individual 3. Heterozygous and homozygous a. Heterozygous alleles result from receiving different forms of a gene from parents b. Homozygous alleles result from receiving similar forms of a gene from parents 4. Transmission of genetic information a. Phenylketonuria (PKU) provides an example of how the processes of genetic transmission work 5. Polygenic traits a. Combinations of multiple gene pairs are responsible for the production of a given trait b. Recessive genes can be X-linked (located only on the X chromosome) 6. The human genome and behavioral genetics: Cracking the genetic code a. The human genome has been mapped, and found to be smaller than predicted b. Behavioral genetics is a field of study that contributes to these investigations 7. Inherited and genetic disorders: When development deviates from the norm a. A number of disorders are linked to a genetic basis: i. Down syndrome: Extra chromosome on the 21st pair ii. Fragile X syndrome: Injury to a gene on the X chromosome iii. Sickle-cell anemia: Deformation in the shape of red blood cells iv. Tay-Sachs disease: Usually leads to early death v. Klinefelter’s syndrome: XXY chromosome pattern C. Genetic Counseling: Predicting the Future from the Genes of the Present 1. Prenatal testing: Several methods are available a. ultrasound tomography b. Chorionic villus sampling c. Amniocentesis d. Other techniques, such as embryoscopy, fetal blood sampling, sonoembryology, sonograms 2. Screening for future problems a. Genetic testing may reveal present a future problems, and suggest methods for treatment II. The Interaction of Heredity and Environment A. The Role of the Environment in Determining the Expression of Genes: From Genotypes to Phenotypes 1. Interaction of factors 4 .

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a. Multifactorial transmission reflects the combination of genetic and environmental factors 2. Studying development: How much is nature? How much is nurture? a. Nonhuman animal studies: Controlling both genetics and environment i. Useful, but may not generalize to humans b. Contrasting relatedness and behavior: Adoption, twin, and family studies i. Well-designed studies can estimate the contributions of genetics and environment B. Genetics and the Environment: Working Together 1. Physical traits: Family resemblances 2. Intelligence: More research, more controversy a. Correlations among people with degrees of genetic relatedness show a clear pattern b. Genetics cannot wholly explain differences in intelligence test scores 3. Genetic and environmental influences on personality: Do we inherit our personality? a. Correlations among people with degrees of genetic relatedness show a clear pattern b. Accumulating evidence for the contribution of genetics to the Big Five traits 4. Psychological disorders: The role of genetics and environment a. Correlations among people with degrees of genetic relatedness show a clear pattern b. Schizophrenia spectrum disorder provides an example C. Can Genes Influence the Environment? a. Yes b. Active, passive, and evocative correlations have all been documented MODULE 2.2 – PRENATAL GROWTH AND CHANGE I.

The Prenatal Period A. The Moment of Conception and the Onset of Development 1. The germinal stage: Fertilization to 2 weeks a. Shortest stage in which rapid cell division occurs and the placenta and umbilical cord appear 2. The embryonic stage: 2 to 8 weeks a. Ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm start to develop, as do neurons 3. The fetal stage: 8 weeks to birth a. Rapid change and consolidation take place during this final period B. Pregnancy Problems 1. Infertility: Inability to conceive after 12 to 18 months of trying a. Several techniques are available to address infertility 2. Miscarriage and abortion: Spontaneous or planned termination C. The Prenatal Environment: Threats to Development 1. Teratogens can affect fetal development through a variety of avenues a. Mother’s diet: Poor nutrition and malnutrition are concerns b. Mother’s age: Older mothers present a greater risk of birth defects c. Mother’s health: Fitness, immunizations, and a balanced diet are important d. Mother’s drug use: Bad idea; lots of consequences, depending on the substance involved e. Mother’s use of alcohol and tobacco: Another bad idea; FASD and FAE can result f. Do fathers affect the prenatal environment? Yes, via smoking, alcohol intake, or drug use

MODULE 2.3 – BIRTH AND THE NEWBORN INFANT I.

Birth A. From Labor to Delivery 1. Labor: The process of birth begins a. Contractions force the head of the fetus against the cervix, which dilates b. Three stages of labor differ in length and events that occur 2. Birth: From fetus to neonate a. The Apgar scale: A measure of the robustness of the newborn 5 .

Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e

b. Newborn medical screening: A staggering amount of test results are possible c. Physical appearance and initial encounters: Vernix and lanugo make for a creepy looking infant B. Approaches to Childbirth: Where Medicine and Attitudes Meet 1. Alternative birthing procedures a. Lamaze method b. Bradley method c. Hypnobirthing d. Water birthing 2. Childbirth attendants: Who delivers? a. Obstetricians, midwives, and doulas all have a claim to assisting with the birthing process 3. Use of anesthesia and pain-reducing drugs: Epidural varieties produce a variety of effects 4. Post-delivery hospital stay: Deliver, then depart? a. up-and-out is the new U.S. norm II. Birth Complications A. Preterm Infants and Postmature Babies 1. Low-birthweight and small-for-gestational age babies illustrate some potential complications 2. Very-low-birthweight infants: The smallest of the small a. Medical care makes survival possible, typically at a questionable cost 3. What causes preterm and low-birthweight deliveries? a. Maternal stress, age, and health all play a role 4. Postmature babies: Later, larger a. Birth that occurs two weeks after an estimated due date B. Cesarean Delivery: Intervening in the Process of Birth 1. A trend on the rise, spurred by the use of fetal monitors C. Stillbirth, Infant Mortality, and Postpartum Depression 1. Stillbirth and infant mortality: The tragedy of premature death a. Death before, during, or shortly after birth 2. Postpartum depression: Moving from the heights of joy to the depths of despair a. Seems surprising to the mother and others, but not that unusual III. The Highly Competent Newborn A. Physical Competence: Meeting the Demands of a New Environment 1. Reflexes prepare the newborn for survival a. Sucking, swallowing, rooting have adaptive value B. Sensory Capabilities: Experiencing the World 1. Each of the senses shows varying degrees of development upon birth, with greater sophistication than is usually assumed 2. Circumcision of newborn male infants a. Benefits and disadvantages cause this to be a hotly debated topic C. Early Learning Capabilities 1. Classical conditioning: Operative from the time of birth 2. Operant conditioning: Evident very soon after birth 3. Habituation: Primitive form of learning, measured by the orienting response D. Social Competence: Responding to Others 1. The evidence for, and interpretation of, imitation remains a contested topic among researchers 2. States of arousal presage varieties of social interaction

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LECTURE LAUNCHERS Lecture Launcher 2.1: Fertility Traditionally, estimates of women’s fertility ranged anywhere from 2 days to 10 days a month. However, a study by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, found that women are fertile for five days before ovulation as well as on the day of ovulation. Researchers were surprised to find that having sex just one day after ovulation will not result in a pregnancy.

According to the study, the probability of conception ranges from 10 percent when intercourse occurs five days before ovulation to 33 percent when it happens on the day of ovulation. Daily intercourse results in the highest chance of pregnancy, 37 percent. The study had some other findings: There is no evidence that the timing of intercourse influences whether the baby will be a boy or a girl. Also, there is no sign that aging sperm is more likely to produce babies with defects, although the study was too small to support this conclusively.

On average, couples have a 20 percent chance of getting a viable pregnancy each month. However, according to Dr. Allen Wilcox, who conducted the study, “even couples who are very fertile are not fertile in every cycle. We don’t understand why that is.” Results from another study show that women who drink three or more cups of coffee a day reduce their chances of conception by 26 percent. It is believed that caffeine disrupts the menstrual cycle and may lead to early pregnancy loss.

Gaskins, A. J., Sundaram, R., Louis, G. M. B., & Chavarro, J. E. (2018). Predictors of sexual intercourse frequency among couples trying to conceive. The journal of sexual medicine, 15(4), 519–528.

Lara, L. A., Fuentealba-Torres, M., dos Reis, R. M., & Cartagena-Ramos, D. (2018). Impact of infertility on the sexuality of couples: An overview. Current Sexual Health Reports, 1–7.

Russo, L. M., Whitcomb, B. W., Mumford, S. L., Hawkins, M., Radin, R. G., Schliep, K. C., ... & Kuhr, D. L. (2018). A prospective study of physical activity and fecundability in women with a history of pregnancy loss. Human Reproduction, 33(7), 1291–1298.

Wilcox, A. J., Weinberg, C. R., & Baird, D. D. (December 7, 1995). Timing of sexual intercourse in relation to ovulation. Effects on the probability of conception, survival of the pregnancy, and sex of the baby. New England Journal of Medicine, 333(23), 1517–1521.

Wilcox, A. J., Baird, D. D., Dunson, D. B., McConnaughey, D. R., Kesner, J. S., & Weinberg, C. R. (2004). On the frequency of intercourse around ovulation: Evidence for biological influences. Human Reproduction, 19(7), 1539–1543.

Wilcox, A. J. (2010). Fertility and pregnancy: An epidemiologic perspective. Oxford University Press.

Lecture Launcher 2.2: Infertility Contrary to popular opinion, infertility rates are not on the rise. In 1965, the U.S. infertility rate was 13.3 percent; in 1988 it was 13.7 percent. The current infertility rate is about 10 percent, or approximately 6.1 million women in the United States. Although statistically the rates are low (and declining), individually that’s cold comfort for a woman trying to conceive a child. Share with your students some information about ways to treat infertility, such as: • • • • •

in vitro fertilization (IVF) gamete intrafallopian transfers (GIFT) intrauterine insemination (IUI) zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT) intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI)

There are some pros and cons associated with these reproductive technologies. For example, before the 1970s, only donor insemination—injection of sperm from an anonymous man into a woman—was available for infertile women. Today, in vitro fertilization is a common choice where hormones are used to stimulate the production of several ova, which are removed. The eggs are placed in a dish of nutrients, sperm are added, and then the fertilized eggs are injected into the mother. Ova can be screened for genetic defects and fertilized ova can also be frozen for use in the future. Sperm can also be frozen. Unfortunately, few states have legal guidelines for these procedures, and consequently, problems may arise such as: 7 .

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• • • • • •

genetic defects sexually transmitted infections poor records of donor characteristics possibility that children from the same donor may eventually marry use of genetic selection for the “perfect child” use of “surrogate mothers”

Handout 2-1 reviews some common reasons for infertility and various solutions.

Benyamini, Y., Gozlan, M., & Kokia, E. (2005). Variability in the difficulties experienced by women undergoing infertility treatments. Fertility and Sterility, 83(2), 275–283.

Cornell, J. (2018). Infertility treatments. Microreviews in Cell and Molecular Biology, 4(2).

Greil, A. L. (1997). Infertility and psychological distress: a critical review of the literature. Social science & medicine, 45(11), 1679– 1704.

Luk, B. H. & Loke, A. Y. (2018). Sexual satisfaction, intimacy and relationship of couples undergoing infertility treatment. Journal of reproductive and infant psychology, 1–15.

Orvieto, R., Zilberberg, E., Vanni, V. S., & Botchan, A. (2018). A novel approach to infertility treatment of advance-age patient with prominent intramural fibroid. Gynecological Endocrinology, 34(7), 551–553.

Patel, A., Sharma, P. S., & Kumar, P. (2018). Role of mental health practitioner in infertility clinics: A review on past, present and future directions. Journal of Human Reproductive Sciences, 11(3), 219.

Wirtberg, I., Möller, A., Hogström, L., Tronstad, S. E., & Lalos, A. (2006). Life 20 years after unsuccessful infertility treatment. Human Reproduction, 22(2), 598–604.

Lecture Launcher 2.3: Chromosome Abnormalities Students are typically fascinated by the intricacies of prenatal development, and rightly so. It’s pretty amazing that a stew of cells can develop into…well, someone like them, sitting in a college classroom reading about a stew of cells. Unfortunately, this process sometimes goes awry, and the manifestations of those disruptions can take different forms.

Down syndrome, named after the British physician John Langdon Down, who first described its symptoms in 1866, is a disorder in which there is an extra chromosome within the body’s cells. The particular chromosome is associated with the 21st pair, making that pair a triplet. This most common type of Down syndrome is called trisomy 21, indicating “three number 21 chromosome bodies.” The risk of having a child with Down syndrome increases greatly in women over the age of 35 or under the age of 18 who give birth. Symptoms include wide-set eyes with an almond shape and intellectual impairments.

Edwards syndrome, also called trisomy 18, results from an extra chromosome on the 18th pair. Although very rare (there are fewer than 20,000 diagnosed cases a year), it can result in low birthweight, an abnormally shaped head, and clenched hands. Structural defects of the kidney, heart, intestines, and palate are also associated with the disorder. Patau syndrome (trisomy 13) is also very rare and leads to multiple organ defects. Warkany syndrome (trisomy 8), trisomy 9, trisomy 16, and trisomy 22 illustrate that extra chromosomes landing where they shouldn’t can result in a range of impairments.

Other chromosome disorders include Klinefelter syndrome, in which the 23rd set of sex chromosomes is XXY, with the extra X producing a male with reduced masculine characteristics, enlarged breasts, obesity, and excessive height. Another disorder is Turner syndrome. In this disorder, the 23rd pair is missing an X, so that the result is a lone X chromosome. These females tend to be very short, averaging about 4 feet 7 inches in height. They are infertile and tend not to develop the breast tissue and rounded hips typical of other girls in adolescence. Many Turner’s syndrome females have difficulty in learning, especially in the area of mathematics.

And just to complete the alphabet soup, conditions such as XYY syndrome and triple X syndrome (trisomy X, or XXX) illustrate that the normal mixing and matching of XY and XX pairs can easily go awry. Although many of these disorders involve the addition of a chromosome, other disorders, such as cri du chat syndrome, 8 .

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Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome, and other so-called monosomies are just as deleterious.

Lecture Launcher 2.4: In Vitro Fertilization and Multiple Births In 2009, a single mother named Nadya Suleman gained national attention when she gave birth to octuplets.

Dubbed the “Octomom” by the press, Suleman already had six children, with all of her pregnancies resulting from in vitro fertilization, which can carry the consequence of multiple births. Several reality television programs, like the once-popular “Jon and Kate Plus 8,” have also made celebrities out of parents who have had multiple-birth pregnancies using assisted reproduction technologies. All of this attention has caused some people to ask whether children from multiple-birth pregnancies are at risk for developmental problems.

Concern over developmental problems with multiple births focuses on two distinct issues. First, multiple-birth pregnancies are associated with premature births, lower birth weights, and other complications from having multiple fetuses in the womb at once. Because abnormal in utero development can have a long-lasting impact on brain development, multiple-birth pregnancies have the potential to cause permanent cognitive disabilities.

The other issue of concern regarding the development of children in multiple-birth families is whether the strain that so many children at the same age puts on a family interferes with the parents’ abilities to provide a healthy environment. For example, parents may have little time and attention to devote to each child. Furthermore, the financial burdens may cause children to go without toys and other items. It’s worth noting in this regard that “Jon and Kate” are now pretty much “Kate Only,” as the Gosselins divorced in 2009, spurred in part by the pressures fame brought them. Ms. Suleman, the Octomom, subsequently made a living working as a stripper and as an actress in pornographic films.

Introduce the concept of multiple births to students, along with their increased prevalence when in vitro fertilization is used. Ask students to discuss whether they believe children from large, multiple-birth pregnancies are likely to have their development affected in a negative way. Should fertility doctors be banned from implanting more than one or two embryos at a time? Do they feel that children in large families from single births are also at risk? To extend the activity, ask students to respond to this writing prompt: Using evidence from the textbook chapter on development, what are some developmental concerns you might have for children from large multiple births?

Sample answer: Carrying multiple fetuses at once may cause premature births, which increases the risk of learning disabilities later in life. After they are born, children may have very little individual attention. Children with inattentive parents are more likely to develop insecure attachment, which may delay their development. In extreme cases where children do not have access to their parents’ affection, children can develop severe cognitive and emotional problems as in the infamous Romanian orphanages. This, however, is very unlikely to occur unless the neglect is extreme.

Lecture Launcher 2.5: My Mother, Myself Many people feel that their mothers are “a part of them.” Recent findings suggest that there may be considerable truth to that phrase.

Many adults apparently still have cells in their bodies that they picked up from their mothers during the gestation period. Similarly, many mothers still have cells in their bodies that came from their own children during pregnancy. Technically speaking, these “guest cells” are actually the product of stem cells that got planted in the “host’s” body and started reproducing decades later. And, technically speaking, there aren’t too many of them. Some estimates put the number of foreign cells at less than one in a million, a comforting thought for anyone conjuring up images of parasitic offspring or alien-like entities living happily rent-free.

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The meaning of these microchimeras is less clear. There is some evidence that these cells might contribute to autoimmune diseases, although there is also speculation that these cells might confer a health benefit. Because this area of study is relatively young, there remain more questions than answers (such as, what about women who have cells from both their mothers and their own offspring?). It’s comforting to know, though, that in some small way a parent is always with us.

Bianchi, D. W. (2018). The inadvertent discovery of human fetal cell microchimerism. Clinical Chemistry, 64(9), 1400–1401.

Boddy, A. M., Fortunato, A., Sayres, M. W., & Aktipis, A. (2015). Fetal microchimerism and maternal health: A review and evolutionary analysis of cooperation and conflict beyond the womb. Bioessays, 37(10), 1106–1118.

Fjeldstad, H. E., Staff, A. C., Chae, A., Redman, C., Gammill, H. S., & Johnsen, G. M. (2018). 313. Fetal microchimerism in pregnancy and placental dysfunction. Pregnancy Hypertension, 13, S122.

Gammill, H. S. & Nelson, J. L. (2010). Naturally acquired microchimerism. International Journal of Developmental Biology, 54, 531– 543.

Ritter, M. (2003, May 9). Moms, you’ve got a little of your kids inside you. Austin American-Statesman, A1, A16.

Shute, N. (2010, Apr. 3). Beyond birth: A child’s cells may help or harm a mother long after delivery. Scientific American.

For additional information, please explore: http://www.microchimerism.org/

Lecture Launcher 2.6: Epigenetics Since the time of Watson and Crick’s initial discovery of the structure of DNA, geneticists have learned a tremendous amount about how our genetic code determines our observable characteristics (i.e., phenotypes). A great deal of research, however, has focused on changes in phenotype that are not due to changes in the genetic code. Instead, these changes are caused by epigenetic mechanisms that change the way genes are expressed, without changing the genetic code directly. A good example of this is cellular differentiation. Following cellular differentiation in a human body, each cell type performs a specialized role. For example, certain neurons may make the neurotransmitter serotonin, whereas some pancreas cells may make insulin. This difference in function, however, is not due to a difference in the cell’s genetic code. In fact, both cell types would contain the genes necessary to create serotonin and insulin. This means that there must be epigenetic mechanisms that, for example, turn the insulin gene expression on in a pancreas cell, but off in most neurons. In short, these microscopic engines chugging away intracellularly help produce the baby that eventually emerges at birth.

There are several epigenetic mechanisms that have been identified by researchers. For example, one way to stop the expression of a gene is to wrap that section of DNA around a protein called a histone. If a gene is on the section of DNA that is wrapped around a histone, the protein coded by that gene will not be created by the cell.

Another way that gene expression can be regulated is by a process called methylation, which involves the bonding of a methyl group to specific areas of DNA. This methylation does not change the genetic sequence, but does alter the expression of genes.

Although epigenetic changes do not change the DNA sequence directly, they can be inherited by other cells, just as direct changes to DNA are passed on when cells divide. This is why, after a cell has undergone differentiation, all subsequent cells created from that cell-line tend to be the same cell type. Most intriguing, however, is evidence that epigenetic changes can be inherited from one generation to the next. This means that epigenetic changes in a parent may be passed on to a child!

Many psychologists have begun to explore how epigenetic mechanisms might affect the brain and behavior.

There is increasing evidence that environmental factors, such as nutrition and early life experiences, may cause long-lasting changes to gene expression by altering epigenetic mechanisms. In addition, some behaviors may be passed on from generation to generation through epigenetic inheritance. For example, the maternal behavior style of certain rats has been shown to be passed on to their female offspring through epigenetic mechanisms.

Bjorklund, D. F. (2018). Behavioral epigenetics: The last nail in the coffin of genetic determinism. Human Development, 61(1), 54–59.

Dean, C. (2017). What holds epigenetic memory? Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology, 18(3), 140–140.

Goldberg, A. D., Allis, C. D., & Bernstein, E. (2007). Epigenetics: a landscape takes shape. Cell, 128(4), 635–638.

Holt, M. V., Wang, T., & Young, N. L. (2017). Recent advances in understanding histone modification events. Current Molecular Biology Reports, 3(1), 11–17.

Hughes, T. R. & Lambert, S. A. (2017). Transcription factors read epigenetics. Science, 356(6337), 489–490.

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Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e Moen, G. H., Sommer, C., Prasad, R. B., Sletner, L., Groop, L., Qvigstad, E., & Birkeland, K. I. (2017). Mechanisms in endocrinology: Epigenetic modifications and gestational diabetes: a systematic review of published literature. European Journal of Endocrinology, 176(5), R247–R267.

Waye, M. M. & Cheng, H. Y. (2018). Genetics and epigenetics of autism: A review. Psychiatry and clinical neurosciences, 72(4), 228– 244.

Lecture Launcher 2.7: Childbirth Options Methods of childbirth have changed dramatically during the past 50 years. Most current methods are based on the pioneering work of Grantly Dick-Read in England and Fernand Lamaze in France. In 1944, Dick-Read proposed that fear is the major cause of most of the pain of childbirth. He proposed the concept of natural childbirth and developed a method of teaching women about reproduction, pregnancy, delivery, and exercises in breathing, relaxation, and fitness. Lamaze, in the 1950s, developed a method called prepared childbirth where expectant mothers are taught to breathe and concentrate on sensations other than contractions. This is facilitated by a “coach,” usually the father, who attends classes with her and helps time her breathing. Fathers then became a part of the childbirth process, and by the 1970s hospitals were beginning to allow them to go into the delivery room to assist. Now, most fathers elect to participate in the birth of their children.

Although the vast majority of all babies born in the United States are born in hospitals, some women elect to have their babies at home with the services of either a physician who specializes in home births or a midwife, a specially trained nurse. These options should only be used by women whose pregnancies are low risk. Hospitals responded to the home-birth movement by offering birthing centers, rooming-in facilities so mothers and babies are together all day, and sibling visitations. Some women also enlist the services of a doula, a non-medical professional who can provide support during labor (and sometimes afterward, during the baby’s first few days of life).

Lecture Launcher 2.8: Are There Too Many Cesarean Deliveries?

More cesarean section deliveries (c-sections) are performed in the United States than in any other industrialized nation; 32 percent of all deliveries. Reasons for cesarean delivery include: labor is progressing poorly; the mother has had a previous c-section (although many women can successfully deliver vaginally after a previous c-section); the baby is in the breech or transverse position; the mother has an active case of genital herpes; and to avert potential malpractice suits. Some critics argue that the use of a fetal monitor has increased the incidence of c-sections. Babies born by c-section miss out on the stress hormones released during birth (catecholamines).

These hormones are believed to help in the post-birth breathing process. The effects on mothers include the major abdominal surgery involved, which is associated with a longer hospital stay, longer recovery, higher rates of postpartum depression, and a greater risk of infection.

Lecture Launcher 2.9: Benefits of Massaging Preterm Babies Post-maturity syndrome occurs when the placenta reaches its peak before term and calcifies to such an extent that the fetus is not able to be adequately nourished. Babies delivered under these conditions may have dry, peeling skin, appear emaciated, and often spend time in a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). This can be a traumatic experience…especially for a tiny person who’s just entered the world and doesn’t know many people yet! Tiffany Field and her colleagues recognized that fetuses knew how to suck their thumbs, so they gave pacifiers to newborns as they were being given heel-sticks (a way to draw blood for testing). The researchers gave one group the pacifiers during this procedure while another group (the controls) did not receive them.

Those in the pacifier groups cried less, showed slower breathing, and had a slower heart rate. In another study, they gave pacifiers to babies who were being tube fed. These babies were weaned from tube feeding earlier, were easier to bottle feed, gained more weight per day, and were discharged from the hospital sooner.

In her infant massage work, Field built on the technique of an abdomen massage that was being used by nurses in another part of the country. Field and her colleagues gave whole-body massages to preterm infants, being 11 .

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careful that they were Swedish massages because they entailed deep pressure. (Light pressure is likely to be perceived as an aversive tickle. This may explain why other research that had examined the effects of infant massage yielded mixed results: Some studies found weight gain and others did not.) Field and colleagues randomly assigned some babies to the experimental groups that received 45 minutes of massage a day for a 10day period in 15-minute sessions at the beginning of three consecutive hours. The others did not receive the massages. Following the 10-day period, the massaged babies showed fewer stress responses (they were less likely to clench their fists and less likely to show grimacing). They scored better on the Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale and most incredibly, they gained more weight (despite being fed the same number of calories as those in the control group).

This is a great example of applied research that got a lot of attention—after all, think of the money that was saved by being able to send these babies home sooner!

Field, T. (1993). The therapeutic effects of touch. In M. R. Merrens, & G. G. Brannigan (Eds.), The developmental psychologists: Research adventures across the lifespan. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. Field, T., Diego, M. A., Hernandez-Reif, O., Deeds, A., Ascencio, & Begert, G. (2007). Preterm infant massage elicits increases in vagal activity and gastric motility that are associated with greater weight gain. Acta Paediatrica, 96,(11), 1588–1591.

Field, T., Diego, M. A., & Hernandez-Reif, M. (2010). Preterm infant massage therapy research: A review. Infant Behavior and Development, 33(2), 115–124.

Silva, N. D. F., Linhares, M. B. M., & Gaspardo, C. M. (2018). Developmental care approaches for mitigating stress in preterm neonates in the neonatal intensive care unit: A systematic review. Psychology & Neuroscience, 11(2), 117.

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STUDENT ACTIVITIES Student Activity 2.1: The Nature-Nurture Issue: Lessons from the Pillsbury Doughboy David B. Miller uses a cooking metaphor to describe the interactions between genetics (nature) and the environment (nurture). In his metaphor, flour represents genes. He takes four different food items, which represent four different developmental outcomes that all use flour as a base, but that have other ingredients that interact with the flour in unique ways.

1.

2.

3.

4.

FLOUR + SALT + WATER + FRIED IN SHORTENING = FLOUR TORTILLA FLOUR + SALT + WATER + BAKED WITHOUT SHORTENING = MATZO FLOUR + SALT + WATER + YEAST + BAKING = BREAD FLOUR + SALT + BUTTER + COCOA + SUGAR + BAKING = BROWNIE

Depending on how adventuresome you feel, you can demonstrate this lesson in a variety of ways. You can bring in an example of each ingredient (e.g., a bag of flour, a box of salt, some water, a can of shortening, a packet of yeast, some butter, a can of cocoa, a bag of sugar, and perhaps a toy oven) and use them as props to create the “developed” results (e.g., tortilla, matzo, bread, and brownie). You could actually mix some of the ingredients and assign students to finish them at home. Finally, you could assign small groups ahead of time to make the various products and bring them to class; each group must explain how their ingredients relate to real-world human development (i.e., flour = genes, salt = culture, water = health, baking/frying = home environment). Each group must explain their results. Miller suggests that the metaphor of tortilla versus matzo shows how similar ingredients (i.e., shared genes of identical twins) can yield different developmental outcomes (i.e., different personalities, intelligence, and so on) due to different environments (i.e., baking versus frying).

Miller, D. B. (1996). The nature-nurture issue: Lessons from the Pillsbury Doughboy. In Ware, M. E. and Johnson, D. E. (Eds.), Handbook of demonstrations and activities in the teaching of psychology, Volume II: Physiological-comparative, perception, learning, cognitive, and developmental. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. pp. 201–203.

Student Activity 2.2: Conception and Pregnancy Distribute Handout 2-2 before you discuss conception and pregnancy. Tell students that some of the answers are in Chapter 2 and some they will have to find on their own using other sources.

This handout can be used as an assignment to be completed before your lectures on conception and pregnancy or as a review. The answers are: Conception 1. ovary → fallopian tube → uterus → uterine wall (fertilized) or vagina (unfertilized) 2. penis → vagina → uterus → fallopian tube → egg (ovum) 3. possible answers include blocked/damaged fallopian tubes, abnormal ovulation, pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), endometriosis, damaged ovaries, hostile cervical mucus, fibroid tumor 4. possible answers include low sperm count, dilated veins around testicle, damaged sperm ducts, hormone deficiency, sperm antibodies 5. possible answers include surgery, in vitro fertilization, hormone therapy, antibiotics, artificial insemination Pregnancy 1. possible answers include cessation of menses, breast tenderness, nausea 2. Stage 1: Germinal stage lasts two weeks (from conception till week 2), the cells divide and attach to the uterine wall, the baby is called a “zygote” Stage 2: Embryonic stage lasts 6 weeks (from week 2 until week 8), the cell layers (endoderm, ectoderm, mesoderm) form, the baby is called an “embryo” 13 .

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Stage 3: Fetal stage lasts 7 months (from week 8 until birth), all the child’s systems are developing rapidly, the child is called a “fetus” 3. possible answers are see an obstetrician/midwife; eat a healthy diet, including calcium and multivitamin and mineral supplements; abstain from caffeine, alcohol, nicotine, and unnecessary drugs; get plenty of rest; avoid X-rays; exercise moderately 4. amniocentesis—fetal cells are taken via a needle from amniotic fluid chorionic villus sampling (CVS)—samples of hair-like material taken from embryo ultrasound sonography—high-frequency sound waves produce an image of baby 5. possible answers include alcohol, nicotine, X-rays, prescription drugs such as thalidomide, illicit drugs such as cocaine and marijuana, illnesses of the mother such as rubella, influenza, and AIDS

Student Activity 2.3: Hello Mother, Hello Father Ask your students two questions: “What does it mean to father a child?” and “What does it mean to mother a child?” Chances are that responses to the first question will focus on biological aspects of reproduction; “being a sperm donor,” “impregnating a woman,” or “having sex.” Responses to the second question typically emphasize nurturance or prolonged commitment; “raising a child,” “showing attention,” or “being supportive” are likely offerings. Discuss with your students why they hold these views and why they responded to the questions differently. This is an opportunity to discuss sex-role stereotypes, gender roles, and some issues of early adulthood. If your students are a particularly enlightened bunch there may be no difference in their responses to the two questions. In that case discuss what led to their egalitarian outlooks, or why other people might respond differently.

Student Activity 2.4: Buying the Ingredients of Life on the Internet Ask students to use the Internet to explore their options for becoming parents. Have them note the prices paid for eggs, sperm, etc., by visiting several sites that offer reproductive help or reproductive services. You might be surprised—or then again, maybe not—how easy it is to type “buy sperm” into a search engine and get 58 million results.

Pose the following question: How far is too far to go? Ask students what they would do if they wanted to have a child, but could not. (Consider the following possibilities: they found out that they are infertile; they have a genetic condition that has a chance of being passed to their offspring.) You might also share Handouts 2-3 and 2-4 in this context. Handout 2-3 lists some dominant and recessive characteristics that sometimes influence people’s wishes for a “designer baby.” Handout 2-4 lists some common teratogens that can affect prenatal development.

Student Activity 2.5: Sonograms Here’s an easy and interesting way to introduce the topic of prenatal development. Bring pictures of sonograms to class and see if students can identify the various anatomical parts of the fetus. You can easily find examples of sonograms on the Internet; search “sonogram” or “ultrasound” and you should find plenty of samples.

Student Activity 2.6: Infant Reflexes If possible, invite several parents to bring in their babies to illustrate reflexes in the newborn. Distribute copies of Handout 2-5, which lists both survival and primitive infant reflexes. Your students might try to guess the survival value of each reflex.

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Student Activity 2.7: Critical Thinking Exercises 1. Ask students to browse the internet for information on preterm, low-birthweight, and very-low-birthweight babies, and compose an essay considering the following questions: • •

What are the ethical considerations related to the provision of intensive medical care to low-birthweight and very-low-birthweight babies?

Do you think such interventions should be a routine medical practice? Why or why not?

2. Have students investigate the cost of childbirth in their city. These costs should include prenatal care, the hospital and physician or midwife charges, and costs of items for the baby, such as clothing, well-baby checkups, and furniture.

Student Activity 2.8: The Batteries Are Inaccessible, on Purpose You can decide if it’s worth the investment, but…

Several “practice babies” are available for purchase on the Internet. The target audience for these mannequins is typically middle school and high school students, and the intention is for young people to get frustrated with the non-living thing as a means to avoid unintentionally creating the living thing. Mechanical infants that cry, get hungry, get cranky, and are generally an enigma are a decent substitute for the real McCoy, so having one on hand and bringing it to class opens a world of opportunities for demonstrations, discussions, and other active learning.

If you’d rather not spring for one of these yourself, consider asking students about their own educational experiences. Chances are many of them had the “carry the sack of flour around” exercise in Sex Education, or participated in some other form of childcare activity. (Some students might have even been responsible for keeping a Tamagotchi alive, which is close enough in a pinch.) Ask volunteers to share their experiences as a point of departure for class discussion.

For additional information, please explore: https://www.realityworks.com https://www.homeschoolbabies.com/ https://www.fishersci.com/shop/products https://www.a3bs.com to see these and other helpful products.

Student Activity 2.9: Reflective Journal Ask students to interview a woman about her pregnancy; ideally, a family member, but any close friend, colleague, or willing acquaintance will do. Distribute Handout 2-6 as a starting point for their task, and emphasize that the interviewee’s responses should form the basis for the student’s own reflections.

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SUPPLEMENTAL READING Arck, P. C., Schepanski, S., Buss, C., & Hanganu-Opatz, I. (2018). Prenatal immune and endocrine modulators of offspring’s brain development and cognitive functions later in life. Frontiers in immunology, 9, 2186.

Berenbaum, S. A. (2018). Beyond pink and blue: The complexity of early androgen effects on gender development. Child development perspectives, 12(1), 58–64.

Field, T. (2018). Postnatal anxiety prevalence, predictors and effects on development: A narrative review. Infant Behavior and Development, 51, 24–32.

Fitzgerald, B., Boyle, C., & Honein, M. A. (2018). Birth defects potentially related to Zika virus infection during pregnancy in the United States. JAMA, 319(12), 1195–1196.

Grove, K., Lewis, A. J., & Galbally, M. (2018). Prenatal antidepressant exposure and child motor development: A meta-analysis. Pediatrics, 142(1), e20180356.

Klitzman, R. (2018). How infertility patients and providers view and confront religious and spiritual issues. Journal of religion and health, 57(1), 223–239.

Medina, I. M. F., Granero-Molina, J., Fernández-Sola, C., Hernández-Padilla, J. M., Ávila, M. C., & Rodríguez, M. D. M. L. (2018). Bonding in neonatal intensive care units: Experiences of extremely preterm infants’ mothers. Women and Birth, 31(4), 325–330.

Meltzoff, A. N., Murray, L., Simpson, E., Heimann, M., Nagy, E., Nadel, J., ... & Subiaul, F. (2018). Eliciting imitation in early infancy. Developmental Science, e12738.

Powell, L. J. & Spelke, E. S. (2018). Human infants’ understanding of social imitation: Inferences of affiliation from third party observations. Cognition, 170, 31–48.

Reynolds, J. & Cicchillitti, J. (2018). Doulas and midwives: Creating relationships. Women and Birth, 31, S1.

Schantz, C., Ravit, M., Traoré, A. B., Aboubakar, M., Goyet, S., de Loenzien, M., & Dumont, A. (2018). Why are caesarean section rates so high in facilities in Mali and Benin? Sexual & Reproductive Healthcare, 16, 10–14.

Shaw, J. G., Nelson, D. A., Shaw, K. A., Woolaway-Bickel, K., Phibbs, C. S., & Kurina, L. M. (2018).

Deployment and preterm birth among U.S. army soldiers. American Journal of Epidemiology, 187(4), 687– 695.

Shiota, K. (2018). Study of normal and abnormal prenatal development using the Kyoto Collection of Human Embryos. The Anatomical Record, 301(6), 955-959.

Sosnowski, D. W., Booth, C., York, T. P., Amstadter, A. B., & Kliewer, W. (2018). Maternal prenatal stress and infant DNA methylation: A systematic review. Developmental psychobiology, 60(2), 127–139.

Stallings, E. B., Isenburg, J. L., Mai, C. T., Liberman, R. F., Moore, C. A., Canfield, M. A., ... & Forestieri, N. E. (2018). Population‐based birth defects data in the United States, 2011–2015: A focus on eye and ear defects. Birth defects research.

Stroud, L. R., McCallum, M., & Salisbury, A. L. (2018). Impact of maternal prenatal smoking on fetal to infant neurobehavioral development. Development and Psychopathology, 30(3), 1087–1105.

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REVEL MULTIMEDIA An Introduction to Embryonic and Fetal Development

Prenatal development is considered

1. Outline the process of cell division that all mammals experience in the prenatal environment.

2. At what point does an embryo transition to be identified as a fetus? What features need to be present?

Genetics and Prenatal Development

DNA, genes, chromosomes, and their friends are reviewed

1. Why are sperm cells responsible for determining the sex of offspring?

2. How can only 25,000 genes produce the near-infinite variety of humans on the planet?

Family and Twin Studies

Pedigrees, twin studies, and similar techniques are discussed

1. Outline the ways psychological scientists can examine genetic relationships among people to determine the relative contributions of genetic and environmental factors to development.

2. What kind of research design, no matter how unethical, might be used to more definitively determine the roles of nature and nurture in human development?

Drinking While Pregnant

Drinking + pregnancy = bad

1. What factors might contribute to the vastly different reported percentages of drinking while pregnant within a given cultural setting?

2. Why would smoking and drinking while pregnant tend to be positively correlated? How might the factors that contribute to one bad behavior also contribute to another bad behavior?

Are Home Births Safe?

Some pros and cons of home versus hospital delivery are discussed

1. Describe various ways that terms such as “safe,” “likely,” or “unlikely” might be defined, and apply those considerations to the decision to opt for home birth or not.

2. Discuss why “this is the right way to do it” rarely meets with universal agreement when it comes to deciding how and where a child should be born.

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Handout 2-1 Fertility Problems and Solutions WOMEN PROBLEM

SOLUTION

Damaged fallopian tubes Abnormal ovulation

Surgery, in vitro fertilization Hormone therapy, antibiotics, in vitro fertilization

Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)

Antibiotics, surgery, change in birth control methods

Endometriosis

Antibiotics, hormone therapy, surgery, artificial insemination

Damaged ovaries Hostile cervical mucus

Surgery, antibiotics, hormone therapy Antibiotics, artificial insemination, hormone therapy

Fibroid tumor

Surgery, antibiotics

Stress

Relaxation techniques

Tipped uterus, fibroid tumors

Surgery

MEN PROBLEM

SOLUTION

Low sperm count

Antibiotics, hormone therapy, artificial insemination, lowered testicular temperature

Dilated veins around testicle

Surgery, lowered testicular temperature, antibiotics

Damaged sperm ducts Hormone deficiency

Surgery, antibiotics Hormone therapy

Sperm antibodies

Antibiotics, in vitro fertilization

Chronic illness, alcoholism, drug abuse, long-term use of marijuana

Artificial insemination

Pollutants

Artificial insemination

Stress

Relaxation techniques

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 2-2 Facts about Conception and Pregnancy Review your knowledge of conception and pregnancy by answering the questions below.

Conception 1. Trace the journey of the egg in a woman’s body: _________________ __ovary________ → __________________ → ____________________

fertilized

_________________ unfertilized

2. Trace the journey of sperm cells from ejaculation to conception: ___penis________ → ______________ → ______________ → ___________ → _____________ 3. List three possible reasons for infertility in women. a. ___________________________________________________________________ b. ___________________________________________________________________ c. ___________________________________________________________________ 4. List two possible reasons for infertility in men. a. ___________________________________________________________________ b. ___________________________________________________________________ 5. List and define three treatments for infertility. a. ____________________________________________________________________ b. ____________________________________________________________________ c. ____________________________________________________________________ Pregnancy 1. List three early signs and symptoms of pregnancy. a. ___________________________________________________________________ b. ___________________________________________________________________ c. ___________________________________________________________________

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Handout 2-2, continued 2. Name the three stages of prenatal development. How long does each stage last? What systems have developed? What is the developing child called?

Stage 1: _______________

Stage 2: ____________

Stage 3: ____________

______________________

____________________

___________________

______________________

_____________________

___________________

______________________

_____________________

___________________

3. List six important components of good prenatal care. a. _____________________________________________________________________ b. _____________________________________________________________________ c. _____________________________________________________________________ d. _____________________________________________________________________ e. _____________________________________________________________________ f. _____________________________________________________________________

4. Name and describe three prenatal tests. a. _____________________________________________________________________ b. _____________________________________________________________________ c. _____________________________________________________________________

5. Name six teratogens. a. __________________________

b. ____________________________

c. __________________________

d. ____________________________

e. __________________________

f. ____________________________

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e Handout 2-3

Dominant and Recessive Characteristics Characteristics in the left-hand column dominate over characteristics listed in the right-hand column.

DOMINANT TRAITS

RECESSIVE TRAITS

eye coloring

brown eyes

grey, green, hazel, blue eyes

vision

farsightedness normal vision normal vision normal vision

normal vision nearsightedness night blindness color blindness*

hair

dark hair non-red hair curly hair full head of hair widow’s peak

blonde, light, red hair red hair straight hair baldness* normal hairline

facial features

dimples unattached earlobes freckles broad lips

no dimples attached earlobes no freckles thin lips

appendages

normal number normal digits normal digits normal joints normal proportion normal thumb normal joints

extra digits fused digits short digits fingers lack 1 joint limb dwarfing clubbed thumb double-jointedness

other

immunity to poison ivy normal pigmented skin normal blood clotting normal hearing normal hearing and speaking normal—no PKU

susceptibility to poison ivy albinism hemophilia* congenital deafness deaf mutism phenylketonuria (PKU)

*sex-linked characteristic

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 2-4 Possible Teratogens This list of suspected teratogens contains many common items. Most babies are born without defects, so the placenta may be an effective barrier to many of these substances. Additionally, the timing of the exposure to a teratogen is critical to its impact on prenatal development. Overall, more damage is likely early in the pregnancy when organ systems are developing.

DISEASES Chlamydia Rubella (German measles) HIV Toxoplasmosis

Pneumonia Herpes Syphilis Tuberculosis

Gonorrhea Scarlet fever Mumps Influenza

Hexachlorophene Amphetamines LSD Anticoagulant drugs Sedatives Caffeine Tranquilizers Diethylstilbestrol (DES)

Alcohol Lithium Anti-cancer drugs Quinine Barbiturates Thalidomide Cocaine Marijuana

Mercury Fumes from paints, solvents, glues, dry-cleaning fluids Radiation (X-rays, video display terminals) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)

Cat feces Pesticides Herbicides

DRUGS Accutane Iodides Antibiotics Opiates Aspirin Smallpox vaccination Nicotine Vitamins in excess ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS Cadmium Nickel Insecticides Manganese Hair dyes

Lead

NONINFECTIOUS MATERNAL CONDITIONS Alcoholism Rh + factor Diabetes mellitus

Chemical dependency Anemia Young/older mother

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Phenylketonuria Stress

Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e

Handout 2-5 Infant Reflexes Survival Reflexes Breathing

Infants reflexively inhale to obtain oxygen and expel carbon dioxide.

Rooting

If you touch an infant’s cheek, the infant will turn its head toward the stimulus and open its mouth as if expecting a nipple.

Sucking

If you touch or otherwise stimulate an infant’s mouth, the infant will respond by sucking and making rhythmic movements with the mouth and tongue.

Pupillary

The pupils of an infant’s eyes narrow when in bright light and when going to sleep, and widen when in dim light and when waking up.

Eye-blink

Infants blink in response to an object’s moving quickly toward their eyes or to a puff of air.

Primitive Reflexes Moro (startle)

When infants are startled by loud sounds or by being suddenly dropped a few inches, they will first spread their arms and stretch out their fingers, then bring their arms back to their body and clench their fingers.

Palmar

When an infant’s palm is stimulated, the infant will grasp tightly and increase the strength of the grasp as the object is pulled away.

Plantar

When an object or a finger is placed on the sole of an infant’s foot near the toes, the infant responds by trying to flex the foot.

Babinski

If you stroke the sole of an infant’s foot from heel to toes, the infant will spread the small toes and raise the large one.

Stepping

When infants are held upright with their feet against a flat surface and are moved forward, they appear to walk in a coordinated way.

Swimming

Infants will attempt to swim in a coordinated way if placed in water in a prone position.

Tonic neck

When infants’ heads are turned to one side, they will extend the arm and leg on that side and flex the arm and leg on the opposite side, as if in a fencing position.

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 2-6 Reflective Journal Exercise 2 If possible, interview your parents or guardians (if this is not possible, try an aunt, uncle, or grandparent) about your own prenatal development. Use the following questions to get started.

1.

Was this a planned pregnancy?

2.

Was this your first baby?

3.

How did you find out you were pregnant?

4.

How did you feel?

5.

Were you working?

6.

When did you first see a doctor?

7.

8.

Did you take vitamins?

When did you start feeling the baby?

9.

When did you begin wearing maternity clothes?

10. What changes did your body go through?

11. What are some of the strongest memories you have of this pregnancy?

12. Did you have any prenatal tests?

13. How did your lifestyle change?

14. Did you smoke? Drink alcohol? Drink coffee or tea? Take any drugs?

15. Did you know the sex of the baby before the birth? Did you have a preference for a boy or a girl? How did you feel when you found out the sex of your baby?

16. When did you decide on a name for the baby?

17. Did you attend any special classes or workshops about childbirth or nursing?

18. Did you know of any preexisting conditions?

19. Where were you living?

20. Were there any features or characteristics you were hoping the baby would have? Were there any you were hoping the baby would NOT have?

21. How much of your partner’s medical history did you know? In retrospect, how important would that have been?

22. What roles or expectations did you have for this child?

23. What influenced your decision to have a child at this time?

24. Did you have any trouble conceiving? Did you expect to have any trouble becoming pregnant?

Reflect on what you learned. How do you think your own pregnancy (or your partner’s) will be (or was) the same or different than your mother’s?

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Chapter 3 INFANCY CONTENTS Chapter-at-a-Glance

2

Learning Objectives

3

Chapter Outline

4

Lecture Launchers

8

Student Activities

19

Supplemental Reading

24

Revel Multimedia

25

Handouts

26

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CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE Chapter Outline

Instructor’s Resources

Revel Resources

Growth and Stability Physical Growth The Nervous System and Brain Integrating the Bodily Systems

Learning Objectives 3.1, 3.2, 3.3 Lecture Launchers 3.1, 3.2

Sleep Training for Parents and Infants

Motor Development Reflexes Motor Development in Infancy Nutrition in Infancy

Learning Objectives 3.4, 3.5, 3.6

Reflexes

Lecture Launchers 3.3, 3.4

Infancy

Student Activities 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4 The Development of the Senses Experiencing the World Multimodal Perception

Learning Objectives 3.7, 3.8

Preferential Looking

Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Key Elements of Piaget’s Theory Appraising Piaget

Learning Objectives 3.9, 3.10

Assimilation and Accommodation

Lecture Launcher 3.5 Student Activities 3.5, 3.6, 3.7

Information Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development The Foundations of Information Processing Individual Differences in Intelligence

Learning Objectives 3.11, 3.12

The Roots of Language The Fundamentals of Language The Origins of Language Development

Learning Objectives 3.13, 3.14

Developing the Roots of Sociability Emotions in Infancy The Development of Self

Learning Objectives 3.15, 3.16

Lecture Launchers 3.6, 3.7

Lecture Launchers 3.8, 3.9

Crash Course Psychology: Infant Language Stranger Anxiety

Lecture Launchers 3.10 Self-Awareness Task

Forming Relationships Attachment Infants’ Sociability With Their Peers

Learning Objectives 3.17, 3.18 Lecture Launchers 3.11, 3.12 Student Activities 3.8, 3.9, 3.10

Differences Among Infants Personality Development Family Life in the 21st Century

Learning Objectives 3.19, 3.20 Lecture Launcher 3.13, 3.14 Student Activities 3.11, 3.12, 3.13

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Crash Course Psychology: Attachment

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES LO 3.1

Describe how the human body develops in the first 2 years of life, including the four principles that govern its growth.

LO 3.2

Describe how the nervous system and brain develop in the first 2 years of life, and explain how the environment affects such development.

LO 3.3

Explain the body rhythms and states that govern an infant’s behavior.

LO 3.4

Explain how the reflexes that infants are born with both protect them and help them adapt to their surroundings.

LO 3.5

Identify the milestones of motor and fine motor skill development in infancy.

LO 3.6

Summarize the role of nutrition in the physical development of infants, including the benefits of breastfeeding.

LO 3.7

Describe the sensory capabilities of infants.

LO 3.8

Summarize the multimodal approach to perception.

LO 3.9

Summarize the fundamental features of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, and describe the sensorimotor stage.

LO 3.10 Summarize the arguments both in support of and critical of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.

LO 3.11 Describe how information processing approaches explain cognitive development in infants, and summarize the memory capabilities of infants in the first 2 years of life.

LO 3.12 Explain how infant intelligence is measured using information processing approaches.

LO 3.13 Outline the processes by which children learn to use language.

LO 3.14 Differentiate the major theories of language development, and describe how children influence adults’ language.

LO 3.15 Discuss how children express and experience emotions in the first 2 years of life, and summarize the development of social referencing.

LO 3.16 Describe the sense of self that children possess in the first 2 years of life, including the development of a theory of mind.

LO 3.17 Explain attachment in infancy, how it affects a person’s future social competence, and the roles that caregivers play in infants’ social development.

LO 3.18 Discuss the development of peer relationships in infancy.

LO 3.19 Describe individual differences that distinguish an infant’s personality and the roles that temperament and gender play.

LO 3.20 Describe 21st-century families and their consequences for children, including the impact of nonparental child care on infants.

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CHAPTER OUTLINE MODULE 3.1 – PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY I.

Growth and Stability A. Physical Growth: The Rapid Advances of Infancy 1. Cephalocaudal principle: Development from the head down 2. Proximodistal principle: Development from the center outward 3. Hierarchical integration: Simple skills develop independently and are combined into complex ones 4. Independence of systems: Different body systems grow at different rates B. The Nervous System and Brain: The Foundations of Development 1. Neurons have dendrites and an axon, meet at a synapse, and use electrochemical transmission 2. Synaptic pruning a. Neurons are eliminated due to nonuse or lack of stimulation b. Myelin speeds the transmission of information in a nerve impulse 3. Environmental influences on brain development a. Plasticity is receiving a great deal of research attention b. Critical and sensitive periods illustrate the importance of timing for development C. Integrating the Bodily Systems: The Life Cycles of Infancy 1. Rhythms and states: Cyclical patterns and degrees of awareness 2. Sleep: Perchance to dream? Probably; infants sleep a lot and show something similar to REM sleep 3. SIDS: The unanticipated killer with an unexplained cause and a general decrease due to awareness II. Motor Development A. Reflexes: Our Inborn Physical Skills 1. The basic reflexes a. Swimming, Moro, Babinski, sucking, gag, startle typically show some adaptive function 2. Ethnic and cultural differences and similarities in reflexes a. Cultural practice can make the appearance, timing, and duration of reflexes vary B. Motor Development in Infancy: Landmarks of Physical Achievement 1. Gross motor skills: Various milestones are illustrated in a familiar chart 2. Fine motor skills: Development brings more sophisticated and fine-grained skills 3. Developmental norms: Comparing the individual to the group a. Averages, such as those provided by the NBAS, shouldn’t obscure individual differences C. Nutrition in Infancy: Fueling Motor Development 1. Malnutrition a. A problem especially in developing countries, where marasmus and kwashiorkor can result 2. Obesity a. Infant obesity is a growing health concern 3. Breast or bottle? a. Breast; lots of benefits, few downsides 4. Introducing solid foods: When and what? a. Weaning from the breast and gradual introduction of solid foods is a smart strategy III. The Development of the Senses A. Experiencing the World: The Sensory Capabilities of Infants 1. Visual perception a. Worse than an adult’s but generally not so bad b. Visual cliff reactions demonstrate presumably innate versus learned visual responses c. Visual preferences are evident in a newborn 2. Auditory perception: The world of sound a. Sound localization and response to familiar voices are seen early in development 3. Smell and taste a. Reactions to smell and taste sensations, and smell identification, show an adaptive basis 4. Sensitivity to pain 4 .

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a. Newborns experience pain, and pain produces distress 5. Responding to touch a. One of the most highly developed sensory systems in a newborn B. Multimodal Perception: Combining Individual Sensory Inputs a. Information collected by independent sensory systems is integrated b. Affordances provide a set of action possibilities based on environmental conditions MODULE 3.2 – COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development A. Key Elements of Piaget’s Theory 1. Quality and quantity of information processing across four stages is considered 2. Schemas are the fundamental cognitive structures of interest 3. Assimilation and accommodation are primary processes evident across stages of development 4. Sensorimotor stage is the initial stage of cognitive development a. Six substages trade on reflexes, habits and reactions i. The nuances and complexities of each substage are summarized in a convenient table b. Stalwart concepts, such as object permanence or mental representation, are present during specific substages of development B. Appraising Piaget: Support and Challenges 1. The theory is accurate in many ways, and observational methods are to be applauded 2. Challenges a. Waves rather than stages b. Motor activity as the fundamental basis for cognitive development? c. Mastery of tasks can occur earlier than proposed d. A Western bias II. Information Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development A. The Foundations of Information Processing: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval 1. Automatization 2. Memory capabilities in infancy a. The duration of memories i. Infantile amnesia has many possible bases b. The cognitive neuroscience of memory i. Implicit and explicit memory systems invoke different neural systems B. Individual Differences in Intelligence: Is One Infant Smarter Than Another?

1. Developmental scales: A developmental quotient (DQ) may be more revealing than IQ 2. Information processing approaches to individual differences in intelligence a. Habituation and visual-recognition memory provide measurements of processing speed 3. Assessing information processing approaches a. More quantitative, in contrast to Piaget’s qualitative differences in development b. Comprehensive account of cognitive development is lacking III. The Roots of Language A. The Fundamentals of Language: From Sounds to Symbols 1. Phonology, morphemes, and semantics are building blocks of language development 2. Comprehension precedes production at all stages of development 3. Early sounds and communication: Prelinguistic communication, cooing, babbling 4. First words: Holophrases are used during this period 5. First sentences: Telegraphic speech, underextension, and overextension are displayed a. Referential and expressive styles of communication are directed at infants B. The Origins of Language Development 1. Learning theory approaches: Language as a learned skill a. Not likely, and rejected using in principle arguments 2. Nativist approaches: Language as an innate skill I.

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a. Some support for genetic basis for universal grammar and a language acquisition device 3. The interactionist approaches a. In all things, moderation; incorporating the best of genetic and environmental bases 4. Infant-directed speech a. Simple sentences with repetition and vowel emphasis are important for language acquisition MODULE 3.3 – SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY I.

Developing the Roots of Sociability A. Emotions in Infancy: Do Infants Experience Emotional Highs and Lows?

1. Encoding of basic emotions via facial expressions has a universal basis a. Similarity in kind of expression does not imply similarity in degree of expressivity 2. Stranger anxiety and separation anxiety a. Cultural differences in onset and duration of these reactions is present 3. Smiling a. Social smiling develops over time 4. Decoding others’ facial expressions a. Imitation forms a basis for decoding the expressions of others 5. Social referencing: Feeling what others feel a. Intentional search for information provides a means of reducing the uncertainty of events B. The Development of Self 1. Self-awareness: Measured by the mirror test and developed over time 2. Theory of mind: Infants’ perspectives on the mental lives of others and themselves a. Growing appreciation of how the mind works and the mental contents of others b. Empathy develops as a result, and illustrates the acknowledgment of others’ perspectives II. Forming Relationships A. Attachment: Forming Social Bonds 1. The Ainsworth strange situation and patterns of attachment a. Secure, avoidant, ambivalent, and disorganized-disoriented patterns observed in Strange Situation 2. Producing attachment: The roles of mother and father a. Mothers and attachment b. Fathers and attachment B. Infants’ Sociability With Their Peers: Infant-Infant Interaction 1. Mirror neurons play a role in the increasing sensitivity to social cues and social behaviors III. Differences Among Infants A. Personality Development: The Characteristics That Make Infants Unique 1. Erikson’s psychosocial theory posits a series of challenges in various stages across the lifespan a. Trust-vs-mistrust and autonomy-vs-shame-and-doubt are relevant to the present period 2. Temperament: Stabilities in infant behavior a. Activity and irritability are fundamental dimensions b. Categorizing temperament: Easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm babies c. The consequences of temperament: Does temperament matter? i. Goodness-of-fit highlights the match between temperament and environmental demands 3. Gender: Boys in blue, girls in pink a. Gender and sex can be differentiated b. Many potential and interacting bases to explain the development of one’s sense of gender c. Gender differences become more pronounced as children age B. Family Life in the 21st Century 1. Demographic data illustrate the shifting nature of family patterns a. Family composition, family size, childcare options, SES differences are examples i. Assumptions about child care, and data regarding child care, may not dovetail ii. Assumptions about early intervention programs, and data on their effectiveness, also may 6 .

Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e

not dovetail ii. Quality of care or programs seems to be a crucial determinant of their effects

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LECTURE LAUNCHERS Lecture Launcher 3.1: Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) A tragic killer of infants is sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) and sudden unexpected infant death (SUID).

Data compiled by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) indicate that, in 2016, 3600 infants less than 1 year old died from SUID. Within that figure, 1,500 deaths were attributable to SIDS, 1,200 were due to unknown causes, and 900 deaths were caused by accidental strangulation or suffocation in bed. Happily, the trend in SUID has been decreasing steadily since 1990, although that’s cold comfort for parents who experience this horrific occurrence.

Although much is unknown about the mechanisms behind SIDS, some data are available. For example, risk factors associated with SIDS include: • • • • • •

Sex. Boys are slightly more likely than girls to die of SIDS. Age. Infants are most vulnerable between the second and fourth months of life.

Race. Nonwhite infants are more likely to develop SIDS compared to other racial or ethnic groups.

Family history. Babies who’ve had siblings or cousins die of SIDS are at higher risk of SIDS. Secondhand smoke. Babies who live with smokers have a higher risk of SIDS. Being premature. Both being born early and having a low birth weight increase a baby’s chances of SIDS. Physical factors associated with SIDS are: • Brain defects. Some infants are born with problems that make them more likely to die of SIDS. In

many of these babies, the portion of the brain that controls breathing and arousal from sleep hasn’t matured enough to work properly.

• Low birth weight. Premature birth or being part of a multiple birth increases the likelihood that a baby’s brain hasn’t matured completely, therefore she or he has less control over such processes as breathing and heart rate.

• Respiratory infection. Many infants who died of SIDS had recently had a cold, which might contribute to breathing problems.

Environmental factors also play a role, such as: • Sleeping on the stomach or side. Babies placed in these positions to sleep might have more difficulty

breathing than those placed on their backs.

• Sleeping on a soft surface. Lying face down on a fluffy comforter, a soft mattress, or a waterbed can block an infant’s airway.

• Sharing a bed. Although the risk of SIDS is lowered if an infant sleeps in the same room as her or his parents, the risk increases if the baby sleeps in the same bed with parents, siblings or pets.

• Overheating. Being too warm while sleeping can increase a baby’s risk of SIDS. Some evidence assigns a role to maternal factors. These include being younger than 20 years old, smoking cigarettes, using drugs or alcohol, or receiving inadequate prenatal care.

For additional information, please explore: https://www.cdc.gov and search for data on SIDS.

Lecture Launcher 3.2: Infant Brain Growth When the human pelvis evolved to adapt to walking in an upright position, the brain was also evolving and getting larger. Consequently, in order to pass through the birth canal, human infants must be born early in their brain development. Brain weight at birth is only about 25 percent of adult brain weight. (By comparison, baby 8 .

Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e

chimps are born with 50 percent of their adult brain weight.) By 24 months, the brain is about 75 percent of adult weight, which explains why babies and toddlers are so top heavy! All of this brain growth is not new cells; in fact, many neurons die as the brain specializes for language, motor skills, and so on. What grow are the axons and dendrites that connect neurons, and the myelin that coats the axons and speeds brain processing. Thus, the major portion of brain growth occurs outside the womb.

At birth, the lower brain (brain stem, cerebellum, limbic system) is better developed than those parts of the brain allocated to thinking and reasoning (cerebrum). The lower brain helps the infant breathe, eat, and sleep, and controls all vital organs. The development of the “thinking” brain requires more dendrite connections and myelin sheathing. This development requires a tremendous amount of sleep and nutrients. This helps explain why infants sleep so much and eat so frequently. Moreover, dendrite growth is stimulated as the infant is exposed to a rich environment of sights and sounds and is allowed to move around. Ample research findings illustrate that severe malnutrition can cause inadequate brain growth and intellectual impairment. Studies with rats show that those who grow up in a rich environment with lots of visual stimulation and movement have heavier brains than rats that grow up in stark cages.

Dean, D. C., Planalp, E. M., Wooten, W., Schmidt, C. K., Kecskemeti, S. R., Frye, C., ... & Davidson, R. J. (2018). Investigation of brain structure in the 1-month infant. Brain Structure and Function, 223(4), 1953–1970.

Hanson, J. L., Hair, N., Shen, D. G., Shi, F., Gilmore, J. H., Wolfe, B. L., & Pollak, S. D. (2013). Family poverty affects the rate of human infant brain growth. PloS one, 8(12), e80954.

Matthews, L. G., Walsh, B. H., Knutsen, C., Neil, J. J., Smyser, C. D., Rogers, C. E., & Inder, T. E. (2018). Brain growth in the NICU: Critical periods of tissue-specific expansion. Pediatric Research, 83(5), 976–981.

Tamnes, C. K. & Østby, Y. (2018). Morphometry and development: Changes in brain structure from birth to adult age. In Brain Morphometry (pp. 143-164). Humana Press, New York, NY. Vuoksimaa, E., Panizzon, M. S., Franz, C. E., Fennema-Notestine, C., Hagler, D. J., Lyons, M. J., ... & Kremen, W. S. (2018). Brain structure mediates the association between height and cognitive ability. Brain Structure and Function, 223(7), 3487–3494.

Lecture Launcher 3.3: How Far Would You Go To Get Breast Milk For Your Child?

The many benefits of breastfeeding, especially for premature babies, have been well-established. But what if someone is unable to breastfeed, perhaps because a child is adopted or the person is going through chemotherapy? A recent article in The New York Times discussed the online networks that exist through which mothers either donate their milk or offer it for sale. The article discusses the story of two men who wanted to continue giving their premature twins breast milk after they left the hospital. They were able to get a lot of milk via donations that were posted on the Internet. An alternative is to buy breast milk from established human milk banks, which screen the milk for diseases and pasteurize it. However, it is very expensive (up to $5.50 an ounce) and the pasteurization process destroys substances such as immunoglobin A, an important antibody.

Rabin, R. C. (February 12, 2013). Picking source of baby’s milk. The New York Times. (https://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/02/11/picking-source-of-babys-milk/) For additional information, please explore: https://www.milkbank.org/ https://www.hmbana.org/ https://www.onlythebreast.com/ http://www.breastfeedingmomsunite.com/

Lecture Launcher 3.4: Does Breastfeeding Increase Intelligence?

Most pediatricians agree that feeding infants breast milk during the first few months of life is better than feeding them formula. Research suggests that some of the benefits of breastfeeding include fewer gastrointestinal issues, a more robust immune system, and other long-lasting health benefits. However, the question of whether breastfeeding leads to an increase in intelligence is more controversial.

Many studies have found a correlation between breastfeeding and higher IQ scores. For example, several studies 9 .

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have found that, on average, those who were breastfed have IQs 6 or 7 points higher than those who were not.

This has led many people to conclude that early breastfeeding facilitates brain development, which in turn leads to increased cognitive ability. Others, however, point out that the decision to breastfeed a child is often correlated with other factors that may influence the intelligence of the child. For example, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and the mother’s own IQ all play a role in a mother’s choice regarding breastfeeding. As a result, it may be these confounding variables, and not the breastfeeding itself, that account for any differences in IQ. In fact, a 2006 study that used statistical techniques to control for the influence of many confounding variables found that breastfeeding itself had little to no effect on intelligence. Nonetheless, other studies continue to find evidence that breastfeeding does influence future cognitive ability, even when attempts to control for confounding variables are made. To complicate matters further, a study conducted in 2007 found that breastfeeding does increase IQ scores, but only if the infant has a particular version of a gene. Infants with a different version of this gene did not show a cognitive benefit from breastfeeding.

Perhaps lost in all of this is the question of effect size. After controlling for other factors, it is important to note that most studies only find a small increase in average IQ associated with breastfeeding. So, even if breastfeeding can be shown to have a statistically significant role in cognitive development, it is only one of many factors that help determine a person’s intelligence. Additionally, because breastfeeding is believed to have many other benefits for both mother and infant, pediatricians and other experts are likely to continue to recommend early breastfeeding under most circumstances, even if breastfeeding is eventually shown to have no effect on intelligence.

Bernard, J. Y., Armand, M., Peyre, H., Garcia, C., Forhan, A., De Agostini, M., ... & EDEN Mother-Child Cohort Study Group. (2017).

Breastfeeding, polyunsaturated fatty acid levels in colostrum and child intelligence quotient at age 5-6 years. The Journal of Pediatrics, 183, 43–50.

Caspi, A., et al. (2007). Moderation of breastfeeding effects on the IQ by genetic variation in fatty acid metabolism. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104(47), 18860–18865.

Der, G., Batty, G., & Deary, I. (2006). Effect of breast feeding on intelligence in children: Prospective study, sibling pairs analysis, and meta-analysis. British Medical Journal, 333, 945–948.

Jacobi-Polishook, T., Collins, C. T., Sullivan, T. R., Simmer, K., Gillman, M. W., Gibson, R. A., ... & Belfort, M. B. (2016). Human milk intake in preterm infants and neurodevelopment at 18 months corrected age. Pediatric Research, 80(4), 486–492.

McCartney, M. (2007). Mixed messages over breast milk and brainy babies. British Medical Journal, 335, 1074.

Quigley, M. A., Hockley, C., Carson, C., Kelly, Y., Renfrew, M. J., & Sacker, A. (2012). Breastfeeding is associated with improved child cognitive development: A population-based cohort study. The Journal of Pediatrics, 160(1), 25–32.

Lecture Launcher 3.5: Object Permanence Changes Infants often fail to search for a hidden object until approximately one year of age, which suggested to Piaget that the infant lacked the concept of object permanence. Flavell, Miller, and Miller, however, noted that research suggests infants may have a greater understanding of object permanence earlier than Piaget assumed. The belief that object permanence does not stabilize until the end of the first year may have been the result of Piaget’s methodology. That is, his observations were based upon the child’s ability to perform certain motor behaviors that do not appear until later in development. John Flavell and his colleagues argued, however, that a failure to perform a search for the object does not necessarily mean that the child lacks the concept of object permanence. Researchers have developed several techniques that visually present situations that are either possible or impossible given the rules of object permanence. Based upon observations of the reactions of infants to these presentations, the results indicated that infants as young as 3 to 4 months exhibited surprise reactions when situations were presented that were impossible given the rules of object permanence. Such findings suggest that the concept of object permanence may appear much earlier than originally proposed by Piaget.

Bremner, J. G., Slater, A. M., & Johnson, S. P. (2015). Perception of object persistence: The origins of object permanence in infancy. Child Development Perspectives, 9(1), 7–13.

Davidson, G., Miller, R., Loissel, E., Cheke, L. G., & Clayton, N. S. (2017). The development of support intuitions and object causality in juvenile Eurasian jays (Garrulus glandarius). Scientific Reports, 7. doi: 10.1038/srep40062.

Flavell, J. H., Miller, P. H., & Miller, S. A. (2001). Cognitive development (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

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Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e Majecka, K. & Pietraszewski, D. (2018). Where’s the cookie? The ability of monkeys to track object transpositions. Animal Cognition, 1–9.

Mangalindan, D. M. J. & Schmuckler, M. A. (2017). To cue or not to cue: Toddlers’ use of beacons and associative cues in object‐ displacement tasks. Infancy. doi: 10.1111/infa.12178.

Zentall, T. R. & Pattison, K. F. (2016). Now you see it, now you don’t: Object permanence in dogs. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 25(5), 357–362.

Lecture Launcher 3.6: A Picture Is Worth a Thousand Words Young children sometimes have difficulty recalling information. One study suggests that drawing can enhance children’s memories for events.

Sarnia Butler, of the University of Otago in Dunedin, New Zealand, led a study involving 5- and 6-year-olds who took a field trip to a fire station. While there, the children clambered on the fire engines, watched drills performed by the firefighters, tried on the firefighting gear, and even watched as one of their chaperones slid down the firepole, much to the displeasure of the tour leader, who reprimanded her. (This event, and several others, were prearranged ahead of time.) Both one day and one month later, the children were asked about their outing. Those children who were asked to draw and describe the events of that day—how they got there, what they saw, the events that transpired—accurately reported much more information than those children who were simply asked to tell what happened. This effect was not observed among 3- to 4-year-olds, although among both groups drawing did not appear to increase errors in recall.

This research indicates that memory for pleasant events may be increased by coupling words and pictures. It remains to be seen whether the same effect would hold for negative events. If so, this technique may hold promise for boosting children’s recall of abuse, incest, or other traumatic events.

Butler, S., Gross, J., & Hayne, H. (1995). The effect of drawing on memory performance in young children. Developmental Psychology, 31(4), 597–608.

Macleod, E., Gross, J., & Hayne, H. (2016). Drawing conclusions: The effect of instructions on children's confabulation and fantasy errors. Memory, 24(1), 21–31.

Staff (1995). Kids draw on their memories. Science News, 148, 111.

Woolford, J., Patterson, T., Macleod, E., Hobbs, L., & Hayne, H. (2013). Drawing helps children to talk about their presenting problems during a mental health assessment. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, doi: 1359104516653642.

Lecture Launcher 3.7: Measuring Intelligence in Infants Most intelligence tests are designed to assess intelligence in older children and adults. There are, however, several instruments that are designed to assess intellectual functioning in infants and very young children.

These measures may be examining different aspects of intelligence, such as physical, psychomotor, and social and emotional development rather than the verbally based measures typically used by intelligence tests. Although these measures may not accurately predict later intelligence, they can be useful in identifying potential developmental problems.

The Bayley Scales of Infant Development The Bayley Scales are probably the most often used measure of early infant intellectual development. This test assesses mental (e.g., memory, language usage, attempts at communication) and psychomotor (e.g., coordination and proficiency in motor activities such as sitting, walking, and grasping) development in children between the ages of 2 to 30 months. In addition, it includes a behavior rating scale to assess the child’s emotional and social development.

Denver Developmental Screening Test, Revised This test assesses potential delays in development occurring from birth to 6 years of age. Using direct observation of the child, it is designed to evaluate developmental progress in four areas: language, fine motor 11 .

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movements, gross motor movements, and social behaviors.

Gesell Developmental Schedules This assessment instrument, originally developed in 1940, uses direct observation to assess development in five areas: adaptation, fine motor movements, gross motor movements, language, and social behavior. This instrument has been shown to be effective in detecting cognitive deficits associated with neurological problems. It is also known as the Gesell Maturity Scale, the Gesell Norms of Development, and the Yale Tests of Child Development.

Brazelton Neonatal Assessment Scale The Brazelton scale is used with infants from 3 days to 4 weeks of age, and assesses competence in areas such as neurological, social, and behavioral functioning. Factors such as reflexes, startle reactions, handmouth coordination, motor maturity, or cuddliness are used to derive 47 scores (20 elicited responses and 27 behavioral ratings). The chief limitation of the Brazelton scale is the absence of norms: Scores are obtained for a single case, but comparisons across infants are not easily made.

Dorris, L. (2017). Predicting the IQ of young children from early developmental markers. European Journal of Paediatric Neurology, 21(2), 247.

Furfey, P. H. & Muehlenbein, J. (1932). The validity of infant intelligence tests. The Pedagogical Seminary and Journal of Genetic Psychology, 40(1), 219–223.

Gardner, M. K. & Clark, E. (1992). The psychometric perspective on intellectual development in childhood and adolescence. In R. J. Sternberg & C. A. Berg (Eds.), Intellectual development (pp. 16-43). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.

Kaplan, R. M. & Saccuzzo, D. P. (2013). Psychological testing: Principles, applications, and issues (8th ed.). NY: Cengage.

Rose, S. A. (1989). Measuring infant intelligence: New perspectives. Stability and continuity in mental development: Behavioral and biological perspectives, 171–188.

Lecture Launcher 3.8: Talk That Talk, Baby “Does baby want to play with the beads?! Do yoooooouuuu want to play with the beeeeeaaaaads? Yes you doooooo!! Yes you doooooooo, don’t yooouuuuuuuuu?!!” The high-pitched, drawn-out baby talk that new babies seem to find mesmerizing and new parents seem to find necessary may have a deeper significance than previously suspected. That semi-annoying tendency to repeatedly accentuate vowel sounds may serve an important function in language development and may have a universal component.

Patricia Kuhl, a neuroscientist at the University of Washington, studied mothers in Sweden, Russia, and Seattle as they talked to their infants. Swedish, Russian, and English have substantially different vowel systems, yet the vowel sounds that are common to each language—“ee,” “ah,” and “oo”—were the same sounds that were unintentionally accentuated in the mothers’ speech. These parents did not accentuate all sounds or raise the pitch of all words, as might someone pretending to speak “baby talk.” Rather, acoustic profiles of some 2,363 words across all three groups revealed that just these important vowels were exaggerated, and, according to Kuhl, for good reason. By providing an infant with unambiguous examples of which vowel sounds belong together, the task of language acquisition is presumably made that much easier. To an infant learning to enunciate vowel sounds this can be an important boost.

Some intriguing unanswered questions remain, however. First, although Kuhl and her associates have demonstrated the type of input given to these infants, it’s not known what babies do with this information or how and when learning takes place. If an adult did not exaggerate vowel sounds, for example, it’s not clear whether there would be a negative effect on an infant’s learning or simply no effect at all. Second, the universality of this effect suggests a biological basis for knowing how to talk to an infant. “Ee,” “ah,” and “oo” are in fact sounds common to all human languages. Why they are spontaneously stressed under certain circumstances hints at an important adaptive tendency.

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Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e Kuhl, P. K., Andruski, J. E., Chistovich, I. A., Chistovich, L. A., et al (1997). Cross-language analysis of phonetic units in language addressed to infants. Science, 277(5326), 684–686.

Kuhl, P. K., Ramirez, R., Bosseler, A., Lin, J.-F., & Imada, T. (2014). Infants’ brain responses to speech suggest analysis by synthesis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111, 11238–11245.

Moon, C., Lagercrantz, H., & Kuhl, P. K. (2013). Language experienced in utero affects vowel perception after birth: A two-country study. Acta Pediatrica, 102, 156–160.

Moon, C., Zernzach, R. C., & Kuhl, P. K. (2015). Mothers say “baby” and their newborns do not choose to listen: A behavioral preference study to compare with ERP results. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 9, 153.

Neergaard, L. (1997, August 1). Baby talk contributes to an infant’s learning. Austin American-Statesman, A19.

Polka, L. & Bohn, O-S. (2011). Natural referent vowel (NRV) framework: An emerging view of early phonetic development. Journal of Phonetics, 39(4), 467–478.

Lecture Launcher 3.9: Sound Research on Language Learning Several intriguing studies have focused on language acquisition by toddlers.

Experiments led by Gary E. Marcus of New York University looked at the ability of 7-month-old babies to discern and remember rules for speech sounds. Infants heard examples of a sequence in which two syllables preceded the repeat of the initial one, such as “ga ti ga” or “ni la ni.” After hearing more such sequences, they were exposed to new sequences that repeated the second syllable, such as “wo fe fe.” The babies oriented much longer in the direction of the novel sequence, reflecting curiosity about the unexpected sound patterns. Marcus and his colleagues argue that the infants had learned the rule that the first and third syllables sound the same.

This ability to recognize sound patterns and discern the statistical tendency of certain syllables to co-occur may pave the way for children to develop a rule-based grammar.

A second set of studies, conducted by Christine L. Stager and Janet F. Werker of the University of British Columbia, focused on language acquisition among 14-month-old infants. The researchers argue that by disregarding certain sounds in words, infants have greater cognitive resources available to start learning the meanings of words. In short, by turning a deaf ear to some of the nuances of spoken language, these toddlers may enhance their overall grasp of the language. To test this notion, Stager and Werker exposed 64 infants to a pair of stimuli, a spoken nonsense syllable (such as “dih” or “bih”) coupled with one of two colorful shapes shown on a computer monitor. Decreases in the infants’ orienting response to the shapes indicated that the pairing had become familiar (and less stimulating) to the child. Then, a new pairing of each shape with the sounds previously associated with the other shape was presented. The children were just as disinterested in these combinations, suggesting that they failed to notice the switch in syllables. Similar results were found in an additional study of 14-month-olds; however, 8-month-olds in this case looked much longer at the new pairings, suggesting they were still attuned to the nuances of the sounds. Finally, a last study revealed that the 14-montholds did notice new pairings when the sounds were dissimilar, such as “lif” and “neem.” Coupled with Marcus’ study, the present results suggest that up to 7 or 8 months of age, infants are quite adept at spotting the sound components of language. At around one year, however, their attention shifts to the important task of assigning meanings to sounds (i.e., what we grown-ups call “words”), sacrificing some attention to the details of the sounds themselves.

Finally, a third set of studies from Northwestern University, directed by neuroscientist Beverly A. Wright, suggests that the chatter of everyday conversation may hinder the ability of some children to distinguish discrete sounds and words. The result, according to coauthor Michael A. Merzenich of the University of California, San Francisco, may be specific language impairment (SLI). The researchers studied eight children diagnosed with SLI and eight who showed good language skills, all of whom were, well, age 8. Each child heard a brief tone that was presented either before, during, or after one of two masking sounds. These masks were either of a frequency similar to the target tone or of a contrasting frequency. During the similar-frequency trials, the children with good language skills found it easiest to detect the target tone when it preceded the mask, and more difficult to detect it when the two tones occurred simultaneously. The SLI children, in comparison, could not hear any of the test tones unless they were substantially louder than those played for the other group. What’s more, the SLI group had as much difficulty detecting the target tone when it was presented before the mask, as when it was presented simultaneously or after the mask. These findings suggest that hearing deficits among SLI 13 .

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children may limit their ability to perceive individual speech sounds during the course of normal conversation, leading to the marked inability of SLI children to use and understand speech.

Bower, B. (1997, May 10). Language disorder tied to sound perception. Science News, 151, 286.

Bower, B. (1997, July 26). Wordy tots ignore some speech sounds. Science News, 152, 54.

Bower, B. (1999, January 16). Follow the rules, baby. Science News, 155, 42.

Estes, K. G. & Bowen, S. (2013). Learning about sounds contributes to learning about words: Effects of prosody and phonotactics on infant word learning. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 114(3), 405-417.

Estes, K. G. (2014). Learning builds on learning: Infants’ use of native language sound patterns to learn words. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 126, 313–327.

Graf Estes, K. & Hay, J. F. (2015). Flexibility in bilingual infants’ word learning. Child Development, 86(5), 1371–1385.

Stager, C. L., Werker, J. F. (1997). Infants listen for more phonetic detail in speech perception than in word-learning tasks. Nature, 388(6640), 381–382.

Wright, B. A., Lombardino, L. J., King, W. M., Puranik, C. S., Leonard, C. M., & Merzenich, M. M. (1997). Deficits in auditory temporal and spectral resolution in language-impaired children. Nature, 387(6629), 176–178.

Lecture Launcher 3.10: Reflecting on Self-Awareness A basic question of development focuses on how we come to know ourselves. Advocates of mind-altering substances or devotees of certain mystic rites point to the “expanded consciousness” and greater awareness of ourselves that can be attained, and almost everyone embraces the admonition to “know thyself.”

The framework suggested by these examples, however, recruits a rather select group of self-knowers: sentient, rational adults with long prior experience (from any number of sources) of acquiring self-knowledge. An investigation of the origins and limits of self-knowledge, however, might entail both phylogenetic and ontogenetic approaches. For example, how much self-recognition does an infant have? Certainly a preverbal child cannot describe her or his experience of the self, and if the child could, its vocabulary would probably be inadequate to capture the richness of the self-recognition experience. (Imagine your 2-year-old reporting that she “apprehended the self-as-known in a moment of lucid insight.”) To press the point further, to what extent are members of other species self-aware? We can repeatedly ask the 2-year-old child what she or he is experiencing until, with time, a vocabulary capable of describing the experiences is developed. We cannot, however, expect our cat to relate the “reflective experience of comparing the present self to the ideal self,” no matter how much we ask it.

Several researchers have been interested in questions of self-recognition, self-awareness, and self-knowledge in other species, and have actively sought ways to gather evidence for these processes. As an example, Gordon G. Gallup, Jr., developed a technique for testing self-recognition among primates that circumvented the barrier produced by lack of a common communication system between species. One marker of self-recognition is the ability to visually identify oneself, such as occurs when looking in a mirror. Gallup capitalized on this facet of recognition in a study using chimpanzees. The chimps were given several days of exposure to a mirror in their environment. Gallup noted that at first the chimpanzees acted as though the image in the mirror was another animal. Gradually, however, they began to respond in a way that suggested they had realized they were seeing an image of themselves. To validate these observations, Gallup anesthetized the chimpanzees and applied an odorless, bright red dye to their faces, in such a location that it could only be seen in the mirror. When the chimpanzees were revived and the mirrors were reintroduced, all the chimpanzees reacted in a way that strongly suggested mirror self-recognition. The chimps reached up to their faces, exploring the marks, while watching their reflections, and did so more often than under control conditions.

This procedure, subsequently dubbed the “mark test” or “mirror test,” has been used with a number of other species. Gallup contends, however, that although chimpanzees and orangutans can reliably demonstrate selfrecognition of this type, the effect has not been reliably demonstrated among gorillas, monkeys, or prosimians.

Nonetheless, more recent research has demonstrated self-recognition among bottlenose dolphins, Asian elephants, magpies, ants, and orca whales.

Brandl, J. L. (2018). The puzzle of mirror self-recognition. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences, 17(2), 279–304.

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Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e Cammaerts, M-C & Cammaerts, R. (2015). Are ants (hymenoptera, formicidae) capable of self recognition? Journal of Science, 5(7), 521–532.

Derégnaucourt, S. & Bovet, D. (2016). The perception of self in birds. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 69, 1-14.

Gallup, G. G., Jr. (1970). Chimpanzees: Self-recognition. Science, 167, 341–343.

Hafandi, A., Hanafi, R., Azwan, H., Hezmee, M. M., Hassim, H. A., Zeid, Z. I., ... & Putra, T. T. R. (2018). The preliminary study of mirror self-recognition (msr) on Malayan sun bear (Helarctos malayanus). Journal of Veterinary Malaysia, 30(1), 23–25.

Hotta, T., Komiyama, S., & Kohda, M. (2018). A social cichlid fish failed to pass the mark test. Animal Cognition, 21(1), 127–136.

Morrison, R. & Reiss, D. (2018). Precocious development of self-awareness in dolphins. PloS one, 13(1), e0189813.

Parker, S. T., Mitchell, R. W., & Boccia, M. L. (Eds.) (1994). Self-awareness in animals and humans: Developmental perspectives.

Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Plotnick, J. M., deWaal, F. B. M., & Reiss, D. (2006). Self-recognition in an Asian elephant. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(45), 17053–17057.

Prior, H., Schwarz, A., & Güntürkün, O. (2008). Mirror-induced behavior in the magpie (Pica-pica): Evidence of self-recognition. PloS Biology, 6(8), 1642–1650.

Rogers, L. J. (2018). Minds of their own: Thinking and awareness in animals. New York: Routledge.

Lecture Launcher 3.11: The Development of Attachment In 1964, Rudolph Schaffer and Peggy Emerson interviewed mothers of babies from early infancy to 18 months of age. The research is interesting from a historical perspective, and also allows you to poll your students on their knowledge of more recent developments in attachment theory. The researchers discovered that babies progress through four stages of attachment: Stage 1: Asocial Attachment (0 to 6 weeks) Infants show no specific attachment to anyone.

Stage 2: Indiscriminate Attachment (6 weeks to 7 months) Infants enjoy interactions with others and play with just about anyone. They prefer humans to toys and at about 3 to 6 months are beginning to smile biggest for familiar people.

Stage 3: Specific Attachment (7 to 9 months) Infants now begin to protest when separated from a particular individual, mostly their primary caregiver. Infants want to be near the primary caregiver and are beginning to be wary of strangers. According to Schaffer and Emerson, this is the beginning of true attachment.

Stage 4: Multiple Attachments (9 to 18 months) Most infants show additional attachments to other persons after the initial attachment (which is usually to the primary caregiver). These additional attachments may be to other caregivers, siblings, grandparents, or consistent babysitters. However, the initial attachment seems to be the strongest one and this is the person infants go to when upset or frightened.

Schaffer, H. R. & Emerson, P. E. (1964). The development of social attachments in infancy. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 29(3), Serial #94.

Lecture Launcher 3.12: Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Test Mary Ainsworth’s groundbreaking study of infant attachment grew out of the work of theorists in the fields of ethology, developmental psychology, and psychoanalysis. Sigmund Freud declared that infants become attached to their mothers because their mothers feed them and satisfy their oral needs. However, psychoanalyst Rene Spitz noticed that infants in foundling homes, even when fed adequately, died at an alarming rate. He hypothesized that they were dying from lack of loving attention and touch. Harry Harlow had read Spitz’s work and decided to test the theory of “contact comfort” against Freud’s oral needs theory, using infant rhesus monkeys. Harlow took monkeys right after birth and put them with “surrogate mothers.” Some “mothers” were made of wire mesh and had bottles attached for feeding. Other “mothers” were made of terry cloth and had no bottle. Although the young monkeys went to the wire mesh “mothers” when they were hungry, they spent the rest of their time clinging to the terry cloth “mothers.” And when Harlow frightened the monkeys, they ran for 15 .

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safety to the cloth “mothers.” Harlow also found that monkeys separated from their mothers and raised in isolation became antisocial and later became poor mothers themselves. Thus, it seemed, with monkeys at least, that “mother love” and touch were more important than food.

But what about the human mother-infant bond? In England, John Bowlby was studying the effects of early maternal deprivation (precipitated by World War II). He proposed that children go through three stages when separated from their mothers: protest, despair, and finally, detachment. Influenced by Konrad Lorenz’s work on imprinting, Bowlby hypothesized that early maternal separation is harmful because it thwarts the infant’s instinctive need for a close bond with its mother. Bowlby maintained that infants inherit several behaviors that help them to maintain contact with significant others and to elicit caretaking. These behaviors include signaling; orienting; and contact behaviors such as crying, cooing, smiling, grasping, and babbling that adults find impossible to ignore. Thus, behaviors on the part of both the infant and caretaker ensure survival and promote attachment.

Ainsworth worked with Bowlby in the early 1950s analyzing data on the effects of maternal separation on children under 5. Later, in Uganda, Ainsworth observed infant-mother attachment and devised her categorization system. When she moved to Baltimore in the 1960s, Ainsworth decided to further test these categories under experimental conditions. She used a “strange situation” after reading Harlow’s research with monkeys. First Ainsworth and four assistants closely observed 26 infant/mother pairs for over 72 hours in the children’s homes, watching for these interactions: feeding, crying, cuddling, eye contact, and smiling. Then, when the babies were a year old, they were brought to Ainsworth’s lab and observed during what came to be called the “strange situation.” The experiment proceeded as follows. (You may wish to use Handout 6-1 to accompany this part of the lecture.)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Mother and baby are alone in an unfamiliar room with toys.

Mother sits down and baby is free to explore and play with the toys.

An unfamiliar adult enters the room.

Mother leaves the room; the baby stays with the unfamiliar adult.

Mother comes back into the room; the stranger leaves.

Mother leaves baby alone in the room.

Stranger comes back instead of mother.

Stranger leaves and mother comes back into the room.

Of particular concern to Ainsworth and her associates was the baby’s reaction to its mother during #5 and #8.

She found three patterns: 1. Securely attached These infants explored the room, keeping an eye on their mothers. They cried when separated from their mothers, but when their mothers returned they were greeted with pleasure, often by the baby’s wanting to be held. These children were easy to console.

2. Insecurely attached—ambivalent These infants were clingy even before the mother left and were afraid to explore the room. They were extremely anxious and agitated when their mother left the room and cried to be held when she returned. However, they arched away from her body and refused to be consoled.

3. Insecurely attached—avoidant These children explored the room but did not turn around to keep an eye on their mothers. When the mother left, these infants did not get upset, and when she returned, they avoided her.

From the home and laboratory observations, Ainsworth was able to explain the mothering styles that produced each type of attachment. Mothers of securely attached infants responded to their infant’s feeding signals and 16 .

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crying promptly. In addition, they smiled a lot with their infants. Mothers of anxiously attached infants responded in inconsistent, ignoring, or rejecting ways.

Not all developmentalists accept Ainsworth’s interpretations. Chief among her detractors is Jerome Kagan, who believes another way to interpret infants’ attachment styles is to look at parenting behaviors and infant temperament. Kagan asserts, for example, that “insecurely attached” infants may merely be temperamentally less able to cope with maternal separation and strangers. Kagan also claims that cross-cultural research indicates that some forms of socialization teach infants to suppress their fears in unfamiliar places.

Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, S. M., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Bowlby, J. (1980). Loss: Sadness and depression. New York: Basic Books.

Chae, Y., Goodman, M., Goodman, G. S., Troxel, N., McWilliams, K., Thompson, R. A., ... & Widaman, K. F. (2018). How children remember the Strange Situation: The role of attachment. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 166, 360–379.

DePasquale, C. E., Raby, K. L., Hoye, J., & Dozier, M. (2018). Parenting predicts Strange Situation cortisol reactivity among children adopted internationally. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 89, 86–91.

Ezquerro, A. (2016). Encounters with John Bowlby: Tales of attachment. New York: Routledge.

Theisen, J. C., Fraley, R. C., Hankin, B. L., Young, J. F., & Chopik, W. J. (2018). How do attachment styles change from childhood through adolescence? Findings from an accelerated longitudinal Cohort study. Journal of Research in Personality, 74, 141–146.

Lecture Launcher 3.13: Should You Let a Baby Cry? Many developmentalists believe that the discomfort caused by listening to a baby cry is an adaptive response that assures the helpless baby will get attention from an adult. However, even the experts disagree on how quickly caregivers should respond to a crying baby.

The first psychologist to advise new parents on whether to allow babies to cry or not was John B. Watson.

Watson argued that when parents respond each time their baby cries, they are rewarding the crying and increasing its happening. In other words, they are spoiling their children.

By the 1940s, Benjamin Spock (in his classic Baby and Child Care) was dispensing very similar advice: when babies are fussy and won’t sleep, let them cry it out until they fall asleep. Fifty years later, Richard Ferber, head of the Center for Pediatric Sleep Disorders at Children’s Hospital in Boston, wrote a best-selling book called Solve Your Child’s Sleep Problems. After studying babies’ sleep habits for years, Ferber says that most healthy babies are sleeping through the night by age 3 months. Babies need to learn that if they cry at night parents will not (a) take them out of the crib, (b) feed them, or (c) play with them. Also, says Ferber, if a baby learns to fall asleep only while being held, rocked, or fed, she’ll insist on those conditions being met night after night.

Although it’s normal for babies to wake during the night, Ferber continues, it is knowing how to go back to sleep that is the problem. Ferber suggests giving the baby a pat (not a cuddle) and leaving the room. If the crying continues, parents should return and calmly reassure the child. Ferber suggests increasing the intervals between returning to the child’s room by 5 minutes at first, then 10, then 15. Within a week, claims Ferber, the child will be trained to fall asleep on her own.

Many developmentalists disagree with the behaviorist view. John Bowlby argued that babies’ cries are preprogrammed distress signals that bring caregivers to the baby. The caregivers, too, are programmed to respond to babies’ cries. The adaptive significance of crying ensures that the infant’s basic needs will be met, a sense of trust in others will develop, and the infant will have sufficient contact with other human beings to form social and emotional attachments. Mary Ainsworth also believed that you cannot respond too much to an infant’s crying in the first year. She found that mothers who responded quickly to their infants when they cried at age 3 months had infants who cried less later in life.

Your students might find this an interesting topic for discussion. Students may even enjoy surveying parents they know about their views on responding to babies’ crying.

Bell, S. M. & Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1972). Infant crying and maternal responsiveness. Child Development, 43, 1171–1190.

Bowlby, J. (1989). Secure and insecure attachment. New York: Basic Books.

Ferber, R. (1989). Solve your child’s sleep problems. New York: Simon & Schuster.

17 .

Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e Gewirtz, J. (1977). Maternal responding and the conditioning of infant crying: Directions of influence within the attachment-acquisition process. In B. C. Etzel, J. M. LeBlanc, & D. M. Baer (Eds.), New developments in behavioral research. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Is it wrong to show affection to children? (August, 1996) Parents, 50.

Maute, M. & Perren, S. (2018). Ignoring children's bedtime crying: The power of western‐oriented beliefs. Infant mental health journal, 39(2), 220-230.

Spock, B. (1957). Baby and child care. New York: Pocket Books.

Watson, J. B. (1928). Psychological care of infant and child. New York: W. W. Norton.

Lecture Launcher 3.14: Day Care and Social Development The accumulated data from many studies of day care reveal no consistent negative effects. On the contrary, many studies find that children actually do better in day care than in home care. According to one such study of 150 children, ages 2 to 4, the social and intellectual development of children who were attending day-care centers (part time or full time) was advanced over that of children in home care (with the mother, a sitter, or a day-care provider in the home) (Clarke-Stewart, 1991).

What about the effects of putting infants in day care during their critical first year? In a major longitudinal study of 2,387 children, Frank Mott (1991) investigated whether various forms of infant care were related to the child’s performance on tests of physical, cognitive, and social development several years later. First, he controlled for a wide range of factors that would have been linked with a child’s having been put in day care during infancy, such as mother’s use of drugs or family income. That done, Mott found no statistically significant association between day care in infancy and the child’s later motor or social development. As for cognitive development, the children who had been in day care as infants scored higher than those who had been at home. On closer inspection, Mott found that healthy baby girls benefited the most by being away from their mothers in day-care arrangements; healthy baby boys neither gained nor lost by being in day care; but boys who were physically unhealthy in their first year benefited by being home in maternal care. Mott concluded that “no type of infant care arrangement can be generalized as being uniformly preferable or detrimental.”

Most psychologists today, instead of assuming that day care is universally helpful or harmful, are asking different questions. Specifically, they are concerned with how the quality of day care affects children’s development, which children do well and which do poorly in different environments, and how parents and daycare programs can work effectively together. Children develop well in many kinds of caretaking arrangements.

They go through the same stages of indiscriminate friendliness, fear of strangers, and independence, whether they are at home or in day care, as long as the care is good (Clarke-Stewart, 1991; Mott, 1991).

Clarke-Stewart, K. A. (1991). A home is not a school: The effects of child care on children’s development. In S. L. Hofferth & D.A. Phillips (eds.), Child Care Policy Research. Journal of Social Issues, 47(2), 105–124.

Dujardin, C., Fonder, M., & Lejeune, B. (2018). Does formal child care availability for 0–3 year olds boost mothers' employment rate?

Panel data based evidence from Belgium. Annals of Economics and Statistics, (129), 103–126.

Felfe, C. & Lalive, R. (2018). Does early child care affect children's development? Journal of Public Economics, 159, 33–53.

Mott, F. L. (1991). Developmental effects of infant care: The mediating role of gender and health. In S. L. Hofferth & D. A. Phillips (eds.), Child Care Policy Research. Journal of Social Issues, 47(2), 139–158.

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STUDENT ACTIVITIES Student Activity 3.1: From Idea to Execution Considering the information in this chapter, ask students to develop (using either a brief descriptive paragraph or drawings with notations) an infant’s toy, blanket, mobile, baby room, or crib decorations. Remind them to use the known research about infants to justify the choice of applicable color, tone, texture, or recommended distance and placement. To avoid students simply submitting a photo of an existing toy clipped from the internet, ask them to explain (either in writing or to other class members) the specific principles underlying their choices.

Student Activity 3.2: Critical Thinking Exercise Catharina Svanborg, a Swedish physician and immunologist, discovered that a component of ordinary breast milk kills cancer cells in infants. Besides its newfound cancer-destroying properties, breast milk protects the infant against: Diarrhea Lower respiratory infection Otitis media (ear infection) Bacteremia Bacterial meningitis Botulism Urinary-tract infection

Necrotizing enterocolitis Sudden infant death syndrome Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus Crohn’s disease Ulcerative colitis Allergies

Against this array of documented beneficial outcomes, ask your students to discuss circumstances under which a) it might be impossible or impractical to breastfeed, versus b) simply inconvenient to breastfeed.

What do they make of the distinction between “I can’t” versus “I just don’t feel like it?” How does that attribution play into illnesses that a baby might then develop? For example, whose “fault” is it if a capable mother simply didn’t want to be inconvenienced by breastfeeding, and her child developed ulcerative colitis? During the discussion, stress that there are not necessarily right or wrong answers, although empirical evidence might point toward more or less advantageous choices.

For additional information, please explore: https://www.lunduniversity.lu.se/lucat/

Student Activity 3.3: What Is “Normal?”

The text mentions average ages at which particular motor behaviors occur in the first year or so of life.

These ages, plus the typical range of variation, constitute developmental norms. It is important for students to realize that the average ages listed do not constitute a set of rules that babies must obey. It is also important that they realize that babies who begin a behavior before or after the average time are considered normal as long as their behavior is within the normal range. Babies who display a behavior considerably later than the normal range may also be normal, but the reasons for the delay should be investigated, in case they are manifestations of an undetected problem.

Two class meetings before you plan to discuss this topic, give your students the assignment of finding out how old they were when they began to walk independently. Ask them to write this information down on a slip of paper and bring it to the next class. Collect this information from students and plot the ages of their beginning to walk independently as a histogram that you can share with the class when you are ready to discuss this topic. Most students probably began to walk at around 12 or 13 months. However, you will find a tremendous range of ages at which students began to walk. Because all of these students have ended up in the same introductory psychology class, it should also be apparent that how early or late a child begins to walk independently is not much of a predictor of what she or he will do in the future.

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Student Activity 3.4: Leaving the Classroom Encourage your students to step outside the classroom and leave “book-learnin’” behind for a while. By observing newborns, infants, and toddlers “in the wild,” students will gain a better appreciation for the principles they’re reading about.

A Daycare Center with Infants

•

Students can observe the physical development of various infants (see Handout 3-1).

A Toy Store

• •

Using Handout 3-2, have students determine how toys for infants enhance sensory development.

If students have children or young brothers or sisters at home, they can bring in examples of toys that develop the senses.

Pediatric Care Unit

• •

Ask students to visit a children’s ward of a hospital and report on what special skills are required of nurses working with infants.

Students might also share their observations of infants with developmental delays.

Student Activity 3.5: Testing for Object Permanence Using Handout 3-3, ask students to perform Piaget’s object permanence exercises with two or more infants of varying ages (i.e., from a daycare center, nieces or nephews, perhaps their own children).

Students should share their findings with the class.

Student Activity 3.6: Speaking Piaget’s Language: Assimilation and Accommodation Students often have a difficult time grasping the distinction between Piaget’s terms assimilation and accommodation. To help them gain an understanding of these terms, divide your class into groups and have them think of examples of assimilation and accommodation in an infant’s development. Then ask the groups to make a list of examples of these concepts at work in their own adult lives. Use Handout 3-4 for this exercise. Ask representatives from each group to present their examples to the entire class.

Student Activity 3.7: Can Cognitive Development Be “Speeded Up”—and Should It Be? People used to ask Piaget whether it was possible to speed up cognitive development. Piaget called this concern “the American question” because Americans, he said, are always trying to hurry things along.

Most researchers agree that such pressure is indeed detrimental if the child is not developmentally prepared to learn. But others question Piaget’s assumption that children’s cognitive capacities develop like the ripening of a peach, and are largely unaffected by outside events.

Distribute the copies of Handout 3-5 and ask students to identify two of the benefits of encouraging children to speed their intellectual development and two of the possible disadvantages.

Some possible advantages: •

The child may learn early in life to value intellectual skills such as reading and problem-solving.

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• • • • •

The child may be more likely to reach the most mature stages of cognitive development (that many people never do reach).

The child whose intellectual development is faster than average may do better in school, and as a result have higher self-esteem.

Any special talents the child has may be recognized earlier, and therefore be more fully developed by training.

The child may be better equipped to take advantage of educational resources at school and therefore better qualified for a professional-level career.

The extra stimulation may enhance brain development and give the child an edge later on.

Some possible disadvantages: • • • • • •

The child may feel stressed and pressured by the parents to be perfect, and as a result actually learn to dislike intellectual activities.

The child may start to feel that he or she is simply a possession that the parents wish to show off, and self-esteem may suffer.

The parents may push the child to accomplish things for which he or she is not developmentally ready, and everyone may be left feeling frustrated.

The child may be so busy “speeding up” that he or she misses out on important developmental tasks of childhood accomplished through normal, unstructured play.

The child may lose the intrinsic pleasures of learning for its own sake.

The parents may become so psychologically invested in the child’s intellectual “success” that they communicate, subtly or not so subtly, that the child is inadequate if he or she “lets them down.”

Student Activity 3.8: Observing Attachment Behaviors If you can, arrange to have several infants brought to class with their parents. It is helpful to have a range of ages from early infancy to 2 years old. Have your students observe as you approach each infant and interact with her or him. Your students should write down their observations, paying special attention to emotions, attachment behaviors, and differences between infants based on age, sex, and perhaps temperament. You can also talk to the parents about their babies’ personalities. Afterward, discuss with the class what they discovered about observing infants. Handout 3-6 can be used during this activity.

Student Activity 3.9: Observing Infants’ Emotions Parenting techniques can help (or hinder) an infant’s ability to regulate her or his emotions. Parents whose children learn to manage their emotions employ several strategies: •

Parents try to soothe fussy or distressed infants under 18 months by holding them, talking to them, and trying to distract their attention from upsetting events.

•

By the time a child is 2 years old, parents begin to introduce them to novel and unfamiliar events, including stressful situations. While leading their children into uncomfortable circumstances, the parents remain close by as a safe base for their children to return to if emotions get too difficult to handle.

Your students may enjoy the opportunity to observe several infants and compare their personalities.

They can ask friends, neighbors, or relatives for permission to watch their infants, or students can visit a local daycare center. Handout 3-6 is relevant to this activity.

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Student Activity 3.10: Think About It Students can either discuss in class or write a short essay to answer the following questions: •

Can fathers provide the same quality of care that mothers provide? How can fathers promote attachment with their infants?

•

Using Erikson’s stage of trust versus mistrust as a model, explain the seemingly contradictory behavior of toddlers who gleefully and independently run away when called to eat or go to bed, yet cling to parents when tired or frightened.

•

Explain why the emotions of embarrassment, guilt, contempt, pride, and empathy are not evident in infants until they are nearly 2 years old.

Student Activity 3.11: Gender Roles in Children’s Books Many studies have documented the subtle (and sometimes unsubtle) gender stereotypes conveyed in children’s books. One way to highlight this point is to divide students into small groups, and give each group a children’s book to examine. (If you don’t own any children’s books, you can obtain them from your local library.) Tell students that they should analyze the characters and plot of the book, and look for the following things: • Frequency of male and female characters • Active versus passive behavior of male and female characters • Occupations or roles of male and female characters The analysis should take 10 to 15 minutes. Reserve additional time for discussing the results. Many books, even recent ones, will convey gender-typing by showing fewer female characters, placing male characters in more active roles, and portraying male and female characters in gender-typed occupations or roles (females are mothers and princesses, males are doctors and cowboys). In particular, students will probably find few fathers and many mothers portrayed in children’s books, a fact that certainly conveys information about the appropriate behavior of men and women.

Student Activity 3.12: Media Influences on Gender-Role Development One activity that is consistently popular with students is to have them explore a variety of media for views of sex-role development, gender identity, and the portrayal of gender stereotypes. Books (including children’s books as well as books aimed at parents), movies, videos, newspapers, magazines (including children’s magazines), and advertisements are all suitable subjects for analysis. After gathering a variety of sources, students should write a short paper applying principles from the text and lecture to their examples. What common themes or stereotypes are found throughout? Are there many instances of sextyped behavior? Are there certain kinds of media that break stereotypic portrayals? What influence will these portrayals likely have on the development of gender identity and gender role awareness in children?

If available, it might be particularly instructive to compare older media sources (e.g., magazines or books that are 10 to 15 years old) with current ones. Which stereotypes seem to be firmly rooted in our culture and resistant to change? In what ways have stereotypes changed in the past decade? Because television is such an influential medium, particularly with respect to children, your students might also consider gender portrayals in various types of programming, comparing and contrasting children’s educational shows (e.g., Daniel Tiger, Sesame Street), cartoons (e.g., Kim Possible), and situation comedies (e.g., Coop and Cami Ask the World, Bizaardvark, Bunk’d). Students’ papers can also form the basis for a 22 .

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lively class discussion on this important topic.

Lacy, C. B. & Swinkels, A. (2005). “Give me the boy:” Sexist language in parenting guides. Poster presented at the 51st Annual Convention of the Southwestern Psychological Association, Memphis, TN. Swinkels, A. & Swinkels, E. L. (2008). Cover girls and banished boys: Depictions of children on magazine covers. Poster presented at the 20th Annual Convention of the Association for Psychological Science, Chicago, IL.

Student Activity 3.13: Reflective Journal Handout 3-7 provides prompts that can be used for a Reflective Journal entry relevant to this chapter.

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SUPPLEMENTAL READING Anderson, D. I., Dahl, A., Campos, J. J., Chand, K., He, M., & Uchiyama, I. (2018). Availability of peripheral optic flow influences whether infants cross a visual cliff. Journal of Motor Learning and Development, 6(s1), S76–S88.

Flensborg‐Madsen, T. & Mortensen, E. L. (2018). Associations of early developmental milestones with adult intelligence. Child Development, 89(2), 638–648.

Jin, K. S., Houston, J. L., Baillargeon, R., Groh, A. M., & Roisman, G. I. (2018). Young infants expect an unfamiliar adult to comfort a crying baby: Evidence from a standard violation-of-expectation task and a novel infant-triggered-video task. Cognitive psychology, 102, 1–20.

Kismul, H., Mapatano, M. A., & Banea, J. P. (2017). Diet and Kwashiorkor in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Handbook of Famine, Starvation, and Nutrient Deprivation: From Biology to Policy, 1-19.

Kovaniemi, S., Alakortes, J., Carter, A. S., Yliherva, A., Bloigu, R., Joskitt, L. O., ... & Ebeling, H. E. (2018). How are social-emotional and behavioral competences and problems at age 1 year associated with infant motor development? A general population study. Infant Behavior and Development, 51, 1–14.

Lavezzi, A. (2018). Toxic effect of cigarette smoke on brainstem nicotinic receptor expression: Primary cause of sudden unexplained perinatal death. Toxics, 6(4), 63.

Mariti, C., Carlone, B., Sighieri, C., Campera, M., & Gazzano, A. (2018). Dog behavior in the Ainsworth Strange Situation Test during separation from the owner and from the cohabitant dog. Dog Behavior, 4(1), 1-8.

Millán, A. P., Torres, J. J., Johnson, S., & Marro, J. (2018). Concurrence of form and function in developing networks and its role in synaptic pruning. Nature Communications, 9(1), 2236.

Ozkan, A. (2018). Using eye-tracking methods in infant memory research. The Journal of Neurobehavioral Sciences, 5(1), 62–66.

Perszyk, D. R. & Waxman, S. R. (2018). Linking language and cognition in infancy. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 231-250.

Pierson, T. C. & Diamond, M. S. (2018). The emergence of Zika virus and its new clinical syndromes. Nature, 560(7720), 573.

Poulin‐Dubois, D. & Yott, J. (2018). Probing the depth of infants’ theory of mind: Disunity in performance across paradigms. Developmental Science, 21(4), e12600.

Shapiro-Mendoza, C. K. (2018). Sudden unexpected infant death rates differ by age at death. The Journal of Pediatrics, 198, 322–325.

Soeters, P., Bozzetti, F., Cynober, L., Forbes, A., Shenkin, A., & Sobotka, L. (2017). Defining malnutrition: A plea to rethink. Clinical Nutrition, 36(3), 896-901.

Tester, D. J., Wong, L. C., Chanana, P., Jaye, A., Evans, J. M., FitzPatrick, D. R., ... & Tfelt-Hansen, J. (2018). Cardiac genetic predisposition in sudden infant death syndrome. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 71(11), 1217–1227.

Ueno, M., Uchiyama, I., Campos, J. J., Anderson, D. I., He, M., & Dahl, A. (2018). Crawling experience relates to postural and emotional reactions to optic flow in a virtual moving room. Journal of Motor Learning and Development, 6(s1), S63–S75.

Wyly, M. V. (2018). Infant assessment. New York: Routledge.

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REVEL MULTIMEDIA Sleep Training for Parents and Infants

An overview of options for a baby who won’t sleep regularly

1. Summarize three major responses parents have to a child who cries when put down to sleep.

2. Consider this statement: “No baby has ever died from crying.” Put aside, for a moment, crying that results in asphyxiation, burst blood vessels in the brain, and so on, and reflect on the general meaning of that idea. What does it suggest about the best approach to dealing with a child at bedtime?

Reflexes

An overview of infant reflexes is presented

1. Explain why reflexes are evolutionarily adaptive, and provide some examples.

2. What would the absence or delay of one or more reflexes indicate about a baby’s internal states, such as neural development or perceptual ability?

Infancy

The hallmarks of infancy are considered

1. Provide an example of both proximodistal and cephalocaudal growth, then consider the consequences that would result if these trends were reversed. For example, what outcomes would result from bottom-totop or extremity-to-torso growth patterns?

2. Why should the development of motor milestones always be considered within a given age range?

Preferential Looking

The application of preferential looking as a research technique is reviewed

1. Describe different stimuli that might be used in a preferential looking experiment, and predict the outcomes that should result.

2. It’s been claimed that “preferences need no inferences;” that is, we like what we like because we like it, and there’s no need for a lot of thinking to be involved. How might this concept apply to the interpretation of infant preferential looking?

Assimilation and Accommodation

Key Piagetian concepts are reviewed

1. Explain how assimilation and accommodation differ from one another, and give an example of each.

2. Discuss how sensory abilities (using hands, mouth, eyes, and so on) allow an infant to engage in assimilation and accommodation.

Crash Course Psychology: Infant Language

The building blocks of language are reviewed

1. Distinguish phonemes, morphemes, and syntax.

2. How can a limited number of sounds produce a near-infinite variety of languages?

Stranger Anxiety

A wiggly baby would rather be elsewhere

1. Why would stranger anxiety be an evolutionarily adaptive response?

2. At what point does stranger anxiety move from being a normal response to a pathological one?

Self-Awareness Task

A child recognizes itself

1. Why would self-awareness be expected to take some time to develop? For example, why would a 4month-old not have much need to be self-aware?

2. Self-awareness has been demonstrated in several other animals. What does this suggest about development of the self within and across species?

A review of Harry Harlow’s research is presented

Crash Course Psychology: Attachment

1. Secure attachment describes the vast majority of attachment styles displayed by infants. Why would this make sense from a genetic, social, and evolutionary standpoint?

2. Based on what we know about attachment, contact comfort, and the importance of touch, what recommendations would you provide to governmental or private agencies regarding orphanages, group homes, or other institutional settings for infants and children?

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Handout 3-1 Motor Development in Infancy Observe several infants from newborns to 2 years old. Determine their levels of gross motor skills (lifting head, rolling over, sitting up, crawling, cruising, walking alone, walking up stairs, running) and fine motor skills (reaching, grabbing, picking up objects, feeding self, holding a cup).

Infant #1 sex age gross motor skills fine motor skills Infant #2 sex age gross motor skills fine motor skills Infant #3 sex age gross motor skills fine motor skills Infant #4 sex age gross motor skills fine motor skills Infant #5 sex age gross motor skills fine motor skills

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 3-2 Infant Toy Survey Examine several toys marketed for infants (see package for age ranges). Determine how these toys are designed for infant safety and for stimulating infant development, especially sensory development. Try to find one good toy and one poor toy.

Toy #1 Description:

Recommended age range: Toy rating (1 = poor, 2 = fair, 3 = average, 4 = good, 5 = excellent). Explain why. durability

safety

attractiveness

source of stimulation

Toy #2 Description:

Recommended age range: Toy rating: durability

safety

attractiveness

source of stimulation Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 3-3 Object Permanence Exercise Observe two or more infants (6 months to 2 years). In a familiar setting, give the infant one of her or his favorite toys. Record the infant’s reactions.

Infant #1

sex ________

age ________

1. While the infant is watching, partially hide the toy.

2. While the infant is watching, completely hide the toy.

3. With the infant watching, hide the toy under a cloth and then move the toy to another place that the infant can see.

4. With the infant watching, hide the toy under a cloth. Move the toy to another hiding place and then move the toy once again to a third hiding place. All hiding places should be in the view of the infant.

Infant #2

sex ________

age ________

1. While the infant is watching, partially hide the toy.

2. While the infant is watching, completely hide the toy.

3. With the infant watching, hide the toy under a cloth and then move the toy to another place that the infant can see.

4. With the infant watching, hide the toy under a cloth. Move the toy to another hiding place and then move the toy once again to a third hiding place. All hiding places should be in the view of the infant.

On the back of this sheet, compare your findings with Piaget’s description of object permanence.

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 3-4 Assimilation and Accommodation Define the concept of assimilation.

Define the concept of accommodation.

List several ways in which an infant displays the use of assimilation.

List several ways an infant displays the use of accommodation.

List several ways adults display the use of assimilation.

List several ways adults display the use of accommodation.

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 3-5 Can Cognitive Development Be “Speeded Up” -- and Should It Be? Many American parents would like to “hurry up” the stages of cognitive development in their children.

What are two benefits of encouraging children to speed their intellectual development and what are two possible disadvantages?

Two benefits are:

Two disadvantages are:

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 3-6 Observing Infants Observe one infant at a time. Write down your best interpretation of what you see.

Infant #1

sex ________

age ________

What emotional displays did you observe? Describe the situation.

What temperament style do you think the infant has (easy, difficult, slow-to-warm-up)? Why?

Describe the infant’s interactions with its parent(s).

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Handout 3-6 (continued) Observing Infants Observe another infant. Write down your best interpretation of what you see.

Infant #2

sex ________

age ________

What emotional displays did you observe? Describe the situation.

What temperament style do you think the infant has (easy, difficult, slow-to-warm-up)? Why?

Describe the infant’s interactions with its parent(s).

How do you explain the differences between the two infants?

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 3-7 Reflective Journal Exercise 3 If possible, write about your own first year of life, drawing on the recollections of friends and family members who knew you way back then. (If this is not possible, you can write about your own children, or interview another person about their first year.)

Where did you sleep?

Describe your typical sleeping pattern during the first months (e.g., How many naps did you take? When did you begin to sleep through the night?).

Were you breastfed or bottle-fed? Why? For how long?

When were you introduced to solid food?

Were you allergic to any foods?

Were you overweight, underweight, or average weight at 1 year old?

How old were you when you: rolled over, sat up, crawled, cruised, walked alone?

What were some of your favorite toys? Why do you think this is so?

(You might want to include some photos of yourself from this period.)

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Chapter 4 THE PRESCHOOL YEARS CONTENTS Chapter-at-a-Glance

2

Learning Objectives

3

Chapter Outline

4

Lecture Launchers

8

Student Activities

14

Supplemental Reading

18

Revel Multimedia

19

Handouts

20

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CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE Chapter Outline The Growing Body Changes in Body Shape and Nutrition Health and Illness

Instructor’s Resources Learning Objectives 4.1, 4.2

Revel Resources Healthy Eating

Lecture Launchers 4.1, 4.2 Student Activities 4.1, 4.2

The Growing Brain Brain Lateralization The Links Between Brain Growth and Cognitive Development

Learning Objectives 4.3, 4.4

Motor Development Gross Motor Skills Fine Motor Skills

Learning Objectives 4.5, 4.6

Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development Piaget’s Stage of Preoperational Thinking Evaluating Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Learning Objectives 4.7, 4.8

Alternative Approaches: Information Processing Theory and Vygotsky Information Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development Vygotsky’s View of Cognitive Development

Learning Objectives 4.9, 4.10

The Growth of Language and Learning Language Development Informal and Formal Learning

Learning Objectives 4.11, 4.12

Conservation Tasks

Student Activities 4.3, 4.4 The Preschool Years: Egocentrism

Student Activities 4.5, 4.6

Lecture Launchers 4.3, 4.4 Student Activities 4.7, 4.8, 4.9

Forming a Sense of Self Self-Concept in the Preschool Years Gender Identity

Learning Objectives 4.13, 4.14 Lecture Launchers 4.5, 4.6, 4.7 Student Activities 4.10, 4.11, 4.12, 4.13

Friends and Family: Preschoolers’ Social Lives The Development of Friendships Preschoolers’ Theory of Mind Preschoolers’ Family Lives Child Abuse, Neglect, and Resilience

Learning Objectives 4.15, 4.16, 4.17, 4.18

Moral Development and Aggression Developing Morality Aggression and Violence in Preschoolers

Learning Objectives 4.19, 4.20

Lecture Launcher 4.8

Lecture Launcher 4.9 Student Activities 4.14, 4.15

2 .

Play Styles Theory of Mind Across Cultures

Bandura’s Bobo Doll Studies

Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e

LEARNING OBJECTIVES LO 4.1

Describe the state of children’s bodies during the preschool years.

LO 4.2

Describe the state of children’s overall health during the preschool years.

LO 4.3

Explain how children’s brains change and develop during the preschool years.

LO 4.4

Explain the relationship between brain growth and cognitive development.

LO 4.5

Describe the process of gross motor development in preschool-age children.

LO 4.6

Describe the process of fine motor development in preschool-age children.

LO 4.7

Analyze Piaget’s explanation of cognitive development during the preschool years.

LO 4.8

Evaluate how Piaget’s approach stands up to the test of time.

LO 4.9

Analyze information processing approaches to cognitive development in the preschool years.

LO 4.10 Describe Vygotsky’s view of cognitive development in the preschool years.

LO 4.11 Explain how children’s language develops in the preschool years.

LO 4.12 Describe the effects of informal and formal learning resources on preschoolers.

LO 4.13 Explain how preschool-age children develop a concept of themselves.

LO 4.14 Analyze how preschool-age children develop a sense of gender.

LO 4.15 Describe the sorts of social relationships that are typical of preschool-age children.

LO 4.16 Analyze how children’s theory of mind changes during the preschool years.

LO 4.17 Describe the changing nature of families and the diversity of parenting styles preschoolers experience.

LO 4.18 Analyze the factors that contribute to child abuse and neglect, and describe personal characteristics that may protect children.

LO 4.19 Explain how preschool-age children develop a moral sense.

LO 4.20 Analyze theoretical perspectives on the ways in which aggression develops in preschool-age children.

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CHAPTER OUTLINE MODULE 4.1 – PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE PRESCHOOL YEARS I.

The Growing Body A. Changes in Body Shape and Nutrition 1. Height, weight, and body shape all change during the preschool years 2. Overweight and obesity are on the rise a. The just-right phenomenon is a common occurrence at this age B. Health and Illness 1. Accidents present the greatest threat to preschoolers 2. Lead poisoning remains a significant concern for many children II. The Growing Brain A. Brain Lateralization 1. Left and right hemispheres specialize for some tasks, coordinate other tasks a. Language and handedness are examples b. Gender differences exist as well B. The Links Between Brain Growth and Cognitive Development 1. Spurts in brain growth are related to spurts in cognitive advancement III. Motor Development A. Gross Motor Skills 1. Skills show increasing improvement between the ages of 3 and 6 years 2. Gender differences in the pace and type of skill acquisition 3. Toilet training as an aspect of gross motor control B. Fine Motor Skills 1. Handedness plays a role, as greater mastery of precision and dexterity develops MODULE 4.2 – COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN THE PRESCHOOL YEARS Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development A. Piaget’s Stage of Preoperational Thinking 1. The relation between language and thought a. Improvements in language reflect improvements in the sped of information processing 2. Centration: What you see is what you think a. A focus on a limited aspect of a stimulus 3. Conservation: Learning that appearances are deceiving a. Quantity is unrelated to arrangement 4. Incomplete understanding of transformation a. Recognizing that one state of being can be transformed into another 5. Egocentrism: The inability to take others’ perspectives a. Appreciating the perspectives of others 6. The emergence of intuitive thought a. Primitive reasoning and acquisition of knowledge spur this form of cognitive development B. Evaluating Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development 1. Based on observation of a relatively small number of children, rather than on experimentation 2. Numeric ability, as an example, may be present at a much earlier age than Piaget proposed 3. Conservation tasks, as another example, may be mastered sooner than Piaget predicted II. Alternative Approaches: Information Processing Theory and Vygotsky A. Information Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development 1. Preschoolers’ understanding of numbers a. Counting, addition, and subtraction are evident during the preschool years 2. Memory: Recalling the past I.

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a. Autobiographical memory shows increasing advancement b. Preschoolers rely on scripts to aid memory organization 3. Children’s eyewitness testimony: Memory on trial a. Many concerns, many controversies 4. Information processing in perspective a. Precise, experimental, testable, but perhaps limited by a narrow focus on specific abilities B. Vygotsky’s View of Cognitive Development: Taking Culture into Account 1. The zone of proximal development and scaffolding: Foundations of cognitive development a. The ability to almost perform a task (while needing assistance) benefits from support from others b. Use of cultural tools aids the process of accomplishment 2. Evaluating Vygotsky’s contributions a. Emphasized the social context, perhaps at the expense of acknowledging the role of genetics b. Like Piaget, plagued by vague concepts and lack of experimental evidence III. The Growth of Language and Learning A. Language Development 1. Sentence length and syntax use increase dramatically, aided by the process of fast mapping a. Grammar use and concept formation also show rapid gains 2. Private speech a. Talking to oneself may be a way to master pragmatics 3. Social speech a. Increasing use of social speech during the preschool years B. Informal and Formal Learning 1. Media and screen time in the lives of preschoolers a. Complicated issues, complicated solutions 2. The up- and downsides of media viewing a. Sesame Street? Good. Inactivity? Bad 3. Early childhood education: Taking the “pre” out of the preschool period a. Children get a lot of “pre” before preschool, with child care and other daily placements 4. The varieties of early education a. Child-care centers b. Family child-care centers c. Preschools i. Montessori and Reggio Emilia d. School child care 5. The effectiveness of child care a. Benefits for social skills and intellectual skills, with evidence of some social drawbacks 6. The quality of child care a. “High quality” is the key, and there are several markers that determine this MODULE 4.3 – SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN THE PRESCHOOL YEARS I.

Forming a Sense of Self A. Self-Concept in the Preschool Years 1. Psychosocial development: Resolving the conflicts a. Erikson proposed initiative-versus-guilt as the conflict to be resolved 2. Self-concept: Thinking about the self a. Self-concept inaccuracy is often shown b. Culture plays a role in shaping the self i. Individualism and collectivism are primary cultural values B. Gender Identity: Developing Femaleness and Maleness 1. Gender roles, gender expectations, and gendered behavior emerge during the preschool period 2. Biological perspectives 5 .

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a. Hormones, especially androgens, play a role in shaping gendered behavior 3. Social learning approaches a. Media portrayals of “typical” or expected gender roles influence development in this area 4. Cognitive approaches a. Children establish a gender identity via a gender schema b. A sense of gender constancy appears by age 4 or 5 c. Androgyny remains a reasonable goal II. Friends and Family: Preschoolers’ Social Lives A. The Development of Friendships 1. Playing by the rules: The work and categorization of play a. Functional play and constructive play 2. The social aspects of play a. Parallel, onlooker, associative, and cooperative forms all emerge during the preschool years B. Preschoolers’ Theory of Mind: Understanding What Others Are Thinking a. A growing appreciation for the minds of others, but false belief tasks show the limits of this i. Children with autism spectrum disorder have an especially difficult time C. Preschoolers’ Family Lives 1. Changes in family life a. Single parent households and other non-traditional constellations show demographic shifts 2. Effective parenting: Teaching desired behavior a. Authoritarian, permissive, authoritative, and uninvolved parenting styles: Authoritative works 3. Cultural differences in childrearing practices a. Culture informs parental strictness, expectations of children, and other aspects of parenting style D. Child Abuse, Neglect, and Resilience: The Hidden Side of Family Life 1. Childhood sexual abuse; a surprisingly common phenomenon 2. The warning signs of abuse; there are many, summarized in a table 3. Reasons for physical abuse; demarcating permissible from impermissible can be difficult 4. The cycle of violence hypothesis; doesn’t fully account for the evidence 5. Psychological maltreatment; threats, insults, and neglect 6. Resilience: Overcoming the odds III. Moral Development and Aggression A. Developing Morality: Following Society’s Rights and Wrongs 1. Piaget’s view of moral development a. Heteronomous morality leading to incipient cooperation leading to autonomous cooperation 2. Social learning approaches to morality a. Modeling prosocial behavior is a good idea b. Abstract modeling leads to the formation of general moral principles 3. Genetic approaches to morality a. Gene variations may be implicated in moral behavior 4. Empathy and moral behavior a. Empathy develops early and may contribute to a sense of morality B. Aggression and Violence in Preschoolers: Sources and Consequences 1. Some aggressive behavior in the pursuit of goal attainment is expected; sustained aggression is not a. Emotional self-regulation is important in this regard b. Instrumental and relational aggression illustrate the forms this behavior can take 2. The roots of aggression a. Biological, evolutionary, and instinctual imperatives? Not the whole story 3. Social learning approaches to aggression a. Observation and modeling, as always, play an important role in transmitting information 4. Viewing violence on television: Does it matter? a. Yes it does b. Media violence comes in many forms and inspires actual violence i. Observing non-aggressive models helps reduce aggressive behavior 6 .

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5. Cognitive approaches to aggression: The thoughts behind violence a. Perception fuels behavior; faulty perceptions of threat contribute to aggressive behavior

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LECTURE LAUNCHERS Lecture Launcher 4.1: Left-Handedness A great deal of research reveals that the two hemispheres of the brain are lateralized for different functions.

Handedness is an interesting example of lateralization. Most people (90 percent) are right-handed and have dominant motor control in their left hemisphere. There are some intriguing differences between right- and lefthanded populations.

• • • • • •

Males are more likely to be left-handed than females.

There is a higher proportion of left-handers among architects, engineers, university mathematics teachers, mathematics students, artists, astronauts, chess masters, and performing musicians than in the general population.

According to Jerre Levy, 60 percent of left-handers have their speech and language control in their left hemisphere (as do right-handed people). These tend to be left-handers who write with a hooked hand posture.

Forty percent of left-handers have speech and language controlled in their right hemispheres. These lefties tend to write with their hands in an upright posture.

Reading disabilities, stuttering, autism, immune diseases, migraine headaches, allergies, eczema, and some categories of intellectual impairment are more prevalent in left-handers than in right-handers.

Left-handers are more likely to be precocious, mathematical, and less skilled at verbal tasks (except for analogies).

No one knows, however, why left-handedness develops. As with most other human traits, theories can be roughly divided into four categories: environmental, genetic, developmental, and evolutionary.

Environmental Theories 1. The sword and shield theory This theory (supposedly put forth by Thomas Carlyle) suggests that, because shields were held in the left hand in order to protect the heart, those soldiers who were right-handed survived battle in greater numbers.

2. The mother with baby theory This theory claims that mothers evolved to become right-handed because when they held their babies close to their hearts (on the left side) it freed their right hands to perform tasks. (This is not a very popular theory.)

3. The parental pressure theory This theory claims that we are mostly right-handed because our parents were mostly right-handed and taught us to be right-handed.

Genetic Theories 1. Meta-analyses show that right-handed parents have a 9.5 percent chance of having a left-handed child; a 19.5 percent chance of having a left-handed child if one parent is left-handed; and 26.1 percent chance of having a left-handed child if both parents are left-handed.

2. Adopted children are more likely to follow the handedness of their birth parents than their adopted parents.

3. Identical twins are more likely (76 percent) to both be left-handed. (However, if handedness were purely genetic, there would be a 100 percent concordance rate for handedness in identical twins.)

Developmental Theories 1. Geschwind and Galaburda’s testosterone theory This theory claims that elevated levels of testosterone are responsible for deviations from normal hemispheric dominance (i.e., right-handed and left hemisphere dominant for language and right hemisphere dominant for visual-spatial skills). It is believed that excess testosterone delays left hemisphere growth. The right hemisphere compensates for this growth delay by developing more quickly. This seems to account for many correlations between being left-handed, male, and various skills or disabilities.

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2. Bakan’s birth stress theory This theory argues that left-handedness is caused by prenatal stress. Much evidence seems to support this theory. Lefties have more birth complication, lower Apgar scores, and developmental disorders such as Down syndrome, autism, and cerebral palsy. (We know, however, that stress raises testosterone levels in rats and might be implicated in this regard.)

3. Previc’s vestibular-monoaminergic theory This theory posits that human laterality can be traced to fetal position in the womb. When the fetus is confined to a leftward position in the last trimester, the mother’s walking puts forces on the developing fetus and causes asymmetrical laterality.

Evolutionary Theories 1. Corballis This theory proposes that because both handedness and language require so much fine motor control, both are lateralized in the same hemisphere.

2. MacNeilage’s postural origins theory Because language requires body movements (postures) different from other skills, the left hemisphere evolved to process language and the right hemisphere evolved to process visual-spatial abilities.

Andersen, K. W. & Siebner, H. R. (2018). Mapping dexterity and handedness: recent insights and future challenges. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 20, 123–129.

Coren, S. & Halpern, D. F. (1991). Left-handedness: A marker for decreased survival fitness. Psychological Bulletin, 109, 90-106.

Harris, L. (1993). Do left-handers die sooner than right-handers? Psychological Bulletin, 113, 203–234.

Hirnstein, M., Hugdahl, K., & Hausmann, M. (2018). Cognitive sex differences and hemispheric asymmetry: A critical review of 40 years of research. Laterality: Asymmetries of Body, Brain and Cognition, 1–49.

Nurhayu, W., Nila, S., Raymond, M., & Suryobroto, B. (2018). Are right-and left-handedness relevant as general categories in a nonindustrialized country? Acta Ethologica, 21(1), 21–28.

Segal, N. L. (2018). Revisiting sources of left-handedness in multiple-birth individuals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 201806879.

Lecture Launcher 4.2: A Picture Is Worth a Thousand Words Young children sometimes have difficulty recalling information. One study suggests that drawing can enhance children’s memories for events.

Sarnia Butler, of the University of Otago in Dunedin, New Zealand, led a study involving 5- and 6-year-olds who took a field trip to a fire station. While there, the children clambered on the fire engines, watched drills performed by the firefighters, tried on the firefighting gear, and even watched as one of their chaperones slid down the firepole, much to the displeasure of the tour leader, who reprimanded her. (This event, and several others, was prearranged ahead of time.) Both one day and one month later, the children were asked about their outing. Those children who were asked to draw and describe the events of that day—how they got there, what they saw, the events that transpired—accurately reported much more information than those children who were simply asked to tell what happened. This effect was not observed among 3- to 4-year-olds, although among both groups drawing did not appear to increase errors in recall.

This research indicates that memory for pleasant events may be increased by coupling words and pictures. It remains to be seen whether the same effect would hold for negative events. If so, this technique may hold promise for boosting children’s recall of abuse, incest, or other traumatic events.

Butler, S., Gross, J., & Hayne, H. (1995). The effect of drawing on memory performance in young children. Developmental Psychology, 31iv, 597–608.

Macleod, E., Gross, J., & Hayne, H. (2016). Drawing conclusions: The effect of instructions on children's confabulation and fantasy errors. Memory, 24(1), 21–31.

Staff (1995). Kids draw on their memories. Science News, 148, 111.

Woolford, J., Patterson, T., Macleod, E., Hobbs, L., & Hayne, H. (2013). Drawing helps children to talk about their presenting problems during a mental health assessment. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, doi: 1359104516653642.

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Lecture Launcher 4.3: Understanding Bilingual/Bicultural Young Children A discussion of linguistically diverse children might be of value, especially if there are a number of education majors in your class. Meeting the needs of bilingual/bicultural children is a growing challenge for educators.

Language minority students comprise an increasing proportion of our young learners. The number of nonEnglish language background (NELB) children aged birth to 4 years old rose from 1.8 million in 1976 to an estimated 2.6 million in 1990, and the number of NELB children aged 5 to 14 was around 3.6 to 5.1 million in the year 2000. In response to this trend, the field of Bilingual Early Childhood Education has evolved primarily in two directions. One emphasizes formal language learning instruction, whereas the other emphasizes natural language acquisition. Most experts in the field suggest that educators need to incorporate practices that enhance, enrich, and optimize educational opportunities for speakers of other languages.

Sinclair, J. (2018). ‘Starving and suffocating’: evaluation policies and practices during the first 10 years of the U.S. Bilingual Education Act. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 21(6), 710–728.

Soto, L. D. (2001). Making a difference in the lives of bilingual/bicultural children. New York: Peter Lang Publishers.

Soto, L. D. & Kharem, H. (Eds.) (2010). Teaching bilingual/bicultural children: Teachers talk about language and learning. Teachers College Press.

Lecture Launcher 4.4: Should We Allow Infants to Watch TV? Psychologists have warned for many years about the problems associated with school-age children watching too much television. More recently, however, the attention has shifted to the possible dangers associated with allowing infants to watch television. Some experts are specifically worried about DVDs and videos designed and marketed for infants. Many of these videos explicitly or implicitly claim to increase brain development, increase IQ, stimulate language development, etc. Research, however, has failed to show that early exposure to these videos has any positive effect on brain development or cognitive ability. In fact, in October 2009, The Walt Disney Company announced that it would begin offering refunds to parents who bought videos from the immensely popular Baby Einstein series. The refund was in response to parents who felt that the Baby Einstein videos had been falsely marketed as educational.

The concern over Baby Einstein and similar videos is not just that they do not boost cognitive development, but that exposing children to television at too early of an age may actually impair their development. Several studies have shown that infant television exposure is associated with a delay in language development. Additionally, there is some evidence that children who watch significant amounts of television as infants are at a higher risk to develop attention problems later in childhood. Although most of these studies are correlational, they do suggest that infants’ exposure to television should be limited. This is a potentially serious problem, given that the average age infants began watching television in 2009 was 5 months!

After introducing the topic to the class, ask students to discuss whether infants should be allowed to watch television. Should television programs and videos designed for infants be banned, or should they be allowed as long as they do not claim to be beneficial? Encourage students to consider some of the reasons children might begin watching television as infants. Could better access to childcare help parents find an alternative to using the television as a surrogate babysitter? To extend the lesson, have students respond to this writing prompt: Why do you think that the original creators of videos filled with bright colors, shapes, sounds, words, etc., thought that they would make infants become intelligent children and adults? What would you expect to happen if an infant was raised in an environment that had none of these stimuli?

Sample answer: When we are infants, our brains have a lot of plasticity. Exposure to a variety of stimuli helps our brains to develop. For example, colors and shapes help our brains develop the ability to process visual information. Some abilities have a critical period, which is a limited time period during which a function can develop. If an infant was raised in an environment without visual stimuli or language, it is likely that they would never develop normal vision or use of language. This is because the necessary stimuli were not available during the critical period.

Brown, A. & Council on Communications and Media Executive Committee. (2011). Media use by children younger than 2 years.

Pediatrics, 128(5), 1040–1045.

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Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e Christakis, D. (2009). The effects of infant media usage: What do we know and what should we learn? Acta Pædiatrica, 98, 8–16.

Fidler, A. E., Zack, E., & Barr, R. (2010). Television viewing patterns in 6‐ to 18‐month‐olds: The role of caregiver–infant interactional quality. Infancy, 15(2), 176–196.

Lewin, T. (2009, October 23). No Einstein in your crib? Get a refund. www.nytimes.com/2009/10/24/education/24baby.html.

Lecture Launcher 4.5: Hormones and Toy Preferences An early characteristic of gender role stereotypes is the preference for playing with sex-typed toys. Studies of individuals with the genetic disorder congenital adrenal hyperplasis (CAH), a condition characterized by high levels of adrenal androgens during prenatal development, reveal that CAH women exhibit traditional male characteristics (for example, more active and rougher play, a preference for masculine activities, and a greater spatial ability than their female relative). Most studies of this type, however, rely on interview data rather than direct observation.

To remedy this methodological shortcoming, Sheri Berenbaum and Melissa Hines studied 37 children (26 girls and 11 boys) with CAH and 33 unaffected male and female relatives, all between the ages of 3 and 8. The dependent variable, toy preference, was measured as the amount of time spent playing with either masculine (e.g., helicopters, cars, construction blocks), feminine (e.g., dolls, kitchen supplies, toy telephones), or neutral toys (e.g., books, board games, jigsaw puzzles). Although the control girls and boys showed large differences in toy preferences along sex-typed lines, CAH girls showed a significant preference for masculine toys (compared to the control girls) and also played with feminine toys less often than did the controls. Parental surveys and medical data indicated that these results could not be attributed to differential treatment or disease factors. The researchers concluded that “Although the data are consistent with an androgen influence on sex-typed toy choices, it is not necessary that hormones have a direct influence on these choices. Hormones may affect toy choices indirectly, perhaps through an influence on activity level, motor skills, abilities, or temperament” (1992, p. 205).

Berenbaum, S. A. & Beltz, A. M. (2016). How early hormones shape gender development. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 7, 53–60.

Berenbaum, S. A. & Hines, M. (1992). Early androgens are related to childhood sex-typed toy preferences. Psychological Science, 3, 203-206.

Fine, C. & Rush, E. (2016). “Why does all the girls have to buy pink stuff?” The ethics and science of the gendered toy marketing debate. Journal of Business Ethics, 136, 1–16.

Giuliano, T. A., Popp, K. E., & Knight, J. L. (2000). Footballs versus Barbies: Childhood play activities as predictors of sport participation by women. Sex Roles, 42(3-4), 159–181.

Hines, M., Pasterski, V., Spencer, D., Neufeld, S., Patalay, P., Hindmarsh, P. C., ... & Acerini, C. L. (2016). Prenatal androgen exposure alters girls' responses to information indicating gender-appropriate behaviour. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 371(1688), 20150125.

Lecture Launcher 4.6: Male and Female Brain Development Research has shown the male and female brains differ in a variety of ways. Some of these differences are likely caused by gonadal hormones, such as estrogen and testosterone, which begin to affect the brain in adolescence.

However, many of the differences between male and female brains can be seen before puberty. What causes male and female brains to develop differently?

Early in a pregnancy, an embryo has the potential to develop into a male or a female. In general, the default is for the embryo to develop as a female. This means that, if left alone, it will develop into a child with a female body and a female brain. If, however, the embryo has a Y chromosome, a combination of hormones usually “masculinizes” the body and the brain. Interestingly, the body and brain are masculinized by different hormones.

For the external genitals of the body to become male, the hormone dihydrotestosterone (DHT) must be present at a critical time during development. The brain however, is masculinized primarily by estrogen. This may seem odd, because estrogen is often considered a “female” hormone. During fetal development, however, it is the presence of estrogen that makes the brain develop in a typically male way.

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Because of the specific roles for DHT and estrogen on body and brain development, some interesting results can occur during this process. For example, if a child with a Y chromosome is not exposed to DHT at just the right point in development, he will not develop external male genitals. His brain, however, would be masculinized.

Alternatively, the absence of estrogen during a critical period during development could leave a person with a male body, but with a more typically female brain. Finally, if a female is exposed to too much of the mother’s estrogen in the womb, she may develop a masculinized brain. These interesting combinations of body and brain sex may explain why some people “feel” one gender, but physically resemble the other.

Kandel, E., Schwartz, J., & Jessell, T. (2012). Principles of neural science (5th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Lecture Launcher 4.7: Gynandromorphs & Songbird Brains Zebra finches are small song birds that are often kept as pets. Male zebra finches sing a courtship song to attract a mate, whereas females do not. Research has shown that this is because the brain of male finches is different than female finches, especially the nuclei responsible for singing, which are much larger in the male’s brain.

Female finches can be made to sing courtship songs by treating them as hatchlings with gonadal hormones, which cause their brains to become more like male finches. This indicates that hormones are responsible for determining whether the brain of a finch is male or female. A rare occurrence, however, has led researchers to reexamine this conclusion.

The rare occurrence was the discovery of a gynandromorphic zebra finch by a neuroscientist studying the birds.

Gynandromorphs are animals that have both male and female characteristics. In this case, the feathers on the zebra finch’s right side had male markings, whereas the markings on the left side were female! This left-right distinction even occurred at the genetic level, with the cells on the right being genotypically male, and the cells on the opposite side being genotypically female. (In birds, the sex chromosomes are W and Z, not X and Y. Normal males are ZZ, whereas females are WZ.) So what about the brain? Remember that some previous research had indicated that hormones were responsible for the sex differences between male and female brains in zebra finches. Because hormones circulate throughout the entire body, both hemispheres of the gynandromorph’s brain should be either male or female because they would have been exposed to the same hormones. In fact, when the brain was examined, it turned out that the song nuclei were much bigger in the right hemisphere than in the left hemisphere, indicating that the right hemisphere was more male than the left. This has led researchers to conclude that, although hormones do play an important role in brain sex differences, sex chromosomes in brain cells may also play an important role.

Agate, R. et al. (2003). Neural, not gonadal, origin of brain sex differences in a gynandromorphic finch. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100(8), 4873–4878.

Arnold, A. P. (2004). Sex chromosomes and brain gender. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5(9), 701–708.

Beach, L. Q., Tang, Y. P., Kerver, H., & Wade, J. (2016). Inhibition of TrkB limits development of the zebra finch song system. Brain research, 1642, 467–477.

Jahner, J. P., Lucas, L. K., Wilson, J. S., & Forister, M. L. (2015). Morphological outcomes of gynandromorphism in Lycaeides butterflies (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae). Journal of Insect Science, 15(1), 38.

Wade, J. (2016). Genetic regulation of sex differences in songbirds and lizards. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B,371(1688), 20150112.

Wright, L. (2003, March 25). Unique bird sheds light on sex differences in the brain. http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=unique-bird-sheds-light-o

Lecture Launcher 4.8: The Consequences of Sexual Abuse Several studies have found evidence that severe childhood sexual abuse leaves a permanent mark on the brain.

Researchers used magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to examine the hippocampus, a brain structure involved in organizing memory, in groups of women. The studies found that the hippocampal volume of women who had suffered severe sexual abuse as children was smaller than that of women who were comparable in age but who had not been abused. Both groups of women were recruited from the same women’s health clinic where they were receiving general care.

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This cerebral alteration may predispose people to experience dissociation and to develop the symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Other investigators have reported similar reductions in hippocampal volume among Vietnam combat veterans suffering from PTSD. However, the point at which the reduction takes place is not clear, especially given that many adults who develop PTSD have experienced prior traumas.

If the severe trauma of child sexual abuse or combat releases stress hormones that harm the hippocampus, it may account in part for the fragmented memories experienced by many people suffering from PTSD. However, it is also known that many trauma survivors display no memory disruptions, dissociation, or symptoms of PTSD. This has led some researchers to speculate that a genetic predisposition to react strongly to extreme stress may also be implicated, especially in men. Further research will hopefully clarify this link between behavior and brain.

If you or any of your students suspect a child is a victim of any kind of abuse, call 1-800-4-A-CHILD. This is the toll-free number of Childhelp USA, an organization that offers help, counseling, and referrals for victims of child abuse. You may want to offer several local phone numbers of abuse hotlines for your students.

Bower, B. (1995). Child sex abuse leaves mark on brain. Science News, 147, 340.

Dennis, E. L., Babikian, T., Alger, J., Rashid, F., Villalon‐Reina, J. E., Jin, Y., ... & Giza, C. C. (2018). Magnetic resonance spectroscopy of fiber tracts in children with traumatic brain injury: A combined MRS–Diffusion MRI study. Human Brain Mapping, 39(9), 3759– 3768.

Edwards, D. (2018). Childhood sexual abuse and brain development: A discussion of associated structural changes and negative psychological outcomes. Child Abuse Review, 27(3), 198–208.

Hansen, J. B., Frazier, T., Moffatt, M., Zinkus, T., & Anderst, J. D. (2018). Evaluations for abuse in young children with subdural hemorrhages: findings based on symptom severity and benign enlargement of the subarachnoid spaces. Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics, 21(1), 31–37.

Lutz, P. E., Gross, J. A., Dhir, S. K., Maussion, G., Yang, J., Bramoulle, A., ... & Turecki, G. (2018). Epigenetic regulation of the kappa opioid receptor by child abuse. Biological Psychiatry, 84(10), 751–761.

Perkins, A. (2018). The red flags of child abuse. Nursing Made Incredibly Easy, 16(2), 34–41.

Lecture Launcher 4.9: Young Children’s Understanding of Everyday Emotions Children experience a host of emotions ranging from everyday feelings of frustration, anger, and happiness to those associated with traumatic experiences, such as divorce or death. Children’s understanding of emotions changes with age and is influenced by parents and teachers. Children come to know that it is possible to experience more than one feeling at a time, that one can hide one’s emotions, and how to read the emotional states of others.

Talking about feelings is important for children to learn about emotions and how to manage them, especially in preschool populations. You might bring an assortment of children’s books with emotion-related themes to class, or ask students to bring in one they found. For instance, there are books for preschoolers about divorce, death, anger, being sad, losing a friend, moving, having a birthday, winning a prize, feeling good, and more. These could be circulated, read, and discussed as part of your lecture.

Boelts, M. & Jones, N. Z. (2009). Those shoes. Candlewick Publishers.

Braida, D. I. (1997). What holds the family together. Jo-Eric Publications.

Bunting, E. (1993). Fly away home. HMH Books for Young Readers.

Curcio, A. (2015). My daddy’s in jail. ICG Children’s Books.

Disalvo-Ryan, D. (1997). Uncle Willie and the soup kitchen. New York: HarperCollins.

Higgins, M. (2013). The night dad went to jail. Picture Window Books.

Langsen, R. C. & Rubel, N. (1996). When someone in the family drinks too much. Dial Publishing.

Matthies, H. & Valiant, K. (2011). The goodbye cancer garden. Albert Whitman and Company.

Rylant, C. (1995). Dog heaven. Blue Sky Press.

Sanders, J. & Smith, C. (2015). Some secrets should never be kept. Educate2Empower Publishing.

Starishevsky, J. & Padron, A. (2014). My body belongs to me. Free Spirit Publishing.

Williams, L. (2017). The can man. Lee and Low Books.

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STUDENT ACTIVITIES Student Activity 4.1: On-the-Spot Mini-Lecture An in-class mini-lecture is ideal for class sizes between 15 and 30. These “lecturettes” are also quite effective in covering a chapter’s topic quickly yet thoroughly. Suggest that students bring their textbook to the next class meeting. When the next class begins, quickly divide students into groups, giving each group a copy of the Lecture Guidelines and Topics (see Handout 4-1) and assigning each group a different numbered question.

(Last-minute shifts or deletions are almost always necessary. You might also be selective in terms of which students or groups respond to which question, as some questions are more complex than others.) Highlight the guidelines. Tell the students to get right to work, and that time is of the essence. You might have to direct some groups as to how they can divide the material or how to get started. Several minutes into their preparation, you might wish to comment as to whether you had mentioned that those members in groups with good lectures will get extra points. This serves as a motivator. (Of course, in the end each participant will receive the bonus points.

Sending around a group sign-up sheet will help in awarding the points.) When the preparation time is up, you simply act as conference moderator introducing the various groups of scholars to report on their findings (and timing them). Students enjoy the mock conference approach, especially the first time they do an On-the-Spot Mini-Lecture. You can also direct the content by asking a question or briefly clarifying comments. Exam items can be drawn from the presentations.

Student Activity 4.2: Create a Flyer Have students form small groups. Tell them they have just been hired as part of a large grant to educate young parents about the physical and cognitive development of young children, ages 3 to 6. Their job is to create two flyers or brochures, one on physical development and the other on cognitive development. In these brochures they are to inform parents about early childhood development. They also need to address the major developmental milestones in each area (e.g., what parents can and cannot expect from their children) and provide examples of activities parents can do to promote their child’s development. Remind them that just like textbooks, brochures that are clear, interesting, and manageable are more likely to be read! Students will need some class time to meet, as well as time to work outside class. Have the class discuss and share their flyers.

Student Activity 4.3: Conservation of Volume Explain to students that you will be demonstrating a common procedure for testing whether a child has acquired conservation of volume. Then ask for a volunteer to play the role of the child and have them join you at the front of the class. Begin the test by placing two identical cups side-by-side and then filling about two-thirds of the first cup. (Note that using water with food coloring in it makes the water level much easier for students to see from a distance.) Next, slowly begin filling the second glass until the volunteer determines that the two glasses contain the same amount of water. Then ask the volunteer, “Does the first container have more water, does the second container have more, or do both containers have the same amount?” The volunteer should respond that both glasses have the same amount. Then show the volunteer a bowl and demonstrate that it has nothing in it.

With the volunteer watching, transfer every drop of the water from the second cup to the bowl. Finally, with the first cup and the bowl side-by-side, again ask the volunteer, “Does the first container have more, does the second container have more, or do both containers have the same amount?” Make sure students understand that a child who has not yet acquired conservation of volume would answer that the cup now contains more water than the bowl, because the height of the water in the bowl is now below the water in the cup. Older children will, of course, realize that the total amount of water is not changed by pouring it into a differently shaped container. Encourage students with younger family members to repeat the test at home.

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Student Activity 4.4: Visiting Children: Piaget and Memory Demonstrations Some students have had little, if any, contact with preschoolers. It can be a real eye-opener to see these youngsters in action. Invite three or four children to class. Ideally, the children’s ages should vary, 3–4, 5–6, or 7–8 years old. (This will better illustrate the concept of development.) Bring various props to class (e.g., different-sized clear containers, colored water, checkers, Play-Doh, flashcards, children’s books, a doll, etc.).

Begin to test the children. Can they conserve? Which row of checkers has more? What does the doll see? What were the pictures on the flashcards? Can you remember what I read from the book? You might have students take observational notes, much as an experimenter would. Afterward, involve your students in a discussion of the Piagetian concepts they observed.

Student Activity 4.5: Vygotsky’s Views in Present-Day Society In the spirit of Vygotsky, ask students to consider: 1. What is important and meaningful to members of present-day U.S. society?

2. How might this be predicting or influencing cognitive development, which, according to Vygotsky, proceeds as the result of social interactions in which partners jointly work to solve problems? (See Handout 4-2.)

This activity could be used either as an in-class group discussion or an individual assignment.

Student Activity 4.6: Show & Tell Susan Beers noted that the topic of developmental psychology often generates a desire to share personal experiences on the part of students and she proposed the activity described here as a means to formalize the sharing process. Ask your students to bring to a designated class period some physical artifact from their childhood that has special meaning to them (for example, a photo, toy, craft, or school project). Prior to the class meeting, they should think about how the artifact relates to a developmental concept that has been discussed in class or the textbook and be prepared to describe the relationship. Beers suggested that you can either organize the presentation of different artifacts chronologically or have the students present them to each other in small groups, with each group selecting the best example for presentation to the entire class. Beers warns that you should be careful to make sure that the presentations focus on developmental stages, not simply anecdotal experiences. She also suggested that this activity is a good opportunity to discuss how psychologists can use artifactual evidence to study development.

Beers, S. E. (1987). “Show and tell” for developmental psychology. In V. P. Makosky, L. G. Whittemore, & A. M. Rogers (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology: Vol. 2 (pp. 93–94). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Student Activity 4.7: Children’s TV: Let’s Talk about It Record brief segments of various television shows children might watch, such as Sesame Street, Barney, cartoons, early evening sitcoms, reruns, or the news. Show the segments to the class, and have them comment after each, compare the segments, and/or discuss these in relation to child development. You might hand out a series of questions to facilitate discussion (see Handout 4-3). If you cannot record segments for use in class, either ask students do complete this as a take-home project or find short clips on YouTube that would be suitable. Build your next class discussion around their findings and comments.

You might use the clips (or student projects) to move into a broad discussion about children and television in general. Is it good or bad? Does it make children passive or active participants in their own development? Does it stimulate thinking? How does television viewing impact the parent-child relationship? Do parents monitor their children’s viewing? Should TV programs be rated by the industry? What is the impact of violence on TV? Do all children react the same? How do commercials influence young children?

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Student Activity 4.8: Analysis of Children’s Books Children’s books offer a great resource for studying themes in early childhood development. You might have students create an inventory of books intended for the preschool or young school-aged child, perhaps listing a minimum of 10. Then ask students to analyze or discuss the books (or a selected few of them) in terms of developmental themes or principles. You might suggest that they look at the books in terms of content. For example, many children’s books attempt to strengthen children’s development with respect to moral development (e.g., lying, stealing), coping with adversity or stress (e.g., death, divorce), enhancing cognitive development (e.g., vocabulary, information), teaching skills or social development (e.g., sharing, self-esteem), or tolerance for diversity (e.g., racial or religious differences). Suggest also that they look at the books in terms of gender, stereotypes, artwork, intended messages, possible unintended interpretations, attention span or memory, and any other developmentally related themes (e.g., is the book designed for the fine motor skills of the reader?).

Student Activity 4.9: Early Childhood Observations Students often benefit from observing and interacting with preschoolers. This assignment provides an opportunity for both, and also facilitates students’ understanding of the research process. Distribute the accompanying directions (see Handout 4-4) for the assignment and review them in class. Some students may have access to children on their own. Perhaps others can visit a nearby childcare center. Be certain that you have made arrangements with the center ahead of time! Also be certain to inform students about politeness, safety, and appropriate behaviors related to visiting a center.

Student Activity 4.10: Gender Roles in Children’s Books Many studies have documented the subtle (and sometimes unsubtle) gender stereotypes conveyed in children’s books. One way to highlight this point is to divide students into small groups, and give each group a children’s book to examine. (If you don’t own any children’s books, you can obtain them from your local library.) Tell students that they should analyze the characters and plot of the book, and look for the following things: • • •

Frequency of male and female characters Active versus passive behavior of male and female characters Occupations or roles of male and female characters

The analysis should take 10 to 15 minutes. Reserve additional time for discussing the results. Many books, even recent ones, will convey gender-typing by showing fewer female characters, placing male characters in more active roles, and portraying male and female characters in gender-typed occupations or roles (females are mothers and princesses, males are doctors and cowboys). In particular, students will probably find few fathers and many mothers portrayed in children’s books, a fact that certainly conveys information about the appropriate behavior of men and women.

Student Activity 4.11: Gender Socialization Divide your class into discussion groups. Give each group about 20 minutes to come up with a list of all the ways our society (parents, peers, relatives, siblings, teachers, media, etc.) socializes young children to be masculine or feminine. To get their creative juices flowing, you can write the following kickstarters on the board.

• • •

When the baby is born When the baby comes home from the hospital Toys and books 16 .

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• • •

Birthday parties, Halloween, other holidays TV/media Occupations

Student Activity 4.12: Media Influences on Gender-Role Development One activity that is consistently popular with students is to have them explore a variety of media for views of sex-role development, gender identity, and the portrayal of gender stereotypes. Books (including children’s books, as well as books aimed at parents), toys, movies, videos, newspapers, magazines (including children’s magazines), television shows (especially children’s cartoons), and advertisements are all suitable subjects for analysis. After gathering a variety of sources, students should write a short paper applying principles from the text and lecture to their examples. What common themes or stereotypes are found throughout? Are there many instances of sex-typed behavior? Are there certain kinds of media that break stereotypic portrayals? What influences will these portrayals likely have on the development of gender identity and gender role awareness in children? If available, it might be particularly instructive to compare older media sources (e.g., magazines, television shows, movies, or books that are 10 to 15 years old) with current ones. Which stereotypes seem to be firmly rooted in our culture and resistant to change? In what ways have stereotypes changed in the past decade?

Because television is such an influential medium, particularly with respect to children, your students should enjoy analyzing gender portrayals in various types of programming, comparing and contrasting children’s educational shows, cartoons, action shows, and situation comedies. Students’ papers can also form the basis for a lively class discussion on this important topic.

Handout 4-5 and Handout 4-6 are useful for assignments of how children’s books and toys contribute to gender stereotypes and the development of gender roles.

Student Activity 4.13: Interview Sex-Role Comparisons between Groups This assignment will provide data for a comparison of children’s and adults’ conceptions of sex roles. Provide students with a copy of the Sex-Role Interview (Handout 4-7). Ask that they interview four individuals of varying ages (e.g., children, teens, adults) and different sexes. The items on the scale are purposely stereotypical. It is interesting to see whether children, who are not aware of stereotyping, answer with more stereotypical responses than the adults, who may be concerned about appearing to stereotype. It will also be interesting to see if any gender differences appear. The data from the class can be graphed or tabulated statistically, perhaps as an in-class activity. This would provide an opportunity to discuss the role and methods of research in developmental psychology, as well as the results. A discussion of how and why stereotypes emerge and the impact of these on the developing individual should prove to be interesting.

Student Activity 4.14: Child-Related Literature Have students collect and organize into a notebook or journal a variety of pamphlets, brochures, and booklets addressing issues related to topics discussed in the current chapter. For example, many agencies (e.g., Child Abuse Prevention Council, Governor’s Office for Children, Planned Parenthood, Parents Anonymous), schools, hospitals, medical offices, and education centers provide free literature on disciplining children, single parenting, children’s stress, and much more. Have students prepare a brief presentation for the class summarizing, highlighting, and/or evaluating the resources and information they found.

Student Activity 4.15: Reflective Journal It’s difficult for adults to imagine themselves as little children or what their life was like then (let alone remember), but ask your students to try. As they do, ask them to reflect on how those early days might have influenced their development. Handout 4-8 will provide them with some questions and ideas to help fuel their memories.

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SUPPLEMENTAL READING Ahmad, A., Tabassum, R., & Farooq, R. A. (2018). Comparison of primary school boys and girls on number conservation ability. Journal of Educational Research (1027-9776), 21(1).

Carr, A., Duff, H., & Craddock, F. (2018). A systematic review of the outcome of child abuse in long-term care. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 1524838018789154.

Fast, A. A. & Olson, K. R. (2018). Gender development in transgender preschool children. Child Development, 89(2), 620–637.

Fischer, U., Suggate, S. P., Schmirl, J., & Stoeger, H. (2018). Counting on fine motor skills: Links between preschool finger dexterity and numerical skills. Developmental Science, 21(4), e12623.

Hu, M. H., Huang, G. S., Huang, J. L., Wu, C. T., Chao, A. S., Lo, F. S., & Wu, H. P. (2018). Clinical characteristic and risk factors of recurrent sexual abuse and delayed reported sexual abuse in childhood. Medicine, 97(14), 12–17.

Jaekel, J., Sorg, C., Baeuml, J., Bartmann, P., & Wolke, D. (2018). Head growth and intelligence from birth to adulthood in very preterm and term born individuals. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 1–9.

Jeong, J., Kim, R., & Subramanian, S. V. (2018). How consistent are associations between maternal and paternal education and child growth and development outcomes across 39 low-income and middle-income countries? Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 72(5), 434–441.

Logan, S. W., Ross, S. M., Chee, K., Stodden, D. F., & Robinson, L. E. (2018). Fundamental motor skills: A systematic review of terminology. Journal of Sports Sciences, 36(7), 781–796.

Mammen, M., Köymen, B., & Tomasello, M. (2018). The reasons young children give to peers when explaining their judgments of moral and conventional rules. Developmental Psychology, 54(2), 254.

Masten, A. S. (2018). Adult resilience after child abuse. Nature Human Behaviour, 2(4), 244.

Myers, W., Lloyd, K., Turanovic, J. J., & Pratt, T. C. (2018). Revisiting a criminological classic: The cycle of violence. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 1043986218770003.

Osgood-Zimmerman, A., Millear, A. I., Stubbs, R. W., Shields, C., Pickering, B. V., Earl, L., ... & Browne, A. J. (2018). Mapping child growth failure in Africa between 2000 and 2015. Nature, 555(7694), 41.

Ribot, K. M., Hoff, E., & Burridge, A. (2018). Language use contributes to expressive language growth: Evidence from bilingual children. Child Development, 89(3), 929–940.

Ronen, I. (2018). “Authentic tasks” and “extreme tasks”: Potential approaches to overcoming incorrect responses in conservation tasks. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 16(7), 1337– 1354.

Skaug, S., Englund, K. T., & Wichstrøm, L. (2018). Young children's television viewing and the quality of their interactions with parents: A prospective community study. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 59(5), 503– 510.

Thompson, D. A., Johnson, S. L., Schmiege, S. J., Vandewater, E. A., Boles, R. E., Lev, J., & Tschann, J. M. (2018). Beliefs about child TV viewing in low-income Mexican American parents of preschoolers: Development of the beliefs about child TV viewing scale (B-TV). Maternal and Child Health Journal, 22(6), 849-857.

Tran, U. S., Kossmeier, M., & Voracek, M. (2018). Associations of bisexuality and homosexuality with handedness and footedness: A latent variable analysis approach. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 1–11.

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REVEL MULTIMEDIA Healthy Eating

The benefits of healthy eating are explored

1. Many parents prepare separate, different meals for their children, reasoning that “they need to eat something” and “it’s too much hassle to fight about it.” Evaluate that strategy. What long-term consequences might this capitulation have for a child?

2. Through what mechanisms might parental food choices influence child food choices? For example, what roles may be played by genetics, observational learning, reinforcement, and social behavior? Which factor has the greatest impact?

Conservation Tasks

Children are befuddled as mass changes shape

1. Propose tasks that would illustrate conservation of volume, number, area, length, and weight.

2. What kind of information processing are children unable to do that leads them to make conservation errors?

For a child, it’s all about “me, me, me,” and rightly so

The Preschool Years: Egocentrism

1. For some people, egocentrism seems to persist well into the adult years. How is the concept of “I can only see things my way” different for young children compared to grown adults?

2. What type of cognitive development would be necessary in order to facilitate perspective-taking?

Play Styles

Parallel, associative, onlooker, and cooperative play styles are illustrated

1. Summarize and give an example of each of the different play styles children enact.

2. What kind of development—social, cognitive, emotional, or otherwise—needs to occur to enable a child to explore different play styles?

Theory of Mind Across Cultures

Understanding the self and others is a key developmental milestone

1. Some children have difficulty understanding the understandings of others. For example, children with autism seem to lack a theory of mind, or at least have an impoverished conception of it. These cases represent an extreme outcome, but more generally, is it possible to navigate the world successfully while not really understanding what other people know, or appreciating how other people think?

2. The video shows that theory of mind is achieved in the same way and at about the same developmental stage in different cultural settings. Why is that? What does this acquisition illustrate about the fundamental workings of humans’ cognitive apparatus?

Bandura’s Bobo Doll Studies

Classic footage demonstrates how to abuse a toy

1. Albert Bandura’s experiment illustrates the consequences of modeling aggressive behavior. Extend that to forms of corporal punishment that some parents and school systems still advocate, such as spankings or “whuppins.” What message is being consistently sent to children? Now extend that to a further extreme, as occurs in physical child abuse. Is there a direct line from punishment to abuse, following the same principles, or are they qualitatively different in some way? If so, how?

2. Recall what you know about the general principles of reinforcement, punishment, and observational learning.

What gets learned when a child is physically punished for acting aggressively?

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Handout 4-1 “On-the-Spot” Mini-Lecture (Guidelines and Topics) Below are seven lecture topics about the physical and cognitive development of the preschooler. Your goal, as a group, is to match your group number with the numbered topic and prepare a brief presentation for the class (from the front of the room). “Brief” means no more than five minutes! In preparing your presentation, keep the following in mind: •

Everyone in your group must participate in the presentation.

•

Your goal is to enhance understanding of the topic; thus, you may define, demonstrate, give examples, or use the blackboard.

•

You must have all your preparation completed during the allotted time! Simply stated, when the other groups are presenting you must be attentive, not working among yourselves.

•

Also, in giving your presentation, remember: Others will be listening—so strive to be interesting and to keep their attention.

•

You will NOT be able to address everything in the time frame, so plan accordingly.

•

You can refer to your text and/or notes in presenting, but you cannot simply read from the text.

•

Note that your audience is your fellow students, not me.

1. Discuss physical growth in early childhood, including height, weight, and changes in body shape and structure.

2. Briefly discuss nutrition and health issues in the preschool years.

3. Describe brain growth and lateralization, discuss the cerebral hemispheres, and comment on gender differences.

4. Describe gross and fine motor development, provide examples, and discuss handedness.

5. Briefly discuss the views of Piaget, information processing theory, and Vygotsky.

6. Briefly discuss language development; define private and social speech.

7. Briefly discuss television’s effects on preschoolers, define the different types of early education programs and some of their outcomes, and comment on David Elkind’s ideas about improving cognitive skills.

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 4-2 Vygotsky’s View in Light of Present-Day American Society Lev Vygotsky believed that by emphasizing particular tasks, culture and society shape the nature of specific cognitive advances. He argued that unless we look at what is important and meaningful to members of a given society, we may seriously underestimate the nature and level of cognitive abilities that ultimately will be attained.

Consider the present-day United States, and list at least five specific tasks, skills, abilities, expectations, or norms that exist. Comment as to how you think these might be shaping an individual’s cognitive focus or development. For example, one of the most commonly asked questions when people first meet is, “What do you do for a living?” How might this influence or shape cognitive or personal development?

Describe a specific social task, skill, ability, expectation, or norm, and explain how this influence might shape cognitive or personal development.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 4-3 Children’s TV: Let’s Talk about It For each television show or clip viewed, answer as many of the following questions as apply.

Give the title or a brief description of the television program or scene.

1. Is the television program designed specifically for young children? How do you know? Did it intentionally provide an educational message? If so, what was the intended message? If not, what do you think a preschooler would have learned from viewing the show?

2. Identify several stimuli (e.g., characters, acoustics, colors, themes) that you think a preschooler would most readily attend to, and explain why. What image or message would they have learned from these salient features of the show?

3. How many aggressive or violent acts are in the show? Briefly describe one. Try to explain this scene through the eyes of a preschooler (e.g., what might she or he be thinking or concluding?). Did anything occur that you think might promote fear or distress for a young viewer? Why?

4. How many prosocial or humorous acts are in the show? Briefly describe one. Try to explain this scene through the eyes of a preschooler (e.g., what might she or he be thinking or concluding?).

5. Are references made to both males and females? How is each portrayed? Were there any role or cultural stereotypes? Was there any comment, scene, or action that might send a message about social norms or expectations (e.g., discipline, materialism, relationships)?

6. Would you let your own preschool child view this television show? Explain why or why not.

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 4-4 Early Childhood Observation Assignment The purpose of this assignment is to give you an opportunity to better understand early childhood development by observing and interacting with someone in this age group. The assignment consists of three loosely defined tasks, one related to each of the domains of development (physical, cognitive, psychosocial).

In short, you will be like a researcher, gathering insight into the developing child through observation and interviews. For each of the areas, define and state your purpose. Identify your subject(s) or the participants in your observation. You do not need to have the same subject(s) for each area. Develop strategies to gather your data (e.g., interview questions, props, observation guidelines). Briefly summarize your results and relate this to information, concepts, or theories discussed in the text.

First, address the physical abilities or motor development of a preschooler. You might want to observe his or her activity for an identified amount of time—maybe three intervals of two minutes, and precisely record EVERYTHING the child does. You might ask the child to perform a few tricks like standing on one foot, jumping on one foot, holding a crayon, or cutting paper—maybe compare these across ages or between boys and girls.

Second, explore the cognitive abilities of the young child. You might use Piaget’s model or information processing theory. You could test children’s conservation skills by asking them some “why” questions to see if their answers are egocentric or if they use animism. You might test their memory by asking them to repeat a list of words and then ask them how they remember, or perhaps teach them to use rehearsal and see if there’s a difference in recall.

Third, examine an area of social development. Here you may observe a group of children playing and note, describe, and/or time the types of play they engage in. You may ask a child to describe herself or himself and interpret her or his response in terms of research on self-development. Try to observe boy/girl play, toys, or socialization in terms of gender role development, or interview a child about various role models and what their jobs are.

NOTE: You are free to arrange and organize your observations, results, and interpretations as you see fit.

You will be evaluated on the clarity of your stated purpose, the appropriateness of your data collection (i.e., whether or not you are addressing your purpose), the logic behind your summaries and interpretations, and the degree to which you integrate and refer to the information, concepts, or theories discussed in the textbook. You might want to follow an outline to write your report. For example: Physical Development Purpose: To examine fine and gross motor skills and note any age or gender differences, to evaluate these, and comment in terms of motor skill development.

Participants: 3-, 4-, and 5-year-old females; 3-, 4-, and 5-year-old males.

Setting: All were at the day-care center. It was mid-afternoon, and the children were outside in free play.

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Procedure: Asked the children to do a number of motor tasks (e.g., hop on one foot, skip).

Age

Task

Outcome

3-F

4-F

5-F

3-M

4-M

5-M

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 4-5 Children’s Television Programs and Gender Stereotyping For this assignment you are to watch a children’s television program (e.g., Paw Patrol, Daniel Tiger’s Neighborhood, My Little Pony). Answer the following questions.

Name of program ___________________________________________________________________ Day and time of program _____________________________________________________________ Who was the primary audience for this show (girls or boys)? _________________________________ Why would children like this show? _____________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ List any incidences of gender stereotyping (aggressive men, beautiful but weak women, violence, men working and women staying home, etc.). ________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ What did you like about this show? _____________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ What did you dislike about this show? ___________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Did any advertisements contribute to stereotyping? _________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 4-6 Toy Store Assignment Examine the toy department of a large store. Consider the following questions.

1. How are the toys presented (categorized and displayed)?

2. Do the toys represent stereotypical views of girls and boys? Describe how.

3. Are any toys presented so that they seem appropriate for either gender?

4. Are there any toys that are stereotypically a boy toy or a girl toy because of how they are packaged, but could be attractive to either sex with another package or name?

5. Are there any toys marketed to both boys and girls?

6. How does the marketing of toys appeal to parents as well as children?

7. How do toys contribute to gender roles in our society?

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 4-7 Sex Role Interview Ask each of your participants to label each of the following behaviors as masculine or feminine. Record each response as M or F under the appropriate column.

Behavior

Age/Sex

1. Wearing pink 2. Wearing blue 3. Cooking hamburgers on a grill 4. Baking cream puffs 5. Cleaning the house 6. Changing a baby’s diapers 7. Driving a truck 8. Going to the ballet 9. Going to a sporting event 10. Owning a dog 11. Owning a cat 12. Piloting an airliner 13. Being a flight attendant 14. Becoming a doctor 15. Becoming a nurse 16. Teaching at a university or college 17. Teaching grade school 18. Demonstrating love and sadness openly (hugging or crying) 19. Demonstrating anger by being aggressive 20. Getting into a fight

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 4-8 Reflective Journal Exercise 4 It’s difficult for grownups to imagine themselves as little children or what their life was like then. Write an essay titled “When I Was a Preschooler...” Listed below are a number of questions to help you recreate your life as a preschooler. You might have to ask a parent or relative for some of the answers. Feel free to include other relevant information or stories about yourself. As you reflect on or find out about your life as a young child, consider how those early days might have influenced your later development.

1. Where did your family live when you were a preschooler? Who was living in the house? Did you share a bedroom? With whom? Did you have a bedtime routine? Can you describe it?

2. What was your favorite toy? Game? Story?

3. Describe one of your preschool birthdays. Who was there? What presents did you get?

4. Recreate an early holiday or special occasion. Do any of the family traditions still occur today? If you have children, do you carry on these traditions for holidays in a similar fashion?

5. Did your parents work? Did you go to preschool or have a babysitter? When did you first write your name?

Is there a copy of it somewhere?

6. Do you recall any special event, pleasant or traumatic, that happened to you or in your family between 2 and 6 years of age? How might this have affected your later development?

7. Who was your closest friend? Describe a common activity you enjoyed.

8. What was your health like? Any serious illnesses? Did you have any food preferences?

9. Ask someone to describe your personality and some of your typical behaviors.

10. Try to describe your earliest memory.

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Chapter 5 MIDDLE CHILDHOOD CONTENTS Chapter-at-a-Glance

2

Learning Objectives

3

Chapter Outline

4

Lecture Launchers

8

Student Activities

15

Supplemental Reading

18

Revel Multimedia

19

Handouts

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CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE Chapter Outline

Instructor’s Resources

The Growing Body Height and Weight Changes Nutrition and Obesity

Learning Objectives 5.1, 5.2

Motor Development and Safety Leaps and Bounds Health and Safety During Middle Childhood

Learning Objectives 5.3, 5.4

Children with Special Needs Sensory Difficulties and Learning Disabilities Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Learning Objectives 5.5, 5.6

Intellectual and Language Development Perspectives on Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood Language Development

Learning Objectives 5.7, 5.8

Revel Resources

Lecture Launchers 5.1, 5.2, 5.3

Lecture Launchers 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7 Student Activities 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4

Schooling: The Three Rs (and More) of Middle Childhood Reading Educational Trends

Learning Objectives 5.9, 5.10 Lecture Launcher 5.8

School and Education in Middle Childhood Across Cultures

Student Activities 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7 Intelligence: Determining Individual Strengths Intelligence Benchmarks Below and Above Intelligence Norms

Learning Objectives 5.11, 5.12

The Developing Self A Different Mirror Moral Development

Learning Objectives 5.13, 5.14

Lecture Launchers 5.4, 5.5

Lecture Launchers 5.9, 5.10 Student Activities 5.5, 5.6

Relationships: Building Friendship in Middle Childhood Stages of Friendship Gender, Race, and Friendships

Learning Objectives 5.15, 5.16

Family Life in Middle Childhood Families Today Challenges to Family Life

Learning Objectives 5.17, 5.18

Student Activities 5.7, 5.8

Lecture Launchers 5.11 Student Activity 5.9

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Friendships and Peer Relationships in Middle Childhood Across Cultures

Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e

LEARNING OBJECTIVES LO 5.1

Summarize the ways in which children grow during the school years, and discuss the factors that influence their growth.

LO 5.2

Explain how nutrition affects children’s growth and functioning, and identify the risks posed by obesity.

LO 5.3

Identify the advances in motor skills during middle childhood.

LO 5.4

Summarize the main health and safety concerns of school-age children.

LO 5.5

Explain how sensory impairments and learning disabilities may impact children’s school performance and social relationships.

LO 5.6

Identify the behaviors associated with ADHD, and discuss how it impacts children’s school performance.

LO 5.7

Identify and summarize the major theoretical approaches to cognitive development in middle childhood.

LO 5.8

Summarize the development of language during middle childhood, and explain the cognitive advantages bilingualism offers.

LO 5.9

Describe the five stages of reading, and compare teaching approaches

LO 5.10 Summarize the various trends in U.S. education.

LO 5.11 Compare and contrast the different methods of assessing intelligence.

LO 5.12 Summarize the approaches to educating children with intellectual disabilities and children who are intellectually gifted in middle childhood.

LO 5.13 Summarize how children’s view of themselves changes in middle childhood, and explain how this shift affects their self-esteem.

LO 5.14 Identify the six stages in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, and compare and contrast them with Gilligan’s sequence of stages.

LO 5.15 Identify Damon’s stages of friendship, and explain the factors that determine popularity in middle childhood.

LO 5.16 Explain how gender and race affect friendships at this age.

LO 5.17 Identify the variety of family constellations, and assess their impact on children.

LO 5.18 Describe the challenges to family life posed by work, divorce, and poverty.

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CHAPTER OUTLINE MODULE 5.1 – PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD I.

The Growing Body A. Height and Weight Changes 1. Weight gain and redistribution occurs 2. Racial, ethnic, cultural, and nutritional variability is shown B. Nutrition and Obesity 1. Obesity is on the rise, fed by SES differences, nutritional intake, inactivity, poor diet II. Motor Development and Safety A. Leaps and Bounds: The Rapid Growth of Motor Skills 1. Gross motor skills: Various milestones are illustrated in a familiar chart 2. Fine motor skills: Development brings more sophisticated and fine-grained skills B. Health and Safety During Middle Childhood 1. Asthma; genetic and environmental factors both contribute 2. Accidents; remains a leading cause of injury and death 3. Safety in cyberspace; monitoring and education potentially lessen exposure to creepiness 4. Psychological disorders; antidepressant prescription has sparked considerable debate III. Children with Special Needs A. Sensory Difficulties and Learning Disabilities 1. Visual problems; impairment or blindness seriously impact schoolwork 2. Auditory problems; also impact development of language skills 3. Speech problems; childhood-onset fluency disorder (stuttering) is most familiar 4. Learning disabilities: Discrepancies between achievement and capacity to learn a. Dyslexia is an example B. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 1. Symptoms, diagnosis, causes, and treatment are a matter of some debate MODULE 5.2 – COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD I.

Intellectual and Language Development A. Perspectives on Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood 1. Piagetian approaches to cognitive development a. The rise of operational thought i. Logical operations, decentering, reversibility, less egocentrism are all evident b. Piaget in perspective: Right and wrong i. Based on observation of a relatively small number of children, rather than on experimentation ii. Mastery of tasks can occur earlier than proposed iii. A Western bias 2. Information processing in middle childhood a. Memory i. Gains in encoding, storage, and retrieval strategies, and in efficiency of working memory ii. Metamemory emerges during middle childhood b. Improving memory i. Keyword strategy can be helpful 3. Vygotsky’s approach to cognitive development and classroom instruction a. Reciprocal teaching, cooperative learning, and other concepts translate well to the classroom B. Language Development: What Words Mean 1. Mastering the mechanics of language a. Grammar, pragmatics, and syntax grow, phonemes and intonation may be troublesome 4 .

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2. Metalinguistic awareness a. A growing appreciation for the rules that govern language 3. How language promotes self-control a. Marshmallow test reveals language-based strategies for delaying gratification 4. Bilingualism: Speaking in many tongues a. Cognitive advantages accrue with the ability to speak more than one language II. Schooling: The Three Rs (and More) of Middle Childhood A. Reading: Learning to Decipher the Meaning Behind Words 1. Reading stages a. From Stage 0 to Stage 4, children show advances in phonology, fluency, and comprehension 2. How should we teach reading? a. Code-based; it’s demonstrably superior to whole-language B. Educational Trends: Beyond the Three Rs 1. Cultural assimilation or pluralistic society? a. Melting pot or tossed salad?

2. Fostering a bicultural identity a. Approaching this goal is a point of agreement; the best approach is debated 3. Schooling around the world and across genders: Who gets educated? a. Universal education should not be assumed III. Intelligence: Determining Individual Strengths A. Intelligence Benchmarks: Differentiating the Intelligent from the Unintelligent 1. Binet’s test a. A practical approach to a practical problem, with a focus on remediation and improvement b. Comparing chronological age and mental age established the logic behind IQ 2. Measuring IQ: Present-day approaches to intelligence a. Deviation IQ is the current standard b. Stanford-Binet, Wechsler scales, Kaufman ABC are well-known options 3. What IQ tests don’t tell: Alternative conceptions of intelligence a. Unidimensional g or multidimensional model? i. Gardner’s proposal of multiple intelligences ii. Sternberg’s triarchic theory b. Fluid versus crystallized intelligence c. Vygotsky’s dynamic assessment 4. Group differences in IQ a. Explaining racial differences in IQ i. The old familiar refrain: How much is nature, how much is nurture? b. The Bell Curve controversy i. Fell clearly on the “it’s primarily nature” side ii. Strident objections, alternative hypotheses, amassing of data ensued B. Below and Above Intelligence Norms: Intellectual Disabilities and Intellectual Giftedness 1. Different approaches: Least restrictive environment versus mainstreaming 2. Below the norm: Intellectual disability a. Different levels, origins, and prognoses for intellectual impairment i. Mild, moderate, severe, and profound levels have guidelines for diagnosis 3. Above the norm: The gifted and talented a. The higher end of the distribution implies neither social deficits nor guarantees of success b. Acceleration and enrichment are options for educational strategies MODULE 5.3 – SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD I.

The Developing Self A. A Different Mirror: The Changing Ways Children View Themselves 1. Psychosocial development in middle childhood: Industry versus inferiority 5 .

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a. Erikson proposed a crisis focused on gaining competence 2. Understanding one’s self: A new response to “who am I?” a. Descriptions based on psychological dimensions replace those based on physical attributes 3. Self-esteem: Developing a positive – or negative – view of oneself a. Change and stability in self-esteem i. Esteem remains high and constant in some areas, dips in others, declines around age 12 b. Race and self-esteem i. Complexity surrounds understanding race differences in levels of self-esteem ii. Social identity theory provides some guideposts and explanations B. Moral Development 1. Piaget proposed a stage model that received comparatively little attention 2. Kohlberg proposed a stage model that received a lot of attention, and a fair amount of criticism 3. Turiel proposed moral domain theory to disentangle moral reasoning, behavior, and judgement 4. Gilligan proposed a stage model that addressed some limitations of Kohlberg’s approach II. Relationships: Building Friendship in Middle Childhood A. Stages of Friendship: Changing Views of Friends 1. Stage 1: Basing friendships on others’ behavior 2. Stage 2: Basing friendship on trust 3. Stage 3: Basing friendship on psychological closeness 4. Individual differences in friendship: What makes a child popular? a. Status among school-age children: Establishing one’s position i. Status levels predict quality and quantity of friendships b. What personal characteristics lead to popularity i. Social competence is an important contributor c. Social problem-solving abilities i. Popular children offer viable solutions ii. Unpopular children may experience learned helplessness d. Teaching social competence i. Cheer up, unpopular children; social competence can be learned 5. Bullying: Schoolyard and online victimization a. Verbal, physical, relational, and cyberbullying represent varieties of undesirable behavior b. Characteristics of bullies and their victims are increasingly understood by researchers i. Greater understanding of causes and consequences leads to more effective interventions B. Gender, Race, and Friendships 1. Gender and friendships: The sex segregation of middle childhood a. Girls tend to play with girls, boys tend to play with boys, and this is seen all over the world b. Dominance hierarchies tend to exert an especially clear influence over boys’ social interactions 2. Cross-race friendships: Integration in and out of the classroom a. Close friendships tend to be within-race III. Family Life in Middle Childhood A. Families Today: A Variety of Constellations 1. Family life: The influence of parents and siblings a. Sibling rivalry can occur, but lack of siblings doesn’t predict maladjustment 2. Single-parent families a. Racial disparities exist for the likelihood and occurrence of single-parent households 3. Multigenerational families a. Prevalence is greater in African-American families than in Caucasian families 4. Living in blended families a. An increasingly common occurrence b. Role ambiguity can present challenges to interactions 5. Families with gay, lesbian, and transgender parents a. An increasingly common occurrence b. Few differences between children raised by heterosexual versus gay or lesbian parents 6 .

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6. Race and family life a. African American, Hispanic, and Asian cultural values influence family dynamics B. Challenges to Family Life 1. Home and alone: What do children do? a. Self-care children show some, but few, differences compared to others b. Free-range parenting may be a conscious strategy 2. Divorce a. Reactions to divorce show a complex pattern based on multiple interacting factors 3. Poverty and family life a. The stress associated with having few resources can affect academic, social, and other areas 4. Group care: Orphanages of the 21st century a. Group care is neither inherently good nor bad

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LECTURE LAUNCHERS Lecture Launcher 5.1: Obesity According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), obesity is defined as being at the 95th percentile or higher of body mass index (BMI) values on the CDC growth chart. Based on that definition, the CDC reports that rates of obesity in the United States are: • • • • •

13.9 percent of 2- to 5-year-olds 18.4 percent of 6- to 11-year-olds 20.6 percent of 12- to 19-year-olds Hispanics (25.8 percent) and non-Hispanic blacks (22.0 percent) had higher obesity rates than nonHispanic whites (14.1 percent) Non-Hispanic Asians (11.0 percent) had lower obesity rates than non-Hispanic blacks and Hispanics

For additional information, please explore: https://www.cdc.gov and examine their resources on obesity

Reputable BMI calculators for children and teens can be found here: http://nccd.cdc.gov/ http://www.mayoclinic.org/ You can also find several permission-free BMI charts on the internet to share with your students. Again, be sure to use charts and calculators designed specifically for children, rather than those for adults.

Experts believe that children are overweight for the same reasons adults are: lack of physical activity as a result of too much television consumption, video games, and computers, in addition to eating a diet with too many calories. Besides being a serious health hazard (increased risk of heart attacks, high blood pressure, strokes, and diabetes), being obese carries a social stigma, which in many ways could be more pronounced for children and teens than it is for adults.

Lecture Launcher 5.2: Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Students are captivated by attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder because they all seem to be aware of someone who has been diagnosed with it. Your lecture should concentrate on three areas: (a) the current DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for ADHD (see Handout 5-1); (b) the effects of ADHD on school performance and social interactions; and (c) treatment of the disorder, which often includes stimulants such as Ritalin and Dexedrine, and cognitive behavior training.

Lecture Launcher 5.3: Learned Optimism: A Vaccine against Depression?

Although there are several explanations for why children become depressed (e.g., genetics, biochemical, cognitive, and environmental, to name a few), Martin Seligman has argued that childhood depression occurs when a child feels helplessness in the face of hardship and failure. His view of learned helplessness proposes that when children are faced with prolonged stress, pain, anger, sadness, or anxiety, parents rush in to protect them from these negative feelings. As a consequence, children fail to develop the skills necessary to make changes in order to eliminate the negative feelings. As a result, when life gets tough, the child feels pessimistic about being able to cope or change things. The child believes that problems will last forever and will give up trying to do anything about them.

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Seligman believes that it is possible to vaccinate children against pessimistic thinking and depression. Modeled on the polio vaccine developed by Jonas Salk, Seligman and colleagues designed the Penn Resiliency Program to help parents and children learn skills to face adversity with the optimism to galvanize change.

Based on techniques therapists use to help depressed patients, the Penn program is simple.

1. Thought catching: Learn to recognize the automatic thoughts that occur to you when you feel depressed.

2. Evaluating: Acknowledge the fact that the things you say to yourself are not necessarily accurate.

3. More accurate explanations: Learning to challenge automatic thoughts with new explanations that may be more truthful.

4. Decatastrophizing: Learning to direct energy to solving the problem at hand rather than thinking of the worst possible consequences.

Brunwasser, S. M., Freres, D. R., & Gillham, J. E. (2018). Youth cognitive-behavioral depression prevention: testing theory in a randomized controlled trial. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1–15.

Brunwasser, S. M. & Gillham, J. E. (2018). Identifying moderators of response to the Penn Resiliency Program: A synthesis study. Prevention Science, 19(1), 38–-48.

Brunwasser, S. M., Gillham, J. E., & Kim, E. S. (2009). A meta-analytic review of the Penn Resiliency Program’s effect on depressive symptoms. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77(6), 1042–1054.

Seligman, M. E. with Reivich, K., Jaycox, L., & Gillham, J. (1995). The optimistic child. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Lecture Launcher 5.4: Termites Show Intelligence When intelligence testing was in its infancy, there was a wide spectrum of unanswered questions. How should intelligence best be assessed? What was the stability of the intelligence quotient over time? What factors contributed to poor versus superior performance? How did geniuses differ from the rest of the population? To address some of these questions, Lewis Terman undertook in the early part of the 20th century a longitudinal study of geniuses.

A group of 250,000 elementary school students (who had been identified by their teachers as possibly gifted) formed the basis for Terman’s initial screening. After administering intelligence tests Terman selected 857 boys and 671 girls (1,528 students total) who had IQs in the superior range. Specifically, the mean IQ of these children was 150, with a low score of 135 and 80 students scoring above 170. These 8- to 12-year-olds were then observed carefully for the next few years.

One early finding was that, contrary to popular opinion, gifted children were not bookish, maladapted freaks.

Rather, these children (“Termites,” as they were later dubbed) were typically taller and broader than average children, and had many markers of physical prowess, such as superior hand grip strength, greater lung capacity, and earlier sexual maturity. Intrigued by these findings, Terman decided to extend his study to a very large-scale longitudinal design; so longitudinal, in fact, it has continued for over 70 years, even long after Terman’s death.

Some summary findings are these. First, in keeping with their childhood development, the Termites tended to have lower rates of childhood illnesses and accidents than the population as a whole, lower incidences of alcoholism and criminality, and lower death and accident rates than the rest of the population. Second, although these children tended to do better academically than their peers (as might be imagined), they were no better in non-academic arenas, such as physical education, art, or metal shop. As a corollary, these children also did not burn out over time; their academic performance remained strong as 70 percent went on to complete university degrees. Third, this gifted group became well-off financially. Perhaps because of their education and suitability for a range of professions (e.g., physicians, lawyers, architects, executives) their median salary during the 1950s tended to be in the upper 1 percent of the population. Finally, when assessed later in life, the Termites also were a contented group. Overall they report feeling generally satisfied with their lives, again contrary to the notion that highly intelligent people are more susceptible to neuroses or psychological disturbances.

Terman’s studies were not without criticism, much of it focused on his sometimes dicey emphasis on genetic 9 .

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components of intelligence. Nonetheless, this long-term study of genius has proven to be a once-in-a-lifetime glimpse into the lives of a very select group.

Simonton, D. K. (2017). Reverse engineering from eminent exemplars: How about a retrospective study too?. Roeper Review, 39(3), 203–205.

Terman, L. M. (Ed.) (1921–1959). Genetic studies of genius (Volumes 1–5). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

Warne, R. T. (2018). An evaluation (and vindication?) of Lewis Terman: What the father of gifted education can teach the 21st century. Gifted Child Quarterly, 0016986218799433.

Lecture Launcher 5.5: Mood Awareness Emotional intelligence (a broad collection of abilities related to understanding and utilizing affect) and alexithymia (a stunted awareness of one’s emotional states) share a common component, that awareness of one’s moods and emotions can contribute to successful social interaction. This idea has been pursued in a set of empirical studies.

Mood awareness refers to individual differences in attention directed toward one’s mood states. It is measured by the Mood Awareness Scale (MAS; Swinkels & Giuliano, 1995), a reliable 10-item measure composed of two related but distinct dimensions: mood labeling and mood monitoring. Mood labeling refers to the ability to identify and categorize one’s mood states, whereas mood monitoring refers to the tendency to focus on, evaluate, or scrutinize one’s mood.

The processes of mood labeling and mood monitoring may be better understood by an analogy. There is a marked difference in the approaches used by a physician and by a hypochondriac when trying to assess states of health. The physician, because of training, experience, or insight, is usually successful in making an accurate diagnosis of an illness and recommending some course of treatment. In other words, the medical condition is diagnosed or categorized fairly readily, and steps are then taken to remedy the complaint (e.g., “take two aspirin and call me in the morning”) or maintain the state of health (e.g., “keep jogging to work every day”). In contrast, hypochondriacs are quite concerned about the state of their physical health, and in fact may become preoccupied with keeping track of their health status. A process of monitoring physical symptoms and checking for the onset of illness may become an ongoing ritual. The problem, of course, is that although hypochondriacs may be vigilant in checking their health, they are apt to be misled many times about their condition. In other words, they check on their physical states often, but may not reach a satisfactory or final judgment about their health, concluding instead that they are suffering from some vague bodily complaint.

Several studies have demonstrated that labeling and monitoring exert different influences on other moodrelevant variables. For example, in comparison with low mood labelers, high mood labelers tend to seek and be satisfied with social support, experience positive affect, have higher levels of self-esteem, be extraverted, be less socially anxious or neurotic, and express greater global life satisfaction. High (as compared with low) mood monitors, by contrast, tend to experience more intense affective states, experience greater negative affect, have lower self-esteem, and report neurotic tendencies. Various other studies have investigated the role of mood awareness in depression; self-views; reactions to life stress; self-reported physical symptoms; intelligence and cognitive abilities; and numerous other personality dimensions.

More importantly, mood monitoring and mood labeling play a role in the process of mood regulation. Most people are motivated to sustain a positive mood (mood maintenance) or change a negative one (mood repair), although monitors and labelers might be more or less successful at this task. One study (Swinkels & Giuliano, 1995, Study 4), for example, found that although high mood monitors agreed that their moods influenced their behavior and were important to them, they reported less success at regulating their negative mood states.

Another study (Giuliano, 1995) found that the ability of mood labelers and mood monitors to repair their negative moods over time differed. High labelers were able to take relatively quick action to alter their mood states, whereas high monitors tended to wallow in their negative moods for a longer period of time.

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The reason for these differences can be understood by returning to the medical analogy. The act of labeling something implies that it becomes identified or categorized for further use. The physician who has made an accurate diagnosis now knows the likely course and duration of the illness, the available treatments, and the number of subsequent office visits for which the patient can be billed. In this sense mood labeling should generally promote constructive thought and behavior in regard to one’s feelings. A mood that is readily labeled is a mood that does not need to be dwelt upon in order to be understood: the mood state has been identified and the stage presumably is set for acting on that mood in some way.

In contrast, monitoring implies a certain degree of vigilance by an individual, which may or may not be productive. Like the hypochondriac who is nervously attuned to each twitch and tremor of her or his body, mood monitoring would imply a similar type of examination of or dwelling upon one’s mood; for some, perhaps, to the point of unhealthfulness, but for most out of a simple concern with tracking the progress of one’s feelings.

The difficulty with mood monitoring, then, is that it may contribute to becoming absorbed in one’s mood state, much like the overconcern with physical health experienced by the hypochondriac. The high mood monitor may check on her or his moods often, and be quite vigilant in doing so, yet may still remain a bit confused about the nature of the mood state. Just as the accuracy of the hypochondriac’s diagnoses may be clouded by numerous false alarms or uncertainty about the nature of the discomfort, so too may the high mood monitor’s judgments of her or his mood be clouded by too great an absorption in the mood state itself. In the case of bad moods, this absorption may produce prolonged negative affect.

Boden, M. T. & Thompson, R. J. (2017). Meta-analysis of the association between emotional clarity and attention to emotions. Emotion Review, 9(1), 79–85.

Giuliano, T. A. (1995, August). Mood awareness predicts mood change over time. Presented at the 103rd Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, New York.

Swinkels, A. (1993, August). Exploring the role of mood awareness in mood regulation. In D. Tice (Chair), Self regulation of mood and emotion. Symposium conducted at the 101st Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Toronto.

Swinkels, A. (2001). Research using the Mood Awareness Scale, 1991–2000. Technical Report 1, St. Edward’s University Psychology Laboratory.

Swinkels, A. & Giuliano, T. A. (1995). The measurement and conceptualization of mood awareness: Monitoring and labeling one’s mood states. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 934–949.

Swinkels, A., Giuliano, T. A., & Helweg-Larsen, M. (1996, August). Assessing mood awareness in diverse groups. Presented at the 104th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Toronto.

Swinkels, A. & Giuliano, T. A. (1992a). Mood awareness and self-regulation. Presented at the Fourth Annual Convention of the American Psychological Society, San Diego, California.

Swinkels, A. & Giuliano, T. A. (1992b). [Mood clash: Negotiating interpersonal affect]. Unpublished research data.

Lecture Launcher 5.6: Mnemonics in Mind Here is a collection of mnemonics, divided into naive strategies (i.e., those used regularly and easily by most people, without needing formal instruction) and technical mnemonics (i.e., those requiring some training). Share these with your students, both as an illustration of how children can improve their memory and as tips for their own memory enhancement.

Naive Mnemonics • • • • •

Rehearsal: Simple rote repetition Rhyme: Constructing a little ditty to keep track of information Chunking: Restructuring a list into meaningful units Images: Visualizing a cereal box full of money to remember “Bank and Groceries” First-letter mnemonics – Acronyms: Roy G. Biv for the visible spectrum; HOMES for the Great Lakes – Acrostics: Arithmetic: “A Real Idiot Thinks He Might Eat Turkey In Church”

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• • • • •

Method of Loci: A physical setting is first memorized, then filled in Peg-Word: Construct a rhyme, then “hang” the information on the rhyme’s peg Number-Letter: A translation scheme matching letters to numbers and vice versa Link: A visual image of each item is linked to the following one, forming a chain Story: Like the link system, but with stories using the to-be-remembered information

Lecture Launcher 5.7: The Pragmatics of Language Development “Put the apple on the towel in the box.” The ambiguity inherent in that sentence can lead to great confusion.

Should the apple that’s currently on the towel go in the box? Should the towel lying near the apple first go in the box, followed by the apple on top of it? Or should the apple be placed on the towel in the box, rather than on the plate that’s in the box?

Until recently, most views of speech comprehension emphasized the decoding of grammar, followed by a search for contextual clues that might aid in following a command. The grammar in this example illustrates that sometimes that can be a tall order. One study, however, suggests that visual cues irrelevant to grammar play a prominent early role in influencing message comprehension. A combination of visual and linguistic information helps us better understand what others tell us.

A research team led by Michael K. Tanenhaus at the University of Rochester tracked the eye movements of volunteers while they listened to a variety of messages. These simple commands asked them to manipulate objects that were visible in the laboratory. The researchers found that people look at targets as soon as they hear words that distinguish the target from other items. As an example, when asked to “touch the starred yellow square” participants took about a quarter-second to look at the correct target (that lay among other unstarred blocks) after hearing the word “starred.” However, if the items included two starred yellow blocks, participants looked at the target after hearing the word “square.”

But where does the apple go? When presented with either an ambiguous phrase (“Put the apple on the towel in the box”) or an unambiguous one (“Put the apple that’s on the towel in the box”) participants’ eye movements differed. As they heard a particular command, participants viewed either a display with an apple set on a towel; another towel without an apple, a box, and a pencil; or a similar arrangement in which the pencil was replaced by an additional apple on a napkin. When faced with only one apple, the ambiguous phrase led participants to glance at the towel after hearing “towel,” showing their inclination that the apple should be placed there, and then both placed in the box. Those participants given the unambiguous phrase, however, never glanced at the towel. When the two-apple arrangement was presented, however, both ambiguous and unambiguous instructions produced the same patterns of eye movements. Participants looked from one apple to the other upon hearing the word “apple,” then looked at the appropriate apple upon hearing the word “towel,” and made no further eye movements until hearing the word “box.” An apple on a towel in a box illustrates the coordination that takes place between vision and hearing in speech comprehension. But if the apple stays in the box it doesn’t do much for the hearing-hunger connection.

Arnold, J.A., Tanenhaus, M.K. Altmann, R.J., & Fagnano, M. (2004). The old and, theee, uh, new: Disfluency and reference resolution.

Psychological Science, 9, 578–582.

Bower, B. (1995). Understanding speech: I see what you mean. Science News, 147, 373.

Eberhard, K.M., Spivey-Knowlton, M.J., Sedivy, J.C. & Tanenhaus, M.K. (1995). Eye-movements as a window into spoken language comprehension in natural contexts. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 24, 409–436.

Ferreira, F., Foucart, A., & Engelhardt, P. E. (2013). Language processing in the visual world: Effects of preview, visual complexity, and prediction. Journal of Memory and Language, 69(3), 165–182.

Henderson, J. & Ferreira, F. (2013). The interface of language, vision, and action: Eye movements and the visual world. Psychology Press.

Spivey, M.J. Tanenhaus, M.K., Eberhard, K.M. & Sedivy, J.C. (2002). Eye movements and spoken language comprehension: Effects of visual context on syntactic ambiguity resolution. Cognitive Psychology, 45, 447–481.

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Lecture Launcher 5.8: Do Rewards Affect Motivation and Learning?

Does giving children A’s, toys, candy, or money undermine their interest in learning? Long ago E. L. Thorndike concluded that learning is controlled by its consequences: If a behavior is reinforced, it is more likely to be repeated. Ever since, generations of educators and parents have been rewarding children, hoping to reinforce their motivation to learn. Unfortunately, many studies have shown that when children are given rewards for their behavior, they often lose interest in that behavior compared to students who are not given rewards.

Should we therefore abolish grades, incentives, and even praise? First, it is important to make a distinction among various types of rewards. Intrinsic rewards are ones that naturally follow from performing a behavior well, such as seeing a tennis ball go over the net when it is hit correctly. Extrinsic rewards come from an outside source, such as praise from a teacher, or candy for reading a certain number of books. Extrinsic rewards have been shown to negatively affect motivation, but only under certain conditions.

Rewards can be categorized into three types of contingencies (what the reward is predicated on): Task-contingent rewards: Children are rewarded merely for participating in an activity without regard to any standard of performance. Most studies find that motivation and interest decline in task-contingent situations.

Performance-contingent rewards: Children are rewarded when they meet certain performance criteria. Research is mixed here; sometimes these rewards reduce interest in an activity and sometimes they don’t.

Success-contingent rewards: Children are given rewards for a good performance that is linked to achievement of a goal. These types of rewards have been shown to increase interest and motivation.

Lecture Launcher 5.9: Morality Before this lecture, you may want to have your class participate in the Alligator River exercise (see Student Activity 5.6). You might begin this lecture by asking your students for their definitions of morality. Point out that researchers have looked at morality in a variety of ways: as (a) behavior that helps another human being, (b) behavior in conformity with societal norms, (c) the internalization of social norms, (d) the arousal of empathy or guilt, (e) reasoning about justice, and (f) putting another’s interests ahead of one’s own. You can write these on the board as you ask students to give you examples of how our society enforces each as a measure of moral behavior. What institutions have been created to enforce each element?

Lawrence Kohlberg extended Jean Piaget’s theory of moral development by presenting his research participants with moral dilemmas. Kohlberg emphasized that it is the structure of the answer—the way the individual reasons about the dilemma—and not the content that is important. Here are some interesting points about the research conducted using Kohlberg’s approach.

1. Both cross-sectional and longitudinal research provide evidence that moral reasoning develops in stages and with age. Also, research confirms that the stages are invariant.

2. Research shows that the development of moral reasoning is slow and gradual.

3. Postconventional morality at stage 6 is so rarely found that Kohlberg believed few people ever attained it and its existence is speculative.

4. When subjects generate real-life moral dilemmas, they tend to score at a lower stage than when reasoning about hypothetical dilemmas.

5. Moral reasoning is highly correlated with IQ, performance on Piagetian tasks, and perspective-taking skill.

6. Peer experiences can enhance moral reasoning. A study of peer discussion and role-playing showed sixthand tenth-graders moved partially or totally to the next moral stage compared with those students who did not participate in the class interventions. Role-playing games facilitated moral reasoning, more so than discussions.

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7. Parental child-rearing practices helped enhance moral reasoning. Researchers asked parents and firstthrough tenth-grade children to discuss moral dilemmas. Parents who were supportive, listened well, asked clarifying questions, praised, had a sense of humor, and used higher-level reasoning themselves had children who gained the most in moral reasoning. Parents who lectured, used threats, or made sarcastic remarks had children who changed little or not at all.

8. Cross-cultural research shows that people in technologically advanced, urban cultures progress through Kohlberg’s stages more rapidly than people in nonindustrialized, village societies.

9. Level of education correlates highly with advanced levels in moral reasoning.

Lecture Launcher 5.10: The Moral Machine Either as a supplement to your lecture or as a student activity, consider visiting the Moral Machine website hosted by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Various scenarios are presented that update traditional moral dilemmas (such as the Heinz dilemma or trolley problem). These include moral choices and outcomes surrounding autonomous vehicles; what’s the moral decision to be made when no sentient agent is involved?

Sharing these dilemmas with your students is a great way to start a discussion of their own moral values, but also opens the door to the cognitive complexity of children. Ask your students how they think someone in middle childhood would approach these same moral conundrums.

For additional information, please explore: http://moralmachine.mit.edu/

Lecture Launcher 5.11: Is the Potential for Divorce Genetic?

Matt McGue and David Lykken noted that one of the strongest predictors of divorce is a family background that includes parental divorce. Although most researchers have attributed this effect to environmental factors such as social modeling, McGue and Lykken investigated potential genetic factors. Using subjects from the Minnesota Twin Registry, they obtained survey information on marital history from 722 same-sex monozygotic twins, 794 same-sex dizygotic twins, their parents, and their spouse's parents. They reported that the concordance rate for divorce was significantly higher for monozygotic twins than for dizygotic twins. Based upon their results, they estimated that the predicted divorce rate for a hypothetical marriage between two monozygotic twins with divorced parents and a divorced co-twin would be 77.5 percent, whereas the predicted divorce rate for a marriage between two monozygotic twins with a background of no familial divorce would be 5.3 percent. The researchers concluded that their “data suggest that cultural factors influence the threshold for divorce while, within a given culture, variations in underlying aggregate risk are strongly influenced by genetic factors” (p.

372). They do, however, emphasize that genetic factors may be mediated by personality factors such as personal values and the individual’s capacity for happiness.

Hatemi, P. K., McDermott, R., & Eaves, L. (2015). Genetic and environmental contributions to relationships and divorce attitudes.

Personality and Individual Differences, 72, 135–140.

Jerskey, B. A. et al. (2010). Marriage and divorce: A genetic perspective. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(5), 473–478.

McGue, M. & Lykken, D. T. (1992). Genetic influence on risk of divorce. Psychological Science, 3, 368–373.

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STUDENT ACTIVITIES Student Activity 5.1: Piaget in Action If you can round up some children of various ages (from about age 5 through 12 works well), demonstrate Piaget’s tasks for your class. Students gain a much better understanding of Piaget from actually seeing how children think through the various tasks and especially the errors they make. Remind your students that Piaget always asked his subjects to justify their answers. This proves to be a very popular classroom demonstration, especially if some of the children are brought in by your students. Distribute copies of Handout 5-2 to help students with their observations. Some additional tasks include: 1. Ask the child if she or he has any sisters (or brothers). Then ask the child if their sister (or brother) has any sisters.

2. Have an uneven amount of poker chips of two different colors (e.g., blue and white). Ask the child, “Are there more blue chips or poker chips?”

3. Ask for a volunteer from among your students. Then ask a child to hide a candy bar somewhere in the room and make sure that the child knows that the student volunteer can see where she or he is hiding the candy.

Then ask the student volunteer to leave the room. Conspiratorially, tell the child that you are going to move the candy bar and hide it somewhere else. The child hides the candy again. Now ask the child where the student will look for the candy bar when she or he returns to the room.

Student Activity 5.2: Constructing a Multiple Intelligences Test The textbook discusses a variety of theorists who propose that intelligence is composed of several distinct aptitudes or abilities rather than a single, general one. One way for students to gain a better understanding of the concept of multiple intelligences is to construct their own test. The late Lester Sdorow suggested that students find a relevant article in PsycINFO and use it, along with the background material in the text, to write a threepage paper proposing their own intelligence test. Students’ tests should assess more than the abilities required to succeed academically. In addition, students should describe in their papers: (a) the rationale and components (i.e., distinct aptitudes or abilities) of the test, (b) how they would standardize it and determine its reliability and validity, (c) any similarities or differences to other intelligence tests (such as the Stanford-Binet, the WAIS, WISC, or even other multiple intelligences tests). Students will no doubt enjoy this opportunity to creatively apply course concepts, and will also be left with a better understanding of how tests are constructed.

Sdorow, L. (1994). The Frankenstein course: Teaching assistants, laboratory exercises, and papers in introductory psychology. Paper presented at the Southwest Regional Conference for Teachers of Psychology, Fort Worth.

Student Activity 5.3: What Exactly Is Intelligence?

An in-class discussion of what constitutes intelligence can be an interesting and enlightening experience. Having students get together in small groups to discuss the definition of intelligence can produce even better results, pedagogically speaking. The following questions should be addressed by each group, and the groups should be prepared to share their ideas with the other groups.

•

What are the common characteristics of intelligent behavior? In other words, how can you tell if someone is intelligent? Why? (Try to come up with five or six common characteristics.)

•

What proposed characteristics of intelligence that came up during your discussion were eventually eliminated? Why?

•

What special challenges do you see in applying your definition of intelligence to children compared to adults?

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Student Activity 5.4: Measuring Intelligence If your department, student disabilities center, or counseling center has a copy, arrange to bring in the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC). Show the class the various subtests included in the Verbal Scale and the Performance Scale. You might want to divide your class into groups and let them try some of the items themselves. Ask your students to discuss whether these tests are valid measures of intelligence. (This is an especially useful exercise if you have had your students previously come up with their own definitions of intelligence.)

Student Activity 5.5: Moral Dilemmas You may have your students try the moral reasoning dilemmas on Handouts 5-3, 5-4, and 5-5. It’s helpful to let your students write out their answers anonymously so they won’t feel anxious about possibly being amoral!

Then, encourage your students to collect data from children and adults using the same moral dilemmas, and ask them to reflect on the pattern of results they obtain. You can use this activity as an in-class exercise, a reflective journal option, or as the basis of a short written assignment.

As an alternative, you could present the “Heinz dilemma” as a model and ask each student to generate and bring to the next class meeting one or two dilemmas that would be especially relevant to middle childhood. During class, collect the dilemmas and go over them with your students, critiquing them and selecting the best examples from the group. After class, compile the best examples and type up a survey that includes the dilemmas along with instructions for how to respond. Then, distribute two copies of the survey to your students and ask each to give the survey to two children. Preferably, the respondents would be different on some dimension, such as age or sex. Students should try to keep as accurate a record of their volunteers’ responses as possible, and should also try to determine the level of moral development based on those responses. During the next class session, you can collate the data and read several interesting responses. This should spark an involving class discussion in which students compare responses (including information about the age and sex of subjects) and interpret them in terms of Kohlberg’s stages.

Student Activity 5.6: Morality and the Double Standard Your students will enjoy this exercise, which assesses morality and the double standard. Divide your class into discussion groups. Half of the groups should receive the Abigail version of the story; the other half should receive the Gregory version (see Handout 5-6, which should be cut in half).

The task is for the groups to read the story and then, as a group, rank each character from the one they like best to the one they find most despicable. Have a recorder from each group tally the rankings. These rankings, of course, should differ because the groups had different stories. Ask the students to figure out why the rankings are so different. Have the students reflect on what they found.

You may want to vary the stories and compare how the rankings are affected by the changes: • “Gregory and Abigail have been going together for some time and plan to be married. However, they have never set a date and people doubt that they will ever go through with it.”

• “Abigail (Gregory) rushes to Simon’s (Samantha’s) house and asks him (her) to take her (him) across the river. Simon (Samantha) cares for Abigail (Gregory) very much, but she (he) has never returned his affections.”

• “Abigail (Gregory) is shocked by this proposition and runs to Ivan’s. Abigail (Gregory) knows that Ivan has a gun, and she (he) hopes that he will force Simon (Samantha) to cooperate.”

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• “Simon (Samantha) agrees to the bargain. Abigail (Gregory) enjoys it very much.”

• “Gregory (Abigail) explains that he (she) always thought that Abigail (Gregory) was a nice girl (guy), tells her (him) he (she) doesn’t want to see her (him) for a while, and stomps off into the jungle.”

• “Chris gets so angry at Gregory’s (Abigail’s) responses that he goes off into the jungle and sets fire to Gregory’s (Abigail’s) house.”

Student Activity 5.7: Popularity Divide your students into groups with the assignment that each group must compile a list of all the qualities that make for a popular child and the qualities of unpopular children, and why these qualities help or hinder friendships. If there is time, you might ask students to devise ways of helping unpopular children learn better social skills (see Handout 5-7). Some common approaches are: 1.

2.

3.

4.

Reinforcing socially appropriate behaviors Modeling social skills Coaching Role playing

One approach being used by schools involves conflict resolution training and peer mediation. These approaches are particularly effective in teaching children how to handle bullies and fighting. For information on schoolbased conflict resolution programs, contact The National Institute for Conflict Resolution at http://www.nifcr.com/

Student Activity 5.8: You’ve Got a Friend Ask your students to answer one or more of the following questions: 1. Does the fact that students in low-achievement schools often have higher academic self-esteem than students in high-achievement schools argue against high-achievement schools? Why or why not?

2. What is an example of the relationship between low self-esteem and failure in an area other than academics?

What can be done about it?

3. How do children’s friendships and adult friendships differ? How are they similar?

4. Do you think boys’ and girls’ different approaches to friendship are primarily genetic or environmental? In what ways might they be influenced by cultural factors?

5. Do expectancies work outside the classroom among adults? How?

Student Activity 5.9: Reflective Journal Use Handout 5-8 to help your students reflect on their feelings of social competence as school-age children.

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SUPPLEMENTAL READING Amour, M. D. S., O’Leary, D. D., Cairney, J., & Wade, T. J. (2018). What is the effect of ADHD stimulant medication on heart rate and blood pressure in a community sample of children? Canadian Journal of Public Health, 1–6.

Aubry, A. & Bourdin, B. (2018). Short forms of Wechsler scales assessing the intellectually gifted children using simulation data. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 830.

Berg, D. H. & McDonald, P. A. (2018). Differences in mathematical reasoning between typically achieving and gifted children. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 30(3), 281–291.

Dantchev, S., Zammit, S., & Wolke, D. (2018). Sibling bullying in middle childhood and psychotic disorder at 18 years: a prospective cohort study. Psychological Medicine, 1–8.

Egbert, A. H., Wilfley, D. E., Eddy, K. T., Boutelle, K. N., Zucker, N., Peterson, C. B., ... & Goldschmidt, A. B. (2018). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms are associated with overeating with and without loss of control in youth with overweight/obesity. Childhood Obesity, 14(1), 50–57.

Gross, K. (2018). Success in school tied to healthy vision. The Education Digest, 83(6), 57–60.

Jambon, M. & Smetana, J. G. (2018). Individual differences in prototypical moral and conventional judgments and children's proactive and reactive aggression. Child Development, 89(4), 1343–1359.

Jordan, K. & Tseris, E. (2018). Locating, understanding and celebrating disability: Revisiting Erikson’s “stages.” Feminism & Psychology, 28(3), 427–444.

Lean, R. E., Paul, R. A., Smyser, C. D., & Rogers, C. E. (2018). Maternal intelligence quotient (IQ) predicts IQ and language in very preterm children at age 5 years. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 59(2), 150–159.

Leung, M. P., Thompson, B., Black, J., Dai, S., & Alsweiler, J. M. (2018). The effects of preterm birth on visual development. Clinical and Experimental Optometry, 101(1), 4–12.

McKelvey, L. M., Edge, N. C., Mesman, G. R., Whiteside-Mansell, L., & Bradley, R. H. (2018). Adverse experiences in infancy and toddlerhood: Relations to adaptive behavior and academic status in middle childhood. Child Abuse & Neglect, 82, 168–177.

Ntourou, K., Anderson, J. D., & Wagovich, S. A. (2018). Executive function and childhood stuttering: Parent ratings and evidence from a behavioral task. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 56, 18–32.

Robertson, J., Baines, S., Emerson, E., & Hatton, C. (2018). Postural care for people with intellectual disabilities and severely impaired motor function: A scoping review. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 31, 11–28.

Stevenson, J., Pimperton, H., Kreppner, J., Worsfold, S., Terlektsi, E., Mahon, M., & Kennedy, C. (2018).

Language and reading comprehension in middle childhood predicts emotional and behaviour difficulties in adolescence for those with permanent childhood hearing loss. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 59(2), 180–190.

Walgermo, B. R., Frijters, J. C., & Solheim, O. J. (2018). Literacy interest and reader self-concept when formal reading instruction begins. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 44, 90–100.

Wojcicki, J. M., Medrano, R., Lin, J., & Epel, E. (2018). Increased cellular aging by 3 years of age in Latino, preschool children who consume more sugar-sweetened beverages: A pilot study. Childhood Obesity, 14(3), 149–157.

Zuffianò, A., Colasante, T., Buchmann, M., & Malti, T. (2018). The codevelopment of sympathy and overt aggression from middle childhood to early adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 54(1), 98.

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REVEL MULTIMEDIA School and Education in Middle Childhood Across Cultures

Universal education is not a given

1. List the social, economic, religious, or other reasons why cultural variation in educational goals and standards might exist.

2. Anecdotes are great; they provide colorful examples that may or may not resonate with broader factual conclusions. What general principles can you extract from the anecdotes presented in this video?

Friendships and Peer Relationships in Middle Childhood Across Cultures

Middle childhood friendships are explored cross-culturally

1. Much of the conversation in this video ends with “boys do boy stuff and girls do girl stuff.” Is this a universal, sex-based phenomenon? How might culture, in both the broadest and most focused senses of that term, play a role?

2. What general principles of peer relationships can you extract from the anecdotes presented in this video?

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Handout 5-1 Diagnostic Criteria for Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Inattention: Six or more symptoms of inattention for children up to age 16, or five or more for adolescents 17 and older and adults; symptoms of inattention have been present for at least 6 months, and they are inappropriate for developmental level • • • • • • • • •

Often fails to give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes in schoolwork, at work, or with other activities Often has trouble holding attention on tasks or play activities Often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly Often does not follow through on instructions and fails to finish schoolwork, chores, or duties in the workplace (e.g., loses focus, side-tracked) Often has trouble organizing tasks and activities Often avoids, dislikes, or is reluctant to do tasks that require mental effort over a long period of time (such as schoolwork or homework) Often loses things necessary for tasks and activities (e.g., school materials, pencils, books, tools, wallets, keys, paperwork, eyeglasses, cell phone).

Is often easily distracted Is often forgetful in daily activities

Hyperactivity and Impulsivity: Six or more symptoms of hyperactivity-impulsivity for children up to age 16, or five or more for adolescents 17 and older and adults; symptoms of hyperactivity-impulsivity have been present for at least 6 months to an extent that is disruptive and inappropriate for the person’s developmental level • • • • • • • • •

Often fidgets with or taps hands or feet, or squirms in seat Often leaves seat in situations when remaining seated is expected Often runs about or climbs in situations where it is not appropriate (adolescents or adults may be limited to feeling restless) Often unable to play or take part in leisure activities quietly Is often “on the go,” acting as if “driven by a motor” Often talks excessively Often blurts out an answer before a question has been completed Often has trouble waiting his or her turn Often interrupts or intrudes on others (e.g., butts into conversations or games)

In addition, the following conditions must be met: • • • • •

Several inattentive or hyperactive-impulsive symptoms were present before age 12 years Several symptoms are present in two or more settings (e.g., at home, school or work; with friends or relatives; in other activities) There is clear evidence that the symptoms interfere with, or reduce the quality of, social, school, or work functioning The symptoms do not happen only during the course of schizophrenia or another psychotic disorder.

The symptoms are not better explained by another mental disorder (e.g., Mood Disorder, Anxiety Disorder, Dissociative Disorder, or a Personality Disorder)

Source: https://www.psychiatry.org

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Handout 5-2 Piagetian Tasks Administer the following tasks to two or more children individually. (This is much more useful if you select children of different ages, such as one age 5 and another age 10.) Take notes about what you do. Pay special attention to the concepts of centering and reversibility. Reflect on what you discover and evaluate the usefulness of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.

1. Perspective Taking “Pretend that your ____________ (friend, teacher, aunt, uncle) is going to have a birthday, and you want to surprise that person with a gift they will really like. How would you decide what kind of gift _______ would really like?”

Reflection: What cognitive strategies, insight, and social inference does each subject reveal in determining what gift would please a person? Does the subject consider age, gender, etc.?

2. Conservation of Volume Have two identical containers (e.g., glasses) and a third that is either taller and slimmer or shorter and fatter.

Have a pitcher of water (you may want to color it for emphasis).

Give the subject the similar containers. Say, “Please pour water into both so that each has exactly the same amount of water.” “Do both have exactly the same amount of water?” “How do you know?”

Give the subject the third, different container. Say, “Now take one glass and pour it into this new one.” “Now, do they both have the same amount of water?” “How do you know?” “Pour this new one back into the original one. Now is there the same amount of water?” “How do you know?”

Reflection: What similarities and differences did you note about the explanations?

3. Conservation of Number Obtain 12 pennies or poker chips. With the child and you seated at a table, lay out the items in two identical and parallel rows, equally spaced and identical in length.

Say, “Which row has more pennies—this one or this one? Or are there the same number in each row?”

“Are you sure? How do you know? How many pennies are there in each row?”

Spread out one of the rows to about twice its length. Repeat the above questions. Then say, “But there must be more in this row because it looks longer.”

Reflection: What similarities and differences did you note about the explanations?

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Handout 5-2 (continued) 4. Conservation of Mass Have two balls of Play-Doh®. Say, “Do these two balls have the same amount of Play-Doh?” If the subject says no, ask, “Why don’t you make it so they both have the same amount of Play-Doh?” “Are you sure they have the same amount? How do you know?”

Then say, “OK, now roll out one of these balls into a snake.” Ask, “Now, do both have the same amount of Play-Doh?” “How do you know?”

Say, “Now, make the snake back into a ball.” “Do both balls have the same amount of Play-Doh?” “How do you know?”

Reflection: What similarities and differences did you note about the explanations?

5. Prediction Have some M&Ms® and a brown paper lunch bag. With the subject, select 10 red M&Ms, five yellow M&Ms, and two blue M&Ms. Have the subject count them out with you. Put all 17 M&Ms into the sack. Say, “Now, if I put my hand into the sack and take out only one M&M, what color do you think it will be? Why?” Reflection: What similarities and differences did you note about the explanations? Did some of the children’s responses surprise you? Why? What do their errors tell you about their thinking? Do you think Piaget was correct about his theory of cognitive development?

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 5-3 Moral Reasoning Interview for a Child Procedure: After you have obtained permission from the child’s parents and explained the project, show or read the following moral dilemma to the child and ask the questions that follow.

Age of child _________

Sex of child _________

Kenny is walking to the store. It’s his mother’s birthday on Saturday. He’s feeling bad because he hasn’t been able to save up enough money to get her the present he’d like to give her. Then, on the sidewalk, he finds a wallet with $10 in it—just what he needs to buy the present! But there’s an identification card in the wallet telling the name and address of the owner.

1. What should Kenny do? Why?

2. What would be a good reason for Kenny to return the wallet? Can you think of any other reasons?

3. Would it be stealing to keep the money? Why is it wrong to steal?

4. What if the owner of the wallet were rich and greedy and wouldn’t even give Kenny a reward for returning it; should he return the wallet then?

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 5-4 Moral Reasoning Interview for an Adult Procedure: Read the following dilemma to the adult. Then ask him or her the questions that follow.

Age of adult _________

Sex of adult _________

Sharon and Jill were best friends. One day they went shopping together. Jill tried on a sweater and then, to Sharon’s surprise, walked out of the store wearing the sweater under her coat. A moment later, the store’s security officer stopped Sharon and demanded that she tell him the name of the girl who had walked out. He told the storeowner he’d seen the two girls together and was sure the one who left had been shoplifting. The storeowner said to Sharon, “Come on now, come clean. You could get into serious trouble if you don’t give us your friend’s name.”

1. Should Sharon tell Jill’s name to the security officer? Why?

2. Would it make any difference if Jill had recently done a big favor for Sharon?

3. Would it make a difference if they were not good friends?

4. What factors should Sharon consider in making her decision?

5. Is shoplifting wrong? Why? What’s the most important reason why it is wrong?

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 5-5 Comparing Moral Reasoning Compare the answers to the moral dilemmas you gave to a child and an adult. The following questions will help you reflect on your assignment.

1. How did the responses of the child and the adult differ in terms of maturity of moral judgments?

2. To what extent did the responses correspond with the stages postulated by Piaget, Kohlberg, and Gilligan?

3. Are there any factors (e.g., intelligence, education, breadth of experience, religious affiliation) other than age or sex that might explain the basis for differences in maturity or sophistication?

4. To what extent did personality, cultural values, gender, attitudes, or individual experience appear to reflect the person’s reasoning?

5. Do you believe that differences in types of moral reasoning are related to the characteristic patterns of behavior (e.g., honesty, altruism, or responsibility) of the persons you studied? Explain.

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 5-6 Alligator River Once upon a time there was a woman named Abigail who was in love with a man named Gregory. Gregory lived on the shore of a river. Abigail lived on the opposite shore of the river. The river that separated the two lovers was teeming with alligators. Abigail wanted to cross the river to be with Gregory. Unfortunately, the bridge had been washed out in a flood. So she went to Simon, who had a boat, and asked him to take her across.

He said he would be glad to if she would have sex with him. She promptly refused and went to a friend named Ivan to explain her plight. Ivan didn’t want to get involved at all in the situation. Abigail felt her only alternative was to accept Simon’s terms. Simon fulfilled his promise to Abigail and delivered her into the arms of Gregory.

When Abigail told Gregory about her bargain with Simon, Gregory, who told her he always thought she was virtuous and pure, cast her aside with disdain. Heartsick and dejected, Abigail turned to Chris with her tale of woe. Chris, feeling sorry for Abigail, found Gregory and beat him up.

Please rank the characters from best (1) to worst (5) in terms of their overall behaviors.

Gregory

Abigail

Simon

Ivan

Chris

Handout 5-6 Alligator River Once upon a time there was a man named Gregory who was in love with a woman named Abigail. Gregory lived on the shore of a river. Abigail lived on the opposite shore of the river. The river that separated the two lovers was teeming with alligators. Gregory wanted to cross the river to be with Abigail. Unfortunately, the bridge had been washed out in a flood. So he went to Samantha, who had a boat, and asked her to take him across. She said she would be glad to if he would have sex with her. Gregory promptly refused and went to a friend named Ivan to explain his plight. Ivan didn’t want to get involved at all in the situation. Gregory felt his only alternative was to accept Samantha’s terms. Samantha fulfilled her promise to Gregory and delivered him into the arms of Abigail.

When Gregory told Abigail about his bargain with Samantha, Abigail, who told him she always thought he was virtuous and pure, cast him aside with disdain. Heartsick and dejected, Gregory turned to Chris with his tale of woe. Chris, feeling sorry for Gregory, found Abigail and beat her up.

Please rank the characters from best (1) to worst (5) in terms of their overall behaviors.

Gregory

Abigail

Samantha

Ivan

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 5-7 What Encourages Positive Social Relationships?

•

Showing empathy and kindness

•

Helping

•

Giving

•

Accepting help graciously

•

Sharing

•

Showing positive verbal and physical contact

•

Comforting another in distress

•

Donating to others who are less fortunate

•

Showing concern

•

Responding to others who are sad

•

Taking the perspective of another person

•

Showing affection

•

Cooperating with others to complete a task

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 5-8 Reflective Journal Exercise 5 Think back to your elementary and middle school years.

How would you describe your social competence?

Were you a high- or low-status child? Did you play predominantly with high- or low-status children?

Were you popular? Think of a popular child in your school and an unpopular child (first names only!). Describe the popular child. Make sure to consider the characteristics that contributed to that child’s popularity.

Describe the unpopular child. What characteristics contributed to this child’s unpopularity?

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Chapter 6 ADOLESCENCE CONTENTS Chapter-at-a-Glance

2

Learning Objectives

3

Chapter Outline

4

Lecture Launchers

8

Student Activities

16

Supplemental Reading

24

Revel Multimedia

25

Handouts

26

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CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE Chapter Outline Physical Maturation Growth During Adolescence Nutrition, Food, and Eating Disorders Brain Development and Thought

Instructor’s Resources

Revel Resources

Learning Objectives 6.1, 6.2, 6.3

Body Image in Adolescence

Lecture Launchers 6.1, 6.2, 6.3

Eating Disorders

Student Activities 6.1, 6.2, 6.3 Threats to Adolescents’ Well-Being Drugs, Alcohol, and Tobacco Sexually Transmitted Infections

Learning Objectives 6.4, 6.5 Lecture Launcher 6.4 Student Activities 6.4, 6.5

Cognitive Development Piagetian Approaches to Cognitive Development Information Processing Perspectives

Learning Objectives 6.6, 6.7

Personal Fable

Lecture Launcher 6.5 Student Activities 6.6 School Performance Adolescent School Performance Adolescents’ Media Use

Learning Objectives 6.8, 6.9 Lecture Launcher 6.6

Identity: Asking “Who Am I?” Self-Concept and Self-Esteem Perspectives on Identity Formation Anxiety, Depression, and Suicide

Learning Objectives 6.10, 6.11, 6.12

What Does It Mean to Have a Mental Disorder?

Lecture Launchers 6.7, 6.8, 6.9, 6.10 Student Activities 6.7, 6.8, 6.9

Relationships: Family and Friends Family Ties Relationships with Peers

Learning Objectives 6.13, 6.14 Lecture Launchers 6.11, 6.12, 6.13

Bret Laursen: What Are “Cliques” and “Crowds,” and When Do They Develop?

Student Activities 6.10, 6.11, 6.12, 6.13, 6.14 Dating, Sexual Behavior, and Teenage Pregnancy Dating Sexual Relationships

Learning Objectives 6.15, 6.16 Student Activities 6.15, 6.16, 6.17

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES LO 6.1

Describe the physical changes adolescents experience.

LO 6.2

Analyze the nutritional needs and concerns of adolescents.

LO 6.3

Explain the relationship between brain development and cognitive growth in adolescents.

LO 6.4

Describe major threats to adolescents from substance use and abuse.

LO 6.5

Describe the dangers that adolescent sexual practices can present.

LO 6.6

Analyze Piaget’s account of adolescent cognitive development.

LO 6.7

Explain the information processing view of adolescent cognitive development.

LO 6.8

Describe major factors that affect adolescent school performance.

LO 6.9

Explain the nature and consequences of the use of media by adolescents.

LO 6.10 Describe how adolescents develop their self-concept and self-esteem.

LO 6.11 Analyze diverse theoretical approaches to understanding identity formation.

LO 6.12 Explain why anxiety, depression, and suicide are important issues in adolescence.

LO 6.13 Analyze how the parent–child relationship changes during adolescence.

LO 6.14 Analyze the nature and importance of peer relationships during adolescence.

LO 6.15 Describe the functions and characteristics of dating during adolescence.

LO 6.16 Explain how sexuality develops in the adolescent years.

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CHAPTER OUTLINE MODULE 6.1 – PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE I.

Physical Maturation A. Growth During Adolescence: The Rapid Pace of Physical and Sexual Maturation 1. Puberty in girls a. Starts around age 11 or 12 b. Timing of menarche varies worldwide and is influenced by a variety of factors i. A secular trend toward earlier physical maturation is evident c. Primary sex characteristics: Development of reproductive organs (vagina and uterus) d. Secondary sex characteristics: Development of breasts (age 10), pubic hair (age 11) 2. Puberty in boys a. Starts around age 13 or 14 b. Timing of spermarche is usually around age 13 c. Primary sex characteristics: Development of reproductive organs (penis and testicles) d. Secondary sex characteristics: Development of pubic hair (age 12), voice deepening (longer) 3. Body image: Reactions to physical changes in adolescence a. Some aspects of puberty are private, others are public i. Emotional reactions to and understanding of these changes vary 4. The timing of puberty: The consequences of early and late maturation a. Early maturation i. Generally positive for boys, a mixed situation for girls b. Late maturation i. A mixed situation for both girls and boys, with boys faring a little worse B. Nutrition, Food, and Eating Disorders: Fueling the Growth of Adolescence 1. Obesity a. Adolescents are obese for the same reasons children are obese 2. Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa a. These eating disorders have complex origins, complex symptoms, complex treatment C. Brain Development and Thought: Paving the Way for Cognitive Growth 1. Development of the prefrontal cortex contributes to decision making and impulse control a. Such development remains incomplete through adolescence 2. Sleep deprivation a. A substantial impact on academic performance, mood, and safety II. Threats to Adolescents’ Well-Being A. Drugs, Alcohol, and Tobacco 1. Drug abuse a. Marijuana use among adolescents remains steady of the past few decades b. Opioid epidemic is of growing concern 2. Alcohol: Use and abuse a. Binge drinking higher for males than females, and fairly steady over the past few decades b. False consensus may drive alcohol intake, hopefully not to the point of alcoholism 3. Tobacco: The dangers of smoking a. Smoking is on the general decline, but percentage remains substantial and rising in some groups b. E-cigarette use is of growing concern B. Sexually Transmitted Infections a. HPV, trichomoniasis, chlamydia, genital herpes, gonorrhea, syphilis, and AIDS are all threats b. Safer sex practices are a good idea MODULE 6.2 – COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE I.

Cognitive Development 4 .

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A. Piagetian Approaches to Cognitive Development: Using Formal Operations 1. Using formal operations to solve problems a. Piaget’s final stage of cognitive development, enlisting abstract reasoning skills 2. The consequences of adolescents’ use of formal operations a. Challenges to doctrine of teachers and parents b. Greater argumentativeness 3. Evaluating Piaget’s approach a. Significant individual differences call the universal stage model into question b. Development may be continuous rather than rapid c. Piaget underestimated the ages at which cognitive tasks can be successfully completed d. Formal operations may not be the epitome of cognitive reasoning B. Information Processing Perspectives: Gradual Transformations in Abilities 1. Metacognition: Thinking about thinking a. Understanding thinking is an important skill to develop 2. Egocentrism in thinking: Adolescents’ self-absorption a. Egocentrism, imaginary audience, and personal fables illustrate the self-centered and selfdirected nature of thinking during this developmental period II. School Performance A. Adolescent School Performance: A Complex Picture 1. Are students getting smarter, or are grades simply being inflated? a. U.S. students don’t fare very well in math ability, for example 2. Socioeconomic status and school performance: Individual differences in achievement a. Differences in socioeconomic status are associated with differences in measures of achievement 3. Ethnic and racial differences in school achievement a. Values, perceptions, and forecasts of the importance, availability, and worth of education differ across ethnic and racial groups 4. Dropping out of school a. Dropping out of school leads to poorer earning potential and greater unemployment b. Dropout rates vary by gender and ethnicity B. Adolescents’ Media Use: Screen Time in the Digital Age 1. Media use, especially texting, can be staggering 2. Concerns over social competency, online safety, and related issues are being studied 3. A digital divide separating wealthy and poor adolescents compounds the issues MODULE 6.3 – SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE I.

Identity: Asking “Who Am I?” A. Self-Concept and Self-Esteem 1. Self-concept: What am I like? a. Broader views, greater differentiation 2. Self-esteem: How do I like myself? a. Differentiation of esteem across domains of evaluation 3. Gender differences in self-esteem a. Early adolescent girls tend to have lower self-esteem b. Girls and boys may assign greater significance to different areas of self-evaluation 4. SES and race differences in self-esteem a. Higher SES is associated with higher self-esteem b. Impact of ethnicity and race on self-esteem has declined i. Ethgender may be an informative avenue to explore B. Perspectives on Identity Formation 1. Erik Erikson: Resolving the identity crisis a. Identity-versus-identity-confusion needs to be resolved b. Societal pressures and reliance on friends and peers 5 .

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i. Dependence on adults as sources of information gives way to greater dependence on peers ii. Sets the stage for Eriksonian intimacy-versus-isolation stage c. Psychological moratorium i. Time out, please! d. Limitations of Erikson’s theory i. Based on a male-centric view of the world 2. Marcia’s approach: Updating Erikson a. Identity achievement, foreclosure, diffusion, and moratorium based on commitment and crisis b. MAMA cycle illustrates shifting among identities c. Emerging adulthood encapsulates this notion of experimenting with identities 3. Religion and spirituality in identity formation a. Views of spirituality (“What does it all mean?”) become more sophisticated in adolescence 4. The role of race and ethnicity in identity formation a. Different models of identity formation i. Cultural assimilation: Melting pot of individual ingredients coalescing ii. Pluralistic society: Garden salad, seasoned with racial and ethnic identity iii. Bicultural identity: A buffet of equally appealing options C. Anxiety, Depression, and Suicide: Psychological Difficulties in Adolescence 1. Adolescent anxiety; differentiating normal from maladaptive sources and responses 2. Adolescent depression; higher rates for girls than boys, with racial differences as well 3. Adolescent suicide; higher achievement rate for boys, higher attempt rate for girls II. Relationships: Family and Friends A. Family Ties: Changing Relations with Relations 1. The quest for autonomy; relationships with parents generally become more egalitarian 2. Culture and autonomy; collectivism and individualism play a role 3. The myth of the generation gap; a narrow gap, if any 4. Conflicts with parents; usually matters of personal taste, spurred by formal operational reasoning 5. Cultural differences in parent-child conflicts during adolescence; individualism plays a role B. Relationships with Peers: The Importance of Belonging 1. Social comparison; peers used to evaluate the correctness of attitudes and behaviors 2. Reference groups; provide norms and standards for evaluation 3. Cliques and crowds: Belonging to a group a. Clique is 2 to 12 people with frequent social interaction, crowd is larger and may not interact 4. Gender relations; sex cleavage is apparent during adolescence 5. Popularity and rejection a. Adolescents may be popular, controversial, rejected or neglected 6. Conformity: Peer pressure in adolescence a. A shift in sources of influence occurs during adolescence 7. Juvenile delinquency: The crimes of adolescence a. Undersocialized delinquents: Bad b. Socialized delinquents: Not so bad III. Dating, Sexual Behavior, and Teenage Pregnancy A. Dating: Close Relationships in the 21st Century 1. The functions of dating a. A poor approximation of intimacy in early adolescence, a better approximation later on 2. Dating, race, and ethnicity a. Immigrant and foreign-born parents may exercise familiar cultural values in regard to dating B. Sexual Relationships 1. Masturbation a. Normal, healthy, and harmless 2. Sexual intercourse a. Average age of first heterosexual intercourse has been declining over time b. Societal pressures, double standards, and permissiveness with affection can complicate matters 6 .

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3. Sexual orientation and identity: LGBTQ and more a. Heterosexuality, bisexuality, homosexuality, transgender, hermaphrodite, sexual orientation, sexual interests: It’s a stew of options that can sometimes be puzzling for an adolescent 4. What determines sexual orientation? a. A complex interplay of genetic, physiological, and environmental factors 5. Challenges facing adolescents with LBGTQ sexual orientations and identities a. The stress, prejudice, or discrimination that gay and lesbian teens might experience usually give way to self-acceptance and comfort with one’s orientation 6. Teenage pregnancy a. Teen birth rates have declined over the past two decades, although racial and ethnic disparities remain i. Reasons for the decline are many, although probably not due to virginity pledges

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LECTURE LAUNCHERS Lecture Launcher 6.1: Bulimia—Too Much, Too Little, Too Many Many students are surprised by how prevalent eating disorders are, especially bulimia, among their peers. In bulimia, there are periods of binge eating during which enormous amounts of food (usually starches and sweets) may be eaten. To prevent body weight and shape from ballooning, the person compensates by vomiting, exercising, or using laxatives or diuretics. Although bulimic individuals are concerned about their weight and appearance, they do not have the distorted self-image typical of those with anorexia nervosa. Bulimia, in fact, is not limited to underweight people; in fact, it is probably more common in people of normal weight. The DSM-5 criteria for bulimia are: •

Recurrent episodes of binge eating. An episode of binge eating is characterized by both of the following: o eating, in a discrete period of time (for example, within any two-hour period), an amount of food that is definitely larger than most people would eat in a similar period of time under similar circumstances o a sense of lack of control over eating during the episode (for example, a feeling that one cannot stop eating or control what or how much one is eating)

•

The binge-eating episodes are associated with three (or more) of the following: o eating much more rapidly than normal o eating until feeling uncomfortably full o eating large amounts of food when not feeling physically hungry o eating alone because of feeling embarrassed by how much one is eating o feeling disgusted with oneself, depressed, or very guilty afterwards

• • •

Marked distress regarding binge eating is present.

The binge eating occurs, on average, at least once a week for three months.

The binge eating is not associated with the recurrent use of inappropriate compensatory behavior (for example, purging) and does not occur exclusively during the course of anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, or avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder.

Share these criteria with your students in a supportive, nurturing atmosphere. Be sensitive to the fact that some of your students may have struggled with (or still be struggling with) an eating disorder.

Lecture Launcher 6.2: Weight and See Perceptions of body weight can play a role in the motivation to eat; from the perceptual distortions seen in anorexic patients, to the inexplicable way clothes seem to shrink at the waist, to the hesitancy to have one more doughnut as we look in the mirror. One study suggests, however, that culture may play a role in one’s perceptions of weight and body image.

Researchers at the University of Arizona asked African-American and white teenage girls to describe their version of an “ideal” girl. The white teens suggested someone blue-eyed, 5 feet 7 inches tall, weighing between 100 and 110 pounds—in short, Barbie. The black teens, in contrast, emphasized personal characteristics such as a sense of style, a nice personality, or having a good head on one’s shoulders. When pressed for a physical description, most responded that fuller hips, large thighs, and a small waist were desirable.

The researchers also found that close to 90 percent of the white teens were dissatisfied with their weight, whereas 70 percent of the black respondents were satisfied. In the case of the white teens, having weight as so central an aspect of their self-views may promote increased social stress and unrealistic expectations about 8 .

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achieving some “body ideal.” The African-American women, though satisfied with their bodies, may not be concerned enough about their weight, given their heightened risk of hypertension as adults. In either case, perceptions of one’s body image are clearly influenced by personal, social, and cultural standards that may vary from one subculture to another.

Halliwell, E. (2015). Future directions for positive body image research. Body Image, 14, 177–189.

Staff (1994, September/October). White weight. Psychology Today, 9.

Nichter, M. (2001). Fat talk: What girls and their parents say about dieting. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Tylka, T. L., & Wood-Barcalow, N. L. (2015). What is and what is not positive body image? Conceptual foundations and construct definition. Body Image, 14, 118–129.

Lecture Launcher 6.3: Pro-Ana As you discuss eating disorders with your class, some students may mention the existence of pro-eatingdisorder-websites, blogs, or Instagram and Twitter accounts. For example, there are many pro-anorexia, or “proana,” discussion groups on the internet. Although some of these websites claim to be nonjudgmental support groups for people suffering from anorexia, many provide tips for losing weight, and post “thinspirational” photos of extremely slender people. Some even claim that anorexia is a valid lifestyle choice. Since these websites first began to appear, doctors and clinicians have grown increasingly concerned about the effect they might have on those suffering from eating disorders, especially young girls. Studies suggest that visiting these websites negatively affects self-esteem and body image, and that the severity and length of an eating disorder can be made worse by visiting them. Some experts and advocates have called for these pro-eating disorder sites to be banned or blocked by various governments around the world.

As a group, ask students to debate whether pro-anorexia information should be banned. If students are unable to think of reasons to allow the sites, use the following questions to broaden the debate: Does freedom of speech apply to these websites? Could genuine support groups for anorexia get caught up in the ban? If websites should be banned if they encourage dangerous behaviors, should websites that encourage drug use or even skydiving be banned? Do they believe that closing pro-ana websites would reduce the prevalence of anorexia? Extend the activity by having students respond to this writing prompt: A study in 2016 showed that patients who visited pro-anorexia websites had more problems related to their anorexia. Does this necessarily mean that viewing pro-ana websites exacerbates anorexia? Why or why not?

Describe a study that might help test the hypothesis that visiting pro-ana websites causes more severe anorexia.

Sample answer: The study showed that visiting pro-eating-disorder websites is correlated with more severe eating disorders, but this does not mean that visiting the sites caused the more severe eating disorder. It may be the case that people who have more severe eating disorders are simply more likely to visit these websites. One way to test whether these websites make anorexia worse is to take a random sample of anorexia patients and to restrict their access to the websites. If their symptoms get better, it is likely that the websites were making them worse.

Bardone-Cone, A. & Cass, K. (2007). What does viewing a pro-anorexia website do? An experimental examination of website exposure and moderating effects. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 40(6), 537–548.

Boepple, L. & Thompson, J. K. (2016). A content analytic comparison of fitspiration and thinspiration websites. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 49i, 98–101.

Cornelius, T. & Blanton, H. (2016). The limits to pride: A test of the pro-anorexia hypothesis. Eating Disorders, 24(2), 138-147.

Ging, D. & Garvey, S. (2018). ‘Written in these scars are the stories I can’t explain’: A content analysis of pro-ana and thinspiration image sharing on Instagram. New Media & Society, 20(3), 1181–1200.

Wick, M. & Harriger, J. (2018). A content analysis of thinspiration images and text posts on Tumblr. Body Image, 24, 13–16.

Lecture Launcher 6.4: Gender Differences in Sexuality A meta-analysis has examined the interplay of gender and sexuality, a topic relevant to adolescence. As their bodies mature and an interest in sexual activity grows, adolescents are at risk of unwanted pregnancies, 9 .

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contracting sexually transmitted infections, date rape, and so on. Often, differences in the behavior and attitudes of girls and boys becoming women and men fuel these outcomes.

Mary Beth Oliver and Janet Shibley Hyde examined 177 sources that reported gender differences in a variety of sexual behaviors and attitudes. Their meta-analytic review concluded that: •

Between the 1960s and the 1980s, gender differences decreased for many behaviors. The authors credit this narrowing of the gap to a variety of factors, such as the availability of birth control pills (starting in 1960), the legalization of abortion, a rapidly rising divorce rate, and the AIDS and herpes epidemics (begun in the 1980s).

•

There were two large gender differences in sexuality: Men reported a higher incidence of masturbation, and also held more permissive attitudes toward sex. For example, men were more likely than women to be accepting of premarital sex and to feel less guilty about engaging in it. Although attitudes toward masturbation did not differ between genders, 92 percent of men (compared to 52 percent of women) masturbate during the course of their lifetimes.

•

Men and women show little difference in their attitudes toward homosexuality, although men are more likely to engage in homosexual acts.

•

Men lose their virginity earlier than women, have sex more frequently, and report having more sexual partners over their lifetimes. The effect sizes for these differences were in the small to moderate range.

Cherkasskaya, E. & Rosario, M. (2018). The relational and bodily experiences theory of sexual desire in women. Archives of Sexual Behavior, doi.org/10.1007/s10508-018-1212-9.

Lammers, J. & Stoker, J. I. (2018). Power affects sexual assertiveness and sexual esteem equally in women and men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, doi.org/10.1007/s10508-018-1285-5.

Oliver, M. B. & Hyde, J. S. (1993). Gender differences in sexuality: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 29–51.

Reynolds, T., Baumeister, R. F., & Maner, J. K. (2018). Competitive reputation manipulation: Women strategically transmit social information about romantic rivals. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 78, 195–209.

Thompson, A. E., Bagley, A. J., & Moore, E. A. (2018). Young men and women’s implicit attitudes towards consensually nonmonogamous relationships. Psychology & Sexuality, 9(2), 117–131.

Lecture Launcher 6.5: Should Teenagers Be Held Culpable for Their Actions?

In a landmark 2005 decision, the U.S Supreme Court ruled that murderers who were younger than 18 at the time of their crime should not be put to death. In order to reach their conclusion, the justices relied heavily on psychological and neurological research showing that the brains of adolescents are not fully mature until around 20 years old. In particular, the frontal lobes—where much of our ability to process the consequences of our actions is located—are usually among the last areas of the brain to fully mature. This, along with other evidence showing that teenagers often lack the ability to control their impulsive behaviors, led the majority of the justices to conclude that adolescents younger than 18 are not fully culpable for their actions. In fact, this was similar to the reason why the Supreme Court barred the execution of intellectually impaired people several years earlier.

The question of whether teenagers are legally responsible for their actions raises a host of interesting questions for students to consider. For example: If teenagers have impaired judgment and lack the ability to control impulsive behavior, can they be held responsible for any of their actions? Where should the line be drawn? Does the Supreme Court’s ruling barring the execution of criminals 17 and younger equate being a teenager with a form of intellectual impairment? If so, do students feel that this is accurate? If compulsive stealing were shown to have neurological causes, does this mean that kleptomaniacs could not be held legally responsible for their actions? Should a person with high testosterone levels be legally culpable for any violent acts they might carry out? How much of our behavior is biological, and how much is driven by personal choice?

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Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e Beckman, M. (2004). Crime, culpability, and the adolescent brain. Science, 305, 596–599.

Larsen, B. & Luna, B. (2018). Adolescence as a neurobiological critical period for the development of higher-order cognition. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 94, 179–195.

Lickley, R. A. & Sebastian, C. L. (2018). The neural basis of reactive aggression and its development in adolescence. Psychology, Crime & Law, 24(3), 313–333.

Oyefiade, A. A., Ameis, S., Lerch, J. P., Rockel, C., Szulc, K. U., Scantlebury, N., ... & Mabbott, D. J. (2018). Development of short‐ range white matter in healthy children and adolescents. Human Brain Mapping, 39(1), 204–217.

Lecture Launcher 6.6: Sleep and School Times Studies have shown that adolescents have greater sleep needs than adults, due to changes in circadian rhythms.

If they are in their late adolescence, your students are likely to report preferring to go to sleep later at night and then to sleep later in the morning. In addition, adolescents face a need for a greater amount of sleep compared to older people.

Ask students how this information can be used. Recently, for example, high schools have begun moving their start times to a later hour in the morning to accommodate these adolescent sleep needs. Schools that have taken this step report better attendance. However, this measure often causes a logistical problem with busing young children in the predawn hours. In addition, later school start times may restrict teens’ abilities to participate in sports or to hold after-school jobs. Nevertheless, the findings from studies of adolescent sleep needs led U.S. Rep. Zoe Lofgren (D-California) to propose the ZZZ’s to A’s Act in March 2001. The act was designed to encourage school districts to delay school start times until after 9 a.m. by providing federal grants of up to $25,000 to cover the administrative and operating costs associated with making this transition. Would your students support such a bill? Do they wish that their schools had started later? What do they see as the pros and cons?

Blankinship, D. G. (2016). School starting later for some high school students. http://www.tweentribune.com/ Frontline: Inside the human brain: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh

Lecture Launcher 6.7: Identity and the Tasks of Adolescence Sometimes a concept from academic research or theory catches the attention of the public and becomes integrated into the framework of society’s general knowledge. Perhaps this occurs because the concept is particularly relevant at the time, or because it provides a framework for a generally recognized problem or issue.

The “identity crisis” as proposed by Erik Erikson is such a concept, for it was eagerly adopted by American society in the 1960s. At that time the baby-boom cohort was reaching adolescence and young adulthood. The Vietnam War loomed as a threat to young people, civil rights activists challenged the thoughtless discrimination practiced by older generations, and the women’s liberation movement contested traditional ideas of female identity. Also, by the 1960s, adolescence had become established as a life stage created by society: a span of years between childhood and full adult status in which a young person prepared to live and work in an increasingly complex society.

Erikson saw adolescence as a pivotal stage of development in which earlier psychosocial conflicts return in a new form, and in which the foundations are laid for the intimacy, generativity, and wisdom that are the favorable outcomes of later stages. Developmental psychologists sometimes organize discussions of life stages around the developmental tasks of the stage, the things we must do to be ready to move to the next stage. The elements of the identity crisis can be considered “tasks of adolescence,” as explicated in the following list: 1. Acquiring temporal perspective. One aspect of temporal perspective is to have a clear conception of past and future, and to have the confidence to plan for the future. Another aspect of temporal perspective is the ability to regulate one’s own time. First-year students entering university who are living away from home for the first time often have difficulty regulating their own time. With no parent present to say “go to bed” they will solve the world’s problems all night and be unable to get up for class the next morning. There are people in middle age who lose jobs, miss airplanes, and alienate friends because of their lack of ability to 11 .

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regulate their time.

2. Acquiring self-certainty. Self-certainty is equivalent to what is also referred to as self-confidence or selfesteem. Erikson thought that efforts to begin to “sever the apron strings” and to become an autonomous or independent person begin early in life, about the time we begin to walk. If the child sees herself being able to do for herself and accomplish little things independently, then she has the basis to develop confidence in herself. In adolescence there are new threats to self-confidence—the prospect of having to be financially independent and to find a desirable partner, for example. Another aspect of self-certainty or self-esteem is that it must be accompanied by a self-image that is compatible with reality. Self-esteem that is unrealistic is a defense, a fantasy that prevents self-fulfillment.

3. Role experimentation. During childhood, we usually look to parents or teachers for role models. During adolescence, young people are likely to reject earlier models and go through a series of “trying on” different roles. Movies and television provide a smorgasbord of roles and role models. Role models can be real people, characters from fiction, historical personages, or creations of our own imagination. Erikson thought that role experimentation is a healthy manifestation of the search for identity, but at some time we have to take the pieces we like from our role experimentation and put them together into a consistent identity.

The opposite of role experimentation is role fixation. Sometimes one encounters a young person who has had an identity laid on so heavily by parents that attempts at role experimentation produce too much guilt to be pursued.

4. Apprenticeship. Theorists are often reluctant to talk about anything as mundane as getting a job and earning a living. Erikson recognized that the prospect of having to be self-supporting is a real concern of adolescents. This doesn’t mean that an adolescent has to choose her life’s work in junior high school, but it does mean making general preparation for independence. You may not have chosen a career or even decided on a major, but the fact that you are here in class suggests that you do not suffer from what Erikson called “work paralysis.”

5. Sexual polarization. Adolescents must determine whether they are heterosexual, bisexual, or homosexual, often in the context of great pressures for conformity to sexual roles that parents and most peers consider “normal.” Erikson wrote about the aspect of sexual polarization that can be described as “comfort and confidence in the role of male or female.” In early adolescence, young people often feel sexually inadequate because their bodies are less than perfect, or because they feel inferior to peers who tell tall tales of sexual adventures and prowess. Furthermore, sexual roles are changing at the same time that adolescents must form a sexual identity.

6. Questions of authority, and being a leader and a follower. Resentment of authority is so common among American adolescents that it is tempting to think of it as normal. Differentiating between legitimate authority and arbitrary authority is a task of identity establishment. Identity formation also includes being able to take the role of leader or follower in the appropriate circumstances.

7. Ideological commitment. As identity is formed, young people must select a basic philosophy, a set of values, an orientation toward religion and politics. Excessive zeal for a cause, dramatic religious conversion, or allegiance to a cult are some of the more extreme symptoms of young people searching for something to believe in. The task the adolescent faces is to adopt an ideology that is internally consistent and compatible with the self and the self-image.

Identity formation brings together various aspects of the self into a coherent whole and establishes a psychic “core” that defines the self. It is probably not a coincidence that Erikson’s identity crisis begins concurrently with Piaget’s stage of formal operations. Some of the cognitive skills of the mature intellect represented by this stage of cognitive development are instrumental in bringing together the threads of self.

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Lecture Launcher 6.8: Adolescents Aren’t Just Slackers Many of the negative stereotypes about adolescents involve their “laziness” and inability to pay attention or complete tasks. There is a general sense that teenagers are “flaky” and seem to “lose their minds” during puberty. Because most college students are in their early 20s, they can easily recall situations in which their parents seemed to get frustrated by their behaviors and decisions. Students may be relieved to find out that many of the attention and concentration problems of adolescence are related to a lack of brain maturation. Recent studies have demonstrated that the brain areas related to multitasking, which are located in the frontal cortex, continue to develop throughout adolescence. Another source of conflict between parents and teens is associated with teen sleeping patterns. Contrary to earlier beliefs that teens are just lazy, research has shown that teenagers need to sleep longer and later than adults in order to function optimally.

Lecture Launcher 6.9: Understanding Adolescent Depression Although mood swings are considered normal or to be expected during adolescence, there is also a high incidence of forms of depression during adolescence that too often gets overlooked as something that will pass.

A key aspect of depression is the cognition that “I am not adequate; I’m not OK as a person.” Because adolescence is a time of rapid and dramatic change in almost all areas (physical, mental, emotional), adolescents go through periods when there seems to be no natural or comfortable way to be. Just when one has gotten used to being a child, something changes, including one’s own and others’ expectations. Remind students, too, of adolescent egocentrism: the teenager feels as if everyone is watching her or him (imaginary audience) and that no one really understands what it is like for her or him (personal fable). If you put this feeling of isolation together with uncomfortable and seemingly uncontrollable changes, it is not surprising that teenagers have a great deal of self-doubt, self-recrimination, and frustration.

When family and friends are dealing with someone in depression, they often do (with the best of loving intentions) the very worst things possible. A natural response people have to someone who is depressed is to try and cheer the person up or make the person feel better. That usually takes the form of reminding the person of all of the good things in life, of how really lucky the person is, and that many other people worldwide face adversity. Again, the intention is to cheer up the depressed adolescent (or adult), but what has really unintentionally been communicated is that “you have no right to be depressed. You really are inadequate, stupid, or just plain selfish to be feeling like that!”

Reassuring or cheering up someone who is depressed is a good way to make that person feel more depressed. It invalidates the real emotions that are felt and tells the person that feeling that way is wrong or bad. The lesson the depressed person takes from such an interaction is to not tell the reassuring person about their feelings. The other lesson is to stuff one’s feelings down (one of the genuine psychological factors in developing depression).

With authentic feelings buried, the depressed person feels superficial, out of contact with the world, and unable to muster genuine feelings at all.

What’s a better strategy? Don’t tell an adolescent, “I know just what you’re feeling.” Even if it’s true, the person cannot hear that, so it will not ring true to her or him. Empathy is the key. Let the depressed adolescent know that you are concerned, that you care, and that it is obvious that she or he has some very difficult concerns. Just being there is the most active, helpful thing you can do for a depressed friend.

Lecture Launcher 6.10: Suicide in Adolescence: Don’t Ignore the Warning Signs Use Handout 6-1 to go over the warning signs for suicide. Suicide rates among adolescents have tripled since 1950—it is the third leading cause of death for this age group, following accidents and homicides. As in depression, an adolescent’s life often feels chaotic and confused, her or his own identity is not clear, and 13 .

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problems seem overwhelming, unique, and unsolvable. Suicide is a grasp at a permanent solution, but not a solution that really solves anything.

Lecture Launcher 6.11: Breaking the Ties One of the key tasks of adolescence is separating from one’s family and becoming an independent person. This can be a very difficult task depending on the ongoing dynamics in the family. Ideally, adolescence is when a person starts to become more inner-directed rather than psychologically dependent on the family. Also, ideally, the family wants to help a teenager develop her or his own identity and allow her or him to try new behaviors, ideas, and so on. This is what happens, happily, in the majority of families. But what happens if the family is not ready to let this child go?

Some families become “child focused.” That means that the adults in the family relate to each other only in terms of the children, not as individual adults. The children, therefore, are vital to that couple to keep them together. If they lost the children, they might lose their relationship. Couples often don’t realize that they have turned into this kind of child-focused relationship. But think about how powerful a drive it would be for a childfocused couple to hold on to their child to try to keep the adolescent from leaving them. The family would believe that it was holding on to the child for the child’s own best interest (not for the family’s own).

Remember, these are not bad or abusive families; rather, these are adults who have probably not had their own needs met and are doing the best they can.

Ask students what they would expect in this kind of situation. There are two likely scenarios. One scenario is that the adolescent will unconsciously agree to follow her or his parents’ desires and stop trying to separate from the family. This adolescent tends to become a homebody: somewhat passive, usually shy, with few friends or interests outside of things she or he can do at home. (By the way, that very behavior supports the family’s belief that the adolescent is not ready to be out on her or his own and needs the extra help and protection of the family.)

The second scenario is that the adolescent pulls against the family to break out. Remember, unconsciously the family tries to pull the teenager back, so it will take a large amount of effort to break out. The adolescent in this scenario is the one who exhibits wild, rebellious behavior. Because the adolescent is unsure of how to be her or his own person, the most psychologically logical thing to do is to go to the extreme and act (try to be) just the opposite of what the family wants. What is a family’s usual reaction to wild, rebellious behavior? Usually the family will try to “pull the child back,” either by guilt or by threats. Because being pulled back is the very thing the adolescent is fighting, the situations will usually continue to escalate. This very difficult situation is, in fact, often psychologically logical if one looks at the entire family situation. Handout 6-2 is useful for an assignment on family dynamics.

Lecture Launcher 6.12: When Is It Delinquency?

While they are experimenting with new behaviors and values, it is normal for adolescents to begin breaking the adult rules that they have been following since they were children. In fact, some rule-breaking behavior is considered healthy for adolescents. But when does rule-breaking become delinquency? How does one differentiate rebellion from exuberance? One of the main factors in chronic delinquency is lack of parental supervision. How does a parent provide adequate supervision without stifling the adolescent?

Lecture Launcher 6.13: The Mosquito As we age, damage to the hair cells in the cochlea results in gradual hearing loss. This age-related hearing loss, called presbycusis, differentially affects higher-frequency hearing. For example, people younger than 20 can usually hear tones in the 15–18 kHz range, whereas adults older than 25 or 30 usually cannot.

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Recently, the fact that teenagers can hear sounds that older adults cannot has been used in several creative ways.

In 2005, an inventor named Howard Stapleton created a device called the Mosquito, which is designed to keep rowdy teenagers from loitering around shops and in other places they may cause trouble. It works by emitting a high-frequency noise that older people cannot hear but that teenagers find annoying. However, use of the Mosquito has been controversial, with some even claiming that the device violates the human rights of teenagers and younger adults. Others are concerned that exposure to the loud, high-frequency noise produced by the Mosquito might actually damage the hearing of children. Among approaches to combating delinquency, however, points must be awarded for innovation!

In an interesting twist, some teenagers have taken the anti-teenager Mosquito technology and turned it to their advantage. By recording the Mosquito’s high-frequency sound, they were able to create a ring-tone called “teen buzz” for their cell phones that cannot be heard by most adults. This means that students using the special ringtone can leave their cell phones on and receive text messages while at school, without the teacher hearing the phones ringing. In a similar application, the developers of the Mosquito system created a dance track with a secret melody embedded in the song that only younger listeners can hear!

Block, M. (2006, May 26). Teens turn ‘repeller’ into adult-proof ringtone. http://www.npr.org/templates/transcript/transcript.php?storyId=5434687 Calls to ban ‘anti-teen’ device (2008, February 12). http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7240180.stm Lyall, S. (2005, November 30). Rowdies buzz off as the Mosquito bites. http://www.theage.com.au/news/world/rowdies-buzz-off-as-themosquito-bites/2005/11/29/1133026467657.html Secret alarm becomes dance track (2006, September 26). http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/south_east/5382324.stm For additional information, please explore: http://www.freemosquitoringtones.org/ http://www.noiseaddicts.com http://www.youtube.com and search for “mosquito ring tone”

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STUDENT ACTIVITIES Student Activity 6.1: Introducing Real, Live Adolescents If possible, invite a panel of adolescents to class who are willing to be interviewed by a moderator. Don’t enlist students in the class, but try to get volunteers from a local high school. Have students get together in small groups ahead of time to prepare questions for the panel. As a twist, have students write down their own expectations for the answers they will get to their questions. As the class reviews this exercise, remind students to compare the real answers they got to their own expectations. Students are often surprised that they are no longer considered peers by adolescents and, more importantly, they don’t really know current adolescent slang, issues, or concerns as well as they thought they did.

Student Activity 6.2: The Ideal Body You might explore with your students the role advertisements play in the development and perpetuation of gender-role stereotypes and ideal-body imagery. Melinda Jones (1991) noted that an analysis of advertisements

by Erving Goffman (1976) found numerous instances of subtle stereotyping including: 1. functional ranking—the tendency to depict men in executive roles and as more functional when collaborating with women 2. relative size—the tendency to depict men as taller and larger than women, except when women are clearly superior in social status 3. ritualization of subordination—an overabundance of images of women lying on floors and beds or as objects of men's mock assaults 4. the feminine touch—the tendency to show women cradling and caressing the surface of objects with their fingers 5. family—fathers depicted as physically distant from their families or as relating primarily to sons, and mothers depicted as relating primarily to daughters Using the types of stereotyping listed above, you’ll need to find a set of advertisements that illustrate one or more of the types and preferably incorporate them into a PowerPoint presentation. Jones indicated that she found it relatively easy to find examples in magazines such as Cosmopolitan, Glamour, Newsweek, and Vogue.

She also recommended combining advertisements from the 1950s with more current advertisements to allow the comparisons of different trends in gender stereotyping over time. You can also include advertisements that illustrate nontraditional or innovative gender-role portrayals, as well as ads that do not incorporate gender stereotypes at all. After reviewing Goffman’s types of gender stereotyping (it is best to write them on the board) and providing several sample advertisements, ask students to take out a blank sheet of paper and number it from 1 to 20. Tell students that you are going to show them a series of 20 advertisements, and they are to indicate which types of gender stereotyping, if any, are depicted in each ad. After showing the advertisements, review them and discuss students’ responses to each. Jones suggested that class discussion can focus on how advertisements influence gender stereotypes as well as changes in stereotypes over time (if you included advertisements from the 1950s), and how other sources (such as television or the workplace) contribute to gender stereotyping.

Be sure to tie your presentation and classroom discussion to adolescent development. At a time when young people are experiencing their own bodily changes and contemplating their roles in society, how do these messages affect physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development?

Basow, S. A. (1986). Gender stereotypes: Traditions and alternatives. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Döring, N., Reif, A., & Poeschl, S. (2016). How gender-stereotypical are selfies? A content analysis and comparison with magazine adverts. Computers in Human Behavior, 55, 955–962.

Goffman, E. (1976). Gender advertisements. New York: Harper and Row. Jones, M. (1991). Gender stereotyping in advertisements. Teaching of Psychology, 18, 231–233.

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Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e Prieler, M., Ivanov, A., & Hagiwara, S. (2015). Gender representations in East Asian advertising: Hong Kong, Japan, and South Korea. Comunicación y Sociedad, 28(1), 27.

For additional information, please explore: http://www.genderads.com/

Student Activity 6.3: Back to the Future How has the nature of adolescence changed over the past 100 years? Ask students to use either popular culture (e.g., movies such as the Andy Hardy series, Rebel Without a Cause, The Blackboard Jungle), history (e.g., old magazines), scholarly studies, interviews with elderly people, or their own ideas to review (or think about) this adolescent developmental stage. Remind students that 100 years ago, adolescence was not thought of as a specific stage of development; people went from being children to being young adults. How has the extension of education, especially higher education, contributed to this change? How has this affected adolescents? What have been the effects on society?

Student Activity 6.4: Teaching Children about Sex and STIs The following role-play exercise helps students become more aware of what they consider the important issues in sexuality. Through it, they may realize the influence of current cultural and intrapsychic scripts influencing sexual behavior, and may be surprised to discover the power of cultural prescriptions regarding appropriate gender role behaviors.

Divide the class into groups of six to eight students and suggest the following characters and situation for them to role play. The characters involved are Ann Adams, a 34-year-old mother; Ben Baird, a 37-year-old father; Carol, a 10-year-old girl; and Chuck, an 11-year-old boy. The situation they should role play is that, due to a comment made by the son or daughter while watching a movie on TV, the parents realize that they must speak to their child about sex. Designate the groups as either Carol’s parents or Chuck’s parents, and have a person in each group role play Ann, and a person roleplay Ben speaking to their girl or boy child. After the role play, have each group discuss the following topics: 1.

What were the differences in Ann and Ben’s talk with their child? Do you think those differences reflect gender roles and parental expectation differences?

2.

Do you think the parents were anxious or embarrassed by having to talk to their child? What message does that convey to the child about sex? Why is it often difficult for parents to speak to their children about sex?

3.

What do you think a child of this age needs to know about sex? Should topics such as homosexuality, birth control, and masturbation be discussed? What about rape, abortion, and pedophilia?

4.

What is the best approach to warning children about the dangers of sexually transmitted infections and how they can be prevented.?

It is important to schedule time for the groups to come together after their role play and discussions. Have at least one of “Carol’s parents” groups and one of “Chuck’s parents” groups report on their role play and discussion. Have the class consider if there are any differences in what a girl and a boy need to know about sex, and if there are differences in the way parents behave toward male and female children.

Student Activity 6.5: AIDS in Film To provide your students with a better understanding of HIV and AIDS as a sexually transmitted infection (STI), ask them to write a reaction paper in response to one of the films listed below. What did they learn about AIDS and its victims that they didn’t already know? Did they have any misconceptions that were cleared up by the film? Do they have better insight into and empathy for the suffering of AIDS patients? What suggestions do they have for getting the message across to teenagers and college students to engage in safer sex?

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120 BPM (2017). This French film focuses on the AIDS epidemic in 1990s France. Protests organized

by ACT UP lead to support for and disagreements with that organization on a personal and interpersonal level. Ultimately, a story of individual triumphs and tragedies is conveyed.

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And the Band Played On (1993). Matthew Modine heads an all-star cast in this excellent made-for-cable movie that dramatizes the story of the AIDS epidemic. The story chronicles the initial discovery of the disease by the Centers for Disease Control; the failure of the blood-bank industry to take proper precautions; efforts in the gay community to adopt safer sex and to shut down bathhouses; and the long, uphill battle to convince the government and the public of the severity of the problem, with many intriguing subplots in between. Based on the book by the late Randy Shilts.

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Dallas Buyers Club (2013). Matthew McConaughey plays a person with AIDS who smuggles unapproved treatment drugs into Texas during a time when little was understood about the course and prevention of the disease.

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Longtime Companion (1990). Bruce Davison stars in this highly acclaimed film that follows a close-knit group of gay men in New York City in the early days of AIDS. The affecting and sensitive film reveals the increasingly devastating and personal consequences of the disease, as each of the men individually becomes affected by it in one way or another.

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Philadelphia (1993). Tom Hanks won an Oscar for his portrayal of a gay man with AIDS who was fired by a law firm because of his condition. Denzel Washington plays the attorney who helps the man sue the law firm for wrongful dismissal and, as a result, changes his own attitudes about homosexuality and AIDS.

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Parting Glances (1986). This film, produced relatively early in the AIDS era, focuses on Robert and Michael, a couple preparing for a two-year separation. Steve Buscemi plays the role of Nick, a rock star dying of AIDS, but living life with grace and dignity. (An Early Frost [1985] offers another early cinematic look at HIV and AIDS.)

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A Home at the End of the World (2004). Colin Farrell and Robin Wright Penn star in this downbeat tale of desperation, identity, and hope. The lives of several people are intertwined as one of them fights (and loses) his battle with AIDS.

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Kids (1995). Some people think director Harmony Korine is a genius; others disagree. A compelling argument can be made for either case after viewing Gummo, Trash Humpers, or Spring Breakers. His directorial debut, Kids, offers a glimpse of teenage life during the rise of the AIDS crisis in New York City.

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Rent (2005). You saw the musical on Broadway (OK, maybe you didn’t; maybe you couldn’t get tickets). But you probably saw the movie. Continuing the “AIDS in New York” theme of several of the films listed here, Rent follows the lives of several Bohemian types as they laugh, languish, and learn their way through life.

In addition, there are a number of excellent documentaries (as opposed to fictionalized feature films) on the subject.

Student Activity 6.6: Adolescent Antics Distribute 3×5 cards and ask your students to write on the card the dumbest, wildest thing they did as a young teenager (in high school or late junior high). Ask them to give their responses anonymously. Collect them, 18 .

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divide the class into groups, and distribute the cards, randomly, to the groups. Ask the groups to determine which actions could be explained by Elkind’s ideas about adolescent egocentrism and the personal fable.

Student Activity 6.7: Adolescence and Identity Development An excellent and involving way for students to consider the topic of adolescent development is to apply theory and research in this area to their own experiences. For this assignment, ask your students to write a thoughtful, reflective paper exploring aspects of their own identity formation during adolescence. Students should be given latitude to address whatever issues they feel are important and to include personal experiences at their discretion. It is important to assure students that their papers will be strictly confidential and that they do not have to reveal any sensitive information about themselves. Although there need not be firm guidelines for this assignment, you might suggest the following questions as potential issues for discussion: 1. Describe five positive and five negative characteristics you had as an adolescent. How did you come to be aware of your positive characteristics? Your negative characteristics? How did you overcome the negative aspects of your personality?

2. What were your typical concerns during early, middle, and late adolescence? How did you deal with these concerns?

3. Can you think of one or more events that happened during your high school years that marked a turning point in your life or that had a profound influence on your personality? In other words, was there an event that caused you to feel that you were crossing some boundary or somehow growing up and developing into a different, more mature person? Looking back, how do you feel about it now?

4. What were you peer relationships like? How did they affect your life? How did your peer relationships change throughout adolescence?

5. What was your relationship with your parents like? Describe some of the positive and negative aspects.

What were the major issues in this relationship? How has your relationship with your parents changed?

6. How would you generally characterize your adolescence? Was it difficult? Does it support the “storm and stress” view of adolescence? What were your fears, anxieties, and hopes?

7. Can you think of personal instances that support David Elkind’s fallacies of adolescent thinking: imaginary audience and personal fable? Do these concepts apply to your thoughts and behaviors at that time?

8. How did your peers influence you with respect to alcohol or tobacco use? What information about smoking, drugs, and sexual behavior did you receive from school? What influenced your own decisions about these matters?

Student Activity 6.8: Marcia, Marcia, Marcia Have students get into groups to discuss the ideas of James Marcia’s categories of identity achievement— identity achievement, foreclosure, diffusion, or moratorium—reflecting upon where they were personally at the end of high school. Also, ask the groups to talk about whether they went through a crisis of decision-making or not. Have groups share common perceptions and problems.

Student Activity 6.9: Adolescence and Identity Development: A Personal Exploration An excellent and involving way for students to consider the topic of adolescent development is to apply theory and research in this area to their own experiences. For this assignment, ask your students to write a thoughtful, reflective paper exploring aspects of their own identity formation during adolescence. Students should be given latitude to address whatever issues they feel are important and to include personal experiences at their discretion. It is important to assure students that their papers will be strictly confidential and that they do not have to reveal any sensitive information about themselves. Although there need not be firm guidelines for this assignment, you might suggest the following questions as potential issues for discussion: 19 .

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1. Describe five positive and five negative characteristics you had as an adolescent. How did you come to be aware of your positive characteristics? Your negative characteristics? How did you overcome the negative aspects of your personality?

2. What were your typical concerns during early, middle, and late adolescence? How did you deal with these concerns?

3. Can you think of one or more events that happened during your high school years that marked a turning point in your life or that had a profound influence on your personality? In other words, was there an event that caused you to feel that you were crossing some boundary, or somehow growing up and developing into a different, more mature person? Looking back, how do you feel about it now?

4. What were you peer relationships like? How did they affect your life? How did your peer relationships change throughout adolescence?

5. What was your relationship with your parents like? Describe some of the positive and negative aspects.

What were the major issues in this relationship? How has your relationship with your parents changed?

6. How would you generally characterize your adolescence? Was it difficult? Does it support the “storm and stress” view of adolescence? What were your fears, anxieties, and hopes?

7. Can you think of personal instances that support David Elkind’s fallacies of adolescent thinking: imaginary audience and personal fable? Do these concepts apply to your thoughts and behaviors at that time?

8. How did your peers influence you with respect to alcohol or tobacco use? What information about smoking, drugs, and sexual behavior did you receive from school? What influenced your own decisions about these matters?

Student Activity 6.10: Right On! Ask students to design a “bill of rights and responsibilities” for adolescents. What should adolescents be allowed to do, expected to do, and forbidden to do? How do these rights and expectations extend to parental influence, requests, and demands? For example, is a curfew a demand or an expectation, and at what point might it change from one to the other? Is sexual activity forbidden, discouraged, or inevitable, and who decides that—a parent or the adolescent? Ask students to focus on behaviors of both a personal and interpersonal nature, and to comment on the larger context in which those behaviors occur. For example, a one-sentence bill of rights stating “I’m free to be me, man, and everybody else should just leave me alone” surely has the ring of adolescence to it, but isn’t feasible in the social and familial contexts in which people live. Have groups compare their results with one other.

Student Activity 6.11: Say It Loud Either in conjunction with Activity 6.10, or alone, ask students to create an “Advice to Parents of Adolescents” flyer. What should parents of adolescents do and not do?

Student Activity 6.12: Cliquety-Clack Ask students to identify the types of cliques and significant groups that existed in their high schools. Identify the types of clothing, behavior, social styles, and other characteristics that tied the groups together. Is there an identifiable transition that takes place when high school students transition to college? Do these groups go away, or simply get harder (or easier) to identify? Are new cliques with the same characteristics formed during the college years, or are college cliques qualitatively different?

Student Activity 6.13: Dear Daughter/Dear Son Ellen Junn describes an innovative exercise from her course on parenting and family relations that can be readily adapted for a developmental psychology course. For this assignment, Junn suggests having students write semi20 .

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autobiographical letters as a way of exploring developmental issues from a more concrete and personal perspective. Tell your students that you want them to write a letter to a future (or if they already have one, actual) child on the occasion of her or his 18th birthday. You should assure students that their letters are confidential and are not meant to elicit overly private or emotional events in their lives. According to Junn, students should give the following questions careful consideration in their letter: (a) When or why did you decide to have the child? (b) What are the most important qualities for a parent to have and why? (c) What personal qualities do you possess that might facilitate or interfere with your ability to be a good parent? (d) What qualities do you hope your child will possess and why? Students should also mention specific strategies that they can use as a parent to foster growth in terms of physical, motor, cognitive, moral, social, personality, and sex-role development, relying on concepts presented in the text and lecture. Junn notes that this assignment increases the sensitivity of students to their own attitudes and beliefs about child development and parenting. In addition, it promotes understanding and application of course material to a personally relevant task. Junn also described a similar assignment asking students to write a letter to their parents.

Junn, E. N. (1989). “Dear Mom and Dad”: Using personal letters to enhance students’ understanding of developmental issues. Teaching of Psychology, 16, 135–138.

Student Activity 6.14: Raising Parents Students apply information from the chapter to answer questions about parenting. The student handout for this activity is included as Handout 6-3. Suggested answers are given below.

1. The psychologists may have attributed the children’s current problems to the divorce without considering other possible causes, such as peer pressure or normal adolescent conflicts. Without control groups of children of parents who did not divorce, or of children who were living in families marked by conflict, the researchers cannot conclude that the problems of the children of divorced parents were unusual. It is difficult to know what “lowered” academic motivation means if you haven’t defined “average” motivation!

2. This item gives students practice in reasoned argumentation. Most students disagree with the portrayal of the United States as child-oriented, but a few agree with it. The best answers will consider not only the responses and attitudes of individual parents, but also social and governmental policies regarding children.

Sometimes students are motivated to look up statistics regarding the availability of affordable child care, public support for education, the quality of the U.S. educational system, health care for children, prenatal care for pregnant women, the birth of unwanted children, child-support payments by fathers, crimes that threaten children, the availability of safe public parks, the lack of jobs for teenagers, and so forth. Such efforts, of course, should be praised.

Here is one student’s response. In her evaluation, the instructor noted that the second point needed to be supported by evidence.

I do not agree. (1) Of the 33 million poor Americans, 13 million are children, 500,000 of them homeless. We are supposed to be an abundant nation. Yet we have less money for school teachers, for school lunch programs. Thirty percent of high school students don’t graduate. The gulf between rich and poor Americans is wider than ever and children are suffering. (2) Children who come from wealthier homes have been overindulged by parents. Some have no sense of values, no sense of responsibility and less commitments of any kind. Preoccupied with their bodies, youth has lost touch with mental discipline. This is evidence that the U.S. cannot be a “child-devoted” society. (3) Child abuse is on the rise in the U.S. Between 1968 and 1972, the number of cases of child abuse in California jumped from 4,000 to 40,000. (4) Many housing complexes across the nation are now banning children. (5) Anyone who works with children gets less pay, less prestige, and lower status than people who work with adults. Thus, pediatricians rank below other doctors.

3. In both answers, students should demonstrate that they understand the drawbacks of punitive forms of 21 .

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discipline and the advantages of an inductive, authoritative approach. a. Questions might include the following: − What circumstances led to the shoving? − Is this standard behavior for my child? − What would I be communicating if I yelled at or hit my child for the misbehavior? − Am I so annoyed or disturbed that I’m forgetting the message I want to get across? − How might I elicit empathy for the other child? − How might I explain, in terms a 5-year-old can understand, why shoving is wrong and why I disapprove of it? − What alternative ways of responding can I teach my child? What lesson do I want my child to learn?

The best way of disciplining the child would be to use induction. Even very young children are capable of empathy; they are not as egocentric as Piaget thought. A parent might briefly but firmly explain why shoving is wrong (it hurts other people, it results in fights in which both people get hurt, it often doesn’t get you what you want anyway), and insist that the child politely request a chance to use the toy (and accept a refusal if necessary). The aggression should not be ignored, or it might be reinforced and become more likely in the future. Conversely, the return of the toy should be praised. b. Questions might include the following: − What should my goal be in responding to this theft; is it to let my daughter know that this is unacceptable behavior, or to tell her she’s a bad person? − What might the child’s motives have been? Is money the motive, or is the child expressing anger in an indirect way? − Have I been an “approachable” parent? − Does the child have an opportunity to earn some pocket money, or does she get an allowance? − Is this a first transgression, or part of a pattern?

This is a difficult situation. One approach might be to mention the missing money and let the child voluntarily return it (anonymously). The parent could make a point of how worried she or he had been and how happy she or he is that the money has reappeared. However, that approach would not resolve any underlying problems, and would be dishonest.

Another strategy might be to ask the child directly about the missing money and hope for a voluntary confession (rewarding it when it comes); but what if it doesn’t come?

A third strategy is to tell the child that the parent knows about the theft, and feels disappointed and worried about the child’s behavior. Then the parent can explain why trust is so important in families (family members shouldn’t have to keep their possessions under lock and key!), and why stealing is hurtful and disruptive to human relationships. The parent might also discuss positive ways for the child to earn spending money. The parent should use induction to get the child to see why the behavior is wrong, but probably should not jump to the conclusion that the child is an incorrigible thief. Children sometimes act before they think.

Student Activity 6.15: Heard It through the Grapevine Ask students to think about how they learned about sex. Who told them the basic biological information? More importantly, where did they learn the sexual mores or standards that they held during high school? Did their own views agree with their peers? With their family? What process for disseminating information would they recommend for future adolescents?

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Student Activity 6.16: Sexual Orientation Panel Discussion For a powerful class discussion, arrange for a panel of people who identify as LGBTQIA to speak to your class.

Your campus may have a gay and lesbian student organization that could provide you with potential panelists, or your city or community may have such a group. Many big cities, for example, have a Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Speakers Bureau that supplies presenters to a variety of organizations. Panelists typically share personal stories (e.g., how they came out to friends and relatives, experiences with homophobia or harassment) and discuss a wide variety of topics, including religious issues, nontraditional relationships, parenting aspirations, and what life is generally like for them. Much of the time in these sessions is usually spent in a question-and-answer period, and students appreciate the opportunity to ask a variety of questions and get honest, firsthand answers. Students typically find these discussions to be enlightening and of great interest, and both panelists and students report them to be helpful in reducing prejudicial attitudes.

Anne Dineen suggests a few helpful tips to keep in mind. 1) Plan ahead; contact speakers well in advance of the presentation, and be sure to inform them of relevant issues that have been discussed and how their presentation might best fit in with your course. 2) Try to have an equal number of sexual orientations represented on the panel (and from a variety of occupations, if possible). (3) Be sure to allot plenty of time for questions; one recommended format is to have panel members tell their personal stories at the beginning of the session and then use the remainder of the period for questions and discussions.

Bailey, J. M., Vasey, P. L., Diamond, L. M., Breedlove, S. M., Vilain, E., & Epprecht, M. (2016). Sexual orientation, controversy, and science. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 17ii, 45–101.

Dineen, A. (1995). The use of sexual orientation panel discussions in the teaching of psychology. Paper presented at the 17th National Institute on the Teaching of Psychology, St. Petersburg Beach.

Student Activity 6.17: Reflective Journal Ask students to think back to their own adolescence and identify the groups and individuals that had the greatest impact on their own sense of identity and self. Use Handout 6-4 to guide this assignment.

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SUPPLEMENTAL READING Allan, E., Le Grange, D., Sawyer, S. M., McLean, L. A., & Hughes, E. K. (2018). Parental expressed emotion during two forms of family‐based treatment for adolescent anorexia nervosa. European Eating Disorders Review, 26(1), 46–52.

Christian, P., & Smith, E. R. (2018). Adolescent undernutrition: Global burden, physiology, and nutritional risks. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism, 72(4), 316–328.

Corica, D., Aversa, T., Pepe, G., De Luca, F., & Wasniewska, M. (2018). Peculiarities of precocious puberty in boys and girls with McCune-Albright syndrome. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 9, 337.

Dahl, R. E., Allen, N. B., Wilbrecht, L., & Suleiman, A. B. (2018). Importance of investing in adolescence from a developmental science perspective. Nature, 554(7693), 441.

Dawson, R. S. (2018). Adolescent sexual health and education: Where does the pediatrician's responsibility fall? Pediatric Annals, 47(4), e136-e139.

Debnam, K. J., Milam, A. J., Mullen, M. M., Lacey, K., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2018). The moderating role of spirituality in the association between stress and substance use among adolescents: Differences by gender. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47(4), 818–828.

Fuller, T. R., White, C. P., Chu, J., Dean, D., Clemmons, N., Chaparro, C., ... & King, P. (2018). Social Determinants and teen pregnancy prevention: Exploring the role of nontraditional partnerships. Health Promotion Practice, 19(1), 23–30.

Holland, K., Dickson, A., & Dickson, A. (2018). ‘To the horror of experts’: reading beneath scholarship on proana online communities. Critical Public Health, 28(5), 522–533.

Leal, W. E. & Jackson, D. B. (2018). Energy drinks and escalation in drug use severity: An emergent hazard to adolescent health. Preventive Medicine, 111, 391–396.

Linardon, J. & Wade, T. D. (2018). How many individuals achieve symptom abstinence following psychological treatments for bulimia nervosa? A meta‐analytic review. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 51(4), 287–294.

Matković, T., Cohen, N., & Štulhofer, A. (2018). The use of sexually explicit material and its relationship to adolescent sexual activity. Journal of Adolescent Health, 62(5), 563–569.

Morris, A. S., Squeglia, L. M., Jacobus, J., & Silk, J. S. (2018). Adolescent brain development: Implications for understanding risk and resilience processes through neuroimaging research. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 28(1), 4–9.

Reidpath, D. D. & Allotey, P. (2018). Predicting U.S. state teenage birth rates using search engine query data on pregnancy termination and prevention. Health Reports, 2, e2018001.

Shoemaker, D. J. (2018). Theories of delinquency: An examination of explanations of delinquent behavior.

Oxford University Press.

Titchen, K. E., Maslyanskaya, S., Silver, E. J., & Coupey, S. M. (2018). Sexting and adolescent girls: Associations with sexual activity and abuse. Journal of Adolescent Health, 62(2), S62.

Vijayakumar, N., de Macks, Z. O., Shirtcliff, E. A., & Pfeifer, J. H. (2018). Puberty and the human brain: Insights into adolescent development. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 92, 417–436.

Vaughn, M. G., Salas-Wright, C. P., Cordova, D., Nelson, E. J., & Jaegers, L. (2018). Racial and ethnic trends in illicit drug use and binge drinking among adolescent and young adult offenders in the United States. Journal of Criminal Justice, 59, 71–80.

Wilkinson, B. & John, R. M. (2018). Understanding masturbation in the pediatric patient. Journal of Pediatric Health Care, 32(6), 639–643.

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REVEL MULTIMEDIA Body Image in Adolescence

12-year-old Kianna shares her perspective on life and relationships

1. Kianna’s mother recognizes the role of both parental and peer influence on her daughter. Comment on the extent to which both sources of feedback should be considered by a developing adolescent.

2. Do you think Kianna and her friend have a realistic view of their bodies and the societal pressures exerted on young girls?

Eating Disorders

The variety of eating disorders is considered

1. Summarize the health problems that result from each of the three eating disorders discussed in the video.

2. What do you think is the “worst” eating disorder to have? Although they’re all bad, they can be bad in different ways, so are some origins, progressions, or consequences worse than others?

Personal Fable

An explanation of how adolescents think, such as that is, is the focus of this video

1. A “personal fable” sounds like something enjoyable, like a tailor-made bedtime story that ends with happy children and a moral to be learned. In what sense is that true of how adolescents construct the fables in their lives? From their perspective, is a fable an instructive morality tale, or just “made up stuff” with little basis in reality? What about a parent’s perspective on their child’s fable?

2. Risk-taking is associated with endorsing a personal fable. Knowing this, and knowing the limitations of adolescents’ reasoning abilities, what programs or interventions can you suggest for reducing the risks associated with problematic adolescent behavior, such as consuming alcohol, smoking, taking drugs, or having unprotected sexual intercourse?

What Does It Mean to Have a Mental Disorder?

Deidre Kolarick gives the lowdown on mental illness

1. “Context is important for interpreting abnormality” is a central theme of this video. How does that apply to adolescence? It’s a pretty abnormal time, what with body parts growing, hormones raging, mental functioning expanding, and social relationships in seemingly constant flux. Against that backdrop, how easy is it to spot “normal” adolescent behavior?

2. How should treatment of disorders in adolescence differ or be the same as treatment of those same disorders during other periods of life? Is the depression experienced by a 13-year-old girl the “same” depression experienced by a 36-year-old woman?

Bret Laursen: What are “Cliques” and “Crowds,” and When Do They Develop?

Some definitions of cliques and crowds are provided 1. “Friend,” “acquaintance,” “hanger-on,” “confidant,” “BFF,” and “just there” seem to carry specific, yet at the same time fluid, connotations. How and why might these roles change for the same two adolescents over a period of time? At what point, and why, does “friend” turn into “best friend?”

2. It could be that a certain amount of “hanging out” is necessary to identify who then becomes a close friend; that is, simply spending time with a lot of people may help isolate those people with whom you then want to spend more (and better) time with. Comment on this process. Do you think that’s how friendships develop?

Thinking Like a Psychologist: Sexual Orientation

Sexual orientation, in all its forms, is considered

1. Summarize the various forms that sexual attraction and sexual orientation can take. Does this list seem longer or more varied than might have been assumed when your grandparents were your age?

2. Why is asking “What causes [this specific sexual orientation X]?” not the correct question to ask?

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Handout 6-1 Danger Signals for Depression 1. A general and lasting feeling of hopelessness and despair 2. Inability to concentrate, making reading, writing, and conversation difficult 3. Changes in physical activities, such as eating, sleeping, and sex 4. Frequent physical complaints with no evidence of physical illness 5. Loss of self-esteem, which brings on continual questioning of personal worth 6. Withdrawal from others due to immense fear of rejection 7. Threats or attempts to commit suicide 8. Hypersensitivity to the words and actions of others, and general irritability 9. Misdirected anger and difficulty in handling most feelings 10. Feelings of guilt in many situations 11. Extreme dependency on others

Warning Signs of Potential Suicide 1. Withdrawal from contact with others 2. Sudden swings in mood 3. Recent occurrence of a life crisis or emotional shock 4. Personality change 5. Gift-giving of cherished belongings 6. Depression and helplessness 7. Aggression and/or risk taking 8. Direct threats to commit suicide

Source: https://afsp.org

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Handout 6-2 Understanding Family Scripts To understand more about how your identification in your family of origin developed, take a few minutes to think back to your adolescent days and answer the following questions: •

When were you an adolescent?

•

What was the best thing that your family said about you or did for you?

•

Try to remember one exact day when that was said or done for you. Remember now what you felt then.

When do you feel this way now?

•

Who did the family think you were like?

•

Did you have a nickname? How did you feel about it?

•

Did family members tell you what you would end up being? Or doing? Was it what you wanted to be or do? How did you respond?

•

How do you think your family would have described you to a close friend of theirs? What were they most concerned about for you?

•

What does your family want you to be like? To do in your life?

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 6-3 Raising Parents 1. A major longitudinal study followed the children of divorced couples for 15 years. Although the researchers used no control group, they concluded that divorce contributes to early promiscuity in teenage girls, aggressiveness in teenage boys, and lowered academic motivation in both sexes. What are some problems with this conclusion?

2. Popular parenting magazines portray the United States as a child-oriented society, generous and devoted to its children. Do you agree with this portrayal? Give at least two arguments (and preferably more) to support your opinion.

3. Suppose that you are the parent in the two scenarios below. What are some questions you might ask yourself about each situation, and how might you effectively handle each situation? a. At the playground, your 5-year-old shoves another kid and takes away a toy.

b. You discover that your 10-year-old has taken $3 in coins from the jar where you keep spare change and hidden the money in her bureau drawer.

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 6-4 Reflective Journal Exercise 6 Think back to your adolescence and identify the groups and individual people that had the most effect on your sense of identity and self. Using James Marcia’s identity statuses (Identity Achievement, Moratorium, Identity Foreclosure, and Identity Diffusion), identify which categories you experienced in high school and the order in which you went through them.

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Chapter 7 EARLY ADULTHOOD CONTENTS Chapter-at-a-Glance

2

Learning Objectives

3

Chapter Outline

4

Lecture Launchers

7

Student Activities

18

Supplemental Reading

22

Revel Multimedia

23

Handouts

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CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE Chapter Outline Physical Development and Health Physical Changes and Challenges Fitness, Diet, and Health

Instructor’s Resources

Revel Resources

Learning Objectives 7.1, 7.2 Lecture Launchers 7.1, 7.2 Student Activity 7.1

Stress and Coping: Dealing with Life’s Challenges The Origins and Consequences of Stress Coping with Stress

Learning Objectives 7.3, 7.4

Stress and Your Health

Lecture Launchers 7.3, 7.4, 7.5 Student Activities 7.2, 7.3 Cognitive Development and Intelligence Intellectual Growth and Postformal Thought Intelligence

Learning Objectives 7.5, 7.6

Creativity and Intelligence

Lecture Launcher 7.6 Student Activities 7.4, 7.5 College: Pursuing Higher Education The Demographics of Higher Education The Effects of Gender Bias and Negative Stereotypes on College Performance

Learning Objectives 7.7, 7.8

Intelligence Tests and Stereotypes

Forging Relationships: Intimacy, Liking, and Loving During Emerging and Early Adulthood Emerging Adulthood Intimacy, Friendship, and Love The Faces of Love Choosing a Partner

Learning Objectives 7.9, 7.10, 7.11, 7.12

Young Adulthood: Happiness, Gabi

Lecture Launchers 7.7, 7.8, 7.9, 7.10

Triangular Theory of Love: Robert Sternberg

Student Activities 7.6, 7.7, 7.8, 7.9 The Course of Relationships Cohabitation, Marriage, and Other Relationship Choices Parenthood

Learning Objectives 7.13, 7.14 Lecture Launcher 7.11 Student Activities 7.10, 7.11

Work: Choosing and Embarking on a Career The Role of Work Picking an Occupation

Learning Objectives 7.15, 7.16 Lecture Launchers 7.12, 7.13, 7.14 Student Activity 7.12

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES LO 7.1

Describe the physical changes that occur in early adulthood, and identify the barriers people with physical disabilities face.

LO 7.2

Summarize the impact of fitness and diet on general health in early adulthood, and identify other health hazards for this age group.

LO 7.3

Identify the origins of stress, and explain its consequences.

LO 7.4

Identify strategies for coping with stress.

LO 7.5

Identify and summarize the various approaches to postformal thinking.

LO 7.6

Discuss the different types of intelligence, and explain how each affects the career success of young adults.

LO 7.7

Summarize the demographic makeup of college students in the United States, and describe how that population is changing.

LO 7.8

Discuss how gender bias and stereotypes affect the college performance of women and students of color.

LO 7.9

Discuss the concept of emerging adulthood.

LO 7.10 Explain how young adults respond to the need for intimacy and friendship and how liking turns to loving.

LO 7.11 Differentiate the different kinds of love.

LO 7.12 Identify the factors that influence young adults’ choice of partner, and give examples of how these are affected by gender and culture.

LO 7.13 Summarize the sorts of relationships people enter into in early adulthood, and identify the characteristics of a successful marriage.

LO 7.14 Identify the factors that influence a couple’s decision to have children, and summarize the impact children have on a marriage.

LO 7.15 Explain Vaillant’s stage of career consolidation, and identify the motivations—other than money— people have for seeking a job.

LO 7.16 Summarize Ginzberg’s career choice theory, Holland’s personality type theory, and how gender affects work choices.

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CHAPTER OUTLINE MODULE 7.1 – PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY ADULTHOOD I.

Physical Development and Health A. Physical Changes and Challenges 1. The senses: Subtle shifts a. Vision and hearing are at their peak and will begin to decline; other senses stay sharp 2. Motor functioning a. Psychomotor abilities peak during early adulthood 3. Physical disabilities: Coping with physical challenge a. Physical and psychological barriers present themselves to people with disabilities B. Fitness, Diet, and Health 1. Physical fitness a. The advantages of fitness are many and varied 2. Good nutrition: No such thing as a free lunch? a. Poor diet has a greater impact in early adulthood than it did during adolescence 3. Obesity a. With increasing age tends to come increasing rates of obesity 4. Health a. Accidents, lifestyle choices, and cultural factors contribute to injury and mortality II. Stress and Coping: Dealing with Life’s Challenges A. The Origins and Consequences of Stress 1. Primary appraisal: Is the event positive, negative, or neutral?

2. Secondary appraisal: Are the resources available to address this stressor?

B. Coping with Stress 1. Problem-focused coping: Directly managing a situation to make it less stressful 2. Emotion-focused coping: Consciously regulating one’s emotional response to a stressor 3. Defensive coping: Unconscious strategies that distort the reality of a stressor 4. Social support: Availability of assistance from others MODULE 7.2 – COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY ADULTHOOD I.

Cognitive Development and Intelligence A. Intellectual Growth and Postformal Thought 1. Postformal thought; thinking continues to develop past Piaget’s formal operations 2. Perry’s approach to postformal thinking; dualistic thinking gives way to relativistic thinking 3. Schaie’s stages of development; five stages with various tasks and hallmarks 4. Life events and cognitive development; major events trigger new ways of thinking 5. Comparing the theories of postformal thought; they stand in opposition to Piaget’s notions B. Intelligence: What Matters in Adulthood?

1. Practical and emotional intelligence a. Elements of Sternberg’s triarchic theory highlight non-academic forms of cognitive skill 2. Creativity: Novel thought a. Creative output varies by age and type of activity II. College: Pursuing Higher Education A. The Demographics of Higher Education: Who Attends College?

1. The gender gap in college attendance a. A higher proportion of women than men attend college 2. The changing college student: Never too late to go to college? a. Older, nontraditional students have an increased presence on college campuses B. The Effects of Gender Bias and Negative Stereotypes on College Performance 4 .

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1. Gender bias a. Differences in majors, differences in opportunities, differences in treatment b. Benevolent sexism and hostile sexism can both play a role 2. Stereotype threat and disidentification with school a. Academic disidentification can result from the application of stereotype threat 3. College adjustment: Reacting to the demands of college life a. First-year adjustment reaction may be especially prevalent among first-generation students MODULE 7.3 – SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY ADULTHOOD I.

Forging Relationships: Intimacy, Liking, and Loving During Emerging and Early Adulthood A. Emerging Adulthood 1. A period marked by exploration, instability, self-focus, feeling in-between, and optimism B. Intimacy, Friendship, and Love 1. Seeking intimacy: Erikson’s view of young adulthood a. Intimacy-versus-isolation needs to be resolved at this developmental juncture 2. Friendship a. A need for belonging and similarity of interests drive friendship patterns 3. Falling in love: When liking turns to loving a. A predictable pattern from liking to loving exists C. The Faces of Love 1. Passionate and companionate love: The two faces of love a. Passionate: Hot, steamy, intense, as it suggests b. Companionate: Feelings of strong affection for those with whom are lives are deeply entwined 2. Sternberg’s triangular theory: The three faces of love a. Components of intimacy, passion, and commitment yield 8 types of love, summarized in a table D. Choosing a Partner: Recognizing Mr. or Ms. Right 1. Seeking a spouse: Is love the only thing that matters? a. Some cross-cultural similarities and differences in criteria, spurred by evolutionary theory 2. Filtering models: Sifting out a spouse a. Homogamy and the marriage gradient contribute to “bottom of the barrel” and “cream of the crop” statuses 3. Attachment styles and romantic relationships: Do adult loving styles reflect attachment in infancy? a. Yes b. Secure, avoidant, and ambivalent attachment styles characterize adult romantic relationships II. The Course of Relationships A. Cohabitation, Marriage, and Other Relationship Choices: Sorting Out Options of Early Adulthood 1. Marriage a. Marriage is seen as a preferred option to cohabitation, despite the latter’s increasing prevalence i. “Civil solidarity pacts” can confer the same legal rights as traditional marriage 2. What makes marriage work? a. Affection, communication, and little negativity form a good start 3. Early marital conflict a. Conflict is inevitable, although the early years of marriage are usually seen as deeply satisfying 4. Staying single: I want to be alone a. Singlehood has increased in popularity over the past several decades B. Parenthood: Choosing to Have Children 1. Family size a. Average family size has declined over the decades 2. Dual-earner couples a. The division and responsibilities of paid and unpaid work need to be negotiated 3. The transition to parenthood: Two’s a couple, three’s a crowd? a. The arrival of children can lead to a decrease in marital satisfaction for some couples, but an 5 .

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increase for couples who were already satisfied with their marriage 4. Gay and lesbian parents a. Few differences in experiences and expectations regarding family and children in heterosexual versus gay and lesbian households III. Work: Choosing and Embarking on a Career A. The Role of Work 1. Identity during young adulthood a. Vaillant proposed a period of career consolidation in young adulthood i. Recent research may be at odds with that and other traditional concepts 2. Why do people work? More than earning a living a. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation i. Intrinsic: Enjoyment and personal rewards driven from within ii. Extrinsic: Money, prestige, and power, driven from without b. Satisfaction on the job i. Higher status is associated with greater job satisfaction B. Picking an Occupation: Choosing Life’s Work 1. Ginzberg’s career choice theory; fantasy, tentative, and realistic periods 2. Holland’s personality type theory; six personality types that predict career paths 3. Gender and career choices: Women’s work a. A distinction between communal and agentic professions b. The glass ceiling may be a reality for women and minorities

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LECTURE LAUNCHERS Lecture Launcher 7.1: Weight and Well-Being Americans are obsessed with their weight. They spend untold billions on weight clinics, diets, health spas, and exercise clubs. From 1959 to 1978, the average Playboy centerfold and Miss America contestant dropped almost one-third of a pound a year (although, curiously, their waist-to-hip ratio remained the same, about 0.71). At the same time, the average American is getting heavier. Doctors and insurance companies warn us that being overweight is bad for our health.

There is substantial evidence that weight control, in addition to good health habits, is associated with longevity.

Most of what we know comes from major longitudinal studies. For example, one study begun in 1965 involved all the residents (nearly 7,000) of Alameda County, California. Five health practices predicted rates of death over the years of the study: • • • • • •

sleep 7 to 8 hours a night (too much sleep is just as bad for longevity as not enough) for men, weight between 5 percent under and 20 percent over desirable weight for height for women, weight not more than 10 percent over desirable weight for height often or sometimes engage in active sports, swimming, long walks, or gardening have no more than four drinks at a time never smoke cigarettes

Another long-term investigation, the Duke Longitudinal Study, showed that adults who exercised less, smoked more, and were overweight died at an earlier age and had more frequent illnesses. And the Framingham Longitudinal study (begun in 1948 with a sample of 5,209 subjects aged 30 to 59) assessed adults and their children every two years. Various habits, such as being overweight and smoking, were significant factors in heart disease and cancer rates.

Martin Seligman disagrees with the notion that we need to be thin to be healthy. In an interesting chapter in his book What You Can Change and What You Can’t, Seligman claims that, after watching his weight for over 30 years and reading everything he could on the subject, the only thing to conclude is that: • • • •

dieting doesn’t work dieting may make being overweight worse, not better dieting may be bad for health dieting may cause eating disorders such as bulimia and anorexia

Against this backdrop, ask students to list on a sheet of paper three things about their body they dislike and three things about their body they like. Ask them to omit their names but to put their age and sex at the top. Ask students if they think they are overweight, underweight, or just about right. Ask them to indicate the number of pounds they believe they need to gain or lose to look like their ideal. Tally the responses by sex and have the class analyze the responses with respect to gender differences. You can use Handout 7-1 to guide the discussion.

Seligman, M. E. P. (1994). What you can change and what you can’t: The complete guide to successful self-improvement. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

Lecture Launcher 7.2: More to Love The text points out that overweight and obesity are problems that have reached crisis proportions in the United States, and rightly indicates that proactive measures aimed at maintaining a healthy weight and diet are desirable. However, not all cultures necessarily subscribe to this view. Some residents of Africa, for example, 7 .

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see overweight in a slightly different light.

Mayok Mayen force-fed himself cow’s milk blended with cow urine at a rate of 5 gallons a day for 12 weeks.

Lying on a mat for most of the day, in an effort to avoid burning calories, he eventually became weak from inactivity and found it difficult to even speak. His heart became overworked by the huge weight gain, and he stopped counting the number of chins he’d developed. Some strange suicide ritual? A brain tumor gone haywire? Actually, these deliberate acts were in the service of Mayen’s finding a mate.

In the cow culture of Payiir, Sudan, bigger is better when it comes to mate selection. Eligible young bachelors intentionally gorge themselves to obesity in an effort to attract women. The significance is that an obese man is thought to come from a very well-off family, one that can afford to spare the extra cow’s milk to fatten a relative. (Big herds are an embarrassment of riches in this culture, as is singing of one’s loved one as “a beautiful bull.”) Judges look at both the girth and firmness of each bachelor’s body, and the winner of this contest is held in high esteem by all concerned.

Mayen, by the way, was not victorious. Deng Wauor turned out to be taller, fatter, bulkier, and, ultimately, more attractive.

In a related development, Margaret Bassey Ene is gorging herself in a “fattening room” in her Nigerian village.

Ene, like Mayen, is in a quest to find a partner, and in her southeastern Nigerian community a woman’s rotundity is taken as a sign of good health, prosperity, and desirability. Although some teenage girls do a stint in the fattening room for purely ceremonial purposes, many marriage-bound girls follow the coming-of-age tradition enthusiastically. No word yet on whether Margaret has found a partner, although Mayok may be interested.

Lecture Launcher 7.3: What Is the Purpose of Stress?

By asking your students this titular question, you can explore not only their thoughts on the topic, but also explain to them why stress exists. Strictly speaking, the stress response exists for the purpose of survival. When we experience stress, our sympathetic nervous systems activate, blood pressure and heart rate increase, and often we begin to sweat. These physiological reactions prepare us for “fight or flight.” Our bodies are at optimal physical performance and alertness levels, and we are therefore optimized for survival in a physically challenging situation. Sometimes we use this physiological activation to our advantage: Consider a champion weightlifter who, prior to lifting an extremely heavy weight, “pumps herself up.” By doing this, the weightlifter is attempting behaviorally to elicit a stress response from her brain and body in order to achieve the highest level of physical performance possible. With regard to the stress response, most of us are not faced with challenging, potentially life-threatening situations on a daily basis. However, we are capable of generating large amounts of psychological stress (that don’t require physical action), and the physiological response is the same. So the dilemma with psychological stress is that we create it with our minds, our bodies produce the necessary fuel to react physically, but we don’t (or can’t) react physically. The health consequences of this cycle are potentially hazardous, as the materials (e.g., glucocorticoids) generated by the body during the stress response lead to many cardiovascular maladies, including atherosclerosis and arteriosclerosis. Additionally, chronic stress can lead to insomnia, weight gain, and overall suppression of immune function. A discussion of these points should lead students to consider critically the somewhat paradoxical existence of stress in modern times.

Lecture Launcher 7.4: Environmental Stressors Stressors in the environment, both physical and social, impact people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. When our ears are assaulted by jackhammers, jet airplanes, motorcycles, lawn mowers, chain saws, snowmobiles, and blaring radios, what effect does this noise have on our psychological state?

Loud noise impairs the ability to think and work, even when people think they have adjusted to it. In one classic 8 Copyright @ 2017, 2014, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e

study, children in elementary schools that were beneath the flight path for Los Angeles International Airport were compared with children in quieter classrooms. The two groups were matched on age, ethnicity, race, and social class. Children in the noisy schools had higher blood pressure, were more distractible, and had more difficulty with puzzles and math problems than children in quieter schools. Children raised in noisy environments also have trouble learning how to discriminate between irrelevant noise and a relevant task. They either tune out too much in the environment or cannot tune out enough.

Studies also show that noise contributes to cardiovascular problems, ulcers, irritability, fatigue, and aggressiveness, probably due to overstimulation of the autonomic nervous system. Continuous noise can even have an effect on hearing. Many college students have already suffered significant hearing loss in the highfrequency range; their hearing resembles that of people more than twice their age. You might ask students to describe how the noise they experience on a day-to-day basis affects them. They may mention things such as the frustration and stress they feel when trying to study while a dorm neighbor throws a wild party.

Black, D. A., Black, J. A., Issarayangyun, T., & Samuels, S. E. (2007). Aircraft noise exposure and resident's stress and hypertension: A public health perspective for airport environmental management. Journal of Air Transport Management, 13(5), 264–276.

Halonen, J. I., Hansell, A. L., Gulliver, J., Morley, D., Blangiardo, M., Fecht, D., ... & Tonne, C. (2015). Road traffic noise is associated with increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality and all-cause mortality in London. European Heart Journal, 36(39), 2653– 2661.

Lane, S. R. & Meecham, W. C. (1974). Jet noise at schools near Los Angeles International Airport. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 56(1), 127–131.

Matheson, M. P., Stansfeld, S. A., & Haines, M. M. (2003). The effects of chronic aircraft noise exposure on children's cognition and health: 3 field studies. Noise and Health, 5(19), 31.

Pearson, T., Campbell, M. J., & Maheswaran, R. (2016). Acute effects of aircraft noise on cardiovascular admissions–an interrupted time-series analysis of a six-day closure of London Heathrow Airport caused by volcanic ash. Spatial and Spatio-temporal Epidemiology, 18, 38–43.

Stansfeld, S. & Clark, C. (2015). Health effects of noise exposure in children. Current Environmental Health Reports, 2(2), 171-178.

Walker, E. D., Brammer, A., Cherniack, M. G., Laden, F., & Cavallari, J. M. (2016). Cardiovascular and stress responses to short-term noise exposures: A panel study in healthy males. Environmental Research, 150, 391–397.

Lecture Launcher 7.5: Health and Hassles A group of psychologists at the University of California at Berkeley reasoned that perhaps it is not only major life changes or seismic shifts in well-being that affect us adversely; rather, the multitude of hassles that irritate and frustrate us every day can produce similar effects on our health and contentment. For example, a negative event such as divorce results in numerous hassles for both parties. Each member of the divorced couple may now have to do everyday activities that the other member used to take care of. Positive events can cause hassles too. Holidays are a busy time for many people: You need a new dress or shirt for a party, stores are crowded, traffic moves more slowly than usual and you are in more of a hurry than usual, relatives try your patience, and you eat and drink too much.

The hassles that come with special events or major life changes are not isolated; they are added to the burden of hassles we already have, and our autonomic nervous system can keep us in a state of high arousal, exhausting the body’s resources. We get a headache, a cold, the flu, our skin erupts, or our digestive system gets nervous and confused.

Hassles are a fact of life, and even without major life events they can accumulate and threaten our health. But some people can handle life’s big and little problems better than others. Research has suggested that the following factors affect our ability to deal with both major life events and hassles: 1. How we perceive events. What is a petty annoyance for one person can be a crisis for another. You have written a term paper. Another user of the computer inadvertently erases it. One person will take the attitude that “crying over spilled milk” will not help, and rewrite the paper with a minimum of stress. Another person’s first reaction is anger: Find out who did it and get even. This person will have to redo the paper too, but as she sits at the computer, her lingering anger causes her to make mistakes, and making mistakes adds 9 Copyright @ 2017, 2014, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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to her frustration.

2. Our style of coping. If you spilled raspberry jam on your new white sweater, then a problem-solving approach is to look for ways to remove the stain. Reappraisal might involve telling yourself that it is only a sweater and that worse things can happen. If the stain cannot be removed, then you accept the fact that the sweater will never be the same again and go on with your life. You can also get angry at yourself, the raspberry jam, or the manufacturer of the sweater. You can exaggerate your fondness for the sweater and its importance to your wardrobe. You can brood about it and grieve over your stained sweater for days.

3. Our personality. Research suggests that there are several personality traits that help us cope with hassles and the stress that can accompany them. One of these is having an internal locus of control; feeling that we can deal with life’s problems. Another is to see life as a challenge to be mastered rather than a conspiracy to defeat us.

Lecture Launcher 7.6: Mood Awareness Emotional intelligence (a broad collection of abilities related to understanding and utilizing affect) and alexithymia (a stunted awareness of one’s emotional states) share a common component, that awareness of one’s moods and emotions can contribute to successful social interaction. This idea has been pursued in a set of empirical studies.

Mood awareness refers to individual differences in attention directed toward one’s mood states. It is measured by the Mood Awareness Scale (MAS; Swinkels & Giuliano, 1995), a reliable 10-item measure composed of two related but distinct dimensions: mood labeling and mood monitoring. Mood labeling refers to the ability to identify and categorize one’s mood states, whereas mood monitoring refers to the tendency to focus on, evaluate, or scrutinize one’s mood.

The processes of mood labeling and mood monitoring may be better understood by an analogy. There is a marked difference in the approaches used by a physician and by a hypochondriac when trying to assess states of health. The physician, because of training, experience, or insight, is usually successful in making an accurate diagnosis of an illness and recommending some course of treatment. In other words, the medical condition is diagnosed or categorized fairly readily, and steps are then taken to remedy the complaint (e.g., “take two aspirin and call me in the morning”) or maintain the state of health (e.g., “keep jogging to work every day”). In contrast, hypochondriacs are quite concerned about the state of their physical health, and in fact may become preoccupied with keeping track of their health status. A process of monitoring physical symptoms and checking for the onset of illness may become an ongoing ritual. The problem, of course, is that although hypochondriacs may be vigilant in checking their health, they are apt to be misled many times about their condition. In other words, they check on their physical states often, but may not reach a satisfactory or final judgment about their health, concluding instead that they are suffering from some vague bodily complaint.

Several studies have demonstrated that labeling and monitoring exert different influences on other moodrelevant variables. For example, in comparison with low mood labelers, high mood labelers tend to seek and be satisfied with social support, experience positive affect, have higher levels of self-esteem, be extraverted, be less socially anxious or neurotic, and express greater global life satisfaction. High (as compared with low) mood monitors, by contrast, tend to experience more intense affective states, experience greater negative affect, have lower self-esteem, and report neurotic tendencies. Various other studies have investigated the role of mood awareness in depression, self-views, reactions to life stress, self-reported physical symptoms, intelligence and cognitive abilities, and numerous other personality dimensions.

More importantly, mood monitoring and mood labeling play a role in the process of mood regulation. Most people are motivated to sustain a positive mood (mood maintenance) or change a negative one (mood repair), although monitors and labelers might be more or less successful at this task. One study (Swinkels & Giuliano, 10 Copyright @ 2017, 2014, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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1995, Study 4), for example, found that although high mood monitors agreed that their moods influenced their behavior and were important to them, they reported less success at regulating their negative mood states.

Another study (Giuliano, 1995) found that the ability of mood labelers and mood monitors to repair their negative moods over time differed. High labelers were able to take relatively quick action to alter their mood states, whereas high monitors tended to wallow in their negative moods for a longer period of time.

The reason for these differences can be understood by returning to the medical analogy. The act of labeling something implies that it becomes identified or categorized for further use. The physician who has made an accurate diagnosis now knows the likely course and duration of the illness, the available treatments, and the number of subsequent office visits for which the patient can be billed. In this sense, mood labeling should generally promote constructive thought and behavior in regard to one’s feelings. A mood that is readily labeled is a mood that does not need to be dwelt upon in order to be understood: the mood state has been identified and the stage presumably is set for acting on that mood in some way.

In contrast, monitoring implies a certain degree of vigilance by an individual, which may or may not be productive. Like the hypochondriac who is nervously attuned to each twitch and tremor of her or his body, mood monitoring would imply a similar type of examination of or dwelling upon one’s mood; for some, perhaps, to the point of unhealthfulness, but for most out of a simple concern with tracking the progress of one’s feelings.

The difficulty with mood monitoring, then, is that it may contribute to becoming absorbed in one’s mood state, much like the overconcern with physical health experienced by the hypochondriac. The high mood monitor may check on her or his moods often, and be quite vigilant in doing so, yet may still remain a bit confused about the nature of the mood state. Just as the accuracy of the hypochondriac’s diagnoses may be clouded by numerous false alarms or uncertainty about the nature of the discomfort, so too may the high mood monitor’s judgments of her or his mood be clouded by too great an absorption in the mood state itself. In the case of bad moods, this absorption may produce prolonged negative affect.

Boden, M. T. & Thompson, R. J. (2017). Meta-analysis of the association between emotional clarity and attention to emotions. Emotion Review, 9(1), 79–85.

Giuliano, T. A. (1995, August). Mood awareness predicts mood change over time. Presented at the 103rd Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, New York.

Swinkels, A. (1993, August). Exploring the role of mood awareness in mood regulation. In D. Tice (Chair), Self regulation of mood and emotion. Symposium conducted at the 101st Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Toronto.

Swinkels, A. (2001). Research using the Mood Awareness Scale, 1991–2000. Technical Report 1, St. Edward’s University Psychology Laboratory.

Swinkels, A. & Giuliano, T. A. (1995). The measurement and conceptualization of mood awareness: Monitoring and labeling one’s mood states. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 934–949.

Swinkels, A., Giuliano, T. A., & Helweg-Larsen, M. (1996, August). Assessing mood awareness in diverse groups. Presented at the 104th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Toronto.

Swinkels, A. & Giuliano, T. A. (1992a). Mood awareness and self-regulation. Presented at the Fourth Annual Convention of the American Psychological Society, San Diego, California.

Swinkels, A. & Giuliano, T. A. (1992b). [Mood clash: Negotiating interpersonal affect]. Unpublished research data.

Lecture Launcher 7.7: How Do You Know When You’re an Adult?

It used to be that the timing of becoming an adult was fairly clear: In late adolescence, boys and girls got married and assumed an adult role. However, today’s youth are faced with the dilemma of not knowing when they have officially become an adult because we have no clear-cut initiation rites into adulthood.

Ask your students to tell you what they consider to be characteristics of adults. Some suggestions are: Religious Bar or bat mitzvah Confirmation

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Sexual Menarche Nocturnal emissions Losing one’s virginity Social “Sweet sixteen” or debutante parties Quinceañera Going to the senior prom Joining a gang, fraternity, sorority Beginning to shave Moving away from family Joining the Armed Forces Getting married Legal Becoming a parent Voting Getting a driver’s license Being able to drink legally Being able to buy cigarettes legally Educational Graduating from high school Going to college Graduating from college Economic Getting a checking account or credit card Buying one’s first car Getting one’s first full-time job Economic independence from parents and family

Lecture Launcher 7.8: Developmental Issues in Young Adulthood When Sigmund Freud was asked what conditions contributed to a healthy and well-adjusted adulthood, he responded, “Lieben und arbeiten.” Love and work. Most developmentalists agree that being able to find something and someone to love, and an interesting and challenging career, are two major developmental tasks of adulthood. Ask your students to explain how Erik Erikson’s adult stages (intimacy-versus-isolation and generativity-versus-stagnation) are built on these prominent adult life tasks. Discuss with your students the various developmental tasks of young adulthood. You might ask if any of them think they have completed all the tasks, or ask them to prioritize the tasks. Which ones are the most difficult and why? How is the accomplishment of these tasks related to the cognitive changes in adulthood (postformal thought and practical intelligence)?

Lecture Launcher 7.9: Physiognomic Measure of Attractiveness Michael Cunningham and his colleagues offer some evolutionary suggestions as to what the sexes find attractive in one another. Cunningham assembled a collection of photographs of women taken from college yearbooks and Miss Universe contests, and asked college men to rate the women’s attractiveness. The experimenters also took physiognomic measurements of the women’s faces, assessing such dimensions as midface length, nostril width, pupil width, facial length, separation of eyes, width of smile, width of face at cheekbones, width of face at 12 Copyright @ 2017, 2014, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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mouth, height of forehead, width of cheeks, thickness of upper lip, and so on. Women who possessed certain features usually associated with children (e.g., small chin, small nose, relatively large eyes widely spaced) were rated as highly attractive. Also attractive were prominent cheekbones and narrow cheeks, as well as high eyebrows and a wide smile. There was also some cross-cultural generality, given that the Miss Universe contestants came from a range of countries and in fact had been selected for their attractiveness by a multinational panel.

Cunningham explains these preferences for features using an evolutionary approach. Indicators of neoteny (i.e., relatively childlike features) may signal that the bearer is friendly, fertile, and healthy, as well as elicit responses for caregiving and affection. (The Smurfs, Bambi, E.T., Snuggles the Fabric Softener Bear, and paintings and figurines of children with large, dewy eyes have all capitalized on this effect.) Indicators of maturity (such as high cheekbones), when combined with neonate features, may signal that the woman is at an optimal age for mating. Indicators of expressiveness (such as large eyes and wide smiles) may cue sociability and receptiveness.

Although all three sets of indicators were present in the judgments made by the college men, neonate features predominated.

A subsequent study examined the attractiveness choices of women judging men. Following the same strategy, Cunningham and his colleagues asked college women to rate the attractiveness of photographs of men taken from college yearbooks. When later compared to physiognomic measurements, it seemed women followed a multiple-motive strategy. Although women found the neotenous feature of large eyes to be attractive, they were also drawn by maturity cues (such as prominent cheekbones and a large chin) and expressive features (such as a big smile and high-status clothing). These multiple motives suggest that women seek an optimal combination of features, altogether signaling fitness for reproduction and capacity to provide for needs.

Abend, P., Pflüger, L. S., Koppensteiner, M., Coquerelle, M., & Grammer, K. (2015). The sound of female shape: A redundant signal of vocal and facial attractiveness. Evolution and Human Behavior, 36(3), 174–181.

Butler, E. E., Saville, C. W., Ward, R., & Ramsey, R. (2017). Physical attraction to reliable, low variability nervous systems: Reaction time variability predicts attractiveness. Cognition, 158, 81–89.

Cunningham, M. R. (1986). Measuring the physical in physical attractiveness: Quasi-experiments on the sociobiology of female facial beauty, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 925–935.

Cunningham, M. R., Barbee, A. P., & Pike, C. L. (1990). What do women want? Facialmetric assessment of multiple motives in the perception of male facial physical attractiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 61–72.

Jang, K. S., Bayome, M., Park, J. H., Park, K. H., Moon, H. B., & Kook, Y. A. (2017). A three-dimensional photogrammetric analysis of the facial esthetics of the Miss Korea pageant contestants. The Korean Journal of Orthodontics, 47(2), 87–99.

Osborn, D. R. (2016). Renaissance beauty= Today’s ugly: What appearance factors determine attractiveness judgments?. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 26(5), 437–446.

Puts, D. A., Jones, B. C., & DeBruine, L. M. (2012). Sexual selection on human faces and voices. Journal of Sex Research, 49(2-3), 227– 243.

Lecture Launcher 7.10: Similarity and Attraction Revisited Similarity—of attitudes, background, goals, beliefs, interests, values—has been shown to be a powerful predictor of interpersonal attraction, both for romantic relationships and friendships. The late Robert Zajonc and his colleagues investigated similarity and relationships from a slightly different perspective, with fascinating results.

Zajonc and his coworkers solicited photographs from couples in Michigan and Wisconsin who had lived together for at least 25 years. These couples were asked to supply photos taken when they were first involved with one another and more recently, after this long period of time together; many couples provided shots from their wedding and from their 25th anniversary. The photographs were cropped so that only the faces of the men and women were visible. This was done so that other cues such as clothing styles or background scenes were not visible. The shots of these men and women were then presented to groups of judges, whose task was a relatively simple one. Presented with the photo of a young woman, for example, and an array of six photographs of young men, participants were asked to simply match “who went with whom,” or to identify the woman’s spouse from 13 Copyright @ 2017, 2014, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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the array of men. (The other combinations—male targets and female options, photos of the older partners, and so on—were also represented in the experimental design.)

As an antecedent of interpersonal attraction, the similarity thesis might predict that couples resembled one another early in their relationship, thereby drawing them together. This is not what Zajonc found, however.

Raters were no better than chance at matching couples based on their young photographs. They were quite accurate, however, in matching the older photographs. At levels better than chance, participants could tell who resembled whom after 25 years of marriage. This couldn’t be due to artifactual cues (scenes in the background, quality of the images) or methods of presentation, as these elements were carefully controlled. The conclusion is inescapable; these couples grew to look like one another in facial resemblance after years of togetherness.

Zajonc offered some suggestions as to why this might occur. First, diet could reasonably be implicated. Couples tend to adopt the same dietary habits, so it is possible that years of eating high- or low-fat diets could lead to similar fatty deposits in the face, in turn producing greater physical resemblance. However, a rank correlation between weight and age failed to support this notion. Another possibility is that environmental factors could have played a role. Twenty-five years of living in Texas, for example, could produce the leathery skin cues that distinguish one couple from another hailing from the Minnesota tundra. However, all participants came from the same Midwestern background, limiting the impact of environmental as well as income, cohort, or socioeconomic factors.

The explanation preferred by Zajonc and his colleagues is based on empathic responding and its effects on facial musculature. Most couples share some modicum of empathy for one another. The joys and sorrows of one partner typically are matched in the expression of the other partner, such that when one spouse beams with news of a pleasant event the other spouse responds in kind, grinning from ear to ear. This matching of facial actions— expressions of happiness at another’s happiness, sadness at a partner’s sorrow, and all points in between— multiplied by 25 years, may indeed etch the kinds of muscular and skin tone changes that produce greater resemblance. Bolstering this explanation, Zajonc found that when the original partners who supplied the photographs were surveyed, those who bore the greatest resemblance (and hence, who were likely to have experienced greater empathic responding) rated themselves as more satisfied with their relationships.

Besides being a novel take on the similarity thesis, Zajonc’s study has important implications for your students.

Ask them to conjure an image of the person they’re currently dating or interested in. Concentrate on it ... mull it over ... take a good, long look: Do they really want to look like that person 25 years from now?!

Cacioppo, S. & Cacioppo, J. T. (2015). Decoding the invisible forces of social connections. Current Research and Emerging Directions in Emotion-Cognition Interactions, 354–360.

Kulesza, W. M., Cisłak, A., Vallacher, R. R., Nowak, A., Czekiel, M., & Bedynska, S. (2015). The face of the chameleon: The experience of facial mimicry for the mimicker and the mimickee. The Journal of Social Psychology, 155(6), 590–604.

Re, D. E., Tskhay, K. O., Tong, M. O., Wilson, J. P., Zhong, C. B., & Rule, N. O. (2015). Facing fate: Estimates of longevity from facial appearance and their underlying cues. Archives of Scientific Psychology, 3(1), 30.

Zajonc, R. B., Adelmann, P. K., Murphy, S. T., & Niedenthal, P. M. (1987). Convergence in the physical appearance of spouses.

Motivation and Emotion, 11, 335–346.

Lecture Launcher 7.11: Is It Better to Have Children When You Are Young or When You Are Older?

Women today are having fewer children and delaying their first child until later. Many women now safely have children up until menopause. Are there any advantages to having children earlier? Or does the wisdom that seems associated with being an older mom (in addition to enjoying a satisfying career) encourage women to put off having children until later? What’s better for the children? Which is better for the parents? Consider the following: ADVANTAGES TO HAVING CHILDREN SOONER • You have more energy 14 Copyright @ 2017, 2014, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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• • • • • •

Young mothers have fewer medical problems associated with their pregnancies You are younger when kids are grown You can concentrate on work when the kids are grown You have a cushion of time to conceive You have fewer years to engage in risky behaviors You have fewer unrealistically high expectations

ADVANTAGES TO HAVING CHILDREN LATER • You have more time to plan family and career goals • You are more mature • You have time to advance your career • You can relax and enjoy your children because you’ve already accomplished many goals • You have more money for labor-saving devices and child care • You have more seniority at work and may be able to work from home • You have a keener appreciation for your children because you’ve waited longer for them

Lecture Launcher 7.12: Gender and Careers Ask your students to tell you their career goals. Write them on the board under the headings “Women” and “Men”. Until relatively recently, the study of career development was limited to what choices men made with little attention paid to women, except to note that women had temporary employment or jobs that took second place to family. In fact, women are more likely to hold part-time jobs than men.

Career differences between women and men are often explained by four components: 1. Motivation: Both men and women are motivated 2. Expectations: Differ due to gender socialization and lead to differences in schooling 3. Gender-role socialization: Women are expected to pair-bond and have children. Men are expected to work to support a family 4. Opportunity: Both differences in career choice and gender discrimination in hiring create differences in career opportunities Although several factors contribute to the gender gap in career choice and wages, gender stereotypes are a major consideration. Try this thought exercise with your class.

A lawyer stood in front of the judge, strongly arguing that the defendant be allowed to post bail.

Describe the lawyer. Describe the judge. Describe the defendant.

Despite the fact that almost equal numbers of men and women are now entering medical school and law school, we still hold stereotypes about the “typical” lawyer, doctor, judge, or even criminal. Statistics that show women catching up to men in certain occupations can be misleading. For example, if you count teachers as professionals, then the gap appears very small. However, if you look at the percentage of female university professors or male kindergarten teachers, it’s another story: men predominate in the higher-paid world of academia and women are overrepresented in the lower-paid kindergarten jobs.

Lecture Launcher 7.13: The World of Work The task of choosing and entering a career is a very serious one, and one that many young adults have difficulty accomplishing. A college student may change majors more than once during the first few years of college, and even after obtaining a bachelor’s degree many may either get a job in an unrelated field or go on to a different type of career choice in graduate school.

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Older theories of career development, such as that of Donald Super (1957), include stages that begin with a young adult building career skills and end with retirement at age 65. This focus on age-related stages may not be as relevant to the working person of today, who may change careers several times (perhaps as many as five to seven times) and who may experience periods of unemployment between jobs. A more recent theory of career stages (that doesn’t have age as a central focus) suggests six stages of modern career development: Assessment: A stage in which the person is unsure of identity and career goals, as well as strengths and weaknesses. Career counseling and assessment testing are common.

Investigation: A stage of researching the possible job opportunities and career fields. Interviews with people already in certain careers may be helpful.

Preparation: Getting ready to enter a career. May include education and other forms of job training.

Commitment: Making a decision, searching for a job, and accepting a job offer.

Retention: Level of comfort is achieved in the chosen career. Building skills in the job and network of relationships.

Transition: Feelings of discomfort, making conscious career changes, becoming more adaptable in one’s choices.

Savickas, M. L. (1997). Career adaptability: An integrative construct for life‐span, life‐space theory. The Career Development Quarterly, 45(3), 247–259.

Savickas, M. L., Porfeli, E. J., Hilton, T. L., & Savickas, S. (2018). The Student Career Construction Inventory. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 106, 138–152.

Super, D. E. (1957) The psychology of careers. New York: Harper and Row. Super, D. E. (1980). A life-span, life-space approach to career development. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 16(3), 282–298.

Lecture Launcher 7.14: Extrinsic Rewards and Work If a child freely chooses a task because of its intrinsic value to the child (“I just love to draw”), and an authority figure then imposes an extrinsic reward on the task (“If you draw me a picture, I’ll give you this red balloon”), then subsequent motivation to engage in that activity may decrease. The greatest loss of intrinsic motivation comes when the child perceives his or her behavior to be under surveillance and extrinsic rewards are expected.

There are similar findings in studies with adults. What are the implications of these findings for the effects of reward on adults at work?

Work satisfaction is not just a matter of finding a job that “fits” your personality or your abilities, as vocational interest tests often lead you to think. It is also a matter of finding a job in which the conditions of work foster the kinds of personality traits you would like to have. Although personality traits will affect how you do your job, your job also affects your personality.

Here are some suggestions when considering the best job for you: 1. Do not judge a job only by the paycheck. Money is great, but if it is the only yardstick of success, your motivation is likely to wane along with your performance.

2. Identify the intrinsic rewards of the work. As noted in the text, people are more creative and productive when their rewards are intrinsic. Examples of intrinsic rewards are a sense of accomplishment, intellectual fulfillment, the satisfaction of curiosity, and the sheer love of the activity. Here are three key questions to help you identify those all-important intrinsic rewards: 16 Copyright @ 2017, 2014, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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Will I have some degree of independence? People tend to be most creative when (1) they have control over how to perform a task or solve a problem, (2) they are evaluated unobtrusively, (3) they work alone, and (4) they are allowed to take risks by supervisors or colleagues who welcome innovative ideas.

Are the requirements demanding without being impossible for me? The pleasure of competence and actual achievement are highest when the difficulty of a task is not too easy and not too hard. Mastering an easy task offers no challenge, and the satisfaction of mastering a task that is too difficult is lessened by the extraordinary effort and time required to complete the task.

Will there be an opportunity to contribute to others? Compared to those who are self-involved, people who are involved with others cope better with life’s problems, have higher self-esteem, and are less likely to become overwhelmed with anxiety, depression, or hostility.

3. Consider the extrinsic rewards of the work. Although you will no doubt enjoy some aspects of a job, you can expect some aspects to be boring, tedious, or difficult. Work cannot be fun all the time, and in those moments, extrinsic rewards—pay, awards, etc.—can be very helpful. Extrinsic rewards are especially effective when they are tied to competence and not to the mere performance of a task. The best arrangement for both employees and employers is a secure base pay with merit pay for exemplary work.

The luckiest people in the world are those who manage to be paid for doing things they love doing. These are the people the dramatist Noel Coward was referring to when he said, “Work is more fun than fun.”

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STUDENT ACTIVITIES Student Activity 7.1: Guest Lecturer: Promoting a Healthy Lifestyle This chapter provides the perfect opportunity to give your students practical information about important and timely health-related topics. Listed below are several potential topics on which a health expert might comment, any of which should make for an excellent, engaging, and beneficial presentation.

Diet and Nutrition. Invite a registered dietitian or other nutrition expert to your class to discuss the role of diet and nutrition in health. Although more and more adults are taking an interest in their diets as part of an overall trend toward health consciousness, myths and misconceptions abound. As part of his or her presentation, ask your guest lecturer to address student concerns and help them separate fact from fiction when it comes to nutrition. Relevant issues for discussion include the role of fat and cholesterol in diet, the relationship between alcohol and heart disease, the risks and benefits of taking vitamin supplements, the relationship between fresh vegetable consumption and cancer risk, vegetarianism, food additives, the problems of yo-yo dieting, and how to read ingredient labels. Your expert might also address the proper place in the diet for salt, caffeine, fiber, water, and carbohydrates.

Stress Management. Arrange for a representative from the counseling center or health center to discuss stress management with the class. Your students may not be aware of the counseling services that your college or university provides. A guest speaker can teach students a variety of useful techniques (e.g., relaxation, time management, social support) that will help them successfully manage and cope with stress, especially near the end of the semester when they need it most.

AIDS and STIs. Alternatively, a health counselor might talk frankly with students about AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases. Although college students like to think they’re not vulnerable to sexually transmitted diseases, the evidence is to the contrary. Again, student myths and misconceptions should be addressed, and ways to prevent the spread of these diseases (such as safer sex practices and increased communication between sexual partners) can be explored.

Student Activity 7.2: Defining Stress The perception of an event as stressful varies across individuals, and not all events perceived as stressful are negative. This exercise is designed to assist students in exploring their own definition of stress and comparing their perspectives to those of their classmates. After you have briefly introduced the topic of stress, ask students to take out two sheets of paper. Tell students that you want them to list specific situations or hassles that they have experienced as being stressful in a negative way. After about 5 minutes, ask them to stop and tell them that you now want them to list events or situations that they would categorize as examples of positive stress. After completing the second list, ask students to share items from each list. You may find that some items listed as an example of positive stress for one student were listed as an example of negative stress for another student. The items listed by students can serve as the basis for a discussion concerning the variability in individual perceptions of whether an event is stressful. You may also want to have students compare their responses to the top 10 hassles obtained by Kanner, Coyne, Schaefer, and Lazarus (1981) when they administered the Hassles Scale. In descending order, the top 10 hassles were: weight concerns; family health problems; rising prices of common necessities; home maintenance; too many things to do; lost or misplaced items; yard work or outside home maintenance; money management issues related to investments, property, or taxes; crime; and one's physical appearance.

Aldwin, C. M., Jeong, Y. J., Igarashi, H., & Spiro III, A. (2014). Do hassles and uplifts change with age? Longitudinal findings from the VA normative aging study. Psychology and Aging, 29i, 57–71.

Jeong, Y. J., Aldwin, C. M., Igarashi, H., & Spiro III, A. (2016). Do hassles and uplifts trajectories predict mortality? Longitudinal findings from the VA Normative Aging Study. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 39iii, 408–419.

Kanner, A. D., Coyne, J. C., Schaefer, C., & Lazarus, R. S. (1981). Comparison of two modes of stress measurement: Daily hassles and

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Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e uplifts versus major life events. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 4, 1–39.

Totenhagen, C. J., Serido, J., Curran, M. A., & Butler, E. A. (2012). Daily hassles and uplifts: A diary study on understanding relationship quality. Journal of Family Psychology, 26(5), 719.

Student Activity 7.3: What’s Your Coping Style?

Students identify the style of coping used by a group of captives being held by terrorists. The student handout for this exercise is included as Handout 7-2. Suggested answers are given below.

1. Margaret: After rethinking the issue, she is using denial as a coping strategy.

2. Frank: The situation is being directly attacked with a problem-focused strategy.

3. Joe: Social comparison following reappraisal (rethinking) of the situation.

4. Gary: The problem is being attacked with an emotion-focused strategy.

5. Joan: A healthy response is being employed to live with the problem (acceptance).

Student Activity 7.4: Defining Intelligent Behaviors Divide your class into discussion groups, and ask them to elect one person as the recorder. The recorder should have three sheets of paper. Label one page “Intelligence,” the second “Wisdom,” and the third “Creativity.” The groups should list as many behaviors or defining characteristics as they can think of for each term.

After a period of time bring the entire class together and ask for volunteers from each group to tell you and the class what their definitions and behaviors were as you list them on the board. Then, distribute Handout 7-3, which lists the results of Robert Sternberg’s research, asking laypersons and college students to define each term. Discuss the extent to which students’ perceptions of the three categories match the research findings.

Student Activity 7.5: Bringing It All Together Using the chart on Handout 7-4, have students make up their own suggestions on how to maximize learning by using all three components of intelligence.

Student Activity 7.6: Role Models and Mentors Role models and mentors are important resources for young adults either contemplating career goals or starting out in their first job. A great deal of attention is given to the notion of role models in the popular media. Social learning theory supports the idea that many of our behaviors are learned through observation and imitation. Ask students to identify the characteristics of individuals likely to serve as role models. Tell them to be specific about a developmental situation; seeking career advice, modeling sexual practices, choosing a college major, finding a dating partner. Why are particular individuals more likely to become role models? What characterizes the relationship between the learner and the role model? Next, consider the imitative behavior that is often observed between “best friends” who share expressions, gestures, and other behaviors. Can peers be role models for one another? Ask your students to describe the differences between a role model and a mentor; can (or should) one person be both? After discussing these issues, ask your students to complete Handout 7-5.

Giuliano, T. A., Knight, J. L., Turner, K. L., & Lundquist, J.C. (2007). Gender and the selection of public athletic role models. Journal of Sport Behavior, 30, 161–198.

Student Activity 7.7: Desirable Qualities in a Dating Partner Distribute 3×5 cards to your class. Ask students not to write their names on the cards but to put their age and sex. Tell them to list the five most important qualities they look for in a dating partner. Collect the cards. On the board write “Males’ Qualities” and “Females’ Qualities.” List the qualities your students wrote on their cards 19 Copyright @ 2017, 2014, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e

with their age listed after the quality. Discuss with the entire class whether there are gender differences or age differences in the results.

Student Activity 7.8: Lookin’ for Love There are many antecedents of interpersonal attraction, such as similarity and physical attractiveness. This assignment gives your students experience at spotting these and other antecedents at work in real life. Have your students scan the personal ads of your local newspaper or weekly circular (or online resources) for evidence that everyday laypeople use the antecedents psychologists have identified as being predictors of interpersonal attraction. The procedure for this brief written assignment can be as informal or elaborate as you’d like to make it. For example, you might simply ask students to scan the ads and identify the most common antecedents used (similarity tends to be far and away most common: “I’m X,Y, and Z, looking for same;” “I like this-n-that, hope you do too;” “Are you just like me? Let’s meet.”). From there, students can discuss any patterns that they see, such as gender differences in the qualities advertised by the seeker and/or looked for in a partner, or differences in heterosexual versus same-sex ads, or simply examples of the different antecedents and what makes them effective. A more elaborate project might involve taking a random sample of ads and content analyzing them for common themes. Students have voluntarily computed statistics on an entire page of ads, giving frequencies for the number of times similarity, proximity, or physical characteristics were mentioned, by whom, for whom, and in what context. Personal ads are essentially archival data, and as such, they can be analyzed with as much or as little sophistication as your students can handle. Regardless of the approach you adopt, have your students look at the BIG PICTURE. Rather than merely listing examples of cute or clever ads, ask them to focus on what these ads reveal about lay conceptions of what works and what doesn’t when pooeple are looking for love.

Student Activity 7.9: Behavioral Indicators of Love This activity can be completed individually or in groups. Distribute copies of Handout 7-6. Instruct students to think about how the intimacy, passion, and commitment components of love are expressed both similarly and differently in relationships characterized by each of Robert Sternberg’s love types. For example, intimacy might be expressed as secret-sharing in both liking and consummate love, but would be expressed sexually only in the latter. When they finish completing the cells on the worksheets, students should have constructed a behavioral definition of each of type of love.

Student Activity 7.10: Hello Muddah, Hello Faddah Ask your students two simple questions: “What does it mean to father a child?” and “What does it mean to mother a child?” Chances are that responses to the first question will focus on biological aspects of reproduction; “being a sperm donor,” “impregnating a woman,” or “having sex.” Responses to the second question typically emphasize nurturance or prolonged commitment; “raising a child,” “showing attention,” or “being supportive” are likely offerings. Discuss with your students why they hold these views and why they responded to the questions differently. This is an opportunity to discuss sex role stereotypes, gender roles, and some issues of early adulthood. If your students are a particularly enlightened bunch, there may be no difference in their responses to the two questions. In that case, discuss what led to their egalitarian outlooks, or why other people might respond differently.

Student Activity 7.11: Hello Daughter, Hello Son Ellen Junn describes an innovative exercise from her course on parenting and family relations that can be readily adapted and simplified for a developmental psychology course. For this assignment, Junn suggests having students write semi-autobiographical letters as a way of exploring developmental issues from a more concrete and personal perspective. Tell your students that you want them to write a letter to a future (or if they already have one, actual) child on his or her 18th birthday. You should assure students that their letters are confidential and are not meant to elicit overly private or emotional events in their lives.

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Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e

According to Junn, students should give the following questions careful consideration in their letter: (a) When or why did you decide to have the child? (b) What are the most important qualities for a parent to have and why? (c) What personal qualities do you possess that might facilitate or interfere with your ability to be a good parent? (d) What qualities do you hope your child will possess and why?

Students should also mention specific strategies that they can use as a parent to foster growth in terms of physical, motor, cognitive, moral, social, personality, and sex-role development, relying on concepts presented in the text and lecture. Junn notes that this assignment increases the sensitivity of students to their own attitudes and beliefs about child development and parenting. In addition, it promotes understanding and application of course material to a personally relevant task. Junn also described a similar assignment asking students to write a letter to their parents.

Junn, E. N. (1989). “Dear Mom and Dad”: Using personal letters to enhance students’ understanding of developmental issues. Teaching of Psychology, 16, 135–138.

Student Activity 7.12: Reflective Journal Bo Diddley asked the question: “Who Do You Love?” Sleepy LaBeef posed it a few years later. The Band featured the riddle in The Last Waltz. George Thorogood made the question a staple of radio airplay. But it turns out psychologists have been asking that question for quite some time, along with the related question, “How do you love them?” Poll your students on this matter, using Handout 7-7 as a guide.

21 Copyright @ 2017, 2014, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e

SUPPLEMENTAL READING Arthur, M., Earle, A., Raub, A., Vincent, I., Atabay, E., Latz, I., ... & Heymann, J. (2018). Child marriage laws around the world: Minimum marriage age, legal exceptions, and gender disparities. Journal of Women, Politics & Policy, 39(1), 51–74.

Bjerregaard, L. G., Jensen, B. W., Ängquist, L., Osler, M., Sørensen, T. I., & Baker, J. L. (2018). Change in overweight from childhood to early adulthood and risk of type 2 diabetes. New England Journal of Medicine, 378(14), 1302–1312.

Breitenstein, C. J., Milek, A., Nussbeck, F. W., Davila, J., & Bodenmann, G. (2018). Stress, dyadic coping, and relationship satisfaction in late adolescent couples. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 35(5), 770–790.

Bruffaerts, R., Mortier, P., Kiekens, G., Auerbach, R. P., Cuijpers, P., Demyttenaere, K., ... & Kessler, R. C. (2018). Mental health problems in college freshmen: Prevalence and academic functioning. Journal of Affective Disorders, 225, 97–103.

Cruz, F., Ramos, E., Lopes, C., & Araújo, J. (2018). Tracking of food and nutrient intake from adolescence into early adulthood. Nutrition, 55/56, 84–90.

Cundiff, J. M. & Matthews, K. A. (2018). Friends with health benefits: The long-term benefits of early peer social integration for blood pressure and obesity in midlife. Psychological Science, 29(5), 814–823.

Diamond, R. M., Brimhall, A. S., & Elliott, M. (2018). Attachment and relationship satisfaction among first married, remarried, and post‐divorce relationships. Journal of Family Therapy, 40, S111–S127.

Farias, S. T., Giovannetti, T., Payne, B. R., Marsiske, M., Rebok, G. W., Schaie, K. W., ... & Gross, A. L. (2018). Self-perceived Difficulties in Everyday Function Precede Cognitive Decline among Older Adults in the ACTIVE Study. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 24(1), 104–112.

Hoare, E., Dash, S. R., Jennings, G. L., & Kingwell, B. A. (2018). Sex-specific associations in nutrition and activity-related risk factors for chronic disease: Australian evidence from childhood to emerging adulthood. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(2), 214.

Hopkins-Doyle, A., Sutton, R. M., Douglas, K. M., & Calogero, R. M. (2018). Flattering to deceive: Why people misunderstand Benevolent Sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. doi: 10.1037/pspa0000135 Hülür, G., Willis, S. L., Hertzog, C., Schaie, K. W., & Gerstorf, D. (2018). Is subjective memory specific for memory performance or general across cognitive domains? Findings from the Seattle Longitudinal Study. Psychology and Aging, 33(3), 448.

Kahn, N. F. & Halpern, C. T. (2018). Associations between patterns of sexual initiation, sexual partnering, and sexual health outcomes from adolescence to early adulthood. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 47, 1791–1810.

Lanctot, J. & Poulin, F. (2018). Emerging adulthood features and adjustment: A person-centered approach. Emerging Adulthood, 6(2), 91–103.

Nie, M., Yang, L., Sun, J., Su, H., Xia, H., Lian, D., & Yan, K. (2018). Advanced forecasting of career choices for college students based on campus big data. Frontiers of Computer Science, 12(3), 494–503.

Perelli‐Harris, B. & Styrc, M. (2018). Mental well‐being differences in cohabitation and marriage: The role of childhood selection. Journal of Marriage and Family, 80(1), 239–255.

Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.). (2018). The nature of human intelligence. Cambridge University Press.

Sternberg, R. J. & Sternberg, K. (Eds.). (2018). The new psychology of love. Cambridge University Press.

Vasilenko, S. A. & Lefkowitz, E. S. (2018). Sexual behavior and daily affect in emerging adulthood. Emerging Adulthood, 6(3), 191–199.

22 Copyright @ 2017, 2014, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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REVEL MULTIMEDIA Stress and Your Health

Nicole Weeks discusses brain and body changes during stress

1. Outline the process by which the fight-or-flight bodily systems activate and deactivate.

2. What role does evolution play in our modern reactions to stressors (and what we currently find stressful in our lives)?

Creativity and Intelligence

Creativity, intelligence, and their relationship are discussed

1. “Creativity” and “guts” are linked in this video; having a willingness to oppose a norm can be a hallmark of a creative person. Do you agree with this perspective? Can a norm-abiding, meek, unprepossessing person be truly creative?

2. Can a general rule linking intelligence and creativity be developed? Three experts offered three rather different interpretations of how these attributes are linked. What do you think? Can you generate historic examples of really smart people leading uncreative lives, or people of average intelligence who’ve done really creative things?

Intelligence Tests and Stereotypes

The perils of stereotype threat are examined

1. Stereotypes are generally considered negative, although some might be positive (but nonetheless incorrect). A “frugal Scotsman,” “math-inclined Asian,” or “smart-shopping Valley Girl” sound like they should be complimentary traits even when they’re not. Does the intention or implied positivity of a stereotype do anything to lessen its impact on a target’s self-perceptions or academic performance?

2. The enterprise of intelligence testing has been fraught with controversy: Do outcomes reflect innate ability or differences in learning? Does heredity or environment have a greater influence on intelligence? Can tests be truly culture-fair? Against this backdrop of controversies, is the notion of stereotype threat simply another controversy to be resolved, or does it represent a fundamentally different kind of challenge to the administration and interpretation of intelligence tests?

Young Adulthood: Happiness, Gabi

Gabi shares her thoughts on what makes her happy

1. To what extent do Gabi’s views of relationships, work, and life in general match your expectations of someone whose age and sex are the same as hers?

2. Gabi is female and in her early 30s, and reports feeling “on track” in her life. Do you think this realization came early, late, or at about the “right” time for someone her age? Why? Triangular Theory of Love: Robert Sternberg

The assemblies of love are considered

1. Think about Sternberg’s three components of love. In your own close relationships, do you find that you weight one or two of these components more than others?

2. Three components of love yield many possible combinations. “Complete love” is “complete” because it combines all three components. But think of the definition of “complete.” Even apart from the mathematics of the theory, would you agree that there’s a “completeness” to this kind of love? Why or why not?

Young Adulthood: Work, Jessica

“Having a job” and “pursuing a career” can be different enterprises

1. Does Jessica seem happy in her occupation? Having watched the video, why or why not do you think that is?

2. Take a moment to think of your ideal job. What characteristics of the work make it ideal? Which aspects of your personality motivate you to pursue that kind of work?

23 Copyright @ 2017, 2014, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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Handout 7-1 Calculating Overweight Health professionals and researchers use the Body Mass Index (BMI) to assess whether individuals are overweight or not. There is a clear association between obesity and increased morbidity (disease) and mortality (death). Overweight adults are at risk for such conditions as hypertension, gallbladder disease, hypercholesterolemia, degenerative joint disease, respiratory problems, certain forms of cancer, and diabetes.

Mortality rates double rapidly at BMI greater than 29. Follow these directions to get your BMI: Take your weight in pounds and multiply it by 0.0254 to get your weight in kilograms. Take your height in inches and divide it by 2.2 to get your height in meters. Square the height in meters (multiply the number by itself). Now divide your weight in kilograms by your squared height in meters.

Based on the World Health Organization (WHO) classification system, obesity is defined by the following grades: BMI 25–29 30–39 40+

WHO Classification Grades “Moderate Overweight” Grade 1 “Severe Overweight” Grade 2 “Morbidly Obese” Grade 3

Source: https://www.who.int

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Handout 7-2 Coping Styles The active, constructive efforts employed to manage stress are called coping strategies. People can manage stress by attacking its source, by rethinking their initial evaluation, or by accepting events and trying to reduce their consequences.

Assume the group of people below has been held captive by terrorists for several months. For each description, indicate whether acceptance, rethinking, or attack is being used as a coping strategy. Identify the strategies used, such as appraising the situation, focusing on solving a problem, dealing with one’s emotions, accepting the situation, or actively fighting a stressor.

1. Over time, Margaret has decided her captors have no bad intentions and just need to make a basic philosophic point.

2. Frank believes escape would be difficult but not impossible. He keeps formulating escape plans and explaining them to the others, hoping for one that is reasonable.

3. Joe believes this disaster has a bright side. Had another terrorist group taken them, they would be tortured as well as held captive.

4. Like Frank, Gary believes escape is possible, but only if the terrorists unexpectedly slip up. His goal is to remain as calm as possible and look for an opportunity. He refuses to waste energy and lose hope by developing or considering unrealistic escape plans.

5. Joan believes the group will remain in captivity virtually forever. Her goal is to eat as regularly as possible, combat inactivity through exercise, and converse about what they might do when freedom finally comes.

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

25 Copyright @ 2017, 2014, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e

Handout 7-3 Six Basic Categories in People’s Conceptions of Intelligence 1. Practical problem-solving ability Tends to see attainable goals and accomplish them; has the ability to change directions and use another procedure; is able to apply knowledge to particular problems.

2. Verbal ability Can converse on almost any topic; has demonstrated a good vocabulary; has a good command of language.

3. Intellectual balance and integration Has the ability to recognize similarities and differences; listens to all sides of an issue; is able to grasp abstract ideas and focus attention on those ideas.

4. Goal orientation and attainment Tends to obtain and use information for specific purposes; possesses ability for high achievement; is motivated by goals.

5. Contextual intelligence Learns and remembers, and gains information from past mistakes and successes; has the ability to understand and interpret his environment; knows what’s going on in the world.

6. Rapid thinking Has a thorough grasp of mathematics and has good spatial ability, and hence can mentally manipulate images; has a high IQ level; thinks quickly.

Six Basic Elements in People’s Conceptions of Wisdom 1. Reasoning ability Has good problem-solving ability; has a logical mind.

2. Sagacity Considers advice; understands people through dealing with a variety of people; feels he or she can always learn from other people; is fair.

3. Learning from ideas and environment Attaches importance to ideas; is perceptive; learns from other people’s mistakes.

4. Judgment Acts within one’s physical and intellectual limitations; is sensible; has good judgment at all times; thinks before acting or making decisions.

5. Expeditious use of information Is experienced; seeks out information, especially details; learns and remembers and gains information from past mistakes or successes.

6. Perspicacity Can offer solutions that are on the side of right and truth; is able to see through things, read between the lines; has the ability to understand and interpret his/her environment.

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Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e

Handout 7-3, (continued) Six Major Elements of People’s Conceptions of Creativity 1. Lack of conventionality Makes up rules as he/she goes along; has a free spirit; is unorthodox.

2. Integration and intellectuality Has the ability to recognize similarities and differences; is able to put old information, theories, etc., together in a new way.

3. Aesthetic taste and imagination Appreciates the arts; can write, draw, or compose music; has good taste.

4. Decisional skill and flexibility Follows gut feelings in making decisions after weighing the pros and cons; has the ability to change directions and use another approach.

5. Questioning spirit Questions societal norms, truisms, assumptions; is willing to take a stand.

6. Drive for accomplishment and recognition Is motivated by goals; likes to be complimented on work; is energetic.

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

27 Copyright @ 2017, 2014, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e

Handout 7-4 Maximizing Domains of Intelligence Robert Sternberg theorizes that students can maximize their learning by using all three components of their intelligence. Below, using Sternberg’s suggestions as examples, devise your own way to maximize your learning in each subject area.

ANALYTIC

CREATIVE

PRACTICAL

PSYCHOLOGY

ex.: Compare Freud’s theory of dreaming with Hobson’s.

ex.: Design an experiment to test a theory of dreaming.

ex.: What are the implications of Freud’s theory of dreaming in your life?

LITERATURE

ex.: In what ways were Catherine Earnshaw and Daisy Miller similar?

ex.: Write an alternative ending to Wuthering Heights.

ex.: Why are lovers sometimes cruel to each other and what can we do about it?

ART

ex.: Compare and contrast how Rembrandt and Van Gogh used light.

ex.: Draw a beam of light.

ex.: How could we reproduce the lighting in a painting of this room?

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

28 Copyright @ 2017, 2014, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e

Handout 7-5 Role Models and Mentors People describe a role model as someone who has some characteristics that are admirable. You may want to be as kind, smart, or as funny as that person is.

Who is the first person that comes to mind when you think of a role model?

What is this person’s relationship to you?

List three characteristics of this person that you would like to emulate.

1.

2.

3.

A mentor is an individual with whom you work closely. A mentor is someone who promotes your skills and assists you with your career goals. Think of a mentor in your life.

Do you believe this person considers him- or herself important to your career development?

Will you ask this person for help in making decisions about your future? Why or why not?

Do you believe this person’s gender is an important characteristic to you? Why?

List three characteristics of this person that you like.

1.

2.

3.

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

29 Copyright @ 2017, 2014, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e

Handout 7-6 Behavioral Indicators of Love Sternberg’s types of love

What kinds of behaviors indicate the presence of intimacy in each type of love?

What kinds of behaviors indicate the presence of passion in each type of love?

What kinds of behaviors indicate the presence of commitment in each type of love?

Liking

Infatuated

Empty

Romantic

Fatuous

Companionate

Consummate

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

30 Copyright @ 2017, 2014, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e

Handout 7-7 Reflective Journal Exercise 7 According to Sternberg’s triangular theory of love, there are eight types of love possible, depending on the combinations of the three elements: Intimacy, Passion, and Commitment. Reflect on your life as a child, as an adolescent, and as an adult. Have you experienced all eight types of love in your life? Describe these relationships. Do you consider all of them “love”—in other words, do you or did you say about that person, “I love { }”?

1. Nonlove (all three missing)

2. Liking (intimacy)

3. Infatuated love (passion)

4. Empty love (commitment)

5. Romantic love (intimacy and passion)

6. Companionate love (intimacy and commitment)

7. Fatuous love (passion and commitment)

8. Consummate love (intimacy, passion, and commitment)

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

31 Copyright @ 2017, 2014, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e

Chapter 8 MIDDLE ADULTHOOD CONTENTS Chapter-at-a-Glance

2

Learning Objectives

3

Chapter Outline

4

Lecture Launchers

7

Student Activities

15

Supplemental Reading

18

Revel Multimedia

19

Handouts

20

1 .

Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e

CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE Chapter Outline Physical Development and Sexuality Physical Transitions Sexuality in Middle Adulthood

Instructor’s Resources

Revel Resources

Learning Objectives 8.1, 8.2 Lecture Launcher 8.1 Student Activity 8.1

Health Wellness and Illness Heart Disease and Cancer

Learning Objectives 8.3, 8.4 Lecture Launchers 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5 Student Activities 8.2, 8.3, 8.4

Intelligence and Memory Does Intelligence Decline in Adulthood?

How Does Aging Affect Memory?

Learning Objectives 8.5, 8.6 Lecture Launchers 8.6, 8.7, 8.8 Student Activities 8.5, 8.6

Personality Development Perspectives on Adult Personality Development Stability Versus Change in Personality

Learning Objectives 8.7, 8.8 Lecture Launcher 8.9 Student Activities 8.7, 8.8

Relationships: Family in Middle Age Marriage and Divorce Family Evolutions Family Violence

Learning Objectives 8.9, 8.10, 8.11 Lecture Launcher 8.10 Student Activity 8.9

Work and Leisure Work in Middle Adulthood Leisure Time

Learning Objectives 8.12, 8.13 Lecture Launchers 8.11, 8.12 Student Activity 8.10

2 .

How Your Memory Can Be Tricked

Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e

LEARNING OBJECTIVES LO 8.1

Describe the physical changes that affect people in middle adulthood.

LO 8.2

Analyze the changing nature of sexuality in middle adulthood.

LO 8.3

Describe the health of the average person in middle adulthood.

LO 8.4

Describe risk factors and preventive measures for heart disease and cancer in middle adulthood.

LO 8.5

Analyze changes in the nature and use of intelligence in middle adulthood.

LO 8.6

Describe how aging affects memory and how memory can be improved.

LO 8.7

Explain varied perspectives on personality development during middle adulthood.

LO 8.8

Analyze whether personality is stable or changes over the life span.

LO 8.9

Describe typical patterns of marriage and divorce in middle adulthood.

LO 8.10 Analyze the effects and significance of changes in family patterns in middle adulthood.

LO 8.11 Describe causes and characteristics of family violence in the United States.

LO 8.12 Describe the benefits and challenges of work life in middle adulthood.

LO 8.13 Describe how people experience leisure time in middle adulthood.

3 .

Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e

CHAPTER OUTLINE MODULE 8.1 – PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE ADULTHOOD I.

Physical Development and Sexuality A. Physical Transitions: The Gradual Change in the Body’s Capabilities 1. Height, weight, and strength: The benchmarks of change a. Maximum height is reached in a person’s 20s, remaining stable until about 55 b. Osteoporosis can contribute to shrinking, whereas body fat can contribute to expanding 2. The senses: The sights and sounds of middle age a. Vision i. Presbyopia: Acuity starts to decline ii. Glaucoma: Buildup of fluid in the eye b. Hearing i. Presbycusis: Loss of ability to her high frequency sounds c. Reaction time i. Reaction time increases, although accidents decrease for older drivers B. Sexuality in Middle Adulthood: The True, the False, and the Controversial 1. The ongoing sexuality of middle age a. Masturbation, intercourse, and oral sex remain prevalent 2. The female climacteric and menopause a. The transition from childbearing ability is marked by menopause i. As many as half of women going through menopause experience no adverse symptoms ii. Others may experience significant menopausal and perimenopausal symptoms 3. The dilemma of hormone therapy: No easy answer a. Hormone therapy can relieve menopause symptoms, but carries the risk of stroke and cancer 4. The psychological consequences of menopause a. Expectations can affect reactions to this normal part of the aging process 5. The male climacteric a. Gradual changes to prostate gland and erectile functioning II. Health A. Wellness and Illness: The Ups and Downs of Middle Adulthood 1. People in middle adulthood have concerns over health, safety, and money 2. Stress and chronic diseases begin to accumulate during middle adulthood 3. Stress has three consequences: Direct effects, indirect effects, and engagement in harmful behaviors B. Heart Disease and Cancer: The Big Worries of Middle Adulthood 1. The A’s and B’s of heart disease: Health and personality a. Aspects of the Type A behavior pattern have been linked to coronary heart disease i. Type D behavior may be as good or a better predictor b. The Type B behavior pattern stands in opposition to the Type A pattern 2. The threat of cancer a. The risk of some cancers increases during this period, so early detection is a must b. Causes of cancer reflect genetic and environmental forces MODULE 8.2 – COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE ADULTHOOD I.

Intelligence and Memory A. Does Intelligence Decline in Adulthood?

1. The difficulties in answering the question a. Type of study, type of intelligence, and type of decline need to be addressed clearly 2. Crystallized and fluid intelligence 4 .

Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e

a. Fluid intelligence tends to decline, whereas crystallized intelligence remains stable or improves 3. Reframing the issue: What is the source of competence during middle adulthood? a. Selective optimization with compensation highlights the nuances of success, competence, and intelligence 4. The development of expertise: Separating experts from novices a. Experts differ from novices on several dimensions B. How Does Aging Affect Memory?

1. Types of memory a. Sensory and short-term memory show virtually no diminution in middle age b. Long-term memory declines for some people c. Many memory declines can be compensated by cognitive strategies 2. Memory schemas a. Formation, content, and application of schemas shows some cultural variation MODULE 8.3 – SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE ADULTHOOD I.

Personality Development A. Perspectives on Adult Personality Development 1. Erikson’s stage of generativity versus stagnation a. Growth and contributions can take place, or stagnation and trivialities can win the day 2. Building on Erikson’s views: Vaillant, Gould, and Levinson a. Vaillant: “Keeping the meaning” b. Gould: Seven stages of transformation c. Levinson: Seasons of life 3. The midlife crisis: Reality or myth? a. Myth; it was inspired by Levinson’s period of questioning in midlife transition B. Stability Versus Change in Personality 1. Stability and change in the “Big Five” personality traits a. Conscientiousness, agreeableness, extroversion, openness, and neuroticism show distinct patterns of stability and change over the course of adulthood 2. Happiness across the lifespan a. Subjective well-being remains pretty stable over the lifespan II. Relationships: Family in Middle Age A. Marriage and Divorce 1. The ups and downs of marriage a. The familiar U-shaped curve of satisfaction has been called into question recently b. Realistic expectations, focusing on the positive, compromising, and not suffering in silence go a long way toward increasing satisfaction 2. Divorce a. Rates of divorce tend to rise in middle adulthood 3. Remarriage a. A large percentage of divorced people remarry, although many second marriages also dissolve B. Family Evolutions 1. Boomerang children: Refilling the empty nest a. Adult children return to live in the family home 2. The sandwich generation: Between children and parents a. People in middle adulthood are often called on to help both their parents and their children 3. Becoming a grandparent: Who, me? a. Involved, companionate, and remote grandparents adopt different roles C. Family Violence: The Hidden Epidemic 1. The stages of spousal abuse a. Tension-building, acute battering, and loving contrition describe the cycle of abuse 2. The cycle of violence hypothesis 5 .

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a. Doesn’t fully account for the evidence nor fully explain the likelihood of becoming an abuser 3. Spousal abuse and society: The cultural roots of violence a. Cultural and historic factors can contribute to the perceived acceptability of spousal abuse III. Work and Leisure A. Work in Middle Adulthood: The Good and the Bad 1. Work and careers: Jobs at midlife a. Older workers tend to show job satisfaction, based on the here-and-now qualities of the work 2. Challenges of work: On-the-job satisfaction a. Burnout can be combated with job structure, incentives, and disengagement during leisure 3. Unemployment: The dashing of the dream a. Unemployment, through discrimination or not, can be a lengthy and stressful experience 4. Switching—and starting—careers at midlife a. Lateral shifts or entry into the workforce can be precipitated by a variety of factors B. Leisure Time: Life Beyond Work 1. People tend to watch a lot of television

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LECTURE LAUNCHERS Lecture Launcher 8.1: What Is Middle Age and When Does It Begin?

The concept of “middle age” has changed drastically since the baby boomers began to approach their 50s.

Exactly how does one define “middle age”? Statistically, the average American can expect to live to age 74, so middle age can be 37, but not many 37-year-olds consider themselves middle-aged. Dysmorphophobia, better identified as body dysmorphic disorder (the intense but unfounded fear of looking ugly), is, by some accounts, on the rise, particularly in Western societies. With all the methods available to stave off the “middle-age uglies”—diet, exercise, Botox, melatonin, hair dye, and plastic surgery—people are actually pushing back the concept of middle age to after 50. Thus, many developmentalists believe that middle age can begin anywhere from 40 to 70.

Middle adulthood used to be thought of as being worse than youth and better than old age. Now, however, researchers are finding that middle age has a developmental process of its own. Although the midlife crisis is a popular perception of middle adulthood, statistics show that most people consider middle age the best period in their lives. For the most part, middle-aged persons don’t have the angst of youth, the aches and pains of the elderly, and their careers, checkbooks, and bodies are all pretty healthy.

Johnson, S., Williamson, P., & Wade, T. D. (2018). A systematic review and meta-analysis of cognitive processing deficits associated with body dysmorphic disorder. Behaviour research and therapy, 107, 83–94.

Gruber, M., Jahn, R., Stolba, K., & Ossege, M. (2018). 'Barbie Doll Syndrome'. A case report of body dysmorphic disorder. Neuropsychiatrie: Klinik, Diagnostik, Therapie und Rehabilitation: Organ der Gesellschaft Osterreichischer Nervenarzte und Psychiater, 32(1), 44–49.

Lecture Launcher 8.2: Osteoporosis According to the National Osteoporosis Foundation and the U.S. Administration on Aging, over 25 million Americans have a bone thinning disease called osteoporosis. This “silent thief” progresses without symptoms or pain until a fracture occurs, generally in the hip, spine, or wrist. Most victims are women, and over half of all women over 65 have it. One out of five is male.

It is important to be aware of this disease, whose cause is uncertain, because some factors make a person susceptible to the disease and it is preventable if bone loss is detected early (middle age or sooner). See Handout 8-1 for a quiz to see if your students are at risk for developing osteoporosis.

You can learn more by visiting the National Osteoporosis Foundation website: http://www.nof.org.

Lecture Launcher 8.3: The Type A Personality? Or Is It Type H? “Anger kills,” says Duke University researcher Redford Williams. His work is based on a study conducted in 1959 by Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman. Friedman, a cardiologist, noticed that the upholstery in his office was being worn away sooner than normal by his heart disease patients who, he speculated, were impatiently awaiting their office visits and literally “sitting on the edge of their seats.” He and Rosenman decided to test the notion that people who suffered from heart disease had a variety of psychological and behavioral traits in common. These included chronic stress from their excessive drive to perform, pressures to meet deadlines, an abnormally competitive spirit, and a tendency to become easily frustrated. They found the following characteristics to be related to significantly more heart attacks and disease: • • • •

Frequently doing more than one thing at a time Urging others to hurry up and finish what they are saying Becoming very irritated when traffic is blocked or when waiting in line Gesturing a lot while talking 7 .

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• • • •

Having a hard time sitting with nothing to do Speaking explosively and using obscenities often Playing to win all the time, even with children Becoming impatient when watching others carry out a task

The reason these behavior patterns increase the risk of coronary heart disease is that Type A persons become too physically aroused. This causes the body to overproduce hormones such as epinephrine and norepinephrine, and increases blood pressure and heart rate. Over time, this wears down the body and produces heart disease.

For years afterward, studies supported Friedman and Rosenman’s conclusions. However, by the 1980s some studies began to emerge which showed that heart disease was, in fact, no more frequent in competitive and agitated people compared to others. Sometimes these folks fared even better than more laid-back individuals.

The part of Friedman and Rosenman’s findings that seemed to predict future heart trouble was excessive and frequent hostility and anger. This twist has been dubbed the Type H personality or AHA syndrome: anger, hostility, and aggression. Friedman and Rosenman’s initial studies focused on men; the newer studies of anger and hostility included women. Both men and women who express frequent anger and hostility through clenched teeth, swearing, and raised voices increase their odds of having heart disease.

Not every medical authority agrees with either theory totally and the central question remains: Can you change your personality to save your life? The answer appears to be yes. Studies show that consciously learning to relax, lowering one’s voice, and making an effort to smile and laugh (even if it’s acting) increases blood flow, reduces levels of hormones that create stress, reduces pain perception, and diffuses anger. This is not the same as suppressing anger—which is bad for you—but a conscious effort to control your reaction to life.

Lecture Launcher 8.4: What Vexes a Baboon?

Husband-and-wife researchers Robert Seyfarth and the late Dorothy Cheney have studied groups of wild baboons in Africa for years. One focus of their research has been how social and nonsocial stressors affect individual baboons and what coping mechanisms baboons use to reduce stress.

Because Seyfarth and Cheney perform their research in the field, accurately measuring stress levels from wild baboons can be challenging. Noninvasive techniques, such as observation, tend to be subjective and imprecise.

On the other hand, capturing baboons for closer analysis would be very stressful in its own right. Luckily, glucocorticoids (GC)—chemicals released during times of stress—can be detected in fecal material. This means that researchers can collect the feces left behind by specific baboons and then measure their GC levels: Increases in GC levels indicate an increase in stress and vice versa.

Careful analysis of GC levels in wild baboons reveals a lot about what causes and reduces stress levels. For example, during months when predator attacks on the group are frequent, all the baboons in the group have higher stress levels. Interestingly, when one of the group is killed by a predator, the stress levels are highest in the victim’s closest relatives (e.g., sisters, mothers, etc.), indicating that baboons are emotionally connected to their family members.

The researchers also found that when a new baboon takes over the alpha male position in the troop, GC levels increase drastically in lactating females with young infants, but not as dramatically in other females. This is likely because new alpha male baboons tend to kill the young offspring of the previous alpha male in order to make their mothers sexually receptive again. One way lactating females can lower their stress level in this situation is to befriend another male in the group who might help protect her infants from the new alpha male.

Finally, researchers have observed that GC levels are related to social grooming; specifically, GC levels tend to be lowest in females when their grooming is limited to a small group of partners. Taken together, much of 8 .

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Seyfarth and Cheney’s research indicates the importance of close social bonds between baboons for reducing stress. Although scientists try not to anthropomorphize the animals they study, it is difficult to avoid drawing connections between the importance of social support for baboons and a similar role for social support for humans.

Crockford, C., Wittig, R., Whitten, P., Seyfarth, R., & Cheney, D. (2008). Social stressors and coping mechanisms in wild female baboons (Papio hamadryas ursinus). Hormones and Behavior, 53, 254–265.

Seyfarth, R. M., & Cheney, D. L. (2012). The evolutionary origins of friendship. Annual Review Of Psychology, 63, 153–177.

Snyder-Mackler, N., Kohn, J. N., Barreiro, L. B., Johnson, Z. P., Wilson, M. E., & Tung, J. (2016). Social status drives social relationships in groups of unrelated female rhesus macaques. Animal Behaviour, 111, 307–317.

Sonnweber, R. S., Ravignani, A., Stobbe, N., Schiestl, G., Wallner, B., & Fitch, W. (2015). Rank‐dependent grooming patterns and cortisol alleviation in Barbary macaques. American Journal of Primatology, 77(6), 688–700.

Wittig, R., et al. (2008). Focused grooming networks and stress alleviation in wild female baboons. Hormones and Behavior, 54(1), 170– 177.

Lecture Launcher 8.5: Adhering to Medical Advice One factor that positively influences health is locating a doctor with whom you are able to communicate.

Communication, however, is only the first step. Assuming that the doctor’s advice is accurate, you must also follow that advice. The rate of adherence to medical advice averages only about 50 percent, with somewhat higher rates associated with treatments that are designed to cure as opposed to prevent an illness. These rates are relatively consistent regardless of whether the situation involves keeping an appointment with a doctor, taking medication, or staying on a dietary or exercise regimen.

Three general factors influence adherence to medical advice: characteristics of the disease and treatment, the person, and the relationship with medical personnel. Low-adherence rates are often associated with treatments of long duration, more complex treatments (e.g., requiring a number of different medications), and negative interactions with medical personnel (e.g., poor communication, delays in getting an appointment, and delays in the waiting room). Increased rates of adherence are often related to a personal perception of the severity of the illness, strong social support, a personal belief in the efficacy of the treatment, clear, specific information from medical personnel about the illness and the reasons for a particular treatment regimen, and personal characteristics of medical personnel such as friendliness, warmth, and a caring attitude. Finally, adherence does not seem to be related to disease severity as defined solely by medical personnel, severity of treatment side effects, personality traits, and demographic characteristics (at least when measured independently) such as age, gender, race, or educational level.

Cognitive-behavioral techniques seem to be the most effective in increasing adherence. For example, strategies such as prompts to remind patients, tailoring the regimen to the individual’s daily habits and activities, a graduated implementation of the regimen, and a contingency contract between the patient and medical personnel help to boost adherence.

Lecture Launcher 8.6: Hormones and Thinking Skills Uriel Halbreich, a University at Buffalo, The State University of New York professor of psychiatry and gynecology and obstetrics, has reported that the performance of postmenopausal women on certain tests measuring the ability to integrate several cognitive functions improved significantly after a course of estrogenreplacement therapy (ERT).

It was found that low levels of estrogen may impair some cognitive functions, whereas estrogen-replacement therapy may help improve certain thinking and biological brain processes, and also may play a role in elevating mood. Postmenopausal women and women of childbearing age were given a wide variety of tests that measured different areas of cognitive functions. The women were then given estrogen for 60 days, and there appeared to be a significant improvement. This increase in cognitive ability was correlated with the plasma levels of estrogen. The results indicated that integrative abilities, reaction times and short-term verbal memory of many of 9 .

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the postmenopausal women improved after estrogen therapy. Halbreich believes that estrogen may help maintain some functions that typically decline with age or the onset of menopause.

Baskaran, C., Cunningham, B., Plessow, F., Singhal, V., Woolley, R., Ackerman, K. E., ... & Misra, M. (2017). Estrogen replacement improves verbal memory and executive control in oligomenorrheic/amenorrheic athletes in a randomized controlled trial. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 78(5), e490.

Edwin, T., & Halbreich, U. (2005). The effects of estrogens on cognition and Alzheimer's dementia. In Estrogen Effects in Psychiatric Disorders (pp. 223-237). Springer Vienna.

Hamson, D. K., Roes, M. M., & Galea, L. A. (2016). Sex hormones and cognition: neuroendocrine influences on memory and learning. Comprehensive Physiology. DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c150031.

Kahn L. S., & Halbreich, U. (1999). Menopause and psychopharmacology: signs, symptoms, and treatment. In Crosignani P. G., Kenemans, K., Wenger, N. K., & Jackson, A. S. (Eds), Women's health and menopause: risk reduction strategies — improved quality of health (pp. 131–136). Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Maille, A. & Schradin, C. (2017). Ecophysiology of cognition: How do environmentally induced changes in physiology affect cognitive performance? Biological Reviews, 92(2), 1101–1112.

Wen, K. X., Zaciragic, A., Kavousi, M., Ikram, M. A., & Franco, O. H. (2017). The role of estrogen on cognitive health in postmenopausal women. Maturitas, 100, 108.

Lecture Launcher 8.7: The Inner Workings of Working Memory Area 46 could be anywhere; a loading dock, part of a busy airport, or a sector of a computer chip manufacturing plant. But Area 46 of the frontal lobe refers to a specific location that’s revealed a specific function. Scientists are heralding Area 46 as the “scratch pad of the brain,” and it plays an important role in adult memory.

Most models of memory posit a “working memory” or holding area where information is stored before being consolidated (or lost). Two research teams used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to pinpoint where that activity takes place. Susan Courtney, working at the National Institutes of Mental Health, led a research project that had volunteers view a face on a computer monitor for 3 seconds. The participants kept the image in mind during an 8-second pause, and then saw another face on the screen. If the second face matched the first, the participants pressed a button. The fMRI scans taken during this task showed that areas in the back of the brain were active when the faces first appeared, whereas Area 46 of the frontal lobe became and stayed active during the pause. (The distinction wasn’t perfect; some rear areas were slightly active during the pause, and some frontal areas were active when the faces were shown.) In a second study, a research team led by Jonathan D. Cohen of Carnegie Mellon University and the University of Pittsburgh asked participants to recall increasingly long strings of consonants flashed on a screen. As the sequence of letters increased, activity in the frontal lobe increased. Like the other study, other areas of the brain were also active during these tasks.

Taken together, these results suggest that there is a coordinated effort in brain activity when working memory is activated. The frontal lobe “scratch pad” of Area 46 works in concert with other brain regions to process information and distribute it effectively. Further research, using millisecond-to-millisecond fMRI recording, may reveal with greater accuracy how different types of information get processed.

Bower, B. (1997, April 26). Where in the brain is working memory? Science News, 151, 258.

Boyd, R. S. (1997, November 30). Scientists find “scratch pad” where brain sorts memory. Austin American-Statesman, A22.

Green, S., Blackmon, K., Thesen, T., DuBois, J., Wang, X., Halgren, E., & Devinsky, O. (2017). Parieto-frontal gyrification and working memory in healthy adults. Brain Imaging and Behavior, 1-6. doi:10.1007/s11682-017-9696-9 Montojo, C. A., & Courtney, S. M. (2008). Differential neural activation for updating rule versus stimulus information in working memory. Neuron, 59, 173–182.

O'Reilly, R. C., Braver, T. S., & Cohen, J. D. (1999). A biologically-based neural network model of working memory. In P. Shah & A. Miyake (Eds.), Models of working memory. Cambridge University Press.

Peverill, M., McLaughlin, K. A., Finn, A. S., & Sheridan, M. A. (2016). Working memory filtering continues to develop into late adolescence. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 18, 78–88.

Walsh, M. K., Montojo, C. A., Sheu, Y.-S., Marchetti, S. A., Harrison, D. M., Newsome, S. D., Zhou, F., Shelton, A. L., & Courtney, S. M. (2011). Object working memory performance depends on microstructure of the frontal-occipital fasciculus. Brain Connectivity, 1, 317–329.

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Lecture Launcher 8.8: Mnemonics in Mind The text mentions the use of mnemonic strategies as memory aids, and provides some examples of how they can be useful in middle adulthood. Here is a collection of mnemonics, divided into naive strategies (i.e., those used regularly and easily by most people, without needing formal instruction) and technical mnemonics (i.e., those requiring some training).

Naive Mnemonics • • • • •

Rehearsal: Simple rote repetition Rhyme: Constructing a little ditty to keep track of information Chunking: Restructuring a list into meaningful units Images: Visualizing a cereal box full of money to remember “Bank and Groceries” First-letter mnemonics – Acronyms: Roy G. Biv for the visible spectrum; HOMES for the Great Lakes – Acrostics: Arithmetic: “A Real Idiot Thinks He Might Eat Turkey In Church”

Technical Mnemonics • • • • •

Method of Loci: A physical setting is first memorized, then filled in Peg-Word: Construct a rhyme, then “hang” the information on the rhyme’s peg Number-Letter: A translation scheme matching letters to numbers and vice versa Link: A visual image of each item is linked to the following one, forming a chain Story: Like the link system, but with stories using the to-be-remembered information

Lecture Launcher 8.9: Generativity Erik Erikson’s stage of middle adulthood, generativity versus stagnation, is somewhat confusing because the word “generativity” covers a broad area. For example, generativity can be broken down into specific areas, all of which contribute, according to Erikson, to a sense of “concern in establishing and guiding the next generation.”

The desire to help the next generation is an age-graded and normative demand, expected of people in their 40s and 50s by our society. There are four paths generally recognized to contribute to acts of generativity: biological generativity, such as giving birth; parental generativity, such as taking care of children; work generativity, such as teaching someone a new skill or mentoring a new employee; and cultural generativity, such as adding something to society in the form of volunteer work, cleaning up the environment, or conservation of culture.

Unfortunately, little empirical research has been conducted on the exact nature of generativity. Dan McAdams conceived of generativity in terms of seven interrelated features: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

A cultural demand with developmental expectations and societal opportunities An inner desire for symbolic immortality and a need to be needed A concern for the next generation A belief in the species A commitment to goals and decisions The action of creating, maintaining, and offering A narrative, the adult’s story about how they have been generative in their life

The Loyola Generativity Scale (LGS) is based on these features and was validated on a variety of adults. Some items from the scale include: • • •

“I try to pass along the knowledge I have gained through my experiences.”

“I think I will be remembered for a long time after I die.”

“People come to me for advice.”

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•

“If I were unable to have children of my own, I would like to adopt children.”

Respondents were also asked to describe five autobiographical incidents; for example, a recent peak experience, a low point, an experience of commitment, and so on. Eleven acts taken from these narratives correlated highly with the LGS. Some examples are: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Drew upon my past experiences to help a person adjust to a situation Taught somebody a skill Served as a role model for a young person Told somebody about my childhood Provided constructive criticism about somebody’s performance

Ask your students to volunteer acts of generativity they have performed and classify them as (a) biological generativity, (b) parental generativity, (c) work generativity, or (d) cultural generativity. Discuss with your students why they think Erikson thought generativity was such a major crisis to be resolved in middle adulthood.

Erikson, E. H. (1978). Adulthood. New York: W. W. Norton.

McAdams, D. P. & de St. Aubin, E. (1992). A theory of generativity and its assessment through self-report, behavioral acts, and narrative themes in autobiography. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62(6), 1003–1015.

Lecture Launcher 8.10: Is the Potential for Divorce Genetic?

Matt McGue and David Lykken noted that one of the strongest predictors of divorce is a family background that includes parental divorce. Although most researchers have attributed this effect to environmental factors such as social modeling, McGue and Lykken investigated potential genetic factors. Using subjects from the Minnesota Twin Registry, they obtained survey information on marital history from 722 same-sex monozygotic twins, 794 same-sex dizygotic twins, their parents, and their spouse’s parents. They reported that the concordance rate for divorce was significantly higher for monozygotic twins than for dizygotic twins. Based upon their results, they estimated that the predicted divorce rate for a hypothetical marriage between two monozygotic twins with divorced parents and a divorced co-twin would be 77.5 percent, whereas the predicted divorce rate for a marriage between two monozygotic twins with a background of no familial divorce would be 5.3 percent. The researchers concluded that their “data suggest that cultural factors influence the threshold for divorce while, within a given culture, variations in underlying aggregate risk are strongly influenced by genetic factors” (p.

372). They do, however, emphasize that genetic factors may be mediated by personality factors such as personal values and the individual's capacity for happiness.

Hatemi, P. K., McDermott, R., & Eaves, L. (2015). Genetic and environmental contributions to relationships and divorce attitudes.

Personality and Individual Differences, 72, 135–140.

Jerskey, B. A., et al. (2010). Marriage and divorce: A genetic perspective. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(5), 473–478.

McGue, M., & Lykken, D. T. (1992). Genetic influence on risk of divorce. Psychological Science, 3, 368–373.

Salvatore, J. E., Larsson Lönn, S., Sundquist, J., Sundquist, K., & Kendler, K. S. (2018). Genetics, the rearing environment, and the intergenerational transmission of divorce: A Swedish national adoption study. Psychological Science, 29(3), 370–378.

Lecture Launcher 8.11: Women and Work A few clicks on the keyboard can send you to a wealth of lecture material regarding women in the workforce.

The United States Department of Labor (DoL) maintains a “women’s bureau” specifically for reporting data and trends related to working women. The charts, tables, and averages are most informative. In most cases it’s possible to toggle between data tables and figures, so choose what’s best for your presentation.

For additional information, please explore: https://www.dol.gov https://www.bls.gov and search for the many and varied graphs, tables, figures, and other resources you’d like to share with your students

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Lecture Launcher 8.12: Stress Due to Work Overload...and Underload Tales of burnout due to unrealistic and unrelenting work expectations abound. Many times those are foisted upon an employee by a supervisor, but often burnout occurs because the work itself is taxing, demanding, and soul-sucking. Share these stories of overload and underload with your students, and discuss how each leads to feelings of burnout, dissatisfaction, and job fatigue.

A Case of Job Overload Stan was a counselor in a community mental health center in the Midwest for three years. When he started working there, he was a 23-year-old who described himself as an “eager, open-minded, caring person.” He chose this job in order to serve others who were unable to make it on their own without a little help from a friendly therapist. At first, the job was challenging and rewarding. Stan was intervening in crisis situations to give advice, guidance, and emotional support to many clients in distress. There were rape victims, abused spouses, suicidal callers, depressed elderly people, alienated youth, and a host of others who just could not cope any longer with life’s demands.

But the initial glow of his job dimmed as the clients began to overwhelm Stan with their seemingly endless complaints, hurts, and fears. They were getting to him. He was too personally involved, unable to detach his emotional concern from his professional obligation.

He began drinking heavily after work and taking tranquilizers to relax enough to go to sleep each night.

Headaches became frequent, his blood pressure shot up, and his sick-leave time was used to its limit. Stan developed an ulcer that required medication and a change in diet. His formerly outgoing personality became marked by its somber, cynical, and easily irritated nature. He was no longer any fun for his family or friends to be with, so they avoided him.

Stan had underestimated the emotional strain of caring for others day in and day out. His case load was more than he could handle adequately. The paperwork, red tape, and lack of support from the staff added frustration to his escalating emotional overload. When he was successful, the clients never returned to say “thanks”; other problematic persons just filled their vacant folders.

Stan reacted to this stressful situation at many levels. His body rebelled with assorted symptoms of distress, including headaches, high blood pressure, and ulcers. He tried to suppress his agitation, anxiety, and anger by abusing drugs and alcohol. His outlook on life and his self-esteem spiraled downward. He gave too much at the office and so had little left to share with loved ones at home. In turn, they withdrew some of the social support Stan needed. He did not have enough energy and resources to try to change the structure of the job, so he went back to school, completed his MA, and now is happily working as a consultant on problems of job stress and constructive ways of overcoming it.

Job Underload and Stress If overload does not get you, underload might. People are not ever bored to death by their jobs, but there is good evidence that they can be “bored to sickness.” Researchers at the Institute for Social Research of the University of Michigan found that boring jobs are hardest on health.

In a study of over 2,000 men in 23 different occupations, the researchers found that general working conditions (hours worked, quantitative workload) had less effect on job dissatisfaction than personal factors such as opportunities to use one’s skills and to participate in decision-making. As job dissatisfaction increases, so do anxiety, depression, irritation, and psychosomatic illnesses. Assembly-line workers have boring jobs, but ones that do not involve long hours, unwanted overtime, much concentration, or responsibility. They report the most dissatisfaction with their job and show the greatest stress-related disorders. By contrast, family physicians who 13 .

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work the most hours per week (an average of 55), with much demand for their free time, mental concentration, and personal responsibility are most satisfied with their jobs. They also have the fewest somatic complaints or other stress effects of any occupation studied. The ratings of the boredom levels of 15 of these occupations are given in the table below, with a rating of 100 indicating “average boredom.”

Boredom Ratings Assembler (work paced by machine) Forklift truck driver Assembler (working at own pace) Monitor of continuous flow goods Accountant Engineer Computer programmer Electronic technician White-collar supervisor Scientist Administrator Police officer Air-traffic controller (large airport) Professor Physician

207 170 160 122 107 100 96 87 72 66 66 63 59 49 48

But perhaps not having a job when you want one is worse than having a stress-producing one. When health statistics are related to economic cycles over a 127-year period in the United States, it can be shown that increased deaths follow periods of economic depression two to four years later. This research points to the importance of the political, economic, and social context of behavior.

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STUDENT ACTIVITIES Student Activity 8.1: In My Time of Dying It’s a good idea to begin this group project early to give your students time to read and put together their presentations, which can be scheduled when you begin the last chapter, “Death and Dying.” This project is based on Sherwin Nuland’s bestselling and award-winning book How We Die. Nuland proposes six categories into which all deaths in middle and late adulthood can be classified: cardiovascular disease, diseases of old age, Alzheimer’s disease, accidents and suicide, AIDS, and cancer.

Divide your class into groups. Assign each group a type of death. They should read the chapter (some involve two chapters) on their topic and other information they can compile. Schedule their presentations for the end of the semester when you will be teaching about death and dying.

Doka, K. J. (2014). Living with grief: After sudden loss suicide, homicide, accident, heart attack, stroke. New York: Taylor & Francis.

Neuberger, R. J. (2016). Dying well: a guide to enabling a good death. CRC Press.

Nuland, S. B. (1993). How we die. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

Student Activity 8.2: Culture and Health Culture plays an important role in health behavior. Differences in life expectancy, which can range from 40 to 50 years in underdeveloped or poor countries to 70 to 80 years in developed or wealthy countries, can be traced to cultural differences in diet, levels of stress, access to health care, and relationships with others. Interestingly, not all health outcomes favor prosperous or industrialized countries. Many poorer countries have better diets (and lower rates of heart disease) than wealthier countries, because affluence is related to the consumption of meat and other fatty foods. Even among industrialized countries there are important differences. For example, life expectancy is higher in Scandinavian countries than in the United States (because of greater access to health care), and rates of alcoholism and stress are both lower in collectivist countries (e.g., Japan), in which people depend on others and have a large family support network, than they are in individualistic countries (e.g., the United States), which emphasize individualism and self-reliance over dependence on others.

Ask your students to share their experiences as travelers or as members of another culture regarding the diversity of health attitudes and health practices. Use examples of smoking, alcohol, regular exercise, consumption of high cholesterol or fatty foods, preventive health care, attitudes toward leisure time and vacation, and relationships with others. What types of cultural norms might be driving these various practices?

What role does the media play in shaping general health attitudes?

Student Activity 8.3: Politics of the World Health Organization Ask students to visit the webpage for the World Health Organization. On the homepage, refer students to the section entitled Regions. Assign small groups of students to one of the six regions: Africa, Americas, South-East Asia, Europe, Eastern Mediterranean, and Western Pacific. Ask students to explore their global region and during a later class meeting, report to their classmates what the major health concerns are for their area of the world. You should tell students that each group should role-play as a formal delegation from that global region, and their goals are to report their current situation and to provide ideas for meeting the health concerns of the region.

Use this exercise as an opportunity to point out health disparities across regions. For example, heart disease (a major concern in the United States) is probably less of a health scare in a region where civil unrest and infant mortality claim lives. Cancer, exacerbated by a diet high in fatty fried foods and syrupy sweet sodas, probably has little impact on people routinely exposed to famine. And the hostility that results from sitting in traffic, not meeting deadlines, and having an obnoxious boss likely means little to a goatherd simply trying to make it to tomorrow.

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Student Activity 8.4: Just My Type You can assign these questions to different groups of students.

1. Would you classify yourself as having a “Type A” personality? In which ways do you match the pattern and in which ways do you not? How easy do you think it would be to modify your behavior to be less Type A? What obstacles are there to such a change?

2. How about “Type H?” “Type B?” 3. Students can interview three women who have gone through menopause and describe these women’s experiences. What do their findings say about the assumption that menopause is connected with many uncomfortable symptoms and is psychologically distressing?

Student Activity 8.5: Going with the Flow Students can design a test to measure fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence and give it to a sample of young adults, middle-aged adults, and elderly adults. Have them compare what they find to the established results in the literature.

Student Activity 8.6: Schemas and Memory Schemas (i.e., organized mental frameworks that we rely on to interpret and filter incoming information) greatly influence the retrieval of information stored in long-term memory. To demonstrate this effect in your classroom, replicate an exercise suggested by Drew Appleby. Tell students that you are going to show them a list of 12 words and that they should try to remember them. Then, slowly display the following words one at a time as you read them aloud: REST, TIRED, AWAKE, DREAM, SNORE, BED, EAT, SLUMBER, SOUND, COMFORT, WAKE, NIGHT After you've completed the list, distract your class for 30 seconds or so (to ensure that the words are no longer held in short-term memory) and then give them 2 minutes to write down as many words as they can recall. Ask for a show of hands from all those who recalled the word AARDVARK. Your students, none of whom will have mistakenly recalled AARDVARK, will look at you as if you're crazy. Then ask for a show of hands for those who remembered SLEEP. Drew Appleby reports that 80 to 95 percent of the students typically recall the word SLEEP, and are astonished to discover that SLEEP was not on the list (prove it to them). Asked to explain the effect, most students will intuitively understand that schemas influenced their recall. That is, because all of the words were associated with each other and related to the topic of sleep, their schema for “sleep” was invoked and it seemed only natural that it would be on the list. Thus, this demonstration suggests that schemas can cause us to fabricate false memories that happen to be consistent with our schemas. You might also want to discuss with students the following interesting implication: If people sometimes mistakenly remember information because it is consistent with their schemas, is it possible that they can mistakenly forget information that is inconsistent with their schemas? Ask students to provide examples from their own lives or from cases they’ve heard about in the media.

Appleby, D. (1987). Producing a deja vu experience. In V. P. Makosky, L. G. Whittemore, & A. M. Rogers (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology: Vol. 2 (pp. 78–79). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Student Activity 8.7: The Right Time?

Using Handout 8-2, survey your students about the “right time” to pursue various activities, such as leaving home, getting married, having children, and so on.

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Student Activity 8.8: Reeling In the Years If you asked many middle-aged adults whether they would like to be 20 again, the great majority would reply with a resounding “NO!” In light of what they now know about the different periods of adult life, do your students think many people would respond this way? Engage the class in a discussion of the pros and cons of this “time travel” back to an earlier stage of development.

Student Activity 8.9: The Times, They Are A-Changing Ask your students to find one person who has experienced one or more of the following: • • • • • • •

early retirement (40s to 50s) job burnout empty nest syndrome boomerang children being a member of the “sandwich generation” being a grandparent for the first time at age 40 to 50 starting a new career in middle age

Your students should find out what the experience is like, whether there are more pros than cons, if the experience is similar or different than the person anticipated, and how it has changed the person’s life.

Student Activity 8.10: Reflective Journal Use Handout 8-3 to help students reflect on their personality as they enter adulthood.

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SUPPLEMENTAL READING Aljied, R., Aubin, M. J., Buhrmann, R., Sabeti, S., & Freeman, E. E. (2018). Prevalence and determinants of visual impairment in Canada: Cross-sectional data from the Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging. Canadian Journal of Ophthalmology, 53(3), 291–297.

Bleidorn, W., Hopwood, C. J., & Lucas, R. E. (2018). Life events and personality trait change. Journal of Personality, 86(1), 83–96.

Böger, A. & Huxhold, O. (2018). Do the antecedents and consequences of loneliness change from middle adulthood into old age? Developmental Psychology, 54(1), 181.

Estill, A., Mock, S. E., Schryer, E., & Eibach, R. P. (2018). The effects of subjective age and aging attitudes on mid- to late-life sexuality. The Journal of Sex Research, 55(2), 146–151.

Evans, K. L., Millsteed, J., Richmond, J. E., Falkmer, M., Falkmer, T., & Girdler, S. J. (2018). The impact of within and between role experiences on role balance outcomes for working Sandwich Generation women. Scandinavian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 1–10.

Gewirtz-Meydan, A., Hafford-Letchfield, T., Ayalon, L., Benyamini, Y., Biermann, V., Coffey, A. ... & Zeman, Z. (2018). How do older people discuss their own sexuality? A systematic review of qualitative research studies. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 1–16.

Hoff, K. A., Briley, D. A., Wee, C. J., & Rounds, J. (2018). Normative changes in interests from adolescence to adulthood: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin, 144(4), 426.

Howden, E. J., Sarma, S., Lawley, J. S., Opondo, M., Cornwell, W., Stoller, D., ... & Levine, B. D. (2018).

Reversing the cardiac effects of sedentary aging in middle age—a randomized controlled trial: Implications for heart failure prevention. Circulation, 137(15), 1549–1560.

Hwang, J., Kim, K., Brothers, R. M., Castelli, D. M., & Gonzalez-Lima, F. (2018). Association between aerobic fitness and cerebrovascular function with neurocognitive functions in healthy, young adults. Experimental Brain Research, 236(5), 1421–1430.

Kshithi, K., Shenoy, S. V., Kamath, M. P., Sreedharan, S., Manisha, N., Khadilkar, M. N., ... & Bhat, J. S. (2018). Audiological profiling in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. American Journal of Otolaryngology, 39(3), 271–276.

Lachman, M. E., Lipsitz, L., Lubben, J., Castaneda-Sceppa, C., & Jette, A. M. (2018). When adults don’t exercise: Behavioral strategies to increase physical activity in sedentary middle-aged and older adults. Innovation in Aging, 2(1), igy007.

Levin, V. A., Jiang, X., & Kagan, R. (2018). Estrogen therapy for osteoporosis in the modern era. Osteoporosis International, 29(5), 1049–1055.

Montemurro, B. & Chewning, L. V. (2018). Aging “hot:” Images and narratives of sexual desirability on television. Sexuality & Culture, 22(2), 462–478.

Saint-Maurice, P. F., Coughlan, D., Keadle, S. K., Troiano, R. P., & Matthews, C. E. (2018). Leisure-time physical activity throughout adulthood: Implications for all-cause, and cause-specific mortality. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 50(5S), 76.

Serrat, R., Villar, F., Pratt, M. W., & Stukas, A. A. (2018). On the quality of adjustment to retirement: The longitudinal role of personality traits and generativity. Journal of Personality, 86(3), 435–449.

Smith, R. A., Andrews, K. S., Brooks, D., Fedewa, S. A., Manassaram‐Baptiste, D., Saslow, D., ... & Wender, R. C. (2018). Cancer screening in the United States, 2018: A review of current American Cancer Society guidelines and current issues in cancer screening. CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians, 68(4), 297–316.

Yuan, P., Voelkle, M. C., & Raz, N. (2018). Fluid intelligence and gross structural properties of the cerebral cortex in middle-aged and older adults: A multi-occasion longitudinal study. NeuroImage, 172, 21–30.

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REVEL MULTIMEDIA How Your Memory Can Be Tricked

The foibles of memory are explored

1. For many people, the passing years bring with them greater memory disruptions. For example, it’s difficult to remember one’s childhood experiences the further away those experiences become; an adolescent remembering childhood probably has a better shot at it than a senior citizen doing so. Knowing that, how do the memory disruptions highlighted in the video interact with typical memory decrements experienced over the course of aging?

2. “Tricked” doesn’t seem like quite the right word for the phenomena discussed in this video. To trick something implies that it works correctly and flawlessly, but that somehow that accurate system can be duped. Is memory accurate, correct, and flawless to begin with? Assuming that it’s not, could you propose a better title for this presentation, something along the lines of “Memory is Kind of Sloppy to Begin With, and Here Are Some Reasons Why?”

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Handout 8-1 Can Osteoporosis Happen To You? Answer the following questions to estimate if you are at risk for developing osteoporosis. The more times you answer “YES,” the greater your risk.

YES 1. Do you have a small, thin frame?

2. Are you Caucasian or Asian?

3. Are you a postmenopausal woman?

4. Do you have a family history of osteoporosis?

5. Have you had an early or surgically induced menopause?

6. Have you been taking excessive thyroid medication?

7. Have you been taking high doses of cortisone-like drugs for asthma, arthritis, or cancer?

8. Is your diet low in dairy products and other sources of calcium?

9. Are you physically inactive?

10. Do you smoke cigarettes?

11. Do you drink alcohol in excess?

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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NO

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Handout 8-2 When Is the Right Time?

What is your sex?

_____________

What is your age?

_____________

Write down the age range (e.g., 20–25, 30–50, 60–80, etc.) you think is appropriate for most people to engage in the following activities: 1. What is the best age for a man to marry?

2. What is the best age for a woman to marry?

3. What is the best age to have children?

4. When should most people become grandparents?

5. What is the best age for most people to finish school and go to work?

6. When should most men be settled on a career?

7. When should most men hold their top jobs?

8. When should most people be ready to retire?

9. When does a man have the most responsibilities?

10. When does a man accomplish the most?

11. When is the prime of life for a man?

12. When should a woman be settled on a career?

13. When is the prime of life for a woman?

14. When does a woman have the most responsibilities?

15. When does a woman accomplish the most?

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 8-3 Reflective Journal Exercise 8 The Big Five personality dimensions do not change much over the life span: FACTOR Neuroticism

LOW SCORE calm, relaxed, satisfied with self, clear-cut personality, prides self on objectivity

HIGH SCORE thin-skinned, basically anxious, irritable, guilt-prone

Extraversion

emotionally bland, avoids close relationships, overcontrol of impulses, submissive favors conservative values, judges in conventional terms, uncomfortable with complexities, moralistic critical, skeptical, shows condescending behavior, tries to push limits, expresses hostility directly eroticizes situations, unable to delay gratification, self-indulgent, engages in fantasy, daydreams

talkative, gregarious, socially poised, behaves assertively

Openness

Agreeableness

Conscientiousness

values intellectual matters, rebellious, nonconforming, unusual thought processes, introspective sympathetic, considerate, warm, compassionate, arouses liking, behaves in a giving way behaves ethically, dependable, responsible, productive, has high aspiration levels

Describe your personality. Do you think it has been this way since you were young?

Do you believe you will stay this way the rest of your life? Explain why you agree or disagree.

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Chapter 9 LATE ADULTHOOD CONTENTS Chapter-at-a-Glance

2

Learning Objectives

3

Chapter Outline

4

Lecture Launchers

7

Student Activities

14

Supplemental Reading

18

Revel Multimedia

19

Handouts

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CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE Chapter Outline Physical Development in Late Adulthood Aging Physical Transitions in Older People The Senses

Instructor’s Resources

Revel Resources

Learning Objectives 9.1, 9.2, 9.3 Lecture Launcher 9.1 Student Activities 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5

The Impact of Aging on Health Health Problems and Wellness in Older People Approaches to Aging

Learning Objectives 9.4, 9.5 Lecture Launchers 9.2, 9.3, 9.4

Intelligence Cognitive Functioning in Older People Recent Conclusions About the Nature of Intelligence in Late Adulthood

Learning Objectives 9.6, 9.7

Memory and Learning Memory Never Too Late to Learn

Learning Objectives 9.8, 9.9

Personality Development and Successful Aging Continuity and Change in Personality During Late Adulthood Age Stratification Approaches to Late Adulthood Does Age Bring Wisdom?

Successful Aging

Learning Objectives 9.10, 9.11, 9.12, 9.13

The Daily Life of Late Adulthood Living Arrangements Finances, Work, and Retirement

Learning Objectives 9.14, 9.15

Student Activities 9.6, 9.7

Lecture Launchers 9.5, 9.6 Relationships: Old and New Marriage in the Later Years Friends and Family in Late Adulthood Elder Abuse

Learning Objectives 9.16, 9.17, 9.18 Lecture Launcher 9.7 Student Activities 9.8, 9.9, 9.10

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Late Adulthood: Sandra Late Adulthood: Health, Chris

Successful Aging, Independent Lifestyle, Thelma, 81 Years Old

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES LO 9.1

Describe the myths and realities of aging.

LO 9.2

Summarize the physical changes that occur in old age.

LO 9.3

Explain how aging affects the senses.

LO 9.4

Summarize the health problems elderly people experience, and list the factors that influence the state of a person’s health.

LO 9.5

Discuss the different theories of aging, and summarize the research to increase life expectancy.

LO 9.6

Describe the challenges of determining the cause of age changes in intelligence.

LO 9.7

Summarize the effects of aging on cognitive functioning, and identify the factors that may affect it.

LO 9.8

Explain how memory capability changes in late adulthood.

LO 9.9

Identify the learning opportunities available to older adults, and describe their value to cognitive functioning.

LO 9.10 Identify and describe the various theories of personality development in late adulthood.

LO 9.11 Explain how age relates to the distribution of resources, power, and privilege.

LO 9.12 Define wisdom, and describe how it is associated with age.

LO 9.13 Differentiate the theories of aging, and explain how culture shapes the way older people are treated.

LO 9.14 Describe the living arrangements available to older adults, and explain how each affects the quality of their lives.

LO 9.15 Discuss the financial security of older people and the social and economic ramifications of work and retirement in later adulthood.

LO 9.16 Identify the issues couples face in late adulthood, and describe the challenges presented by the death of a spouse or partner.

LO 9.17 Identify the relationships that are important to older adults, and explain why they matter.

LO 9.18 Discuss what causes elder abuse and how it can be prevented.

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CHAPTER OUTLINE MODULE 9.1 – PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN LATE ADULTHOOD I.

Physical Development in Late Adulthood A. Aging: Myth and Reality 1. The demographics of late adulthood a. Distinctions between young old, old old, and oldest old b. The U.S. and worldwide populations are aging 2. Ageism: Confronting the stereotypes of late adulthood a. There is little truth to the stereotypes people hold about older individuals B. Physical Transitions in Older People 1. Outward signs of aging a. Primary aging involves universal and irreversible changes b. Secondary aging result from illness, health habits, and individual differences c. A double standard exists for perceptions of aging in women and in men 2. Internal aging a. Many bodily systems work at lower capacity 3. Slowing reaction time a. Peripheral slowing: Overall processing speed declines in the peripheral nervous system b. Generalized slowing: Processing in all parts of the nervous system becomes less efficient C. The Senses: Sight, Sound, Taste, and Smell 1. Vision a. Cataracts, glaucoma, and age-related macular degeneration are potential risks 2. Hearing a. Hearing loss can increase with age, and can affect social interaction and cognitive functioning 3. Taste and smell a. Loss of taste and smell sensitivity may contribute to malnutrition or hypertension II. The Impact of Aging on Health A. Health Problems and Wellness in Older People 1. Common physical disorders a. Arthritis and hypertension are common among older people 2. Psychological and mental disorders a. Major neurocognitive disorder can be seen to varying degrees in older people 3. Alzheimer’s disease a. Progressive brain disorder with complex etiology and no present cure 4. Wellness in late adulthood: The relationship between aging and illness a. Illness in older adulthood is not inevitable, and can be lessened by a variety of factors 5. Sexuality in old age: Use it or lose it a. “Use it” seems to be the common refrain B. Approaches to Aging: Why Is Death Inevitable?

1. Reconciling the theories of aging a. Genetic programming and wear-and-tear theories make different predictions about longevity b. Addressing different levels of analysis and different strategies for slowing aging seems prudent 2. Life expectancy: How long have I got? a. Life expectancy is on the rise, but don’t plan at 121st birthday party just yet 3. Postponing aging: Can scientists find the fountain of youth? a. No b. But they can investigate telomere therapy, drug therapy, longevity genes, the reduction of free radicals, the benefits of caloric restriction, and bionic replacement of organs MODULE 9.2 – COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN LATE ADULTHOOD 4 .

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I.

Intelligence A. Cognitive Functioning in Older People 1. Longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches are both warranted B. Recent Conclusions About the Nature of Intelligence in Late Adulthood 1. Schaie’s sequential design reveals numerous patterns about what changes and what doesn’t II. Memory and Learning A. Memory 1. Episodic memory can decline, semantic and implicit memory not so much a. Short-term memory slips gradually over time 2. Autobiographical memory: Recalling the days of our lives a. Here’s to the good times! Pollyanna inspires what we tend to remember 3. Explaining memory changes in old age a. Environmental factors, biological factors, and information processing deficits all contribute to memory changes in old age B. Never Too Late to Learn 1. The Road Scholar program demonstrates the benefits of lifelong learning MODULE 9.3 – SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN LATE ADULTHOOD I.

Personality Development and Successful Aging A. Continuity and Change in Personality During Late Adulthood 1. Ego integrity versus despair: Erikson’s final stage a. Will a sense of fulfillment or regret characterize the long look backward?

2. Peck’s developmental tasks a. Redefinition of self, body transcendence, and ego transcendence seem like worthwhile goals 3. Levinson’s final season: The winter of life a. Winter is coming for us all; bring a warm jacket 4. Coping with aging: Neugarten’s study a. Four personality types related to reactions to growing older 5. Life review and reminiscence: The common theme of personality development a. Looking to the past with an evaluative eye is a common and instructive occurrence B. Age Stratification Approaches to Late Adulthood 1. There is an unequal distribution of resources, power, and privilege over the lifespan C. Does Age Bring Wisdom?

1. Maybe; it depends what one means by “wisdom” D. Successful Aging: What Is the Secret?

1. Disengagement theory: Gradual retreat 2. Activity theory: Continued involvement 3. Continuity theory: A compromise position 4. Selective optimization with compensation: A general model of successful aging II. The Daily Life of Late Adulthood A. Living Arrangements: The Places and Spaces of Their Lives 1. Living at home a. Many older people live alone in their homes 2. Specialized living environments a. Continuing care communities are designed for people of retirement age and older b. Assisted living arrangements provide help with independent living c. Adult day-care facilities can offer assistance during the day, with people returning home at night d. Skilled nursing facilities provide full-time nursing care 3. Institutionalism and learned helplessness a. Apathy, indifference, and resignation can be a deadly combination 5 .

Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e

B. Finances, Work, and Retirement 1. The economics of late adulthood a. The specter of poverty looms large for a significant percentage of older adults i. Racial and ethnic differences can compound this 2. Work and retirement in late adulthood a. Older workers: Combating age discrimination i. Despite the illegality of age discrimination older workers may be forced from a job b. Retirement: Filling a life of leisure i. Retirement tends to be what one makes of it, even progressing through various stages III. Relationships: Old and New A. Marriage in the Later Years: Together, Then Alone 1. The marriage gradient, and death, tend to influence the togetherness of women and men 2. Divorce a. Divorce late in life is especially difficult for women 3. Dealing with retirement: Too much togetherness? a. Roles, duties, and expectations often need renegotiation when a spouse retires 4. Caring for an aging spouse or partner a. Illness is taxing for both the patient and the caregiver 5. The death of a spouse or partner a. Widowhood brings changes in social, economic, and emotional life b. Three stages of adjustment tend to characterize the process of widowhood B. Friends and Family in Late Adulthood 1. Friendship: Why friends matter in late adulthood a. Friendships can be more flexible than family relationships, often with less emotional baggage 2. Family relationships: The ties that bind a. Children i. Geographic and psychological closeness between adult children and parents is valued b. Grandchildren and great-grandchildren i. Different levels of investment and involvement, often related to racial or ethnic differences ii. Sometimes it’s difficult to keep track of who is who C. Elder Abuse: Relationships Gone Wrong 1. The frailties and frustrations of old age may predict, but do not excuse, elder abuse

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LECTURE LAUNCHERS Lecture Launcher 9.1: Why We Age Growing old, it’s been said, sure beats the alternative. The process of aging may be inevitable, but at least the mechanisms of aging can be understood with some degree of certainty.

Wear and Tear Theories This general class of theories proposes that the human body is analogous to a machine in that our parts begin to wear down and malfunction as they age. Although this seems to make sense and may apply to some body systems (e.g., elbow or knee problems experienced by athletes), it fails to account for the fact that the body’s systems are continuously engaged in repairing and replacing damaged tissue. In addition, it does not explain why continued use or exertion of body systems, such as that associated with routine exercise, actually improves functioning.

Accumulation Theories This group of theories focuses on explanations of aging that are the result of problems at the cellular level. One theory attributes aging to an accumulation of cellular reproduction errors. For example, the aging of the skin may be the result of increasing errors in cellular reproduction due to damage in cellular DNA from exposure to the sun and other toxic substances. Another accumulation theory is the metabolic waste theory. This theory suggests that aging results from the accumulation of undisposed waste products in the cells. Waste accumulation, however, seems to result from changes in the body’s ability to remove waste, and thus may be more of a symptom of aging than a cause. A third accumulation theory attributes aging to the buildup of fibrous proteins (collagen and elastin) in the body. The buildup of these proteins is associated with external aspects of aging such as wrinkles and sagging skin.

Immune System Malfunction Another theory focuses on the potential contribution of declines in immune system functioning with age. For example, research has demonstrated that the ability of the immune system to produce antibodies begins to decline after adolescence. Some studies also have suggested that the immune system may lose its ability to detect and destroy slightly mutated cells, allowing them to reproduce and accumulate in the body. The autoimmune theory of aging, however, suggests that the immune system loses its ability to differentiate between normal and abnormal cells, resulting in the destruction of healthy cells.

Genetic Clock This approach suggests that cells are preprogrammed to survive and reproduce for a specific period, after which they begin to degenerate and die. Based upon studies of human cell regeneration limits, researchers estimate that the maximum human life span would be between 110 and 120 years.

Golubev, A., Hanson, A. D., & Gladyshev, V. N. (2018). A tale of two concepts: Harmonizing the free radical and antagonistic pleiotropy theories of aging. Antioxidants & Redox Signaling, 29(10), 1003–1017.

Reiter, R., Tan, D., Rosales-Corral, S., Galano, A., Zhou, X., & Xu, B. (2018). Mitochondria: Central organelles for melatonin′s antioxidant and anti-aging actions. Molecules, 23(2), 509.

Van Raamsdonk, J. M. (2018). Mechanisms underlying longevity: A genetic switch model of aging. Experimental Gerontology, 107, 136–139.

Lecture Launcher 9.2: Predicting Alzheimer’s Disease Alzheimer’s disease tragically afflicts many elderly people each year, resulting in a gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning ability, and personality. Even more disturbing is that the diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease can only be made conclusively upon autopsy, when the plaques and tangles in the brain, characteristic of the disorder, can be confirmed. Recently, however, the results of an archival study have suggested that linguistic markers may predict Alzheimer’s disease with some degree of accuracy.

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David Snowdon, an epidemiologist at the University of Kentucky, led a research team that examined the writings of 93 nuns. In the 1930s, when these women entered a Milwaukee convent, they composed brief autobiographical essays, which subsequently were scored by Snowdon’s team for linguistic markers such as the density of ideas or grammatical complexity. For example, a nun who might have written “I plan to give my all to God” probably would score low on such measures, whereas a nun who composed the beatitude “I long to linger in the sweet garden of Christ, rejoicing in the splendor that He is and thanking Him daily for His abundances” might not win a literature contest, but certainly shows a greater degree of complexity in her writing. All of the nuns lived under highly similar conditions. Sixty years later, however, those nuns who scored low on the psycholinguistic markers were more prone to develop Alzheimer’s disease. Of the 14 nuns who had died, in fact, five had low idea density scores, and all five had Alzheimer’s disease.

What this reveals about the course of Alzheimer’s is still something of a mystery. It may be, for example, that as young women these nuns were already showing signs of the disorder, suggesting that Alzheimer’s disease develops slowly and insidiously over a prolonged period of time. Studies showing that some forms of Alzheimer’s disease can afflict people in their 20s complement this idea. An alternative, however, is that linguistic skills may offer some “immunity” to the development of Alzheimer’s disease, much as the adage “use it or lose it” suggests. Perhaps those nuns with more highly developed linguistic ability were better able to stave off the effects of this disorder. As with most studies of this nature, the causality of events remains murky. Other archival data, or other markers of ability (such as mathematics scores, or measures of reasoning or memory), may shed more light on this encouraging line of research.

Indeed, Snowdon and his associates have imposed on the generous nuns of the School Sisters of Notre Dame one more time. The research team discovered an important link between strokes and declines in mental abilities seen in Alzheimer’s disease patients. Among 61 deceased nuns whose brains all clearly showed signs of Alzheimer’s disease, 19 seemed to have escaped the confusion, major neurocognitive disorder, and mental deterioration so characteristic of the disease. In one case, a 101-year-old nun remained, by all accounts, as sharp as a tack, even though her brain was a battlefield of plagues, tangles, and gaping holes. The key was that she, like 18 of the others, had not suffered from strokes during old age. In fact, only 57 percent of stroke-free nuns developed Alzheimer’s disease, compared to 93 percent of nuns who had a history of ministrokes. In an additional comparison, Snowdon looked at the brains of 41 nuns who did not have Alzheimer’s-like brains but who had suffered strokes; these women had no significant decrease in their overall mental competence.

An avenue for treatment suggests itself. By preventing strokes, it may be possible to delay the onset of symptoms in Alzheimer’s disease patients. The “double-whammy” of dealing with two brain diseases in a single individual may be halved, providing substantial comfort to those dealing with Alzheimer’s disease.

Danner, D. D., Snowdon, D. A., & Friesen, W. V. (2001). Positive emotions in early life and longevity: Findings from the nun study.

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(5), 804–83.

Nash, J. M. (March 24, 1997). Medicine. Time, 80–82.

Mortimer, J. A. (2012). The Nun Study: Risk factors for pathology and clinical-pathologic correlations. Current Alzheimer Research, 9(6), 621–627.

Mortimer, J. A., Snowdon, D. A., & Markesbery, W. R. (2007). Brain reserve and risk of dementia: Findings from the nun study. In Stern, Y. (Ed.), Cognitive reserve: Theory and applications (pp. 237-249). Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.: Taylor & Francis.

Mortimer, J. A., Snowdon, D. A., & Markesbery, W. R. (2009). The effect of APOE-ε4 on dementia is mediated by Alzheimer neuropathology. Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders, 23(2), 152–157.

Rönnemaa, E., Zethelius, B., Lannfelt, L., & Kilander, L. (2011). Vascular risk factors and dementia: 40-year follow-up of a populationbased cohort. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 31(6), 460–466.

Wang, H. X., Gustafson, D. R., Kivipelto, M., Pedersen, N. L., Skoog, I., Windblad, B., & Fratiglioni, L. (2012). Education halves the risk of dementia due to apolipoprotein ε4 allele: a collaborative study from the Swedish Brain Power initiative. Neurobiology of Aging, 33(5), 1007-e1.

Weinstein, N., Legate, N., Ryan, W. S., & Hemmy, L. (2018). Autonomous orientation predicts longevity: New findings from the Nun Study. Journal of Personality, 86(6), 1–13.

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Lecture Launcher 9.3: A Unique Sexual History Wardell Pomeroy was an associate of Alfred Kinsey, and along with Clyde Martin they published Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, a landmark study of human sexuality. Kinsey of course went on to publish other collections of his research on sexuality, but Pomeroy relates one episode that stands out from the rest of the research. In his book Dr. Kinsey and the Institute for Sex Research, Pomeroy relates a tale of the longest interview they ever conducted. Given that the text advocates a “use it or lose it” philosophy for sexuality in later adulthood, this tale certainly falls under the “used it…a lot!” category.

When we got the record after a long drive to take his history, it astounded even us, who had heard everything. This man had had homosexual relations with 600 preadolescent males, heterosexual relations with 200 preadolescent females, intercourse with countless adults of both sexes, with animals of many species, and besides had employed elaborate techniques of masturbation. He had set down a family tree going back to his grandparents, and of thirty-three family members he had sexual contacts with seventeen. His grandmother introduced him to sexual intercourse, and his first homosexual experience was with his father. If this sounds like Tobacco Road or God’s Little Acre, I will add that he was a college graduate who held a responsible government job. ...

At the time we saw him, this man was sixty-three years old, quiet, soft-spoken, self-effacing—a rather unobtrusive fellow. It took us seventeen hours to get his history. ...

At one point in his history taking he said he was able to masturbate to ejaculation in ten seconds from a flaccid start. Kinsey and I, knowing how long it took everyone else, expressed our disbelief, whereupon our subject calmly demonstrated it to us. ... It was the only sexual demonstration among the 18,000 subjects who gave their histories (pp. 122-123).

Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B., & Martin, C. E. (1948). Sexual behavior in the human male. Philadelphia: Saunders.

Pomeroy, W. B. (1972). Dr. Kinsey and the Institute for Sex Research. London: Thomas Nelson and Sons.

Lecture Launcher 9.4: Good Carbs, Bad Carbs, You Know I’ve Had My Share Unless they’ve been living in a cave somewhere, chances are good that most of your students have heard about diet plans based on eating far less of the type of food the body uses for fuel—carbohydrates. Although humans ate carbohydrates (in the form of roots, fruits, vegetables, and nuts, as well as proteins such as meat and fish) across their evolutionary history, it is relatively recently that people started highly processing a lot of those carbohydrate foods. Rice was stripped of its husk and bran, as was wheat and other grains, leaving them tasty but of far less nutritive value. As people began to eat more and more of these highly processed starches, the fat started to pile on. As the years start to pile on in older adulthood, fat + age = problems.

In the 1960s, Dr. Robert Atkins first proposed what was then a revolutionary idea: instead of eating the low-fat American Heart Association-approved diet that emphasized eating more foods from the carbohydrate family of breads, grains, and other starches, he recommended that people wishing to lose weight should eat a diet high in protein and fat, and low in carbohydrates. Several decades later, the Atkins diet has become so popular that major chain restaurants now offer special “Atkins Approved” sections on their menus.

Researchers have found that the Atkins diet does work, at least in the short run. People lose weight rapidly at first for two reasons. First, a lot of water weight is lost in the first few weeks of any diet, as well as some muscle mass when carbohydrates are severely restricted. Second, this diet theoretically causes the body, deprived of its normal carbohydrate fuel, to turn to burning fat as fuel. This is actually a condition called ketosis, and is something that can happen in diabetes, a condition in which the pancreas does not produce enough insulin to 9 .

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counteract blood sugar levels.

Although the normal body fuel is glucose (sugar), when there isn’t enough glucose in the bloodstream, fat will be burned instead. When fats are used as fuel excessively, they convert to ketones, highly acidic substances that can, in excess amounts, make the blood highly acidic. This can lead to kidney damage and a host of other undesirable side effects. (Although a diabetic has higher than normal glucose levels, the lack of insulin prevents this glucose from being burned as fuel.) Ketosis is very likely to happen with high-protein, low-carbohydrate diets, a principle that the Atkins diet relies upon.

Is the Atkins diet unhealthy? The jury is still out. Although researchers have found no short-term ill effects (such as raised cholesterol), the long-term effects have yet to be determined. One study found that although the Atkins diet did produce more initial weight loss than a traditional low-fat diet, after one year there were no differences between subjects in total weight loss. There are many other versions of low-carbohydrate diets on the market, but the more recent ones, such as the South Beach Diet, advocate knowing the difference between “good” fats (olive oil and canola oil, for example) and “bad” fats (butter and margarine), “good” carbohydrates (whole grain breads, brown rice, vegetables, and most fruits) and “bad” carbohydrates (highly refined and processed foods such as white bread, white rice, and white potatoes). The body needs fats, proteins, and carbohydrates, but there are healthy choices that can be made within those categories.

In most of the newer diets, rather than eating a high-fat, high-protein, and low-carbohydrate diet, people are supposed to eat moderate fats of the good kind, lean meats and fish, and carbohydrates that are processed by the body more slowly and therefore are less likely to trigger the pancreas into releasing a lot of insulin at once.

When a person eats the more processed carbohydrates such as pasta and white bread, the sugar from that starch is released quickly into the bloodstream, triggering the insulin response. The insulin “overreacts” by reducing the level of sugar in the bloodstream to below-normal levels, which causes a low-blood sugar signal to the brain that says, “I’m starving, let’s eat!” even though dinner might have been only an hour ago. Known as the “glycemic reaction,” this fast-rising insulin reaction is at the heart of many of the newer diets. The “good” carbs, as they are commonly called, are less refined and produce a much slower rise in blood sugar, causing insulin levels to react much more slowly. With slower insulin reaction, there is no low blood sugar hunger reaction, and overeating becomes less likely.

Lecture Launcher 9.5: Some (Older) Research on the Benefits of Control A sad reality of aging in the United States is that the elderly are sometimes demoted to the status of “secondclass citizens.” Consigned to nursing homes due to frailty, hardship, or the indifference of family members, the elderly often find themselves in an environment not of their choosing and inconsistent with their previous lifestyles. Consequently, they may feel unable to control, predict, or determine their outcomes, even on a day-today basis. A classic study by Ellen Langer and Judith Rodin did much to illustrate the benefits to the elderly of being in control.

Langer and Rodin enlisted the cooperation of the Arden House nursing home in Connecticut to perform an intervention using its residents. Those who lived on the four floors of the Arden House were all from similar backgrounds, of similar states of health, and generally assigned to floors and rooms on a random basis. Langer and Rodin therefore randomly chose the residents of one floor to receive an increased responsibility treatment, leaving the residents of another floor as a comparison group.

Both groups attended information meetings led by the director of the facility, who worked in cooperation with the researchers. However, the increased responsibility residents were told that they should take charge of arranging their room as they wished, making their complaints known to the director, and scheduling the activities they wished to participate in. For example, these residents were told of upcoming movies to be shown on a Thursday and Friday night, and were asked to indicate their preference for attending. Similarly, these residents each selected a small houseplant to care for and were told that it would be their responsibility to tend to 10 .

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its needs. In contrast, the residents of the comparison group were given slightly different information. They were also told that their comfort and happiness were of primary importance, although the director stated that it was the staff’s responsibility to make sure that happened. As an example, the houseplants given to this group would be watered and tended to by the nurses. And although they too heard about the upcoming “nights at the movies,” they were informed that they would be told which night they could attend. In short, Langer and Rodin manipulated the amount of responsibility the two groups had for their own outcomes.

All the residents had completed a questionnaire on their satisfaction with the living arrangements a week prior to the director’s presentation. A similar questionnaire was completed three weeks after the talk. The increased responsibility residents reported being happier and more active (compared to the control group) on the second questionnaire, which was complemented by interviewer’s ratings of increased alertness for this same group.

Furthermore, nurses (who remained uninformed about each resident’s experimental status) rated the increased responsibility residents as showing greater general improvement and as spending more time visiting other residents, talking to staff, and visiting with guests, and significantly less time simply sitting and watching the staff. Interestingly, more members of the responsibility group attended the film that was shown, and although 10 “responsibility residents” entered a jelly bean guessing contest that night, only one member of the comparison group did.

Finally, the most provocative difference was in the mortality rate of the two groups of residents: Thirty percent of the comparison group had died during the 18-month interval between the original study and a subsequent follow-up visit, compared to only 15 percent of the increased responsibility participants. Although other factors surely played a role, this “ultimate DV” provides startling evidence of the importance of control in our daily lives.

Chipperfield, J. G., Perry, R. P., Pekrun, R., Barchfeld, P., Lang, F. R., & Hamm, J. M. (2016). The paradoxical role of perceived control in late life health behavior. PloS One, 11(3), e0148921.

Botros, F., Perin, C., Aseniero, B. A., & Carpendale, S. (2016, June). Go and grow: Mapping personal data to a living plant.

In Proceedings of the International Working Conference on Advanced Visual Interfaces (pp. 112–119). ACM. Fox, J., Close, S. R., Rose, J. P., & Geers, A. L. (2016). Identifying when choice helps: Clarifying the relationships between choice making, self-construal, and pain. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 39(3), 527–536.

Langer, E. J., & Rodin, J. (1976). The effects of choice and enhanced personal responsibility for the aged: A field experiment in an institutional setting. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 191–198.

Pagnini, F., Bercovitz, K., & Langer, E. (2016). Perceived control and mindfulness: Implications for clinical practice. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 26(2), 91.

Lecture Launcher 9.6: The Control Process One distressing aspect of growing older is losing control. Apart from really distressing loss of control, such as one’s bladder, bowels, or mind, the day-to-day inability to determine if one drives, where one goes, or what one eats can be a source of considerable frustration for the elderly. A hallmark of psychology is that people like, want, and seek predictability in their lives, and when that predictability is reduced through a loss of autonomy, the consequences can be significant indeed.

Here are some specific control strategies and their effects on adjustment to stressful events, as outlined by Susan Fiske and Shelley Taylor.

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Behavior control. This strategy involves taking concrete steps to reduce the unpleasantness of a negative event. For example, if your next- door neighbor insists on playing his Wayne Newton albums at maximum volume, you might shut the doors and windows or forcibly turn down the volume knob on his stereo. This kind of very direct control will typically alleviate the stress associated with the aversive event. However, actual (or perceived) behavior control can also help reduce stress prior to the anxietyprovoking event, or at least increase tolerance of the event when it occurs.

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Cognitive control. Cognitive control means thinking about the unpleasant event differently or reevaluating the nonaversive aspects of the event. This strategy seems to help adjustment at all levels of the event; prior, during, and after.

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Decision control. Being able to make decisions about the onset, timing, or type of aversive event can be helpful if the outcomes of the decision are favorable. If the results of the decision are unfavorable, the effects on adjustment are unclear. For example, someone who is able to select between two types of root canals may enjoy improved adjustment after the success of the procedure (and, presumably, the decision to elect that procedure).

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Information control. The goal here is to gather information about a potentially stressful event, such as the sensations likely to be experienced, the duration or timing of the event, or its cause. For example, a debtor preparing for a tax audit might seek as much information as possible about the procedures, questions asked, documents required, and so forth. Information about sensations (“Will it hurt?”) and procedures (“What comes next?”) reliably reduce stress, although information about causes has equivocal effects.

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Retrospective control. This strategy involves believing that one could have controlled an aversive event that has already happened. For example, a robbery victim may replay the events of the crime to identify what went wrong (“I shouldn’t have been there”) or what could have prevented it (“I should know better than to flash my $100 bills in public”). Presumably this reflection confers a sense of control to the individual that should work against the event’s recurrence; however, the few experiments examining this strategy have been equivocal.

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Secondary control. This technique involves aligning one’s behavior with the environment, rather than trying to bring the environment under one’s control. “Riding it out,” “Going with the flow,” “Joining rather than beating,” or placing oneself in the hands of experts typify this approach. When direct control is not possible, this strategy may help to improve adjustment.

Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (2017). Social cognition: From brains to culture (3rd ed.). Sage Publications.

Lecture Launcher 9.7: Grandparent Education The role of grandparents today is clouded by several facts of modern life: • •

•

Because technology is rapidly changing the world, grandparents aren’t the experts they were in past generations when the pace of change was slower.

Children today look to their peers to teach them “important” things such as the best TV shows to watch, the newest fashions to wear, information about sex and drugs, and so on. This has the potential to undermine society because it divides it into special-interest groups who feel they have little in common with one another.

A mobile society and large segregated “adult” communities keep grandparents and grandchildren apart for much of their lives.

One way to improve intergenerational relationships is to educate grandparents with the following goals in mind: • • • • • •

Increase the satisfaction of being a grandparent.

Improve how well grandparents perform their role.

Enlarge the scope of guidance expected of grandparents.

Decrease the difficulties of being a grandparent.

Reduce the frustrations experienced by grandparents.

Reduce the family information needs of grandparents.

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Robert and Shirley Strom have devised a “Becoming a Better Grandparent” course involving discussions, brainstorming, problem-solving, self-evaluation and observation, and intergenerational conversations.

Your students might want to discuss how much their grandparents were or are involved in their lives.

MaloneBeach, E. E., Hakoyama, M., & Arnold, S. (2018). The good grandparent: Perspectives of young adults. Marriage & Family Review, 54(6), 582–597.

Strom, R., & Strom, S. (1991). Becoming a better grandparent: A guidebook for strengthening the family. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Strom, R., & Strom, S. (1993). Grandparent development and influence. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 20(1/2), 3–16.

Strom, R. D., & Strom, P. S. (2017a). Grandparent learning and cultural differences. Educational Gerontology, 43(8), 417–427.

Strom, R. D., & Strom, P. S. (2017b). Grandparent education for assisted living facilities. Educational Gerontology, 43(1), 11–20.

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STUDENT ACTIVITIES Student Activity 9.1: Perceptions of Aging If you administered the quiz on Handout 9-1 during the first week of the semester, trot it back out to discuss in class. If not, ask your students to take the quiz before you begin discussing the chapter on late adulthood. All odd-numbered statements are false; all even-numbered statements are true. Most college students miss about six, high school students miss about nine, and even college instructors miss an average of three! Discuss with your students why they think the answers are true or false.

Student Activity 9.2: Calculating Longevity Reproduce Handout 9-2 and Handout 9-3 so your students can calculate their longevity. Discuss the factors of heredity, health history, current health habits, and current life experiences that either contribute to a longer life or subtract from a person’s life expectancy.

Be sure to stress that this exercise is only a rough prediction of longevity. Two important points are worth mentioning: (a) some factors are beyond our control, and (b) some are controllable. Have your students list which factors are and are not controllable.

Divide your students into discussion groups. Using Handout 9-3, ask your students to guess as many reasons as they can why the average life expectancy goes up. Remind them to look at race and gender also.

(A major reason you will statistically live longer after you reach an older age is simply that you’ve made it this far without anything killing you!)

Student Activity 9.3: Growing Old in a Youth-Oriented Culture What does it mean to be old? The popular image is of a person who is forgetful, somewhat senile, and physically and mentally feeble. On television and in the movies, old people are usually portrayed as objects of amusement, sympathy, or scorn.

Researchers in the field of gerontology have been challenging these cultural stereotypes of old age. The very fact that such a research specialty exists reflects a major change in Western culture: increasing numbers of people are living into very old age, and living well. Indeed, the fastest-growing age group in the United States and Canada consists of people over the age of 85. One result of this trend is that researchers have been able to separate the processes that are part of normal aging from those that are a result of preventable conditions.

Distribute copies of Handout 9-4 to students. This handout asks students to answer specific questions regarding aging. You can then present the findings from gerontology that shatter many of the myths and misconceptions people often have about aging.

Here are the discoveries from gerontological research: 1. The definition of “old” got older.

Not long ago you would have been considered old in your 60s. Today, “old age” is not just a matter of chronological years. Researchers divide the elderly into two groups: those who have their health, strength, and mental capacities, and those who are infirm, weak, and incapacitated.

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2. Aging was separated from illness.

People used to think that all bodily functions declined with age. Some conditions, such as osteoporosis (having extremely brittle bones) or senility (the loss of mental abilities), were assumed to be inevitable.

Today, gerontologists have found that many of the conditions thought characteristic of old age are really a result of cellular damage, malnutrition, overmedication, or disease. For example, only 15 percent of people over age 65 suffer serious mental impairment, and half of those cases are due to Alzheimer’s disease, a neurological disorder. Moreover, a tragically high number of older people are overmedicated, given too many drugs for different problems, the results of which can appear as confusion, senility, or even psychosis.

3. The biology of aging was separated from its psychology.

Imagine that you are taken from your home, your friends, and your work. You are put in a residence where you know no one and have nothing to do. Your relatives live too far away to visit. You aren’t allowed to make decisions, decorate your room, keep a pet, have a lover, or choose your food. “Just relax and have a good time,” your caretakers tell you. What would happen to you? Most likely, you would become depressed and bored. You would become forgetful and apathetic. You would become, in a word, “old.”

4. Aging has its benefits.

Researchers are also discovering that aging often brings wisdom, tolerance, and old-fashioned maturity. As people age, they tend to feel less angry, less lonely, happier, and more content with themselves and their limitations. In a society that values youth and the new, it is easy to overlook the values of experience and the old.

Many researchers who study cognition and aging are optimistic; they believe that when people live in stimulating, interesting environments, their brain function does not “naturally” decay. But other researchers are skeptical about the “use it or lose it” philosophy, pointing out that if you have lost it, you can’t use it.

One thing is certain; we can continue to learn throughout our lives.

Student Activity 9.4: “Wearing the Shoes” of the Elderly Students often have difficulty understanding or appreciating the sensory losses that sometimes accompany aging. Herbert Shore (1976), who designed a training program to help people who work with the elderly better understand sensory losses, suggests several simple and effective simulations, some of which can be experienced in class, and some of which might best be done out of class.

Hearing. According to Shore, hearing loss is one of the most problematic sensory impairments for the elderly because the lack of clarity and understanding can lead to suspiciousness and paranoia. Hearing losses can be simulated by having students wear ear plugs, ear muffs, or by simply putting their fingers in their ears when trying to understand what is being said. Shore also recommends the “Unfair Hearing Test,” in which students try to comprehend a list of words that have been tape-recorded with slight decibel distortions and with frequencies filtered out.

Vision. Changes in the lenses can be simulated by having students wear underwater goggles. In addition, taping yellow cellophane on the goggles can help simulate changes in color perception. Blindness can be simulated by having the student wear a blindfold while trying to perform a simple task, such as tying their shoelace. In addition, you may want to take the blindfolded student on a “blind walk” so that they can experience dependency on a companion. Finally, losses in peripheral vision can be simulated by taping pieces of paper on the sides of glasses.

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Taste. Taste loss commonly experienced by the elderly can be simulated by camouflaging the texture of food by chopping, pureeing, or liquefying it (or by using commercial baby foods) and then having a volunteer eat it while blindfolded and wearing a nose clip.

Kinesthesia. Difficulty in mobility can be simulated by wrapping an ace bandage around the student’s knee or elbow to simulate stiffness in joints. Other physical disabilities, such as those brought about by a stroke or other injury, can be simulated by writing with the opposite hand, walking on crutches, using a cane, or relying a wheelchair for a day.

Touch. Losses in tactile sensitivity can be simulated by applying rubber cement or paraffin to a finger. You can also have students try to identify common objects (that are out of view) while wearing mittens or plastic baggies on their hands.

Shore, H. (1976). Designing a training program for understanding sensory losses in aging. The Gerontologist, 16, 157–165.

Student Activity 9.5: You Say It’s Your Birthday Ask students to visit a local variety store (Target, Walmart) or specialty shop (Hallmark) and record the themes they find on greeting cards. For example, some will no doubt fall into the “you’re getting older and closer to death—ha ha ha” variety, others will fall into the “older people have a lot of frailties and suffering” category, and some will fall into the “you’re getting wiser and venerable” group. Ask students to note the approximate age ranges the cards seem appropriate for (some cards, in fact, are targeted at the “You’re Turning 50!” or “Happy Centennial!” market) and other distinguishing characteristics, such as whether they are more suited to women or men, have sexual connotations, are humorous, and so on. If you’d like to make this activity more elaborate (and expensive), ask students to purchase a selection of cards and bring them to class for discussion. You might also consider making this the basis for an assignment or reflection on how society views the aging process.

Student Activity 9.6: Positive Aging Divide your class into discussion groups. Have each group brainstorm all the possible ways that elderly people can increase their life satisfaction and enjoy successful aging. Afterward, have a representative from each group list their ideas on the board or orally present them. You can use Handout 9-5 to get this activity started.

Student Activity 9.7: Observational Activity—Life Review Handout 9-6 provides guidelines for an interview and short written assignment that you can share with your students. Encourage them to complete this exercise not just to gain information about an older individual, but as a way of thinking about their own future life, and how their current actions and attitudes might shape it.

Student Activity 9.8: Think About It Pose the following thought questions, individually or collectively, to your students: “Statistics show that being married increases your longevity.” Why do your students think that might be? What benefits does being in a long-term committed relationship confer? What possible hindrances to health and happiness do they see in this arrangement? Guide the discussion.

“Your father is nearing retirement and seems to be dreading it. His coworkers have told him that he will hate being retired.” What can you tell him to reassure him, based on what you have learned in the current and previous chapters?

“Why are postretirement-age women worse off economically than older men?” Give as many explanations as you can think of.

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Your students’ responses can form the basis of an in-class discussion, a reflection paper, a journal entry, or other short written assignment.

Student Activity 9.9: Observational Activity—Adjustments to Retirement Handout 9-7 provides guidelines for an interview and short written assignment that you can share with your students. After they have interviewed these people, ask your students to reflect on what factors seem to be most important in the degree of satisfaction associated with retirement. How does retirement affect family relations?

On the basis on their interviews, what suggestions do they have for how a person might better prepare for retirement?

Student Activity 9.10: Reflective Journal Use Handout 9-8 to help students reflect on how they imagine they will handle successful aging.

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SUPPLEMENTAL READING Ayalon, L., Levkovich, I., Gewirtz-Meydan, A., & Karkabi, K. (2018). A life course perspective on the ways older men and women discuss sexual issues. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 69, 1–9.

Biss, R. K., Rowe, G., Weeks, J. C., Hasher, L., & Murphy, K. J. (2018). Leveraging older adults’ susceptibility to distraction to improve memory for face-name associations. Psychology and Aging, 33(1), 158.

Courtney, S. (2018). Why adults learn: Towards a theory of participation in adult education. New York: Routledge.

Epel, E. S., & Prather, A. A. (2018). Stress, telomeres, and psychopathology: Toward a deeper understanding of a triad of early aging. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 14, 371–397.

Estill, A., Mock, S. E., Schryer, E., & Eibach, R. P. (2018). The effects of subjective age and aging attitudes on mid-to late-life sexuality. The Journal of Sex Research, 55(2), 146–151.

Grilli, M. D., Woolverton, C. B., Crawford, M. S., & Glisky, E. L. (2018). Self-reference and emotional memory effects in older adults at increased genetic risk of Alzheimer’s disease. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 25(2), 186–199.

Hawkley, L. C., & Kocherginsky, M. (2018). Transitions in loneliness among older adults: A 5-year follow-up in the National Social Life, Health, and Aging Project. Research on Aging, 40(4), 365–387.

Joynt, M. H., Martin, P., & Poon, L. (2018). Gender differences and similarities among oldest old adults: A study of personality, social support and disablement. Innovation in Aging, 2(Suppl 1), 285.

Kassem, A. M., Ganguli, M., Yaffe, K., Hanlon, J. T., Lopez, O. L., Wilson, J. W., ... & Study of Osteoporotic Fractures (SOF) Research Group. (2018). Anxiety symptoms and risk of dementia and mild cognitive impairment in the oldest old women. Aging & Mental Health, 22(4), 474–482.

Lachs, M. S. (2018). The history and epidemiology of elder abuse. Pathology, 50, S23.

Luu, J., & Palczewski, K. (2018). Human aging and disease: Lessons from age-related macular degeneration. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(12), 2866–2872.

Messerli, F. H., Streit, S., & Grodzicki, T. (2018). The oldest old: Does hypertension become essential again? European Heart Journal, 39(33), 3144–3146.

Morrissey Stahl, K. A., Gale, J., Lewis, D. C., & Kleiber, D. (2018). Sex after divorce: Older adult women’s reflections. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 61, 659–674.

Peacock, S., Bayly, M., Gibson, K., Holtslander, L., Thompson, G., & O’Connell, M. (2018). The bereavement experience of spousal caregivers to persons with dementia: Reclaiming self. Dementia, 17(1), 78–95.

Ratovohery, S., Baudouin, A., Gachet, A., Palisson, J., & Narme, P. (2018). Is music a memory booster in normal aging? The influence of emotion. Memory, 26, 1–11.

Schensul, J. J., Radda, K. E., & Corbeil, C. (2018). Sexual culture in low-income older adult housing: Norms, behaviours and risks. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 20, 1130–1144.

Scott, D., Duque, G., & Ebeling, P. R. (2018). Does obesity reduce risk for osteoporosis and fractures in older adults? Internal Medicine Journal, 48(1), 104-105.

Shay, J. W. (2018). Telomeres and aging. Current Opinion in Cell Biology, 52, 1–7.

Syme, M. L., Cohn, T. J., Stoffregen, S., Kaempfe, H., & Schippers, D. (2018). “At my age…”: Defining sexual wellness in mid- and later life. The Journal of Sex Research, 55, 1–11.

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REVEL MULTIMEDIA Late Adulthood: Sandra

Sandra discusses her present state of well-being

1. Sandra’s mental and physical health seem to, frankly, be a mess. To what extent do you think these unfortunate outcomes represent the influence of genetics versus life circumstances? Do you think there’s an interactive effect of both forces?

2. Sandra seems proactive in wanting to change her health status. How successful do you predict she will be in this regard?

Late Adulthood: Health, Chris

Chris “Quiet Bear” speaks up about life and health

1. To what extent do Chris’ views of health and life in general match your expectations of someone whose age and sex are the same as theirs?

2. Chris is a male in his mid-80s, leading a generally active lifestyle. It’s reasonable to assume that he led that same life up to this point. How reasonable is it to assume he will continue to do so? Is there a point at which time, wear, and tear will simply make that impossible? What do you predict?

Successful Aging, Independent Lifestyle: Thelma, 81 Years Old Thelma shares some insights into her daily life 1. Thelma is rockin’ the good times. To what extent do you think her background in nursing contributed to her understanding of health issues and/or focus on maintaining her wellness?

2. To what extent do you currently follow Thelma’s recommendations for a healthy, active lifestyle?

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Handout 9-1 Perceptions of Aging

Circle T for true or F for false.

T

F

1.

The majority of old people have substantial memory disruptions.

T

F

2.

Vision, hearing, and taste all tend to weaken in old age.

T

F

3.

The majority of old people have no capacity for sexual relations.

T

F

4.

Lung capacity declines steadily in old age.

T

F

5.

The majority of old people feel lonely most of the time.

T

F

6.

Physical strength declines rapidly in old age.

T

F

7.

Over 25 percent of elderly people live in nursing homes or other specialized facilities for the aged.

T

F

8.

Older drivers have fewer accidents per driver compared to people under age 65.

T

F

9.

Older workers don’t complete tasks as efficiently as younger workers.

T

F

10.

Over 75 percent of people over the age of 65 are healthy enough to complete their usual daily activities.

T

F

11.

Most old people are unwilling to adapt to change.

T

F

12.

Compared to young people, old people take longer to learn a new skill.

T

F

13.

It is virtually pointless to try to teach the average old person something new.

T

F

14.

Older people tend to have slower reactions than younger people.

T

F

15.

Old people tend to be pretty much alike in their attitudes, behaviors, and values.

T

F

16.

The majority of old people report that they are seldom bored.

T

F

17.

The majority of old people live their daily lives in social isolation.

T

F

18.

Older workers have fewer accidents compared to younger workers.

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 9-2 Calculating Your Longevity Respond to each item honestly, and sum the various positive and negative factors to arrive at the approximate number of years more (or less) than average you are likely to live.

PUT YOUR BEGINNING LIFE EXPECTANCY HERE (from Handout 9-3) For each grandparent who lived past 80, add 1 year.

For each grandparent who lived to 70 but not 80, add 1/2 year.

If your mother lived past 80, add 4 years.

If your father lived past 80, add 2 years.

For each grandparent, parent, or sibling who died of any type of heart disease before age 50, subtract 4 years.

For each such relative dying of heart disease between age 50 and 60, subtract 2 years.

For each such relative who died of diabetes or ulcers before age 60, subtract 3 years.

Women: For each sister or mother who died of breast cancer before age 60, subtract 1 year.

If your intelligence is superior, add 2 years.

HEALTH HISTORY If your mother was younger than 18 or older than 35 at your birth, subtract 1 year.

If you are the first born in your family, add 1 year.

Women: If you have had no children (or plan no children) subtract 1/2 year.

If you have an annual physical exam, add 2 years.

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Handout 9-2 Calculating Your Longevity (continued) CURRENT HEALTH If your weight is 10 to 30 percent above ideal weight shown in standard tables, the amount you must subtract depends on your age and gender. For women, subtract 5 years if you are between 20 and 30; 4 years if you are between 30 and 50, and 2 years if you are over 50. For men, subtract 10 years if you are between 20 and 30, 4 years if you are between 30 and 45, and 2 years for any age over that.

If your weight is more than 30 percent above standard tables: Women, subtract 61/2 years if you are between 20 and 30, 5 years if you are between 30 and 50, and 4 years thereafter. Men, subtract 13 years if you are between 20 and 30, 6 years if you are between 30 and 40, and 4 years thereafter.

If your diet is generally low in fat and sugar, and you never eat past the feeling of fullness, add 1 year.

If you smoke 2 or more packs a day, subtract 12 years; if you smoke 1 to2 packs a day, subtract 7 years; if you smoke less than 1 pack a day, subtract 2 years.

If you never drink, neither add nor subtract; if you are a heavy drinker, subtract 8 years; if you are a moderate drinker, add 3 years; if you are a light drinker, add 11/2 years.

If you do some aerobic exercise at least 3 times a week, add 3 years.

If you sleep more than 10 or less than 6 hours per night, subtract 2 years.

If you have intimate sexual relations once or twice a week, add 2 years.

If you have a chronic health condition (e.g., high blood pressure, diabetes, ulcer, cancer) or are frequently ill, subtract 5 years.

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Handout 9-2 Calculating Your Longevity (continued) YOUR CURRENT LIFE If your occupation is at a professional, technical, or managerial level, add 1 year; if you work at unskilled work, subtract 4.

If your family income is above average for your education and occupation, add 1 year; if it is below average, subtract 1.

If your job is a physically active one, add 2; if it is sedentary, subtract 2.

If you now live in an urban area and have lived in urban areas most of your life, subtract 1; if you have spent most of your life in a rural area, add 1.

If you are married and living with your spouse, add 1.

If you are separated or divorced, subtract 9 if you are a man, 4 if you are a woman.

If you are widowed, subtract 7 if you are a man, 4 if you are a woman.

If you are a never-married woman, subtract 1 year for each decade unmarried past age 25.

If you are a never-married man and living with family, subtract 1 year for each decade unmarried past 25; if you live alone, subtract 2 years for each decade unmarried past 25.

If you have at least two close friends in whom you can confide, add 1.

If your personality is noticeably aggressive and hostile and you feel regularly under time pressure, subtract 2 to 5 depending on how much the description fits.

If you are a calm, relaxed, easygoing person who adapts well to whatever happens, add 1 to 3 depending on how well the description fits.

If you are a basically happy person and have a lot of fun, add 2.

If you have had an episode of being depressed or very tense, guilty, or worried that lasted as long as a year or more, subtract 1 to 3 depending on how severe the depression was.

If you take a lot of risks, subtract 2; if you generally avoid risks, add 1.

Source: https://www.ssa.gov

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Handout 9-3 Life Expectancy Table

Source: https://www.ssa.gov

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Handout 9-4 Growing Old in a Youth-Oriented Culture Please answer the following questions to the best of your abilities. The point of this exercise is to demonstrate the myths and misconceptions we have about aging.

1. What do you mean by “old?”

2. Does being old mean being ill? Explain your answer.

3. Why do you think so many elderly people are passive and apathetic? Is it due to their deteriorating physical and mental condition?

4. Can you name any benefits of getting older?

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 9-5 What Contributes to Life Satisfaction and Successful Aging?

•

Adequate income

•

Good health

•

Active lifestyle

•

Extended social network

•

Choices: Ability to reduce the demands of life

•

Optimization: Practice what you’re good at

•

Compensation: Making up for slowing down

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 9-6 A Life in Review For the following activity you will conduct an interview/observation of a person in late adulthood. After completing your interview, write a two- to three-page summary of your findings. Be sure to address all areas outlined in the activity.

As people enter the later years of life, they usually engage in a process called life review. This involves organizing one’s memories and reflecting on the significant actions and developmental milestones that have shaped one’s life. It is through the life review that people attempt to gain a final understanding of themselves and the world around them. Choose an older adult for an in-depth, life-review interview. Ask the person the following questions: 1. Who were the most important people that contributed to your development, both as a child and as an adult?

In what ways were they important to you?

2. What events or developmental milestones were particularly significant in your life? Why? 3. How has aging affected you—physically, psychologically, and socially?

4. How do you feel about your life? Has it been satisfactory? In what areas have you been most satisfied?

Least satisfied?

5. How often do you think about your eventual death? What thoughts go through your mind when you think about death?

Based on developmental stages and theories discussed in your textbook, summarize your findings and assess the interviewee’s current life stage.

What did you learn by completing this activity? How will you use this information in your career or personally?

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 9-7 Adjustment to Retirement Between the ages of 60 and 70, most people retire from the jobs they have held for many years. Retirement is a major life event for men and women in their late-adult years. The ease and impact of leaving jobs and adjusting to a new life at home vary from person to person. The degree of personal satisfaction during retirement is also influenced by many factors, including the extent of pre-retirement planning, financial resources, hobbies and meaningful activities available, and the degree of involvement with people.

In order to understand the impact of retirement on people, choose at least two retired individuals who are willing to be interviewed. Ask them the following questions: 1. How old are you and how long have you been retired? What kind of work did you do before retirement? Do you work part-time now?

2. At what point in your life did you make plans for your retirement? What sort of plans did you make? Were these pre-retirement plans helpful to you?

3. What do you like about your life now that you are retired? Are there things you do now that you couldn’t do before retirement? Give examples.

4. What changes have you had to make in your life as a result of retirement? What has been the most difficult part of retirement for you?

5. If you are married, how has being at home affected your relationship with your partner? Are you more involved in household tasks? Give examples.

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Handout 9-8 Reflective Journal Exercise 9 How do you imagine you will handle your own successful aging after age 65? Will you gradually withdraw from the world to enjoy peace and solitude to do the things you want to do, like read or relax, according to the disengagement theory of successful aging? Or do you imagine you will want to continue an active life full of socializing, volunteer work, being with family, going on trips, etc., according to the activity theory of successful aging? Tie your speculations into how you view your personality today. For example, do you prefer peace-andquiet leisure activities like reading or watching television? Or are you an extrovert who only finds real happiness when out with friends and doing some activity like dancing or taking exercise classes? Try to paint a picture of your life at 65 or older.

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Chapter 10 DEATH AND DYING CONTENTS Chapter-at-a-Glance

2

Learning Objectives

3

Chapter Outline

4

Lecture Launchers

6

Student Activities

8

Supplemental Reading

10

Revel Multimedia

11

Handouts

12

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CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE Chapter Outline Understanding Death Defining Death Death Across the Life Span Death Education

Instructor’s Resources Learning Objectives 10.1, 10.2, 10.3

Revel Resources Children’s Perception of Death

Lecture Launcher 10.1 Student Activities 10.1, 10.2

Understanding the Process of Dying Steps Toward Death Choosing the Nature of Death Where to Die

Learning Objectives 10.4, 10.5, 10.6 Lecture Launcher 10.2 Student Activities 10.3, 10.4

Death: Effects on Survivors Saying Farewell Bereavement and Grief

Learning Objectives 10.7, 10.8 Lecture Launcher 10.3 Student Activities 10.5, 10.6, 10.7

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Planning for the End. Advance Directives or Death Panels?

Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e

LEARNING OBJECTIVES LO 10.1

Describe how the moment of death is defined.

LO 10.2 Analyze causes of and reactions to death across the life span.

LO 10.3 Describe the aims and benefits of death education.

LO 10.4 Analyze Kübler-Ross’s theory on the process of dying.

LO 10.5 Explain ways in which people can exercise control over how they spend their last days.

LO 10.6 Describe alternatives for providing end-of-life care for the terminally ill.

LO 10.7 Analyze the cultural meaning of funeral rites in Western and other cultures.

LO 10.8 Describe how survivors react to and cope with death.

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CHAPTER OUTLINE MODULE 10.1 – DEATH AND DYING ACROSS THE LIFESPAN I.

Understanding Death A. Defining Death: When Does Life End? 1. The imprecision of functional death has given way to determination of brain death B. Death Across the Life Span: Causes and Reactions 1. Death in infancy and childhood a. SIDS, accidents, miscarriage, or genetic causes all spell profound grief at this type of loss 2. Childhood conceptions of death a. The finality and irreversibility of death takes some time for children to grasp 3. Death in adolescence a. A personal fable can’t ward off death from prevalent causes, such as engaging in risky behavior 4. Death in young adulthood a. Accidents, suicide, homicide, and cancer are leading causes of death in this age group 5. Death in middle adulthood a. Realistic acknowledgement of a life-threatening disease doesn’t make it any less threatening 6. Death in late adulthood a. Acceptance and anticipation may be present, although suicide may hasten the onset of death b. A terminal decline is sometimes seen in this age group C. Death Education: Preparing for the Inevitable?

1. Thanatologists may practice crisis intervention education, routine death education, or death education tailored to members of the helping professions

MODULE 10.2 – CONFRONTING DEATH I.

Understanding the Process of Dying A. Steps Toward Death: Kübler-Ross’s Theory 1. Denial 2. Anger 3. Bargaining 4. Depression; may be reactive or preparatory 5. Acceptance 6. Evaluating Kübler-Ross’s theory a. Largely limited to people who know they are dying b. Largely limited to a death process that takes some time to unfold c. Order and rate of progress through stages can vary across individuals d. Many interacting factors contribute to a dying person’s perception of death 7. Alternatives to Kübler-Ross’s theory a. Shneidman, Corr, and Bonanno offer contemporary theories of death and dying B. Choosing the Nature of Death 1. DNRs a. Physicians may be reluctant to act on a patient’s wishes 2. Living wills a. Health-care proxies and durable powers of attorney are important to establish 3. Euthanasia and assisted suicide a. Various states and countries have or lack provisions for different forms of euthanasia C. Where to Die: Easing the Final Passage 1. Home care versus hospice care: Pros and cons to each setting

MODULE 10.3 – GRIEF AND BEREAVEMENT 4 .

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I.

Death: Effects on Survivors A. Saying Farewell: Final Rites and Mourning 1. Death is big business 2. Funeral rites and rituals show a good deal of cultural variation 3. Marking the departure of a person from the planet seems to be a common element B. Bereavement and Grief 1. An acknowledgement of an objective fact versus an emotional response to loss a. Mourners often progress through stages of grief, with considerable individual differences 2. Differentiating unhealthy grief from normal grief a. Complicated grief is evident for months or years after the death of a loved one b. Incomplete grief may follow complicated situations in life 3. The consequences of grief and bereavement a. Timing, suddenness, cause, social support, and quality of the relationship during life all contribute to predicting the consequences of grief and bereavement

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LECTURE LAUNCHERS Lecture Launcher 10.1: Denial of Death in America It used to be common for births and deaths to occur at home where a number of generations of a family usually lived together. It was unusual for someone to grow up without having gone through the experience of seeing a family member die. Although the average person sees tens of thousands of deaths on television, real illness and dying are usually relegated to hospitals. It is rare now for someone to have seen anyone die. Family members tend to die alone in hospitals, and the “unpleasant” work of shuffling this mortal coil is taken care of by others.

Why are we so afraid of dying? Is this separation of ourselves from the reality of death the cause or the symptom of our denial of death? The United States values youth, and most of the symbols of youth are positive (progress, learning, risk-taking). Another important aspect of the American denial of death is the lessening of the hold of traditional religion. Most religions promise believers the reward of a good life after death. Is this “reward” another way we deny the reality, messiness, and sadness that accompany death? Most importantly, what does this denial and subsequent fear of death do to us when a loved one or we, ourselves, are facing death?

What are some other ways we deny death?

Lecture Launcher 10.2: Hospice: What Is It? The term “hospice” comes from the Middle Ages where, especially during the Holy Wars, hospices were places set up to provide hospitality to travelers. In reality, a hospice is no longer a place, but a system of care; a way to provide physical and psychological comfort for dying people and their families. Hospice care differs from traditional hospital care in that the emphasis is on support and caring through the dying process, not on attempting a cure. Most hospice care takes place in a patient’s own home, although there are some hospices and hospice units within hospitals or nursing care centers. Hospice is not a process of pushing people into death, it is a process for allowing the natural dying process to occur in as warm and comforting a setting as possible.

The objective of hospice care is to assist the patient and his or her family in: (a) living as pain-free and meaningful a life as possible until one’s death; and (b) providing the patient and his or her family greater control in making decisions about care. Patients and their families are deeply involved in all care decisions, which can be a very different situation than found in traditional hospitals. Hospices also provide specialized services to families with support throughout the process, providing short respite times, volunteer visits, and, finally, grief counseling. Patients can only be admitted to a hospice program if the family physician has certified the patient to be in the last stages of an incurable illness.

Hospice workers are experienced in giving comfort to dying people. They generally avoid heroic (and usually painful) attempts at resuscitation. In fact, a key factor in hospice care is pain management: hospice nurses try to keep the patient as pain-free as possible and often give much larger doses of pain medication than is traditional in hospitals. This is called palliative care. Hospice nurses are specially trained to deal with the special physical difficulties of terminal patients.

The National Hospice and Palliative Care Organization (NHPCO) certifies hospices. In addition, there are specific medical criteria that certified hospices must meet. In order to provide care for patients from all economic levels, certified hospices usually accept Medicare payments for their services (with no additional payments for the patient).

Lecture Launcher 10.3: Understanding Grief Grief is an individual’s emotional response to great loss. Although everyone responds to grief individually, there is a general cycle of grief, similar to Kübler-Ross’ stages of death and dying. The first stage of grief is usually shock and numbness, even for deaths that were expected. In approximately a week or so, the grieving individual tends to enter the protest stage: the pain comes full-blown, and the realization of the loss is clear. This protest stage tends to quickly move into despair: the realization of the finality of the death and loss. It is at this point 6 .

Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e

that the survivor is most susceptible to illness. The emotional state of despair is when the survivor “hits the wall” psychologically and physically, with the result that the person has little strength and resistance to disease.

Finally, after despair, the individual gradually begins to take control and reorganize her or his life.

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STUDENT ACTIVITIES Student Activity 10.1: Understanding Loss Ask students to anonymously complete Handout 10.1 by identifying the losses they have experienced and their reactions to those losses. Encourage students to add any experiences they have had that are not on the list. In addition, they can identify those experiences they have not yet lived through but expect to face eventually. Use this as a point of departure for discussing the inevitability of loss—physical, emotional, psychological, and otherwise—that is a part of living.

Student Activity 10.2: Views of Death Richard Kalish (1987) and Robert Kastenbaum (1985) remind us that we use metaphors, analogies, symbols, statistics, and euphemisms to describe death and avoid thinking about it. Make a copy of (or write on the board) the following categories for thinking about death. Include an example of each and then ask your students to suggest others.

Death as a Symbol hearse

Death as a Metaphor deader than a doornail

Death as a Statistic mortality rates

Death as a Ritual funeral

Death as a Reward heaven

Death as Fear “Will it hurt?”

Death as a Thief “He was taken too soon.”

Death as a Puzzle “What happens after death?”

Death as a Place hereafter

Death as a Euphemism kicked the bucket

Death as Punishment “If you take that I’ll kill you.”

Death as a Journey passed on

Chau, L. Y., Cheung, W. S., & Ho, S. M. (2018). Change in death metaphors among university students in Hong Kong from 2004 to 2016. Death Studies. doi.org/10.1080/07481187.2018.1432720 Hui, D., Zhukovsky, D. S., & Bruera, E. (2018). Serious illness conversations: Paving the road with metaphors. The Oncologist, 23(6), 730–733.

Kalish, R. A. (1987). Death and dying. In P. Silverman (Ed.), The elderly as modern pioneers. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press.

Kastenbaum, R. (1985). Death and dying: A life-span approach. In J. E. Birren & K. W. Schaie (Eds.), Handbook of the Psychology of Aging (2nd ed.). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Student Activity 10.3: Death Is What You Make of It Ask class members to share the rites and rituals of death in their own cultural and/or religious backgrounds.

Look for commonalties and differences as the discussion develops. Even if your students are relatively homogeneous in their backgrounds, you should nonetheless be able to identify some points of departure (“We have a wake and celebrate!” “We’re very solemn and somber”) and some points of commonality (“We’re all quite sad”).

Student Activity 10.4: Confronting Our Own Death Divide students into groups of about six, then introduce this exercise by saying: We all know on one level that we are going to die someday. It may be later or sooner, but it will happen. When we think about death, and in particular our own death, various thoughts come to mind on many different levels—some negative, some positive.

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What I would like you to do in your groups is to take around 5 minutes for thinking about your own death. Each of you will write down some of the points surrounding death that are negative to you, from your own particular point of view. These could be fears, disappointments, feelings, or thoughts.

They may seem realistic to you, or silly, but consider them “worthy” because you may be surprised to find that others have the same “weird” fears you do.

After taking this time to yourself to write down the various things that come to you, I’d like you to share your list with your group for 15 minutes or so.

After sharing in the smaller groups, call the whole class back together to discuss what points seemed to be common to people in all of the groups, and what it was like to share those fears and thoughts with others.

Student Activity 10.5: The Unexamined Life Is Not Worth Living Use Handout 10-2 for this critical thinking exercise on life values. Focus any class discussions more on students’ reactions to answering the questions than on specific answers to the questions.

Student Activity 10.6: The Examined Life May Not Be Worth Living Use Handout 10-3 for this exercise about euthanasia. Give students the following directions: Imagine you are the physician-in-chief of a large hospital. Each day you are handed a list of case histories that represent questions about euthanasia, now that euthanasia has been legalized and its legality upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court. You are in no danger of lawsuits from any source because the American Medical Association inserted as part of the bill an amendment stating that the physicianin-chief is always correct in her or his decisions in such cases, and no one else has any legal standing in the matter. You will take no part in the enacting the euthanasia itself.

Indicate your decision for each patient by signing your name (or initials) in the appropriate place to signify active euthanasia, passive euthanasia, or continuation of life.

Sometimes dying can be what you make of it; what do your students make of this exercise?

Student Activity 10.7: Reflective Journal Use Handout 9-4 to ask students to wrap up this semester and their life; abstractly, that is.

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SUPPLEMENTAL READING Aksoz-Efe, I., Erdur-Baker, O., & Servaty-Seib, H. (2018). Death rituals, religious beliefs, and grief of Turkish women. Death Studies, 42(9), 579–592.

Andrade, M. L. D., Mishima-Gomes, F. K. T., & Barbieri, V. (2018). Children’s grief and creativity: The experience of losing a sibling. Psico-USF, 23(1), 25–36.

Bluck, S., & Mroz, E. L. (2018). The end: Death as part of the life story. The International Journal of Reminiscence and Life Review, 5(1), 6–14.

Brouwer, M., Kaczor, C., Battin, M. P., Maeckelberghe, E., Lantos, J. D., & Verhagen, E. (2018). Should pediatric euthanasia be legalized? Pediatrics, e20171343.

Cohen, J., Dierickx, S., Penders, Y. W., Deliens, L., & Chambaere, K. (2018). How accurately is euthanasia reported on death certificates in a country with legal euthanasia? A population-based study. European Journal of Epidemiology, 33, 689–693.

Connor, S. R., & Gwyther, E. (2018). The worldwide hospice palliative care alliance. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 55(2), S112–S116.

Doherty, J., Coughlan, B., Casey, B., Lloyd, B., Sheehy, L., Brosnan, M., ... & Cullen, S. (2018). Student midwives’ education needs and their experience of attending a bereavement education workshop. British Journal of Midwifery, 26(8), 523–531.

Egerod, I., Kaldan, G., Coombs, M., & Mitchell, M. (2018). Family-centered bereavement practices in Danish intensive care units: A cross-sectional national survey. Intensive and Critical Care Nursing, 45, 52–57.

Flahault, C., Dolbeault, S., Sankey, C., & Fasse, L. (2018). Understanding grief in children who have lost a parent with cancer: How do they give meaning to this experience? Results of an interpretative phenomenological analysis. Death Studies, 42(8), 483–490.

Jones, C., Puntillo, K., Donesky, D., & McAdam, J. L. (2018). Family members’ experiences with bereavement in the intensive care unit. American Journal of Critical Care, 27(4), 312-321.

Lövgren, M., Sveen, J., Nyberg, T., Eilegård Wallin, A., Prigerson, H. G., Steineck, G., & Kreicbergs, U. (2018). Care at end of life influences grief: A nationwide long-term follow-up among young adults who lost a brother or sister to childhood cancer. Journal of Palliative Medicine, 21(2), 156–162.

Nagy, Z. (2018). The changing nature of death and mourning: An analysis of Hungarian obituaries (1961– 2000). Mortality, 23(2), 151-–172.

Stowers, K., Charlton, R., & Vandermeer, R. (2018). When daddy is dying: Facilitating family centered adult goals of care discussions. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 55(2), 600–601.

Stylianou, P., & Zembylas, M. (2018). Dealing with the concepts of “grief” and “grieving” in the classroom: Children’s perceptions, emotions, and behavior. OMEGA-Journal of Death and Dying, 77(3), 240–266.

Webb, C. M. (2018). Death rituals: the grief fetish and military service. Critical Military Studies, 4(1), 92–95.

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REVEL MULTIMEDIA Children’s Perception of Death

The concept of death, like most concepts, develops over time

1. It can be tough to be a kid: You’ve got to learn a lot of stuff, you have to figure out whom to trust, and you’re not very tall. On top of all that, you have to understand “alive” versus “not-alive.” What techniques do you think would help children master this last concept—that “people and animals go away, forever”?

2. Pick a favorite theorist you’ve read about all semester long; Piaget, for example. What would that theorist say about the cognitive capacity a child must have in order to fully grasp an abstraction like “death”?

Planning for the End. Advance Directives or Death Panels?

We must all face the inevitable…

1. What strategy would you recommend for someone contemplating creating an advanced directive? Given that we can’t predict the future state of medical technology, what options seem like “safe bets” when predicting future care?

2. Many people will plan most of their lives to a fine point; where to live, when to retire, when to marry, and so on. Yet planning for their own demise is something few people add to that list. Why? Why might “planners” avoid this particular topic, despite being so organized in so many other areas of life?

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Handout 10-1 Awareness of Losses

LOSS

AGE

MEMORY/REACTIONS

Death in the family Death of a friend Death of a pet Breakup of an affair Separation Divorce Loss of a job Loss of money Moving (loss of roots) Change of schools Illness (loss of health) Leaving home Robbery Loss of a friend Loss of an ideal Loss of a dream Loss of a goal Loss of sense of self Other losses:

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e

Handout 10-2 Life Values and Goals As you think about your death, and as you see your life now, try to answer the following: 1. What three things would be said about you and your life if you died today? a. b. c.

2. Given the likelihood that you will not die today, and have time left to change some things in your life, what three things would you most like to have said about you and your life? a. b. c.

3. If someone were to witness a week of your life, what assumptions would that person make about your values…what matters to you? a. b. c.

4. What values do you hold that are not evident from the way you live your life? a. b. c.

5. What three goals are important to you as you plan your life? a. b. c.

6. What keeps you from achieving what you want for your life? a. b. c.

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e

Handout 10-3 Euthanasia Exercise Case Number 55036 Infant male, born of 23-year-old mother; questionably desired pregnancy. Severe anomalies noted at birth; cleft face extending up through frontal bone, with no nasal bone and no medial orbits; eyes on stalks; microcranium; webbing of hands and feet. Child cannot survive without nasogastric tube-feeding, gastrostomy (incision into the stomach), or intravenous fluids. The parents have not yet seen the child.

Active ____________________ Passive __________________ Life _________________

Case Number 55037 Infant female, born of 29-year-old mother; unwanted pregnancy. Patient born with inoperable congenital spinal deformation. Child will never walk, may be able to live seven or eight years in a wheelchair. Parents cannot afford expensive drugs and treatment for the child; have three other children at home. Child’s reflexes normal; intelligence predicted to be normal.

Active ____________________ Passive __________________ Life _________________

Case Number 55038 Infant female, born of 22-year-old mother; desired pregnancy. Initial neonatal life normal. Child discovered in crib at home not breathing and blue at seven days of life. Rushed to hospital, which was near the home.

Immediate action taken to resuscitate child in emergency room; successful. Parents are now in the emergency room awaiting news. Child will be profoundly mentally incapacitated, never exceed intelligence level of an infant; will probably die at age 10 to 20 from infections. What is your decision before parents are informed?

They can be told the resuscitation was successful or not.

Active ____________________ Passive __________________ Life _________________

Case Number 55039 Female, age 24, in a coma since March 2009. She can periodically breathe without a respirator but is usually dependent on one. She can take in nourishment only through nasogastric tubes or intravenously. She apparently has no consciousness and is in essentially a vegetative state. Her family begs for the respirator to be turned off and given to another patient somewhere. If she continues to live without the respirator, the family asks for her to be terminated mercifully, for her sake and for their peace of mind.

Active ____________________ Passive __________________ Life _________________

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Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e

Handout 10-3, continued Case Number 55040 Female, age 30, suffering from acute leukemia. She is presently in a sterile bubble, medically doing well but subjectively experiencing acute nausea, vomiting, and mental distress. There is no cure for the disease at present, but the patient’s chances for remission are high. She may live up to three more years. The last few days she has been asking for the treatments to stop, and occasionally for death, because her agony is so great. Her family agrees with any decision she makes. Hospital personnel enjoy her as a patient because she is so friendly and so helpful with the other patients when she feels good.

Active ____________________ Passive __________________ Life _________________

Case Number 55041 Male, age 55, conscious and communicative, dependent upon a heart-lung machine for life, after below-the-arm paralysis from an auto accident. He is a well-known and successful folksinger of a past generation. He requests repeatedly that the machine be turned off. His family, he said, is well provided for, his relatives have all had time with him, he has discussed his euthanasia with all of them and they all see it as the best action for his life.

They have all grieved and are finished with grief, including him. He is confident of a happy afterlife with his God. He feels ready.

Active ____________________ Passive __________________ Life _________________

Case Number 55042 Male, age 64, in intensive care unit with liver shutdown as a result of chronic cirrhosis of the liver. Patient has a history of being in jail for petty crimes, vagrancy, and alcoholism. This is his eighth admission for an alcoholrelated bodily dysfunction. The patient wants to live. If he does, however, he will have nowhere to go. He will probably hang around the hospital waiting room, as he often has in the last few weeks, begging money for alcohol or food and harassing women. The hospital staff resents him, he was deserted by his wife and children, and neither welfare nor the social service agencies wish to work with him any longer. Certain community workers and citizens are asking for him to be euthanized as he has an expected life span of only three years in the best of cases.

Active ____________________ Passive __________________ Life _________________

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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Feldman, Discovering the Life Span, 5e

Handout 10-4 Reflective Journal Exercise 10 Imagine you were called upon to design your own funeral services. What would you specifically want and specifically not want? Is there a favorite song you’d like played? Someone in particular to say a few words about you; a relative, friend, celebrity? What should your obituary say? Do you want a party? Something solemn? Your life savings tucked into your pockets as you’re lowered in the ground, or everything given to charity? Or, no lowering into the ground, but something else; ashes at sea, a tree sprouting from your remains, that sort of thing?

Use this reflection as an opportunity to be as thoughtful, extravagant, realistic, fearful, as you’d like. The sky’s the limit.

Created by Alan Swinkels, St. Edward’s University. No third-party material included.

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