Cultural Landscape, The An Introduction to Human Geography, 12th Edition James M Rubenstein Solution

Cultural Landscape, The An Introduction to Human Geography, 12th Edition BY James M. Rubenstein

Email: Richard@qwconsultancy.com

Contents Preface........................................................................................................................................... iii Sample Syllabus ........................................................................................................................... iv Chapter 1: Basic Concepts ............................................................................................................1 Chapter 2: Population and Health .............................................................................................18 Chapter 3: Migration...................................................................................................................37 Chapter 4: Folk and Popular Culture........................................................................................54 Chapter 5: Languages..................................................................................................................74 Chapter 6: Religions ....................................................................................................................94 Chapter 7: Ethnicities ................................................................................................................119 Chapter 8: Political Geography ................................................................................................138 Chapter 9: Food and Agriculture .............................................................................................160 Chapter 10: Development..........................................................................................................180 Chapter 11: Industry and Energy ............................................................................................197 Chapter 12: Services and Settlements ......................................................................................220 Chapter 13: Urban Patterns .....................................................................................................233

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Preface This Instructor’s Resource Manual for The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography features a detailed outline of each chapter which highlights the key terms and core learning objectives.

The Instructor’s Resource Manual includes Icebreakers to start classroom discussion, Challenges to Comprehension exercises, and Review/Reflection Questions. The answers to the Pause and Reflect and Thinking Geographically questions found in the text are also included in the Instructor’s Resource Manual. Additional resources to utilize during classroom instruction and to assign to the students are also found in the Instructor’s Resource Manual.

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Geography 002: Cultural Elements of Geography Sample Syllabus Instructor: E-Mail: Tuesday 6:50–10:00 P.M. Phone:

Classroom:

Course Description This is an introductory course in Cultural Geography. Topics included as part of the curriculum for this course are the global distribution of population, health and nutrition, religions, races, geopolitics, settlement patterns, urbanization, and economic systems.

Course Outline and Reading Assignments Date

Topic (s)

Reading (s)

August 28

Course Introduction

September 4

Geographic Concepts

Handouts

September 11

Time & Weather

Handouts

September 18

Quiz #1/Climate Zones & Plate Tectonics

Handouts

September 25

Quiz #2/Biomes

Handouts

October 2

Quiz #3/Folk and Popular Culture

Chapter 4

October 9

Population

Chapter 2

October 16

Quiz #4/Migration

Chapter 3

October 23

Religion

Chapter 6

October 30

Midterm

November 6

Political Geography

Chapter 8

November 13

Development

Chapter 9

November 20

Industry

Chapter 11

November 27

Services

Chapter 12

December 4

Cities

Chapter 13

December 11

Final Exam (7:30-9:30pm)

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Text The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography, 12th Edition by James Rubenstein. You may use a copy of an earlier edition, but when you use an earlier edition, you do so at your own risk!

Exams There will be two noncumulative examinations. Each will be worth 100 points. Bring Scantron form # 882-E to class each time there is an exam. You are not allowed to leave the class during an exam unless you have completed it.

Quizzes There will be four quizzes during this course. Each quiz is worth 25 points. Each quiz covers a very specific topic. You are not allowed to leave the class during a quiz unless you have completed it. You do not need to bring a scantron for the quizzes.

Term Paper and Assignments A hands-on paper that will require students to do research in the field will be assigned early in the semester. The paper will be due on the last day of class. A few smaller assignments will be randomly handed out throughout the semester and their due dates will vary. That is why it is critical that you attend class regularly.

Course Grading Exams (2) Quizzes (4) Term Paper (1) Assignments (?)

100 points per exam 25 points per quiz 50 points 50 points Total

=200 points =100 points =50 points =50 points =400 points

Semester Grades Are Determined Using This Scale 400-360 359-320 319-280 279-240 239 or less

100-90% 89-80% 79-70% 69-60% 59% or less

=A =B =C =D =F

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Attendance and Withdrawals: Attendance is your responsibility. Students are expected to attend class meetings and an attendance roster is maintained. This is a fast-paced course and failure to attend class results in your missing valuable information and material. All students are solely responsible for the material missed as a result of absences. In other words, it is your responsibility to find out what you missed from your classmates. If you do not drop prior to the deadline to receive a “W”, students may receive an “F” for the semester. I am permitted to drop students after three absences and will do so when I am confident that these absences indicate that a student is no longer participating in the course.

Drop with a refund by Drop without a “W” grade by Elect C/NC grading by Drop with a “W” grade by

September 9 September 9 October 5 November 18

Incompletes: Must be approved by the Geography Department Chair. Taking an incomplete is very strongly discouraged and even more rarely granted. Only in extreme cases of emergency beyond the student’s control will the Geography Department Chair consider an incomplete.

Make up Work: No exams or quizzes may be made up without my consent and all work MUST be completed PRIOR to the time that I return exams or quizzes to the class.

Classroom Policies: I expect you to behave decently towards your fellow students. That means, among other things, carry on personal conversations outside of class instead of during the lecture, turn off your cell phones, and don’t read magazines or do work for other classes in my class. Students are not permitted to wear an iPod or Walkman in the classroom. Don’t chronically arrive late or leave early unless you have a special circumstance and get my permission ahead of time. If you do arrive late or have to leave early, sit near the door and don’t create a distraction for everyone else in the room. Disruptive students will be asked to leave the classroom. No Food or Drinks are permitted in the classroom.

Cheating: Cheating is a serious offense and will not be tolerated. It is also a violation of the East Los Angeles College Academic Honesty/Dishonesty Policy and will be subject to all appropriate disciplinary action. All students enrolled in my class should carefully read this policy found in the East Los Angeles College General Catalog. Furthermore, students caught cheating during any quiz or exam in this class will receive a zero for that activity and the offense will be reported to the Vice President of Student Services.

Students are expected to refrain from engaging in the following behaviors: 1. Using, receiving, or providing unauthorized information during quizzes or exams.

2. Changing the answers on assignments after the work has been graded.

3. Using unauthorized electronic devices, such as cell phones, PDAs, electronic dictionaries, etc.

4. Plagiarizing or presenting someone else’s work as your own.

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Tips for Being Successful in Geography 002 •

Attend class regularly.

•

Take notes in class and follow along in your textbook.

•

Partner up with another student in the class.

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Read the assigned readings. For every one hour of class you should spend two hours outside of the class reading the textbook and reviewing your notes.

•

Review your notes on a daily basis. Research indicates that you forget 80 percent of what you read after two weeks time.

•

Grading mistakes can happen. It is your responsibility to save all graded quizzes and exams until the end of the semester when grades are completed.

•

Speak to me if you have any language difficulties or disabilities.

•

Communicate with me if you need help in class or if you have any issues or concerns. I will be more than happy to help you.

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Basic Concepts

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Learning Outcomes After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to: Learning Outcome 1.1.1:

Summarize differences between geography and history.

Learning Outcome 1.1.2:

Understand how cartography developed as science.

Learning Outcome 1.1.3:

Identify geography’s contemporary analytic mapping tools.

Learning Outcome 1.1.4:

Understand the role of map scale and projection in reading maps.

Learning Outcome 1.1.5:

Explain how latitude and longitude are used to locate points on Earth’s surface.

Learning Outcome 1.2.1:

Identify the distinctive features of a place, including toponym, site, and situation.

Learning Outcome 1.2.2:

Identify the three types of regions.

Learning Outcome 1.2.3:

Describe two geographic definitions of culture.

Learning Outcome 1.3.1:

Understand global- and local-scale changes in economy and culture.

Learning Outcome 1.3.2:

Identify the three properties of distribution across space.

Learning Outcome 1.3.3:

Describe different ways in which geographers approach aspects of cultural identity such as gender, ethnicity, and sexuality.

Learning Outcome 1.3.4:

Summarize geographic thought, with application to the geography of inequality.

Learning Outcome 1.3.5:

Describe the various ways that features can spread through diffusion.

Learning Outcome 1.3.6:

Explain how places are connected through networks, though inequality can hinder connections.

Learning Outcome 1.4.1:

Describe the three pillars of sustainability.

Learning Outcome 1.4.2:

Describe Earth’s three abiotic physical systems.

Learning Outcome 1.4.3:

Explain how the biosphere interacts with abiotic systems.

Learning Outcome 1.4.4:

Compare ecosystems in the Netherlands and California.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography

Chapter Outline Introduction Geography is more than rote memorization: Geographers ask where things are and why they are where they are. What are the defining elements of geography, and how have they developed over the course of human history? Cartography is the science of map making, and has evolved from prehistoric humans making rudimentary maps of their local environment, to today’s societies utilizing electronic devices to make high-quality, precise maps. Geographers use the concepts of space, place, and region to describe unique characteristics of locations on Earth as they happen across different scales.

They study of the connections between human activities and the physical environment, the how these connections impact sustainability, are integral to the discipline of Geography.

Key Issue 1: Why Is Geography a Science?

Although the earliest humans were practicing Geography, it wasn’t until the ancient Greek philosopher Eratosthenes that the discipline was bestowed the name it is known by today—geo, from the Greek, meaning “Earth,” and the Greek word graphy, meaning “to write,” were combined to describe the study of where things are found on Earth’s surface and the reasons for the locations. To contrast history with geography, one could view history as posing questions of when and why, while geographers ask questions of where and why.

Two features of human activity encompass the field of human geography as it is covered in this text: culture and economy. Two basic concepts are used by geographers to explain what makes a certain place unique: place and region. A place is a specific point on Earth, distinguished by a set of particular traits.

Every place occupies a unique geographic location, or position, on Earth’s surface. A region is an area of Earth defined by one or more defining features. The Earth is partitioned into a number of regions by Geographers, such as the Midwest and Latin America.

To explain the relationships between places, geographers employ three basic concepts: scale, space, and connection. Scale is the relationship between the portion of Earth being studied and Earth as a whole. Geographers study a variety of scales, from local to global. Space refers to the physical gap or interval between two objects. Connection refers to relationships among people and objects across the barrier of space.

A map is a two-dimensional or flat-scale model of the real world, made small enough to work with on a desk or computer. Cartography is the science of making maps. Maps are used for reference (where things are located) and for communication of the distribution of some feature or features.

Geography in the Ancient World Maps have been created for thousands of years. The earliest maps were used as reference tools—simple navigation devices designed to show a traveler how to get from Point A to Point B. Following the mapmakers of the ancient eastern Mediterranean world, European mapmaking and geographic thought became less mathematical and more fanciful, displaying Earth as a flat disk surrounded by mythical figures and fierce animals.

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Chapter 1: Basic Concepts Geography’s Revival Mapmaking as a reference tool was revived during the Age of Exploration and Discovery. Explorers who sailed across the oceans in search of trade routes and resources in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries required accurate maps to reach their desired destinations without wrecking their ships.

Contemporary Mapping Maps are used by geographers primarily for displaying geographic information and for offering geographic explanation. Maps are the geographer’s most essential tool.

Pinpointing Location: GPS The Global Positioning System (GPS) uses satellites to reference locations on the ground. GPS is most commonly used for navigation. Pilots of aircraft and ships stay on course with GPS. On land, GPS detects a vehicle’s current position, the motorist programs the desired destination into a GPS device, and the device provides instructions on how to reach the destination. GPS can also be used to find the precise location of a vehicle or person. Geographers find GPS to be particularly useful in coding the precise location of objects collected in fieldwork.

Analyzing Data: GI-Science Geographic Information Science (GIScience) is the examination of data relating to Earth acquired through satellite and other electronic information technologies. A geographic information system (GIS) is a complex computer system which stores and presents geographically referenced data. GIS is more efficient than pen and ink for making a map: Objects can be added or removed, colors brightened or toned town, and mistakes corrected without having to tear up the paper and start from scratch. Each type of information can be stored in a layer. Separate layers could be created for boundaries of countries, bodies of water, roads, and names of places. Most maps combine several layers and GIS maps permits construction of much more complex maps than can be drawn by hand.

The acquisition of data about Earth’s surface from a satellite orbiting Earth or from airplanes is known as remote sensing. At any moment a satellite sensor records the image of a tiny area called a picture element, or pixel. A map created by remote sensing is essentially a grid that contains many rows of pixels.

Geographers use remote sensing to map the changing distribution of a wide variety of features, such as agriculture, drought, and sprawl.

Collecting and Sharing Data: VGI Electronic devices such as smart phones, tablets, and computers are ubiquitous parts of culture the world over today. These electronic devices allow individuals to produce maps and share them with others. Volunteered geographic information (VGI) is the creation and dissemination of geographic data contributed voluntarily and for free by individuals utilizing these electronic devices. VGI is part of the wider trends of citizen science, which is scientific research conducted by amateur scientists, and participatory GIS (PGIS), which is community-based mapping.

The term mashup refers to the practice of overlaying data from one source on top of one of the mapping services. Computer users have the ability to do their own GIS because mapping services provide access to the application programming interface, which is the language that links a database such as an address list with software such as mapping. A mashup map can show the locations of businesses and activities within a neighborhood in a city. The requested information could be all pizza parlors within a mile of a certain address. Mapping software can also show the precise locations of gas stations with the lowest prices or current traffic tie-ups on highways.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Map Scale The map’s scale is the relationship between map units and the actual distance on Earth.

Ratio or fraction scale gives the relationship as a ratio, for example, 1:100,000 is that 1 unit on the map equals 100,000 units on the ground. In a written scale units are expressed in a convenient way, for example, “1 centimeter equals 1 kilometer.” A graphic scale is given by a scale bar showing the distance represented on Earth’s surface.

Projection Maps are a planar (flat) representation of Earth’s curved surface. Earth is nearly a sphere and is therefore only accurately represented on a globe. Thus, some distortion must result when using maps, especially at small scales (continental or whole-Earth maps). Cartographers must choose a projection that results in some set of distortions between shape, distance, relative size, and direction.

Latitude and Longitude Mathematical location describes a place’s location using a coordinate system such as latitude and longitude. Longitude is culturally defined as starting at Greenwich, England, and measures degrees of east and west of that line of longitude, or meridian. The zero degree longitude line in Greenwich, England, is known as the prime meridian. Latitude measures north and south distance with the equator (0° latitude) being the line of latitude halfway between the North Pole (90° north latitude) and the South Pole (90° south latitude). A latitude line is known as a parallel because all latitude lines are parallel to the equator. The equator is the parallel with the greatest circumference and is the baseline for measuring latitude.

Telling Time Longitude plays an important role in calculating time. If we let every fifteenth degree of longitude represent one time zone, and divide 360 degrees by 15 degrees, we get 24 time zones. As the Earth rotates eastward, any place to the east of you always passes under the Sun earlier. Thus as you travel eastward from the prime meridian you are catching up with the Sun, so you must turn your clock ahead 1 hour by each 15 degrees. If you travel westward from the prime meridian, you are falling behind the Sun, so you turn your clock back by 1 hour for each 15 degrees. During the summer, many places in the world, including most of North America, move the clocks ahead 1 hour. Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), or Universal Time (UT), is the master reference time for all points on Earth.

When you cross the International Date Line you move the clock back one entire day, if you are heading eastward, toward America. You turn the clock ahead 24 hours if you are heading westward, toward Asia.

The International Date Line for the most part follows 180 degrees longitude. However, several islands in the Pacific Ocean belonging to the countries of Kiribati and Samoa, as well as to New Zealand’s Tokelau territory, moved the International Date Line several thousand kilometers to the east.

Key Issue 2: Why Is Each Point on Earth Unique?

Place: A Unique Location An essential aspect of geography is the process of describing the features of a place. Through these descriptions, similarities, differences, and changes across Earth may be explained by geographers. The component parts, or features, that make each place on Earth distinct may be examined to assist in these descriptions. A feature’s place on the Earth may be identified by its location, the position that something occupies on Earth’s surface.

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Chapter 1: Basic Concepts Place Names A place name, or toponym, is the most common way of describing a location. Many uninhabited places are even named. Place names sometimes reflect the cultural history of a place, and a change in place name is often culturally motivated. Examining changes in place name geography is a useful insight into the changing cultural context of a place. The Board of Geographical Names was established in the late nineteenth century to be the final arbiter of names on U.S. maps. In recent years the board has been especially concerned with removing offensive place names.

Site The term site makes reference to the physical characteristics of a place. Important site characteristics include climate, water sources, topography, soil, vegetation, latitude, and elevation. The combination of physical features gives each place a distinctive character. People disagree on the attributes of a good location for settlement. What is considered a good site depends on cultural values.

Situation The term situation describes a place in terms of its location relative to other places.

Understanding situation can help locate an unfamiliar place in terms of known places, or it can help explain the significance of a place. We give directions to people by referring to the situation of a place.

We identify important buildings, streets, and other landmarks to direct people to the desired location.

Region: A Unique Area An area of Earth defined by one or more distinctive characteristics is a region.

A particular place can be included in more than one region, depending on how the region is defined.

A region gains uniqueness from possessing not a single human or environmental characteristic but a combination of them. The cultural landscape is a recurrent theme throughout this text. It represents the total sum of cultural, economic, and environmental forces combining to make distinctive landscapes across Earth.

Formal Region A formal region, also called a uniform region, is a region with a predominant or universal characteristic. Formal regions commonly have well-defined boundaries. The shared feature could be a cultural value such as a common language or an environmental property such as climate. In a formal region, the selected characteristic is present throughout the region. Some formal regions are easy to identify, such as countries or local government units. A characteristic may just be predominant rather than universal. For example, the North American wheat belt is a formal region in which wheat is the most commonly grown crop, but other crops are grown there as well.

Functional Region A functional region, also known as a nodal region, is defined by an area of use or influence of some feature. Often used in economic geography, functional regions have “fuzzy” boundaries as the influence of the central feature decreases over distance. The functional region is organized around a focal point. A good example of a functional region is the reception area of a television station. A television station’s signal is strongest at the center of its service area and becomes weaker at the edge and eventually can no longer be distinguished. At some distance from the center, more people are watching a station originating in another city. That place is the boundary between functional regions of two TV market areas.

Vernacular Region A vernacular region, or perceptual region, is the most ambiguously defined as they rely on a mental conception of a place as belonging to a common region for complex cultural reasons. Such regions emerge from people’s informal sense of place rather than scientific models

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography developed through geographic thought. A vernacular region is an individual’s mental map, which is an internal representation of a portion of Earth’s surface. A mental map depicts what an individual knows about a place, containing personal impressions of what is in the place and where the place is located.

Culture Regions One of the defining characteristics of a region that helps geographers identify regions is culture. Culture is a body of customary beliefs, material traits, and social forms that together constitutes the distinct tradition of a group of people. The word culture originates from the Latin cultus, meaning “to care for.” Culture is a complex concept, comprising two different meanings: to care about (to adore or worship something) and to take care of (to nurse or look after something). Region is analyzed by geographers using both of these aspects of the concept of culture.

Culture: What People Care About Important cultural values derive from a group’s language, religion, and ethnicity. These three cultural traits are both an excellent way of identifying the location of a culture and the principle means by which cultural values become distributed around the world. These cultural traits are covered in detail in chapters 5, 6, and 7.

Culture: What People Take Care Of Another element of culture of interest to geographers is production of material wealth—the food, clothing, and shelter that humans need to survive and thrive. All people consume food, wear clothing, and build shelter, but different cultural groups obtain their wealth in different ways. Various characteristics—such as per capita income, literacy rates, and TVs per capita— distinguish developed regions and developing ones. Most people in developing countries are engaged in agriculture, whereas most people in developed countries earn their living through performing services in exchange for wages. These concepts are discussed in chapters 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13.

Spatial Association Different levels of regional analysis can demonstrate dramatically different characteristics. Geographers attempt to explain regional differences by looking for factors with similar distributions. Spatial association arises if the distribution of one feature located in a region is related to the distribution of another feature.

Key Issue 3: Why Are Different Places Similar?

Scale: Global and Local Scale is an integral element of geographical analysis, especially as it concerns issues of globalization. Globalization is a force or process that engages the world as a whole and results in making something worldwide in scope.

Economic Globalization and Local Diversity The globalization of economic activities has come as a result of increasing connections between places and the rapid movement of goods and information around the world. Every place in the world is part of the global economy. Transnational corporations are often seen as emblematic of this globalization. Transnational corporations conduct research, operate factories, and sell products in many countries, not just where its headquarters and principle shareholders are located. Each place in the world plays a distinctive role in the global economy based on its local assets, as assessed by transnational corporations.

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Chapter 1: Basic Concepts Cultural Globalization and Local Diversity Economic globalization is matched with an increasing global influence and spread of some cultures, resulting in more uniform cultural landscapes across the world. Groups with distinctive local cultures may feel threatened by the globalization of culture, causing conflict or a sense of loss. The survival of a local culture’s distinctive beliefs, forms, and traits may be threatened by interaction with social customs as wearing jeans and Nike shoes, consuming Coca-Cola and McDonald’s hamburgers, and communicating using cell phones and computers. Yet despite globalization, cultural differences among places not only persist but actually flourish in many places.

Space: Distribution of Features Geographers think about the arrangement of people and activities found in space and try to understand why those people and activities are distributed across space as they are.

Geographers use the concept of distribution to describe the spatial arrangement of objects across Earth’s surface. Three aspects of spatial arrangement may be used to further describe distribution: density, concentration, and pattern.

Distribution Properties: Density Density measures the number of features per area of land. Other measures, such as physiological or agricultural density, are based on a subgroup of people or a subtype of land.

Distribution Properties: Concentration The extent of a feature’s spread over space is its concentration.

If the objects in an area are close together, they are clustered; if they are far apart they are dispersed.

Geographers use concentration to explain distribution. In a dispersed neighborhood, each house has a large private yard, whereas in a clustered neighborhood, the houses are close together and open space is shared as a community park.

Distribution Properties: Pattern The term pattern describes whether features are arranged along geometric or other predictable arrangements. Geographers observe that many objects form a linear distribution, such as the arrangement of houses along a street or stations along a subway line. Many American cities contain a regular pattern of streets, known as a grid pattern, which intersect at right angles at uniform intervals to form square or rectangular blocks.

Cultural Identity and Distribution across Space Humans often arrange their activities in space according to gender, ethnicity, and sexuality. Most concepts of difference among humans are culturally constructed and changes in cultural concepts of difference are sometimes reflected in changing arrangements. People sharing a common ethnic identity tend to cluster in urban areas. Openly homosexual men and lesbian women may be attracted to some locations to reinforce spatial interactions with other LGBTQQIAAP (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer, Questions, Intersex, Asexual, Allies, and Pansexual)-identifying people. Inequality remains a focus for geographers studying distribution by gender.

Space: Inequality Cultural traits, such as gender, ethnicity, and sexuality, impact the distribution and movement of people across space.

Cultural Identity and Contemporary Geography Thought The experiences of women differ from those of men, blacks from whites, gays from straights, and boys from girls. Geographers employ a variety

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography of methods to understand cultural identity and space, including those of poststructuralist, humanistic, and behavioral geography.

Poststructuralist geography examines how the powerful in a society dominate, or seek to control, less powerful group, how the dominated groups occupy space, and confrontations that result from the domination. Poststructuralist geographers conceptualize space as the product of ideologies or value systems of ruling elites.

Humanistic geography is a branch of human geography that emphasizes the different ways that individuals perceive their surrounding environment.

Behavioral geography emphasizes the importance of understanding the psychological basis for individual human actions in space. Distinctive spatial patterns by gender, race, and sexual orientation are constructed by the attitudes and actions of others. Although it is illegal to discriminate against people of color, spatial segregation persists. In many places in the world, it is legal to discriminate against gays. For geographers, concern for cultural diversity in not merely a political expediency; it lies at the heart of geography’s spatial tradition.

Unequal Access In the modern world, barriers to interaction are more likely to derive from unequal access to electronics. Internet access depends on availability of electricity to power the computer and a service provider. A person must be able to afford to pay for the communications equipment and service.

Countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America find themselves on a periphery with respect to wealthier core regions of North America, Europe, and Japan. The increasing gap in economic conditions between regions in the core and periphery that results from globalization is known as uneven development. In a global culture and economy, every area of the world plays some role intertwined with the roles played by other regions.

Connections: Diffusion Recalling the concept of connections from the beginning of the chapter, geographers may analyze three different outcomes of these relationships between people and objects that cross the barrier of space: assimilation, acculturation, and syncretism. Assimilation is the process by which a group’s cultural features are altered to resemble those of another group. The cultural features of one group may come to dominate the culture of the assimilated group. Acculturation is the process of changes in culture that result from the meeting of two groups. Changes may be experienced by both of the interacting cultural groups, but the two groups retain two distinct culture features. Syncretism is the combination of elements of two groups into a new cultural feature. The two cultural groups come together to form a new culture.

Diffusion Diffusion is the process by which a feature spreads across space from one place to another over time. A feature originates at a hearth and diffuses from there to other places. A hearth is a place from which an innovation emerges.

Relocation Diffusion The term connection refers to the relationships among people and objects across the barrier of space. Diffusion refers to the spread of anything from a cultural trait, people, things, or ideas from some point of origin (a hearth). Geographers document the location of hearths and the processes by

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Chapter 1: Basic Concepts which diffusion carries things elsewhere over time. The spread of an idea through the physical movement of people from one place to another is termed relocation diffusion. When people move, they carry with them their culture, including language, religion, and ethnicity.

Expansion Diffusion The spread of a feature from one place to another in an additive process is expansion diffusion. Expansion diffusion refers to the growth of an idea to new areas through a hierarchy (hierarchical diffusion), popular notions or even contact (contagious diffusion), or the spread of an underlying idea divorced from its original context (stimulus diffusion).

Connections: Spatial Interaction Some places are well-connected by communications or transportation networks, other are not as much. Contact diminishes with increasing distance and eventually disappears.

This trailing-off phenomenon is called distance decay. In the contemporary world, distance decay is much less severe because connection between places takes less time. Geographers apply the term spacetime compression to describe the reduction in time it takes for something to reach another place.

Interaction takes place through a network, which is a chain of communication that connects places. Ideas that originate in a hearth are now able to diffuse rapidly to other areas through communication networks.

Distant places seem less remote and more accessible to us.

Key Issue 4: Why Are Some Actions Not Sustainable?

A resource is a substance in the environment that is useful to people, economically and technologically feasible to access, and socially acceptable to use. A renewable resource is produced in nature more rapidly than it is consumed by humans. A nonrenewable resource is produced in nature more slowly than it is consumed by humans. The use of Earth’s renewable and nonrenewable natural resources in ways that ensure resource availability in the future is sustainability.

Three Pillars of Sustainability According to the United Nations, sustainability rests on three pillars: environment, economy, and society. Sustainability requires curtailing the use of nonrenewable resources and limiting the use of renewable resources to the level at which the environment can continue to supply them indefinitely. The sustainable use and management of Earth’s natural resources to meet human needs such as food, medicine, and recreation is conservation. Conservation differs from preservation, which is the maintenance of resources in their present condition, with as little human impact as possible.

Preservation does not regard nature as a resource for human use.

Sustainability’s Critics Biologically productive land is defined as the amount of land required to produce the resources currently consumed and handle the wastes currently generated by the world’s 7 billion people at current levels of technology. The Earth has only 11.4 billion hectares of biologically productive land, so humans are already using all of the productive land and none is left for future growth.

Others have said that resource availability has no maximum, and Earth’s resources have no absolute limit because the definition of resources changes drastically and unpredictably over time.

Sustainability and Earth’s Physical Systems A biotic system is composed of living organisms. An abiotic system is composed of nonliving or inorganic matter. Three of Earth’s four systems are abiotic.

The atmosphere is a thin layer of gases surrounding Earth. The hydrosphere is all the water on Earth or

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography near Earth’s surface. The lithosphere is Earth’s crust and a portion of upper mantle directly above the crust. Only one of Earth’s systems is biotic. The biosphere is all living organisms on Earth, including plants and animals, as well as microorganisms.

The long-term average weather condition at a particular location is climate. Climate may be classified into one of five main climate regions, devised by the German climatologist Wladimir Köppen: • • • • •

A: Humid low-latitude climates.

B: Dry climates.

C: Warm mid-latitude climates.

D: Cold mid-latitude climates.

E: Polar climates.

These five main climate regions may be further subdivided, based on the amount of precipitation and the season in which it falls.

Ecology and the Biosphere A group of living organisms and abiotic spheres with which they interact is an ecosystem. The scientific study of ecosystems is ecology. Living organisms in the biosphere interact with each of the three abiotic systems. Human geographers are especially interested in ecosystems involving the interaction of humans with the rest of the biosphere and the three abiotic spheres. If the atmosphere contains pollutants or its oxygen level is reduced, humans have trouble breathing. Without water, humans waste away and die. A stable lithosphere provides humans with materials for buildings and fuel for energy. The rest of the biosphere provides humans with food.

Cultural Ecology: Integrating Culture and Ecology Human geographers are especially interested in the fact that different cultural groups modify the natural environment in distinctive ways. The geographic study of human-environmental relationships is known as cultural ecology. Environmental determinism, largely dismissed by modern geographers, states that physical factors cause cultures to develop and behave as they do. Environmental determinists believe that human geographers should apply laws from the natural sciences to understanding relationships between the physical environment and human actions. Possibilism recognizes the constraints of the physical environment while also crediting human cultures with the ability to adapt to the environment in many ways—including by changing it.

Sustainable Ecosystem: The Netherlands A polder is a piece of land that is created by draining water from an area. All together, the Netherlands has 2600 square miles of polders. The Dutch government has reserved most of the polders for agriculture to reduce the country’s dependence on imported food. The Dutch have also constructed massive dikes to prevent the North Sea from flooding much of the country. A second ambitious project in the Netherlands is the Delta Plan. The low-lying delta in the southwestern part of the country is very vulnerable to flooding. The Delta Plan called for the construction of several dams to close off most of the waterways from the North Sea. The lowlands in South Florida are environmentally sensitive areas, but have been modified less sensitively than those in the Netherlands. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers built a levee around Lake Okeechobee during the 1930s, drained the northern one-third of the Everglades during the 1940s, and

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Chapter 1: Basic Concepts diverted the Kissimmee River into canals during the 1950s. These modifications opened up hundreds of thousands of hectares of land for growing sugarcane and protecting farmland as well as the land occupied by the growing South Florida population from flooding. Polluted water, mainly from cattle grazing along the banks on the canals, flowed into Lake Okeechobee. The modification of barrier islands along South Florida’s coast by humans has caused a lot of damage.

Icebreaker This chapter may seem superficial to many instructors, but keep in mind it is new ground for many students. For example, a 2006 National Geographic/Roper poll of Americans aged 18–24 found the following: “48% of young Americans believe the majority population in India is Muslim. . . . Half of young Americans can’t find New York on a map.”

This illustrates the challenge you face as a geography educator. Instead of calling attention to these statistics to your students, consider being positive in your introduction, as introducing this chapter will set the tone for the remainder of the course. This is your chance to emphasize the importance of geographic knowledge of all of your students, regardless of their eventual fields of study.

What is geography? Why is it important?

A class discussion of what geography is, and why it is important, is always a useful place to start with any geography course. Reasons for the importance of geography will vary by instructor, but a useful example of inquiry is provided in this chapter’s presentation of the ways in which the Dutch have altered their environment. Here are some other events to use as examples of geographic relevance at your own discretion: • • •

The Japanese earthquake and tsunami of 2011. This example is another great one, like the Netherlands, to show the interrelatedness of human and physical geography.

The September 11, 2001, attack on the World Trade Center (and other targets).

Ask your students where their footwear, clothing, or cars come from. Is there anything geographic about this?

What is the name of your town? Where is that? What is it like?

The terminology associated with place and region may be difficult for students to grasp. Explaining how we describe places every day will help build an understanding of how geographers think about place.

Try this method in class: Ask the students individually where they are from until a place name not in the immediate area is encountered. If you are not familiar with the place (or even if you are), ask, “Where is that?”

Explain that the students are using place names, or toponyms, to describe where they are from, but the place name is only useful as long as everyone knows where the place name is referring to.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography When a place name is unfamiliar, we need to refer to situation factors (and sometimes site factors) to tell people where a place is.

Mathematical location might seem quite abstract to students, but ask how many can list their addresses and zip codes. While not mathematical in the same way as latitude and longitude or UTM coordinates, the street address does represent a unique description of a discrete place. An Internet mapping program (e.g., Google Maps) can be used to demonstrate these concepts.

Challenges to Comprehension Scale Many, including professional geographers, confuse large and small scales. The smaller the scale, the larger the area covered. For example a globe is a very small-scale representation of Earth. Yet many persist in referring to global issues as occurring at a “large scale.”

To avoid confusion, consider referring to scales as “local”, “regional”, or “global.” This also helps emphasize the text’s themes of global vs. local contrasts.

These concepts are reinforced in Chapter 1’s Key Issue 3, Why Are Different Places Similar?

Understanding Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Students often confuse a geographic information system (GIS) with the Global Positioning System (GPS).

Students rarely understand the importance of GIS to many processes that we take for granted in society.

However, there are a variety of Internet resources which demonstrate how much a part of our everyday lives GIS are becoming. Some online examples include: • • •

Zillow (see “Resources” section) Real property databases managed by county or city governments (e.g., the King County parcel viewer at www.kingcounty.gov/operations/GIS/PropResearch/ParcelViewer.aspx Numerous “mashups” available on an ever-changing basis (try googlemapsmania.blogspot.com)

Vernacular Regions Some have a difficult time with the idea of a vernacular region. The example in the textbook uses a number of overlapping formal regions in an attempt to describe the vernacular region of the South.

Consider using another example, especially one without a direction, as these examples can be confusing (students think that a vernacular region must contain compass direction).

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Chapter 1: Basic Concepts Cultural Landscapes The concept of a cultural landscape can be misunderstood as a principally environmental landscape. Help students learn about how pervasive cultural landscapes are by showing them some examples from around the world. Note that an Internet search for “cultural landscape” returns a number of results about extraordinary, famous, or unique landscapes; but cultural landscapes are pervasive and students will benefit from being able to interpret the cultural landscape of everyday places like their home towns.

The Great Mirror: Dr. Bret Wallach of the University of Oklahoma has posted a remarkable collection of photographs for the purpose of displaying cultural landscapes at his website The Great Mirror, www.greatmirror.com.

Another great option is the user-generated content featured on Panoramio (www.panoramio.com), which is also on Google Maps (maps.google.com), indexed under the “More . . . Photos” option. These photos are usually “scenic” features, but it’s possible to find more mundane cultural landscapes, too.

Assignments Review/Reflection Questions These questions can be used in addition to the “thinking geographically” questions at the end of each chapter. Students can be assigned these questions as homework, they can be given as essay questions on exams, or they can serve as focus questions for in-class discussions.

• • •

•

Describe the site, situation, and mathematical location of our school (alternative—your hometown).

Name three formal regions that this school is located within and give a reason for each. Do the same for functional and vernacular regions.

Describe an element of your culture that appears to be environmentally determined (caused by the natural environment). Can you now provide evidence that this cultural element is only one of many possibilities in the given environment?

Give a local example of not-so-sensitive environmental modification, as demonstrated in the book’s discussion of the Everglades. Are there multiple ways to achieve the desired result of an environmental modification? Discuss.

For additional review and test prep materials, have your students visit MasteringGeography™ to access a variety of resources, including interactive maps, videos, GoogleEarth activities, RSS feeds, flashcards, web links, and self-study quizzes.

Thinking Geographically Questions 1. Using geographic tools such as maps and GIS is not simply a mechanical exercise. Nor are decisions confined to scale, projection, and layers. For example, should the European country be labeled Czech Republic or Czechia? Czech authorities and citizens do not agree on the proper translation of the country’s Czech name Česky into English.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 2. What criteria should geographers use to label maps?

Geographers must use critical thinking skills to best label features on a map. For example, geographers must consider the origin of place names (toponyms), and examine whether the site of a place played a role in it receiving its name, or if cultural factors impacted its naming.

3. What are elements of the site and situation of your hometown?

4. Can you name another place to which your hometown has strong connections?

5. What is an example of a feature that connects your town to another?

Site: My hometown is located in the northern and western hemisphere. It is located in the midlatitudes.

My hometown is in the Mediterranean climatic zone dominated by chaparral vegetation. My hometown borders the Pacific Ocean. I live on a coastal plain with alfisol soils.

Situation: My hometown is about 45 miles from Disneyland and 75 miles from Downtown Los Angeles and Hollywood. Interstate 5 and Pacific Coast Highway run through my hometown and these are very important roads on the West Coast of the United States. My hometown is 5 miles from the San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station, which is one of the major sources of electricity in Southern California. The Camp Pendleton Marine Base is located two miles away from my hometown and is one of the largest military bases on the West Coast of the United States.

6. If you could live anyplace on Earth, where would it be? Why? 7. How might your choice be altered if you had access to a transportation device (such as available to Harry Potter) that enabled you to travel instantaneously to any place on Earth?

If this transportation device existed, a lot fewer people would live in urban areas. Many people in the developed world live in an urban area because they need to live near their place of employment. Workers don’t want the expense and hassle of very long commutes so they choose to live near their job. If they could instantaneously commute, many workers with families would choose to live in somewhat rural areas. Living in a less congested area is appealing to many people, but rural areas rarely offer many wellpaying jobs.

More people would live in temperate climates. Imagine if you could work a well-paying job in Fairbanks, Alaska, but not actually have to move to Fairbanks. You could live in Hawaii, but instantaneously commute to Fairbanks every day during the week. Many people live in the severe climates because they have a good job and family and friends in the area, not because they like subzero temperatures. With instantaneous travel, they could still see family and friends and continue to work their job, but not have to shovel snow to get out of their driveway most mornings.

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Chapter 1: Basic Concepts 8. What activities in your community appear to promote sustainability?

Southern California has numerous Recycling Centers. Recycling Centers are usually located in the back of large grocery stores. People get money for used plastic and glass bottles at these Recycling Centers.

Some of these Recycling Centers will also pay people for their aluminum cans too. There was a tax credit program in California recently that essentially gave money to homeowners who installed solar panels on the roofs of their homes. Wind turbines have recently been built in the nearby desert areas. California promotes sustainability more than a lot of states.

Pause and Reflect Questions 1.1.1: What are the principal connections from your hometown to other places?

1.1.2: What is one main difference between the world maps of Ptolemy (Figure 1-7) and of Ortelius (Figure 1-9)?

1.1.3: State a question you have about the area where you live. Describe a mashup that you could create using GIS that would answer your question.

1.1.4: Compare the sizes of Greenland and South America on the three maps in Figure 1-13. Which of the two landmasses is actually larger? How do you know?

1.1.5: Where in the world, other than Newfoundland, is standard time on the half-hour rather than the hour? Why might that country prefer not to be on the hour?

1.2.1: What is the origin of the toponym of your hometown?

1.2.2: What environmental and cultural features might help to define the region of the U.S. Midwest?

1.2.3: Describe differences that you see between U.S. and South Africa suburbs in Figure 1-23.

1.3.1: Give examples of changes in economy and culture occurring at global and local scales.

1.3.2: How would you describe the density, concentration, and pattern of chairs in your classroom?

1.3.3: Using your own campus or school as the example, describe how movement across space varies during the day for students and faculty.

1.3.4: How does region where you live compare in the percentage of children in poverty?

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 1.3.5: U.S. coins are minted in either Denver or Philadelphia. Take a look at your coins. Do you have more from the mint closer to you?

1.3.6: Is your nearest airport a hub? If not, to what hub do most flights go from you nearest airport?

1.4.1: What do you think might be the reaction of the men in Figure 1-46b to tourists such as those in Figure 1-46c?

1.4.2: Why would maps of Earth’s hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere be important in the quest for sustainability?

1.4.3: How might a bird interact with each of the four spheres?

1.4.4: Which is better positioned to face future threats to sustainability, the Netherlands or California?

Why?

Google Earth Questions GOOGLE EARTH 1.1 What are the precise latitude and longitude of the U.S. Capitol building?

38o 53’ 22.73” N 77o 00’ 31.79” W GOOGLE EARTH 1.2 What characteristics of site and situation are visible in an aerial view of New Orleans?

Site is low-lying area along the Mississippi River. Situation is near the mouth of the river where it flows into the Gulf of Mexico.

GOOGLE EARTH 1.3 Fly to Spring Valley, Nevada. Click on the time slider to view historical imagery.

How have the properties of distribution of Spring Valley, Nevada, changed over time?

Density: the site was undeveloped desert in the 1950s and 1960s, and density started to increase in the 1970s. Concentration: housing is clustered on the north side of the image. Pattern: subdivisions have rectangular shapes inside curved shapes.

GOOGLE EARTH 1.4 How many dams do you see along the southwestern coast of the Netherlands, in the vicinity of the town of Stellendam?

Three.

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Chapter 1: Basic Concepts

Resources Zillow (www.zillow.com) Zillow’s mapping interface demonstrates some of the increasingly sophisticated geographic information available over the Internet. Zillow uses data from property records, street addresses, and sales histories to create estimates of property values. This site can be used to demonstrate a number of geographic concepts in addition to the uses of GIS. For example, amenities and/or disamenities are shown to have an influence on property values.

Not all locations are available on this service, but a view of the United States as a whole is an immediately engaging demonstration of how geography matters, as median prices on houses in Midwestern states are significantly lower than east or west coast states.

Connections between Chapters Chapter 1 does not spend much time introducing the structure and organization of the book, which allows for your own organization. Emphasizing the overarching structure of the book may help your students to approach the subject as holistic rather than just one chapter at a time.

The concepts in Chapter 1 lay the foundations for the remainder of the text. Especially important in Chapter 1 is the vocabulary associated with key geographic concepts, as the concepts associated with distribution, spatial association, and regions recur throughout the text.

Another fundamental concepts introduced with culture is the division between more and less developed countries. This idea is continued in the first paragraphs of Chapter 2. You can reinforce these concepts by providing previews for future chapters. You can also emphasize these concepts by explicitly referring back to the definition when they occur in subsequent chapters.

An overarching theme throughout the text and frequently referenced in the beginning of each chapter is the tension between forces of globalization and attempts to preserve local diversity. Each chapter introduction also references places, regions, where and why questions of geography, and spatial connections.

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Population and Health

2

Learning Outcomes After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to: Learning Outcome 2.1.1:

Understand the distribution of the world’s people.

Learning Outcome 2.1.2:

Understand why some regions have clustered populations and other regions are sparsely inhabited.

Learning Outcome 2.1.3:

Define three types of density used in population geography.

Learning Outcome 2.2.1:

Understand historical and recent rates of natural increase.

Learning Outcome 2.2.2:

Recognize regional variations in fertility and mortality.

Learning Outcome 2.2.3:

Describe the stages of the demographic transition.

Learning Outcome 2.3.1:

Understand reasons for varying sex ratios and for reduced birth rates.

Learning Outcome 2.3.2:

Understand the impact of the demographic transition on the percentages of young and old.

Learning Outcome 2.3.3:

Understand variations in health-care services between developed and developing nations.

Learning Outcome 2.3.4:

Summarize the four stages of the epidemiologic transition.

Learning Outcome 2.4.1:

Summarize arguments supporting and opposing Malthus’s theory of the connection between population and resources.

Learning Outcome 2.4.2:

Understand the future population of the world’s most populous countries and elements of a possible stage 5 of the demographic transition.

Learning Outcome 2.4.3:

Understand reasons for a possible stage 5 of the epidemoiologic transition.

Learning Outcome 2.4.4:

Understand reasons for declining birth rates.

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Chapter 2: Population and Health

Chapter Outline Introduction More people are presently alive than at any other point in Earth’s history, with population growth mostly concentrated in developing countries. Can Earth sustain more than the 7 billion people that currently call it home, let alone the added billions in the future? Geographers have unique perspectives on the ability of people to live on Earth. Population growth in developing countries, such as Indonesia (the fourth most populous country in the world), will greatly affect the future population of the world as a whole.

Key Issue 1: Where Are the World’s People Distributed?

Introducing Population and Health Geographers examine population problems by first identifying where people are found across the Earth. The location of Earth’s 7 billion people forms a regular distribution. Chapter 2 explains the spatial variation in population growth rates. With the rate of world population growth slowing in the twenty-first century, geographers have turned their attention to the global differences in access to health-care. The study of population geography is especially important for three reasons: • • •

More people are alive at this time than at any other point in Earth’s long history.

Virtually all global population growth is concentrated in developing countries.

The world’s population increased at a faster rate during the second half of the twentieth century than ever before in history; the rate has slowed in the twenty-first century but is still high by historical standards.

Overpopulation occurs when the number of people in an area surpasses the ability of the environment to support life at an adequate standard of living. The capacity of the Earth to sustain appreciable population growth differs at varying scales; some regions may feature a favorable balance between people and resources, whereas others may not. The census is the data source most readily used for analysis in population geography. Despite its importance, two issues relating to the census have been identified: •

•

Nonparticipation. Homeless (unsheltered) people, ethnic minorities, and citizens of other countries who do not possess proper immigration documentation may be less likely to participate in the census.

Sampling. Statistical sampling techniques can be used to get a more accurate count, as well as to identify detailed characteristics of people, housing, and businesses. People sympathetic to the needs of the homeless and immigrants have been in support of sampling in contrast to people from more rural areas.

Distribution of the World’s People The world’s population is not distributed uniformly; two properties may be employed by Geographers to understand this distribution: concentration and density. These concepts can be displayed cartographically many ways, such as looking at concentration using a cartogram.

Population Concentrations Two-thirds of the Earth’s population are clustered in four regions. These four regions are characterized by low-lying terrain, with fertile soil and temperate climate. Concentrations of people are found near oceans (or rivers with easy access to an ocean) rather than in the interior of major landmasses.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Four Clusters The four aforementioned population clusters – East Asia, South Asia, Europe, and Southeast Asia, exhibit differences in the pattern of the occupancy of the land.

East Asia Nearly a quarter of the Earth’s population is centered in East Asia. East Asia’s population is mostly concentrated in China, but also Japan, North and South Korea, and Taiwan. Population is clustered near fertile river valleys and the Pacific Coast. About half of China’s population reside in urban areas.

South Asia Roughly a quarter of the world population lives in South Asia, comprising the countries of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. Population is concentrated along the Indus and Ganges rivers, and also along the two coasts of India (the Arabian Sea to the west and the Bay of Bengal to the east).

Europe Four dozen countries constitute Europe, ranging from Monaco (with 1 square kilometer in land area) to Russia (the world’s largest country by land area, including its Asian part). People occupy mostly cities, with three-quarters of Europe’s inhabitants living in urban areas.

Southeast Asia Approximately 600 million people live in Southeast Asia, with population concentrated on a series of islands that lie between the Indian and Pacific oceans. This concentration is distinguished by a high percentage of people working as farmers in rural areas.

Other Clusters Africa’s two largest population clusters amount to roughly 300 million people, are located along the west coast between Senegal and Mogeroa and along the east coast between Eritrea and South Africa. Most Africans work as farmers. In the Western Hemisphere, northeastern United States, and southeastern Canada make up the largest population cluster, with 100 million people.

Sparsely Populated Regions The ecumene describes the areas of permanent human habitation. Examining the changes in ecumene reveal some areas where humans do not live in large numbers. The ecumenes that are sparsely populated are very dry areas, very wet areas, very cold areas, and mountains. There are large cities in the mountains of Mexico and along the Andes because the climate is more temperate in the mountains in Latin America than in the lowlands. Africa also has some populations living at higher altitudes.

Dry Lands Twenty percent of Earth’s land surface is covered by areas too dry for farming. While deserts cannot support agricultural activity due to insufficient water supplies, some populations have adapted to these circumstances, raising animals that are tolerant to the climate.

Wet Lands Poor soil conditions, caused by very high levels of precipitation and extreme heat, hinder human occupation near the equator.

Cold Lands Few humans live near the North and South poles, as much of the land is permanently frozen (permafrost) and few animals capable of domestication are tolerant to the extreme cold temperatures.

High Lands Many high elevation areas in the world are inhospitable to human settlement due to the mountains dominating these landscapes being steep and snow covered. Some plateau and mountain regions can support human settlement, especially those at low altitudes (near the equator) where agriculture is possible at high elevations.

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Chapter 2: Population and Health Population Density The number of people occupying a defined area of land, previously described in Chapter 1 as density, reveal the distribution of people compared to available resources. Three measures of density are widely used by Geographers: arithmetic density, physiological density, and agricultural density.

Arithmetic Density In population geography arithmetic density refers to the total number of people divided by the total land area (usually square kilometers or square miles). Arithmetic density enables geographers to compare the number of people trying to live on a given piece of land in different regions of the world.

Physiological Density Land suitable for agriculture is called arable land. In a region, the number of people supported by a unit area of arable land is called the physiological density. Physiological density can be considered a rough measure of a country’s food security. A large difference between the physiological density and arithmetic density indicates that most of a country’s land is unsuitable for intensive agriculture.

Agricultural Density The number of farmers per area of arable land is the agricultural density.

Agricultural density is used by geographers as a measure of development. Many more machines are used for agriculture in more developed countries. With more machines being used in agriculture, fewer farmers are needed. Also, more developed countries have the technology and capital to allow a few people to farm extensive land areas and feed many people. Physiological and agricultural densities may be used in concert to help geographers understand relationships between population and resources in a country.

Key Issue 2: Why Is World Population Increasing?

Natural Increase The natural increase rate (NIR) is the percentage by which a population grows in a year, excluding growth by migration.

Population Growth in History For the several hundred-thousand-year occupancy of Earth, the NIR was essentially zero. While the world NIR peaked in 1963 at a rate of 2.2 percent and has been in decline since the 1990s, the NIR during the second half of the twentieth century was considerably high by historical standards. The number of people added annually has decreased from a historic peak of 88 million in 1989 to the present level of 75 million people. This drop is less acute than the drop in NIR as the world population base is larger now than in the past. World population increased from 3 to 4 billion in 14 years, from 4 to 5 billion in 13 years, from 5 to 6 billion in 12 years, and from 6 to 7 billion in 12 years.

The NIR affects the doubling time, which is the number of years required to double a population, assuming a steady rate of natural increase. If the present rate of 1.2 percent per year holds, world population would double in approximately 54 years.

Life expectancy is the average number of years an individual can be anticipated to live, assuming current social, economic, and medical conditions remain in place. Life expectancy in developed countries is about 80 years, while in developing countries in sub-Saharan Africa is only 57 years.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Regional Variations in NIR More than 95 percent of the natural increase is concentrated in developing countries. In most countries of sub-Saharan Africa, the NIR is greater than 2.0 percent. In contrast to the relatively high NIR in developing countries, Europe’s NIR is negative, meaning that population is in decline (and has been in decline since 1980). Since 1980, 67 percent of the world’s population growth has been centered in Asia, 20 percent in Africa, and 9 percent in Latin America.

Births and Deaths Population increases rapidly in locations where more people are born than die, and it decreases in locations where more people die than are born.

Fertility The crude birth rate (CBR) is the total number of live births in a year for every thousand people alive in society.

Mortality The crude death rate (CDR) is the total number of deaths in a year for every thousand people in society.

The Demographic Transition The demographic transition is a model of population change where high birth rates and death rates transition to low birth rates and death rates. It is divided into four stages.

Stage 1: Low Growth In stage 1, crude birth and death rates are both high, resulting in a low rate of natural increase. For most of this period, people depended on hunting and gathering for food. When food was easily obtained, a region’s population increased, but it declined when people were unable to locate enough animals or vegetation nearby. There are no countries presently in stage 1.

Stage 2: High Growth The move to stage 2 is caused by a rapid decline in crude death rates. Crude birth rates remain high, leading to rapid population growth. Developed regions such as Europe and North America entered stage 2 as a part of the Industrial Revolution. Many less developed countries entered stage 2 much later as a result of the diffusion of medical technologies and knowledge into the less developed world (the medical revolution).

Stage 3: Moderate Growth Stage 3 is marked by a drop in fertility, which brings down the crude birth rate and decreases the natural increase rate. A society enters stage 3 when people have fewer children.

The decision to have fewer children is partly a reaction to a decline in mortality. The crude death rate in stage 3 societies continues to fall but not as rapidly as the crude birth rate.

Stage 4: Low Growth Stage 4 is marked by a nearly equal low crude birth and death rates, and roughly zero natural increase. This condition is called zero population growth (ZPG), a term often applied to stage 4 countries. Stage 4 resembles stage 1 in terms of growth, but otherwise is very different. Total population of a country is much higher in stage 4 than in stage 1. Also, instead of high crude birth and death rates, both are low. Life expectancies are much longer in stage 4 and society is much different.

Key Issue 3: Why Do Some Places Face Health Challenges?

Health and Gender Females the world over are exposed to a host of challenging health risks that deeply affect the size and composition of the population of individual countries and the world as a whole.

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Chapter 2: Population and Health Baby Girls at Risk Every year, around 700,000 female babies are “missing” in China and India, as a result of gender-based selection. Over the past several decades, it is estimated that 117 million females have gone “missing” over the past several decades. The number of males per 100 females in the population is the sex ratio. The standard biological level for humans at birth is approximately 105 male babies for 100 female babies. Developed countries have more females than males because on average women live seven years longer than men. The large number of male babies in countries like China and India has raised the possibility that a relatively large number of female fetuses are being aborted due to cultural preferences on the part of parents to have sons rather than daughters. In order to address the imbalance of male to female births, the “root cause” of this sex selection, gender inequality (as defined by the United Nations), must be recognized.

Mothers at Risk The maternal mortality rate is the annual number of female deaths per 100,000 live births from any cause related to or aggravated by pregnancy or its management (excluding accidental or incidental causes). The rate in many countries of Africa and Asia exceeds 100 deaths per 100,000 mothers, while fewer than 10 deaths per 100,000 mothers in most European countries.

Health and Aging A country’s stage of the demographic transition determines the proportion of people in different age groups. The varying number of people in different age groups reveals the specific health challenges a country faces.

Population Pyramids A population pyramid provides graphical insight into the age and sex composition of a locations’ population, with 5-year age cohorts and gender represented by bars. The youngest cohort is located at the base of the graph, while the oldest is at the top. We can tell by one look whether a population is growing rapidly (wide base), has a long or short life expectancy (tall or short pyramid), or is aging and stable (straight sides). Population pyramids help geographers identify which stage of the demographic transition a country occupies.

Caring for Young and Old One important way to compare age structure among countries is the dependency ratio, which shows the people who are too young and too old to work, compared to the number of people in their productive years. People who are 0–14 years of age or over 64 years old are normally classified as dependents. The large number of children in a poor country strains the ability of that country to be able to provide needed services such as schools, hospitals, and day care centers.

The infant mortality rate (IMR) is the annual number of deaths of infants under 1 year of age, compared with total live births, expressed as the number of deaths among infants per 1,000 births. IMR is an indicator of a country’s health-care system. Lower IMRs are found in countries with well-trained doctors and nurses, modern hospitals, and large supplies of medicine. Life expectancy is most favorable in wealthy countries in Europe and least favorable in the poor countries of sub-Saharan Africa.

The “graying” of a country’s population places a burden on the working population to meet the needs of older people for income and medical care after they retire from their job. This burden can be analyzed using the elderly support ratio. The elderly support ratio is the number of working-age people (ages 15-64) divided by the number of persons 65 and older.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Medical Services Health conditions differ from country to country, and each country possesses different resources for people in need of health care.

Health Care Developed countries devote resources to protect populations that are unable to work.

Investment into health care comprise more than 15 percent of total government expenditures in Europe and North America, in contrast to the less than 5 percent invested by sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia.

Medical Facilities The state of medical facilities in a developed country mirror the investment in health care. Most countries in Europe have more than 50 hospital beds per 10,000 people, compared to fewer than 5 in sub-Saharan Africa. Health care is available at little or no cost as a public service in most developed countries. The United States, however, is an outlier among developed countries in that private individuals are mandated to pay an average of 55 percent of health care expenses. While robust economic growth allowed for generous programs to be financed by developed countries in the past, sluggish economic growth has prevented these programs from sufficiently servicing populations in need of care.

The Epidemiologic Transition Epidemiology is the branch of medical science concerned with the incidence, distribution, and control of diseases that are prevalent among a population at a specific time and are produced by some special causes not generally present in the affected place. The epidemiologic transition, conceptualized by Abdel Omran in 1971, focuses on distinctive health threats in each stage of the demographic transition. Geographic concepts such as scale and connection are utilized by epidemiologists to understand the distribution and method of diffusion of possible epidemics, and to develop control and prevention strategies.

Stage 1: Pestilence and Famine In stage 1 of the epidemiologic transition, infectious and parasitic diseases were principal causes of human deaths. Accidents and attacks by animals and other humans were also prevalent causes of death at the time. History’s most violent stage 1 epidemic was the Black Plague (bubonic plague), which was probably transmitted to humans by fleas from migrating infected rats.

Stage 2: Receding Pandemics A pandemic is disease that occurs over a wide geographic area and affects a very high proportion of the population. Improved sanitation, nutrition, and medicine during the Industrial Revolution reduced the spread of infectious diseases. Death rates did not decline immediately and universally during the early years of the Industrial Revolution. Poor people crowded into rapidly growing industrial cities had especially high death rates. An early example of geographic tools used to study epidemiology is the GIS created by Dr. John Snow to determine the source of cholera in London in 1854. Dr. Snow overlaid maps of addresses of cholera victims and the location of water pumps over a map of the Soho neighborhood, displaying a cluster of victims around a single pump on Broad Street.

Stage 3: Degenerative Diseases Stage 3 of the epidemiologic transition is characterized by a decrease in deaths from infectious diseases and an increase in chronic disorders associated with aging. Chronic disorders associated with aging include heart attacks and various forms of cancer. Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia have the lowest incidence of cancer, primarily because of the relatively low life expectancy in those regions.

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Chapter 2: Population and Health Stage 4: Delayed Degenerative Diseases The major degenerative causes of death—cardiovascular disease and cancers—linger, but the life expectancy of older people is extended through medical advances. Medical operations and healthier lifestyles increase people’s life expectancy in stage 4 of the epidemiologic transition. On the other hand, consumption of non-nutritious food and sedentary behavior have resulted in increased obesity rates in stage 4 countries.

Key Issue 4: Why Might Population Increase in the Future?

Population and Resources English economist Thomas Malthus was one of the first to predict that population increases would soon outpace the development of food resources, leading to a dramatic crisis as a result of the strain on resources. Malthus claimed that the populations grow geometrically, while food supply increase arithmetically. England entered stage 2 of the demographic transition several decades before Malthus stated these conclusions. Malthus posited that the only thing to prevent a “Malthusian” crisis would be a country’s population following “moral restraint,” lowering CBRs (unless disease, famine, war, or other disasters produced higher CDRs).

Contemporary Neo-Malthusians and Critics Malthus’s views remain influential today. Supporters of Malthus’s model suggest that characteristics of recent population growth pose even greater risks than when Malthus developed his thesis more than 200 years ago. However, criticism has been directed at both the population and resource depletion elements of Malthus’s equation. Evidence from the past fifty years suggest both Neo-Malthusians and their critics are correct in certain aspects their analyses.

Population Futures It is vital for geographers and other researchers to project the future world population to assess possible trends in epidemiology, food scarcity, and other issues. The United Nations estimates that the world population in 2100 could grow to 15.8 billion or decline to 6.2 billion, depending on the outcomes of variant projections.

Demographic Transition Possible Stage 5: Decline A possible stage 5 of the demographic transition is predicted by demographers for some developed countries. Stage 5 would be characterized by very low CBR, an increasing CDR, and therefore a negative NIR. The population of a country in stage 5 of the demographic transition would be much older.

China and India China and India together include more than one-third of the world’s total population.

As the world’s two most populous countries, policies instituted in China and India will affect prospects for global overpopulation.

China’s Population Policies The core of the Chinese government’s family-planning program has been the One Child Policy, adopted in 1980. Couples in China receive financial subsidies, a long maternity leave, better housing, and (in rural areas) more land if they agreed to have just one child. The government prohibited marriage for men until they are age 22 and women until they are age 20. Rules have changed in the twenty-first century as China has moved toward a market-based economy and families are becoming wealthier. Since 2000, China has had a lower CBR than the United States. The number of people added to China’s population each year has dropped by one-half, from 14 million to 4 million, during the past twenty-five years. Despite China abandoning the One Child Policy in 2015, China’s CBR will likely not dramatically increase due to three decades of intensive educational programs (and coercion).

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography India’s Population Policies India became the first country to embark on a national family-planning program. The government spends several hundred million dollars annually on various family-planning programs including the distribution of birth-control devices and abortions. India’s most controversial family-planning program was the establishment of sterilization camps. A sterilized person was entitled to payment which was roughly equivalent to a person’s monthly income. People were opposed to the sterilization camps because they thought that eventually sterilization would be forced.

Epidemiologic Futures While the possible stage 5 of the demographic transition is introduced by an increased elderly population, a theoretical stage 5 of the epidemiologic transition could be brought about by a reemergence of infectious and parasitic diseases. Three reasons help explain the possible emergence of a stage 5 of the epidemiologic transition: evolution, poverty, and increased connections.

Possible Stage 5 Cause: Evolution In a possible stage 5, infectious diseases thought to have been eradicated or controlled return, and new ones emerge. Infectious disease microbes have continually evolved and changed in response to environmental pressures by developing resistance to drugs and insecticides. Antibiotics and genetic engineering contribute to the emergence of new strains of viruses and bacteria.

Possible Stage 5 Cause: Poverty Infectious diseases are more prevalent in poor areas than other places because unsanitary conditions may persist, and most people can’t afford drugs needed for treatment.

Tuberculosis is an example of an infectious disease that has largely been controlled in developed countries but remains a major cause of death in developing countries. Tuberculosis is more prevalent in poor areas because the long, expensive treatment poses a significant economic burden.

Possible Stage 5 Cause: Connections As they travel, people carry diseases with them and are exposed to the diseases of others.

AIDS The most lethal pandemic in recent years has been AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome).

39 million people have died worldwide since the beginning of the epidemic through 2014, and 37 million people currently have HIV (human immunodeficiency virus, the cause of AIDS). 26 million of the world’s 37 million HIV sufferers live in sub-Saharan Africa.

Ebola Ebola, named for the river in the Democratic Republic of Congo, is a relatively “new” pandemic.

The first known victim of Ebola in West Africa was a 2-year old boy in the village of Meliandou, Guinea, who died in December 2013. The virus rapidly spread in early 2014 to isolated villages in Guinea and the neighboring countries Sierra Leone and Liberia, areas among the poorest in the world. While the disease was spread by health care workers who traveled to other places while unknowingly infected, their destinations and homes possessed health-care systems able to treat patients.

Family Futures The world CBR steeply declined between 1990 and 2015, from 27 to 20. In developing countries during the same time period, CBR dropped from 31 to 22. Two strategies have been successful in lowering birth rates.

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Chapter 2: Population and Health Lowering CBR through Education and Health Care Improving local economic conditions is one approach to decreasing crude birth rates. A community with more economic resources can increase expenditures on education and health-care programs that promote lower birth rates. According to this approach, women’s educational opportunities are encouraged, making them more likely to gain employment skills and take economic control over their lives. Women would also have been knowledge of their reproductive rights, letting them make more informed reproductive choices, and increase awareness of available methods of contraception. Improved health-care programs, such as prenatal care, counseling about sexually transmitted diseases, and child immunization, lead IMRs to decline. With the survival of more infants ensured, women would be more likely to choose to make more effective use of contraceptives to limit the number of children.

Lowering CBR through Contraception Short-term solutions included in family-planning programs, such as contraception, can reduce crude birth rates much more quickly than prolonged economic shifts.

Demand outstrips supply for contraceptives where they are needed most – in developing countries.

Places where people have limited access to education and modern communication are susceptible to the acceptance of family-planning concepts; for example, in Bangladesh, 6 percent of married women used contraceptives in 1980 – in 2014, the number rose to 62 percent. Similar trends have been examined in Columbia, Morocco, and Thailand. Contraceptive usage is very low in sub-Saharan Africa, with only 30 percent of married women using them. Cheap and rapid distribution of contraceptives in sub-Saharan Africa could have a relatively large impact on lowering CBR in the region.

Introducing the Chapter Chapter 2 opens with a discussion of why the study of population is important. The reasons make a powerful opener to any discussion of the chapter’s contents by emphasizing the “punch” of the fourth Key Issue: Why might population increase in the future? The three reasons we should study population are given as: • • •

More people are alive at this time—about 7 billion—than at any point in Earth’s long history.

Virtually all global population growth is concentrated in less developed countries.

The word’s population increased at a faster rate during the second half of the twentieth century than ever before in history.

Icebreakers The “Village of 100” Numerous examples on the web and in the text introduce the concepts of the world’s population as a “global village.” The elementary concept of percentages is dramatized by imagining the world has a population of only 100. This concept is most frequently attributed to Donella Meadow’s “State of the Village” (1990). Beware: While there are many versions of this “village” on the Internet, not all are accurate. It is easiest to use reliably sourced data to construct your own village of 100.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography With a large enough class you might consider having the students play out the village on a virtual map. I have started a class by handing out 100 note cards to students in a large lecture class with different information on each card. The students then arranged themselves in an outside common area according to the categories on the cards (world regions, more developed/less developed, etc.).

Family size In a small class, have students fill out the number of children in their families, including themselves.

Collect the slips and organize them in ascending order. Write the distribution on the board. Then ask the following questions: • • • • •

What is the average family size? Mode? Median?

Is this representative of the average family size in the community (students may need to be reminded that not every couple has children)?

When did most parents start having children?

Do most parents practice conception?

How might these numbers vary elsewhere in the world?

The same exercise can be modified for a large-lecture class with a show of hands. Ask students who are only children to raise their hands, followed by those with only one brother or sister, continuing up until there are no more volunteers. It should be easy to estimate the average family size from this show of hands.

Population growth model Population Connection publishes a six-minute film on DVD (www.populationconnection.org) modeling population growth from A.D. 1 to 2030, with million-person dots added to a world map as the time progresses (about 5 years/second). Students are initially very bored by the slow progress of human population from A.D. 1 to around 1800. The rapid expansion of human populations in the last 30 seconds of the film stimulates discussion.

Challenges to Comprehension Imagining Billions Students can have a very difficult time understanding the scale of world population size and growth. Here is an exercise that can be performed briefly in class (ask students with calculators to help with the calculation) or assigned as independent work: Imagine the equator was entirely land; that is, 40,000 kilometers of Earth’s surface. If we gave every person on Earth one square meter of soil, how many times would the present human population (about 7 billion in 2017) circle the globe?

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Chapter 2: Population and Health Answer: 40,000 km X 1m/person= 40,000,000 people once around the equator.

7 billion divided by 40,000,000= 175 times Now that your students are imagining a line of people long enough to circle the globe 175 times, have them calculate the speed at which the line would grow at the current population growth rate: 7 billion X .012= 84 million new people every year 84,000,000 m/year= 84,000 km/year 84,000 km/year= 9.59km/hr (Google can do the unit conversion very quickly) 9.59km/hr= a steady jog with no breaks, just to keep up with world population growth for one year!

Crude Death Rates Although it is addressed in the first paragraph after the measure is defined, students struggle with understanding how developed countries can have higher death rates than developing ones. It is helpful to take some time to discuss the age structure of a population and how older populations can have a moderately high rate even though the population is healthy.

Blaming the Victims Students can be challenged to appreciate how different life in other places can be. Students frequently misapprehend: a) Women in less developed countries often do not have the same reproductive choices as in the more developed world; and b) HIV/AIDS affects many innocent people (some are unforgiving of HIV/AIDS cases over the implied immorality of transmission).

To address (a), consider a discussion of what life is like in an underdeveloped country. A series of questions can help lead the discussion to a better understanding: • • • •

In a less developed country, how many years of school would a typical girl or boy experience?

Would the answer the answer be different if he or she grew up on a farm or in a city?

If a young woman didn’t want to get married and have children, what choices might she have in a rural community in a less developed country?

What pressures might there be for the same for the woman to marry and reproduce?

To address (b), have the class consider whether everyone with HIV/AIDS is responsible for their illness.

Students will volunteer several examples, (e.g., mother-to-child transmission).

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Assignments Review/Reflection Questions • • • •

•

Refer to Table 2-1 on page 50 of your textbook. In terms of food supply, which measure of density is most important when considering whether a country’s population is too large? Why? Describe the change brought about by the industrial and medical revolutions in terms of population growth. What effect did both revolutions have?

List several differences between the industrial and medical revolutions. Why did both cause a move from stage 1 to stage 2? What is preventing countries now in stage 2 from moving to stage 3?

What did Thomas Malthus predict about population growth? Was he right? Give an example of a neo-Malthusian argument from your own experience (some resource you think might become rare because of population growth).

How is the epidemiologic transition like the demographic transition? How is it different? What does the epidemiologic transition mean when comparing the lives of people in the developed world with the lives of people in less developed countries?

For additional review and test prep materials, have your students visit MasteringGeography™ to access a variety of resources, including interactive maps, videos, GoogleEarth activities, RSS feeds, flashcards, web links and self-study quizzes.

Demographic Data Collection and Analysis Purpose: students will look up demographic data for a variety of countries to become more familiar with demographic measures.

Choose or have the students choose 6 to 10 countries for analysis. You may wish to give students a representative sample of countries from around the world; if your teaching includes specific international examples it might be useful to include those countries.

Data selection: choose widely available data for the students to look up. Have the students assemble the data in a table.

Analysis: you may wish to have students perform regression analysis on two or more points of data, or simply to write a reflection on what they learned.

Here is an example: Use the following countries in your analysis: Afghanistan Bolivia Cambodia China France

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Chapter 2: Population and Health Lithuania Tanzania Turkey United States Look up the following information for each country on www.prb.org and assemble it into a table. Your table should be easy to read and fit onto one page. If you cannot fit it onto one page, please make sure that all column and row labels are present on the second page.

Crude Birth Rate (Births per 1,000 population) Crude Death Rate Rate of Natural Increase Infant Mortality Rate (Infant deaths per 1,000 live births) Life Expectancy GNI PPP per capita . . . and any other data you find personally interesting.

Include a column or row in your table in which you identify which stage of the demographic transition you believe each country to be in.

Once you have assembled your table, write a two- to three-page paper (500 to 750 words) on what you have learned from assembling this information: Do there appear to be any trends or relationships between the data? Are there any data that surprise you?

For additional review and test prep materials, have your students visit MasteringGeography™ to access a variety of resources, including interactive maps, videos, GoogleEarth activities, RSS feeds, flashcards, web links and self-study quizzes.

Thinking Geographically Questions 2.1: The current method of counting a country’s population by requiring every household to complete a census form once every 10 years has been severely criticized as inaccurate. The undercounting produces a geographic bias because people who are missed are more likely to live in inner cities, remote rural areas, or communities that attract a relatively high number of recent immigrants. Given the availability of reliable statistical tests, should the current method of trying to count 100 percent of the population be replaced by a survey of a carefully drawn sample of the population, as is done with political polling and consumer preferences? Why or why not?

While there are significant disadvantages to attempting to count 100 percent of the population in the census, ultimately the established method would yield a more accurate count of the total population.

Despite the growing reliability of statistical sampling techniques, unauthorized immigrants and homeless people would most likely still be left in the shadows. While sampling would allow census enumerators to incorporate data that is readily available to help with estimates, such as eviction rates, waiting lists for public housing, reductions in affordable housing, and contacts with service providers, engagement with

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography community outreach organizations for both unauthorized immigrants and unsheltered populations would be the best option. (Source: Kearns, Brendan, “Down for the Count: Overcoming the Census Bureau's Neglect of the Homeless,” National Coalition for the Homeless, http://nationalhomeless.org/publications/ DownfortheCount_CensusReport.pdf).

2.2: Members of the baby-boom generation—people born between 1946 and 1964—constitute nearly onethird of the U.S. population. Baby boomers have received more education than their parents, and women from this generation were more likely to enter the labor force than women before them. The baby boomers have delayed marriage and parenthood and have fewer children compared to their parents.

They are more likely to divorce, to bear children while unmarried, and to cohabit. As they grow older, what impacts will baby boomers have on American population in the years ahead?

The baby boomers are the first generation in U.S. history to leave things generally worse for their children than they had it. Up to this point every generation in U.S. history was generally better off than their parents. The baby boomers have awarded themselves large pensions and retirement packages that their children are going to have to somehow figure out how to pay for. They are also using up all the money in the nation’s social security fund. Even though working people today are paying into social security, many experts predict that they won’t get it back when they retire.

2.3: Health-care indicators for the United States do not always match those of other developed countries.

What reasons might explain these differences?

In the United States individuals are expected to pay for their own health care. The taxpayers in this country pay for the health care of the poor, disabled, and elderly. In Canada and Europe medical care for all is provided by the government. Health care is essentially free for everyone in Canada and Europe. The CDR in the United States is lower than it is in Europe. This is due to the fact that the population in the United States is generally younger than the population in Europe.

2.4: Given evidence of declining birth rates around the world, what role should family-planning programs play in developing countries?

CBR is still high in developing countries, despite declining world CDRs. Family-planning programs can play an important part in placing downward pressure on still-high CBRs in developing countries, however it must be ensured that these programs are ethical in nature. Looking to the distrust that was sewn by sterilization campaigns set up by the government in India in the 1970s, it is vital that access to birth control and general reproductive education is made available for countries facing this situation.

Pause and Reflect Questions 2.1.1: Compare Figures 2-2 and 2-3. Which depicts the shape of countries more accurately? Why? Figure 2-2 displays the shape of countries more accurately, as Figure 2-3 is a cartogram. A cartogram visualizes countries by the size of their population rather than land area, such that countries with large populations like China and India appear larger than countries with extensive land area, such as Canada or Russia.

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Chapter 2: Population and Health 2.1.2: Why are some land areas not part of the ecumene?

Areas of the Earth may be unsuitable for permanent human settlement, such as those dominated by a dry landscape, places that receive excessive amounts of precipitation, locations perpetually covered by ice, and some high-altitude mountain regions. However, there exist exceptions to all of the aforementioned landscapes that can support human settlement, such as dry landscapes where animals have adapted to the climate.

2.1.3: Which density measure differs most between Egypt and Ethiopia? What might account for this difference?

Physiological density is greater between Egypt and Ethiopia than arithmetic density or agricultural density.

This difference may be explained by the wider availability of arable land in Ethiopia compared to Egypt.

2.2.1: Which region other than sub-Saharan Africa appears to have the highest natural increase rate?

South Asia appears to have the high natural increase rate outside of sub-Saharan Africa.

2.2.2: What region of the world appears to have the lowest CDR? The Arabian Peninsula appears to be the region with the lowest CDR. 2.2.3: Name a country in Latin America that appears to be in stage 2, according to Figures 2-12, 2-14, and 2-15.

Guatemala appears to be in stage 2 of the demographic transition, taking into consideration its high CBR, relatively low CDR, and high NIR. 2.3.1: What other countries, in addition to China and India, appear to have “missing” females?

Vietnam, Albania, and Azerbaijan all appear to have “missing” females.

2.3.2: If the elderly support ratio is declining, does that mean the percentage of elderly people is increasing or decreasing?

It means that the percentage of elderly people is increasing.

2.3.3: Why might levels of hospital beds and physicians in developed countries of Europe be higher than in North America?

Private individuals are required to pay a higher percentage of health care costs in the United States, whereas in Europe health care is a public service and government expenditures are higher for health care services.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 2.3.4: How prevalent are the stage 4 causes of death in your family?

Stage 4 causes of death are very common in my family, with most family members passing away from cancer or dementia.

2.4.1: Calculate the units of population and food that Malthus predicted would exist in 200 years.

Malthus would predict that in 200 years, there would be 256 people for every 10 units of food.

2.4.2: For every 10 baby boys, India has only 9 baby girls. How might population policies be contributing to India having so many more baby boys than girls?

Population policies, such as abortion, may be predominately skewed toward unborn girls than boys due to cultural preferences for sons over daughters.

2.4.3: Which region within the United States has the lowest number of AIDS cases? What geographic factors might explain this low level?

The northern states of the Mountain West, including Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, and the northern Plains states of North Dakota and South Dakota have the lowest cumulative AIDS cases in the United States.

These states likely experience little in-migration, explaining this low level.

2.4.4: Why might birth rates have declined in most of the world, but not in North America?

Birth rates may have remained high in North America due to higher total fertility rates and high health care service standards.

Explore Use Google Earth to explore Mahāmīd, a town of 45,000 near the banks of the Nile River. Fly to: Mahāmīd, Luxor, Egypt. Zoom in.

1. What color is most of the land immediately in and around the town? Does this indicate that the land is used for agriculture, or is it desert? Zoom out until you see the entire band of green surrounded by tan.

The town of Mahāmīd is surrounded by a tan color, representing a desert landscape.

2. How wide is the green strip? What does the tan color represent? What feature is in the middle of the green strip?

The green strip is approximately 10 miles long and 1 mile wide. The tan color represents the desert landscape surrounding Mahāmīd. Farming activity is present in the green strip, indicated by long, narrow strips of agriculture.

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Chapter 2: Population and Health

Resources Interactive population pyramids The U.S. Census Bureau’s International Data Base has an interactive population pyramid application at: http://www.census.gov/population/international/data/idb/informationGateway.php In the “Select Report” section of the page, select the “Population Pyramid Graph” option from the dropdown menu. You may select up to 25 years of data for any country, and once the request is submitted (by clicking the “Submit” button), you may use the “Play” button located above the population pyramid to animate the changes that take place over time.

Population Reference Bureau The Population Reference Bureau (www.prb.org) has a wealth of demographic data, as well as data on education, employment, health, and environment. It features data on the United States and most countries around the world. One section of the website (“Education,” located in the “Topic/Geography” tab) focuses on using demographic data in teaching.

World Health Organization Statistical Information System (WHOSIS) The WHO is the authoritative source of health data for the world, especially valuable as a resource for further investigation into the chapter’s section on epidemiological transition. www.who.int/whosis/en/ Gapminder Gapminder features an easy-to-use interactive chart tool and map. The chart allows users to select variables on each axis and watch trends unfold through time. www.gapminder.org/ U.S. Census The U.S. Census features a wealth of demographic and economic data on the U.S. population. www.census.gov/

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Connections between Chapters Back to Chapter 1 The introduction of Chapter 2 underlies the key geographic concepts associated with the study of population, reinforcing the geographic nature of population distribution and change. This introduction also helps students understand the types of questions asked in the Key Issues.

Forward to Chapter 3 Chapter 3, Migration, forms a natural step from Chapter 2, as those countries experiencing rapid population growth frequently are source regions for international migration, while countries in stage 4 of the demographic transition often experience net in-migration.

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3

Migration Learning Outcomes

After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to: Learning Outcome 3.1.1:

Understand the difference between immigration, emigration, and net migration.

Learning Outcome 3.1.2:

Recognize the principal streams of international migration.

Learning Outcome 3.1.3:

Understand the difference between internal and international migration.

Learning Outcome 3.1.4:

Describe the different sources of immigrants during the three main eras of U.S. immigration.

Learning Outcome 3.2.1:

Describe the principal patterns of interregional migration in the United States.

Learning Outcome 3.2.2:

Describe the principal patterns of interregional migration in several large countries.

Learning Outcome 3.2.3:

Describe three types of intraregional migration.

Learning Outcome 3.3.1:

Explain cultural and environmental reasons for migration.

Learning Outcome 3.3.2:

Explain environmental reasons for migration.

Learning Outcome 3.3.3:

Understand economic reasons for international migration.

Learning Outcome 3.3.4:

Describe the demographic characteristics of international migrants.

Learning Outcome 3.4.1:

Describe government policies that restrict immigration.

Learning Outcome 3.4.2:

Understand the diversity of conditions along the U.S.-Mexico border.

Learning Outcome 3.4.3:

Understand the diversity of conditions along the U.S.-Mexico border.

Learning Outcome 3.4.4:

Understand attitudes toward immigrants in Europe.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography

Chapter Outline Introduction Migration, the permanent movement of people to a new location, is central to the interest of geographers. Geographers study migration because it helps reveal changes in population in places and regions around the world. The cultural exchange that occurs when migrants arrive at new locations also bears significance to geographers.

Key Issue 1: Where Are the World’s Migrants Distributed?

Migration is a permanent move to a new location, and is a specific type of relocation diffusion.

Geographers examine the migration of people across Earth and the basis for the migration.

Introducing Migration During the past 7,000 years, humans have diffused from a small portion of Earth’s land area to most of it by migration. Migration is a type of mobility, which is a broad term encapsulating all types of movements from one location to another. Movements that occur on a regular basis (daily, weekly, monthly, or annually), such as commuting from home to work, are called circulation. The flow of migration always involves two-way connections – emigration is migration from a location, while immigration is migration to a location.

The difference between the number of immigrants and the number of emigrants is the net migration. If the number of immigrants is greater than the number of emigrants, the net migration is positive, and the region has net in-migration. If the number of emigrants is greater than the number of immigrants, the net migration is negative, and the region has net out-migration.

The reasons behind migration are a key interest to geographers, as migration generates profound changes for individuals and cultures at large. Migration to a new location disrupts traditional cultural connections and economic patterns in one region. Migrants bring their language, religion, ethnicity, and other cultural characteristics, as well as methods of farming and other economic practices to their new homes.

International Net Migration Nineteenth-century geographer E.G. Ravenstein’s “laws” are the foundation for contemporary geographic migration study. The “laws” are organized into three groups that help us understand where and why migration occurs: • • •

The distance that migrants typically move (discussed in Key Issues 1 and 2).

The reasons migrants move (discussed in the first part of Key Issue 3) The characteristics of migrants (discussed in the second part of Key Issue 3).

International Migration Flows A permanent move from one country to another is international migration.

According to the Pew Research Center, approximately 214 million people (3 percent of the world’s population) are international migrants. At the regional scale, the three largest flows of migrants are: • • •

From Latin America to North America From South Asia to Europe From South Asia to Southwest Asia

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Chapter 3: Migration Migration from Mexico to the United States represents the largest flow of people from a single country to another single country. The significance of the movement of people from developing countries to developed countries is emblematic of regional migration patterns. North America, Europe, Southwest Asia, and the South Pacific have net in-migration. Latin America, Africa, and all regions of Asia except for Southwest Asia have net out-migration. The United States is home to more foreign-born residents than any other country – roughly 42 million as of 2015, with approximately 1 million additional people arriving annually.

International and Internal Migration Geographer E.G. Ravenstein developed a set of laws that help describe human migration. According to Ravenstein: • •

Most migrants relocate a short distance and remain within the same country.

Long-distance migrants to other countries move to major centers of economic activity.

Distance of Migration Migration can take two forms: international or internal.

International Migration International migration may be voluntary or forced. Voluntary migration is migration where a person has chosen to move (for economic or environmental reasons), while forced migration means a person was compelled to move (by cultural or environmental factors). This distinction is not always easily identifiable.

Internal Migration Internal migration is the permanent movement of a person or people within the same country. Internal migration can be divided into two types: interregional and intraregional. Interregional migration is the movement from one region of a country to another. The movement within the same region of a single country is called intraregional migration.

Changing U.S. Immigration The United States is situated in a unique position in the study of international migration, as it is inhabited overwhelmingly by direct descendants of immigrants. About 80 million people migrated to the United States between 1820 and 2015, including 42 million currently alive in 2015. Immigration in the United States can be conceptualized into three main eras: • • •

Colonial settlement in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

Mass European immigration in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

Asian and Latin American immigration in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries.

U.S. Immigration at Independence According to the first census in 1790, the U.S. population was 3.9 million, including 950,000 who had immigrated to one of the colonies currently part of the United States.

Immigration to the United States in this era primarily came from two key places: Europe and sub-Saharan Africa. Most Africans were forced to migrate to the United States as slaves, while most Europeans were voluntary migrants. All of the colonies in the United States were established on the Atlantic Coast.

U.S. Immigration: Mid-Nineteenth to Early Twentieth Centuries From 1840 until the outbreak of World War I, the source regions for new migrants coincided with the Industrial Revolution diffusing from its hearth in Great Britain. The majority of the immigrants that came to the United States in the second half of the nineteenth century came from Germany, Ireland, and Scandinavia. In the early twentieth century many of the immigrants came from Eastern and Southern Europe.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography U.S. Immigration: Late Twentieth to Early Twenty-first Centuries After World War II most new migrants to the United States came from Asia and Latin America. Asians and Latin Americans have come to the United States in recent decades after many of their countries entered stage 2 of the demographic transition.

Key Issue 2: Where Do People Migrate within a Country?

Interregional Migration in the United States The expansion of the United States to the western reaches of North America allowed for large-scale internal migration. Through mass interregional migration, the interior of the continent was settled and developed.

Changing Center of Population The U.S. Census Bureau computes the population center of the United States every census. The population center is the average location of everyone in the country, the “center of population gravity.” Over the past 200 years, the center has reliably shifted westward, although the rate of this shift has fluctuated over time.

1790: Hugging the Coast Settlement was concentrated along the Atlantic Coast, as colonists depended on shipping links with Europe to receive provisions and to export raw materials. The Appalachian Mountains also presented a physiographic barrier to westward movement.

1800-1840: Crossing the Appalachians Transportation improvements, notably the construction of canals (especially the Erie Canal), encouraged westward settlement. The forested river valleys between the Appalachians and the Mississippi River provided cheap land for enterprising migrants.

1850-1890: Rushing to the Gold The population center drifted further west during the mid- to late nineteenth century. The Gold Rush of the late 1840s pulled people past western frontiers that were not heavily occupied. In fact, explorers such as Zebulon Pike thought of the Great Plains as unfit for agricultural activity, leading many in the United States to conceptualize the region as the Great American Desert.

1900-1940: Filling in the Great Plains Emigration from Europe to the United States offset most of the migration from the East Coast to the U.S. West, preventing a major westward shift of the population center. The Great Plains region was also beginning to pull more migrants, as advances in agricultural technology enabled people to cultivate the landscape.

1950-2010: Moving South The population center not only resumed its westward movement, but shifted southward as well, as Americans moved to the South for job opportunities and warmer climes. Interregional migration has diminished considerably, as regional differences in employment opportunities have receded.

Interregional Migration in Other Large Countries Long-distance interregional migration has played an important role in opening new regions for development in countries with large amounts of land area, such as China, Canada, and Russia.

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Chapter 3: Migration Interregional Migration in Canada Mirroring migration patterns in the United States, population expanded westward in Canada over the past 200 years. The two westernmost provinces, Alberta and British Columbia, have had the vast majority of Canada’s current net in-migration, while Ontario has had the most net out-migration.

Interregional Migration in Russia The population of Russia is highly clustered in the western (European) portion of the country. In the past, eastward interregional migration was observed, as the Asian portion of Russia was sparsely populated and Communist policy dictated economic development in this region. The Soviet government sometimes forcibly moved people to these isolated areas to provide an adequate supply of labor for this industrial expansion.

Interregional Migration in China The predominant flow of interregional migration is from rural to urban areas, where job prospects are higher. More than 150 million people have emigrated from rural areas in the interior of the China. While interregional migration to the east coast was restricted in years past, limitations have been eased recently.

Interregional Migration in Brazil While the Brazilian east coast is more heavily populated than its densely forested interior areas, development of the interior region (along with the movement of the capital to Brasília) over the past half century has altered historic migration patterns. The coastal areas now have net out-migration, whereas the interior areas have net in-migration.

Intraregional Migration Intraregional migration is a more frequently observed phenomena than interregional or international migration. Most intraregional migration occurs from rural to urban areas in developing countries, while migrants are moving from cities to suburbs in developed countries.

Migration from Rural to Urban Areas Beginning with the Industrial Revolution in the 1800s, migration patterns in Europe and North America saw people move from rural to urban areas. Developing countries are starting to see similar trends, with agricultural job opportunities disappearing and factory and service prospects in urban areas growing.

Migration from Urban to Suburban Areas The majority of intraregional migration in developed countries is from cities to surrounding areas, or suburbs. The population of city-based urban populations in developed countries has decreased since the mid-twentieth century, while suburban areas have grown rapidly. Amenities such as private yards and garages have pulled people to the suburban lifestyle; however, this lifestyle is only possible with access to reliable transportation, such as a car or train. This transportation allows access to jobs, shopping, and recreational facilities.

Migration from Urban to Rural Areas The late twentieth century saw the development of a new migration trend: counterurbanization. Counterurbanization is the net migration from urban to rural areas, a phenomena that has results in part from the rapid growth of suburbs. Rocky Mountain states such as Colorado and Utah have specifically experienced counterurbanization in the United States. The development of communication and transportation systems have economically and socially connected once isolated areas, allowing for this trend to take place.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Key Issue 3: Why Do People Migrate?

Ravenstein’s laws help geographers contextualize the impetus of people who migrate: • •

Most people migrate for economic reasons.

Cultural and environmental reasons also induce migration, although not as often as economic reasons.

While one prevailing reason may be easily identifiable for migration, a mosaic of reasons generally prompts a move. People migrate due to push and pull factors. A push factor motivates people to move from their present location, while a pull factor encourages people to move to a new location. Push and pull factors typically work in tandem for people deciding (or being forced to) to migrate.

Cultural Reasons for Migrating The United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) recognizes three groups of people who are forced to migrate for political reasons: •

• •

A refugee has been forced to migrate to another country to avoid the impacts of armed conflict, situations of generalized violence, violations of human rights, or other disasters and cannot return for fear of persecution because race, religion, nationality, membership in a social group, or political views.

An internally displaced person (IDP) has been compelled to move for similar political reasons as a refugee but has not migrated to a different country.

An asylum seeker is someone who has migrated to another country in the hope of being recognized as a refugee.

In 2014, The UN counted 19.5 million refugees, 38.2 million IDPs, and 1.8 million asylum seekers. The largest number of refugees in 2014 were forced to migrate from Afghanistan and from Syria due to prolonged civil wars in each respective country. Countries bordering Afghanistan and Syria took in the largest share of refugees – Pakistan and Iran from Afghanistan and Lebanon and Turkey from Syria.

Trail of Tears Under the Indian Removal Act of 1830, Native Americans were forced to move from the lands they had historically occupied in the southeastern United States to Indian Territory (present day Oklahoma). The Choctaw were forced to emigrate from Mississippi in 1831, the Seminole from Florida in 1832, the Creek from Alabama in 1834, the Chickasaw from Mississippi in 1837, and the Cherokee from Georgia in 1838. 25 million acres of land were opened up for white settlement by these five removals. Many of the 46,000 Native Americans forced to move died on the journey to Indian Territory, with a dry climate unsuitable for agricultural activity awaiting them in the west. The route taken by these Native Americans is now known as the Trail of Tears; parts of it are preserved as a National Historic Trail.

Environmental Reasons for Migrating People will sometimes migrate for environmental reasons. They are pulled toward physically attractive regions and pushed from hazardous ones. Many people are forced to move by water-related disasters because they live in a vulnerable area like the floodplain of a river. A lack of water will often force people to migrate from an area. Deterioration of land to a desert like condition, typically due to human activity, is known as desertification (or more precisely, semiarid land

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Chapter 3: Migration degradation). For instance, the areas of Africa capable of sustaining human life has deteriorated due to population growth and persistent drought. An environmental or political feature that deters migration is an intervening obstacle. While long-distance passage over land or sea was the traditional environmental barrier to international migration, transportation improvements have diminished the prominence of environmental features as intervening obstacles.

Migrating to Find Work Most people migrate for economic reasons, often due to a lack of job opportunities. Economic restructuring impacts job prospects both internationally and intraregionally.

Economic Reasons for Migrating Throughout history, the United States and Canada have drawn economic migrants. While Europeans historically immigrated to the United States and Canada, today many people emigrate from Latin America and Asia, pulled by the economic prospects offered by these two North American countries. Sometimes, it is difficult to categorize migrants coming to the United States, Canada, and European countries – many move for economic reasons, while others flee government persecution. This distinction between the two is important because these destinations treat these two groups differently. Economic migrants are generally not admitted unless they possess special skills or have a close relative already in the new country, while refugees receive special priority in most cases.

Asia’s Migrant Work Some countries allow people to immigrate on a temporary basis for economic reasons, most notably in Asia and Europe.

South and East Asia The world’s largest sources of economic migrants emigrate from South and East Asia, with more than 2 million people emigrating from India, Bangladesh, China, and Pakistan every year. 50 million Chinese and 25 million Indians live abroad, with the United States and other Asian countries being prominent destinations.

Southwest Asia Economic migrants from India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, and other Southeastern Asian countries travel to the oil-rich countries of Southwest Asia for work. The United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain, and Saudi Arabia host these immigrants, although working conditions have been considered poor in some of these countries.

Remittances The transfer of money by workers to people in the country from which they emigrated is a remittance. The total amount of remittances worldwide was $550 billion in 2013, with this figure rising by nearly 10 percent every year. In 2013, India was the biggest recipient of remittances, bringing in $71 billion, followed by China with $60 billion.

Gender and Age of Migrants Ravenstein detailed distinctive gender and family-status patterns in his laws: • •

Most long-distance migrants were male.

Most long-distance migrants were adult individuals rather than families with children.

Gender of Migrants Ravenstein theorized that males were more likely to migrate long distances to other countries than females because economic push and pull factors were the main reasons for international migration, and males were more likely than females to be employed. This theory held true for people immigrating to the United States during the nineteenth and most of the twentieth centuries, 43 © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography when 55 percent were male. However, since 1970, female immigrants have outnumbered their male counterparts, comprising 55 percent of the total. This trend can also be observed in other developed countries. Ravenstein theorized two reasons for this shift: • •

The high percentage of females in the workforce of developed countries attracts a high percentage of female immigrants.

Some developed countries have allowed wives to join husbands who have already immigrated.

This pattern is not present in developing countries, where male immigrants still outnumber female ones.

Age of Migrants Ravenstein theorized that most long-distance migrants were young adults seeking job opportunities rather than children or elderly people. Recent migration trends in the United States mirror this theory in some aspects, but not in others: • • •

Most U.S. immigrants are young adults, reflecting Ravenstein’s laws. 49 percent of recent immigrants to the United States are between the ages of 20 and 39.

Only 5 percent of recent U.S. immigrants are over the age of 65. However, in developing countries, the elderly are more likely to migrate, comprising 8 percent of immigrants.

Children under the age of 20 make up 21 percent of immigrants to the United States, while in developing countries, 23 percent of the same cohort are migrants.

The number of unaccompanied minors attempting to enter the United States without proper documentation has skyrocketed in recent years, due to a mix of pull and push factors. 90 percent of the children between 12 and 17 trying to immigrate to the United States have been males – these teenage boys are pushed by increasing gang violence in their home countries (such as Honduras and El Salvador), and pulled to the United States because of rumors that deportation will not happen if they are caught.

Key Issue 4: Why Do Migrants Face Challenges?

Government Immigration Policies Most countries, including the United States, have instituted selective immigration policies that admit some types of immigrants while barring others. Visas are typically granted for specific employment placement and family reunification. The United Nations categorizes countries according to four types of immigration policies: (1) maintain the current level of immigration, (2) increase the level, (3) reduce the level, (4) no policy. Emigration policies are identified by the same four classes.

Unauthorized Immigration Migrants who enter the United States without proper documents are called unauthorized immigrants. More than half the unauthorized immigrants in the United States emigrated from Mexico. Academic observers favor the term “unauthorized immigrants” when referring to this group of immigrants, while “undocumented immigrant” is preferred by some of the groups that advocate for more rights for these individuals. An estimated 8 million unauthorized immigrants are employed in the United States, comprising 5 percent of the total U.S. civilian work force. They are most likely to be employed in construction and hospitality industries. The states with the largest number of unauthorized immigrants are California and Texas, while Nevada has the highest proportion of unauthorized immigrants. 61 percent of unauthorized adult immigrants have been in the United States for 10 years or more, 23 percent for 5 to 9 years, and 16 percent for less than 5 years.

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Chapter 3: Migration U.S. Quota Laws The United States has long used quota laws to limit the source regions and numbers of new migrants. The Quota Act and the National Origins Act, passed in 1921 and 1924, respectively, limited the number of immigrants admitted to the United States during a one-year period. Quota laws were historically preferential to Europeans. Today’s quotas give preference to talented and skilled workers in wanted professions which in the long run harms the countries these professionals are emigrating from. This situation is called brain drain. Presently, many professionals from Asian countries are immigrating to the United States, contributing to brain drain in their native countries.

Family members of these professionals are also given preference in quota laws, with chain migration drawing these family members to the destinations these professionals have moved to in the United States. Chain migration is the migration of people to a specific location because relatives or members of the same nationality previously migrated there.

U.S.-Mexico Border Issues The United States has constructed a barrier along the U.S.-Mexico border that covers approximately one-fourth of the border’s length, but locating the border is difficult in sparsely inhabited, remote areas. Mexicans oftentimes urge understanding and sympathy for the plight of the immigrants trying to cross the border.

Migration Policy Disputes American citizens are divided concerning whether unauthorized migration helps or hurt the country. This ambivalence extends to certain elements of immigration law. While many Americans would like to see more effective border patrols and physical barriers, such as fences, constructed to prevent unauthorized border crossings, they cannot agree on the funding of these expenditures. Most Americans acknowledge that unauthorized immigrants take jobs that no American citizen will reliably take, so they support some type of temporary work visa to allow them to work in the United States. Americans also favor letting law enforcement officials stop and verify the legal status of anyone they suspect of being an unauthorized immigrant; however, citizens also fear civil rights may be violated in doing so. Additionally, Americans believe that enforcement of unauthorized immigrants is a federal, and not local, government responsibility. Arizona and Alabama are examples of states that have passed restrictive laws aiming to identify unauthorized immigrants, while more than 100 localities across the country have passed resolutions supporting more rights for these same immigrants – a movement known as “Sanctuary City.”

Europe’s Immigration Crisis Immigrants from the relatively poorer Southern and Eastern Europe are drawn to the economically more developed Northern and Western Europe. These immigrants are employed in industries that are typically eschewed by citizens in these Northern and Western Europeans countries.

Migration Patterns in Europe European countries collectively have around 40 million immigrants.

This total includes 20 million who have migrated from one European country to another and 20 million who have emigrated from outside the continent. The flow of migrants within Europe is primarily from east to west. Prior to 2014, most immigrants coming to Europe came from neighboring countries, such as Morocco and Turkey. As a result of the prolonged conflict in Syria, Afghanistan, and North Africa, the number of refugees entering Europe has grown tremendously. These refugees have confounded many governments across Europe, with many struggling to devise balanced policies that will accommodate refugees while protecting the interests of its citizens. The land and sea routes to Europe

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography taken by these refugees are perilous, with more than 1,000 perishing by drowning in the Mediterranean or by suffocating in sealed trucks.

Guest Workers Germany and other wealthy European countries instituted guest worker programs, in which immigrants from poorer countries were permitted to immigrate temporarily to obtain employment.

These guest worker programs (operated primarily during the 1960s and 1970s) were anticipated to be examples of circular migration, which is the temporary movement of a migrant worker between home and host counties to seek employment. Guest workers were anticipated to return to their home countries once their work was done. Most of these migrants have remained permanently in Europe, becoming citizens of the host country.

Attitudes Toward Immigrants In Europe, immigrants make up 8 percent of Europe’s population, including 4 percent who migrated from one European country to another, and 4 percent who emigrated from outside the continent. The immigrant population makes up 13 percent of the total population in the United States, and 21 percent of the total population in Canada. Many political parties in countries across Europe have adopted hostile positions toward immigrants, labeling them as the source of crime, unemployment, and high welfare costs. They also claim that these immigrants are eroding the longstanding cultural traditions of the host country. Demographic change has played a major role in the source of this hostility, with most European countries currently in the fourth stage of the demographic transition.

With very low or negative NIR, immigrants are now the sole source of population growth.

Icebreakers Oregon Trail Many students in American classrooms have played “Oregon Trail,” a computer simulation of some of the challenges faced by migrants to the American West. Mentioning this game is likely to generate examples of physical barriers to migration: the sheer distance, river crossings, deserts, and other challenges such as disease, exhaustion, and hunger.

Class Discussion Topics In 2011, Alabama enacted a law that prohibited or restricted unauthorized immigrants from attending public schools or colleges. Do you think that the citizens of Alabama should pay more in state taxes because the federal government has not effectively controlled the border? Should the federal government have an obligation to fully or partially reimburse the taxpayers of Alabama for the education of unauthorized immigrants? Do you think that the denial of public education will possibly deter unauthorized immigration into Alabama?

Americans purchase products made in foreign countries using cheap labor. Is this any different than allowing low-cost labor to immigrate to the United States? How? Why are employers who knowingly hire undocumented immigrants under less scrutiny than the immigrants themselves?

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Chapter 3: Migration

Challenges to Comprehension Mobility vs. Migration Most college students have a great degree of mobility, much greater than that experienced by much of the world’s population. Therefore, students may have a difficult time imagining how little many people around the world actually move and how significant a migration decision is.

Illustrating the significance can be helped with a discussion of the difficulty of obstacles, both cultural and physical, faced by migrants. An understanding of how few resources most migrants have is especially useful. This understanding also aids students in comprehending chain migration, as migrants are likely to travel where they have a connection to family or a group from their home country.

Another approach is to ask students about where, provided they have the money, they would like to travel.

Write a list of their favored destinations.

Now ask the students whether there are any places on the list where citizens of which are not free to visit the United States. A healthy discussion should follow.

Refugee/Internally Displaced Person The United Nations defines a refugee as “a person who has a well founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion.” Most internally displaced people are essentially refugees that have not crossed an international boundary. For example, apartheid policies in South Africa forced approximately 3.6 million blacks to migrate to government-created homelands within the country. Sudan is estimated to have nearly 5 million internally displaced people due to the ongoing civil unrest.

Sometimes countries will forcibly relocate people if it is deemed to be in the best interests of the country.

China forcibly relocated 10 to 17 million people from urban areas to rural communities because they wanted to ease pressure arising from high urban unemployment. The Soviet government forced people to migrate to the Far North to construct and operate steel mills, hydroelectric power stations, mines, and other enterprises.

Explain the concept of eminent domain to the students. Ask the students if they think eminent domain is basically a small scale version of what China and the Soviet Union did. Ask the students if they would be upset if their family had to relocate because of eminent domain.

Assignments Review/Reflection Question •

Name an economic, social, and environmental “push” factor (three in all) that would make you migrate, and explain each one. Do the same for three “pull” factors. Make sure you demonstrate an understanding of the difference between mobility and migration in your answer.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography •

•

•

•

Why did 40 million Europeans leave for the United States to face unknown challenges in America? Answer as though you were a European in the late 1800s preparing to migrate and give your reasons for leaving Europe as well as your reasons for choosing America.

Why are new migrants to an area frequently the butt of racist or ethnic jokes? Explain in the context of the history of European emigration to the United States. Which groups were more frequently made fun of?

Describe an interregional move made by your family, some friends, or some others you know.

Explain their migration decision using terminology from the book. Do the same for an intraregional move.

Based on your migration history, consider any “cultural baggage” that you have inherited. This baggage may include sports teams allegiance, food, language, dress, and behavior.

For additional review and test prep materials, have your students visit MasteringGeography™ to access a variety of resources, including interactive maps, videos, Google Earth activities, RSS feeds, flashcards, web links, and self-study quizzes.

Thinking Geographically Questions 3.1: Compare the cartograms of emigration (Figure 3-2) and immigration (Figure 3-3) with the cartogram of world population (Figure 2-3). Which of the five most populous countries (China, India, United States, Indonesia, and Brazil) appear to have especially high levels of emigration and immigration, and which appear to have especially low levels?

India, China, and Indonesia appear to have high levels of emigration, while the United States and Brazil have low rates of emigration. The United States and India appear to have relatively high levels of immigration, while China, Indonesia, and Brazil have low levels of immigration.

3.2: What might explain these relatively high or low rates?

Push and pull factors, whether they be economic, political, or environmental, could explain these rates. It should also be taken into consideration whether emigrants were forced to move, or voluntarily did so. For example, the relatively robust economy of the United States pulls people from India and China, where high paying jobs might be harder to get. In 2004, Indonesia was hit by a massive tsunami, displacing thousands and forcing them to move elsewhere.

3.3: Forced migration is considered here as a subset of international migration. What current and historical examples of forced internal migration have been cited in this chapter?

An example of historical forced internal migration cited in this chapter includes the forced relocation of Native Americans during the event known as the Trail of Tears in the mid-nineteenth century. A more contemporary example of forced internal migration cited in this chapter is the interregional migration of Russian citizens from the European portion of the country to the Asian portion of the country for economic development near natural resources (however, this trend has recently reversed).

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Chapter 3: Migration 3.4: Most people migrate for a combination of economic push and pull factors. As you consider your personal future, do you expect push factors or pull factors to be more important in your location decisions? Why? Economic pull factors will likely play a major role in my location decisions, as I need to live in a place where I can find gainful employment. However, political push factors, such as codified discriminatory policies at the state level in Alabama aimed at minorities, will likely play a role in my decision to move away as well.

3.5: The U.S. border with Mexico has a fence in most places, whereas the U.S. border with Canada does not. What might account for this difference?

The high rates of immigration to the United States from Mexico and other Central American countries by unauthorized immigrants might account for this difference.

Pause and Reflect Questions 3.1.1: Do the developed countries of Europe and North America appear in Figures 3-2 and 3-3 to have net in-migration or net out-migration?

The developed countries of Europe and North America appear to have net in-migration.

3.1.2: If the demographic transition has a stage 5 in the future, what might be key features of a stage 5 of the migration transition?

I believe that the migration transition characteristics of a country in stage 5 might continue to exhibit high international immigration, while shifting to intraregional migration from rural areas and suburbs to cities.

3.1.3: When you or your family last moved, was it voluntary international, forced international, interregional internal, or intraregional internal?

The last time my family moved, it was interregional internal – we moved from the Midwest state of Indiana to the Deep South state of Alabama.

3.1.4: In which stage of the demographic transition were most countries when they sent the most immigrants to the United States?

Most countries were in stage 2 of the demographic transition when they sent the most immigrants to the United States.

3.2.1: How might climate change affect patterns of interregional migration in the United States?

If sea levels rise significantly and populations are not able to mitigate these developments, large-scale interregional migration in the United States from heavily-populated Atlantic Coast states such as 49 © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia to interior regions will have to occur. If drought conditions persist and water resources are improperly managed in areas such as the Plains states (where water is provided by the Ogalala Aquifer) and the southwestern U.S. (where the Colorado River supplies a great deal of water to states dominated by dry conditions), populations will be forced to migrate as well.

3.2.2: Does Russia’s interregional migration pattern more closely resemble that of the United States and Canada or that of Brazil and China?

Interregional migration in Canada and the United States was largely caused by westward expansion of each country’s territory, whereas in China and Brazil interregional migration was spurred by various economic push and pull factors. Russia’s case more closely resembles that of China and Brazil.

3.2.3: Why might rural to urban migration be the most intense in countries in stage 2 of the demographic transition?

As industry (economic advancement opportunities) and health care services grow in stage 2 of the demographic transition, these services are likely to be clustered in urban areas, encouraging rural to urban migration.

3.3.1: What similarities and differences can be seen between the interregional migration patterns of Native Americans and of migrants of European ancestry, as shown in Figure 3-12?

Native Americans had in common the destination of Oklahoma when they were forcibly relocated in the mid-nineteenth century, while European Americans expanded to the wider western reaches of the U.S. by voluntary means.

3.3.2: Why might people choose to build houses in floodplains?

For one, many people are unaware that they may be building a home in a floodplain. Secondly, they may have family ties to a region located in a floodplain, pulling them to the area. Lastly, economic or recreational opportunities present in the area may outweigh the risks of potential damage from a flood.

3.3.3: Before becoming the leading company for transferring remittances from the United States, what was the principal business of Western Union?

The primary business of Western Union prior to becoming the leading company for transferring remittances from the United States was the transmission of telegrams.

3.3.4: Why might elderly people be more likely than average to migrate in developing countries but less likely than average to do so in developed countries?

Elderly people might not have access to entitlement programs such as Social Security and Medicaid in developing countries, encouraging them to migrate due to economic factors.

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Chapter 3: Migration 3.4.1: How are changes in the quota laws reflected in changing U.S. immigration patterns, as shown in Figure 3-10?

As quota laws in the United States have changed to pull immigrants who have highly-valued job skills, immigration from Asia has greatly increased since the middle of the twentieth century.

3.4.2: How are changes in the quota laws reflected in changing U.S. immigration patterns, as shown in Figure 3-10?

As quota laws in the United States have changed to pull immigrants who have highly-valued job skills, immigration from Asia has greatly increased since the middle of the twentieth century.

3.4.3: Why at border crossings is traffic entering the United States backed up further than traffic entering Mexico?

Border security crossing into the United States is heavily secure, while border security entering Mexico is minimal (as seen in Figure 3-42).

3.4.4: How do attitudes toward immigrants differ between Europe and North America?

Attitudes are divided in both Europe and North America regarding immigrants coming to these regions. In Europe, hostility is a central tenet of political parties in many European countries, despite the relatively modest percentage of immigrants. In North America, states such as Arizona and Alabama have enacted stringent immigration restrictions on unauthorized immigrants. In both regions, however, these immigrants (whether they have the necessary documentation for immigration or not) occupy an economic niche, working jobs that citizens otherwise wouldn’t. Despite these hostile attitudes, outreach organizations such as Amnesty in USA, the Federation for American Immigration Reform, and the European Network on Statelessness exist to help these at-risk populations.

Explore Use Google Earth to explore the U.S.-Mexico border at Laredo. Fly to: Nuevo Laredo, Mexico. Select Borders and Labels. Zoom in to 5,000 feet.

1. Follow the international border through the built-up area of Nuevo Laredo and Laredo. How many border crossings do you see?

Two border crossings can be seen between Laredo and Nuevo Laredo.

2. What is the means of transport at each of the crossings?

Automobile is the means of transport at each of the crossings.

Zoom in to 2,000 feet.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 3. The backup of cars is long trying to enter which country?

The backup of cars is long trying to enter the United States.

4. Based on the Google Earth image, if you had to ship goods across the border (such as car parts), which means of transport appears to be the quickest and easiest to use?

The quickest and easiest means of shipping goods across the border to the United States would be by air. If one were to ship goods to Mexico, transporting them by automobile would be the quickest and easiest.

Resources United Nations High Commission on Refugees www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/home Map and text-based information about refugees, photos, news, publications, and educational material, including the excellent “Global Trends 2015” ( http://www.unhcr.org/en-us/global-trends-2015.html).

Cultural Landscape Report for Ellis Island Stakely, J. T. (2003). Cultural Landscape Report for Ellis Island. Brookline, Mass: National Park Service Olmstead Center for Landscapers Preservation.

An app is available for iOS and Android platforms that provides a wealth of information on Ellis Island from the National Park Service (more information at https://www.nps.gov/elis/index.htm).

U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services www.uscis.gov/portal/site/uscis This is the official U.S. government site for immigration policy and applications.

U.S. Department of State Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration http://www.state.gov/j/prm/This is a U.S. government site for official news and views on immigration and refugee issues.

Connections between Chapters Back to Chapter 2 Students have an extremely difficult time connecting Chapter 2 with Chapter 3. A great number seem to have memorized that migrants came to the United States “to escape religious persecution.”

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Chapter 3: Migration Address this misconception by asking whether students believe that all 40-some-odd million European migrants to the United States were fleeing religious persecution. It is amazing how durable elementary tales of Pilgrims can be.

Forward to Chapter 4 A natural connection to Chapter 4 is the observation that migrants frequently bring unique elements of their culture with them in the form of unique foods, dress, and social customs.

This observation can be made even more poignant by emphasizing the most common destination of new migrants, large urban areas, are locations which feature cultural diversity.

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Folk and Popular Culture

4

Learning Outcomes After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to: Learning Outcome 4.1.1:

Introduce concepts of folk and popular culture.

Learning Outcome 4.1.2:

Compare processes of origin, diffusion, and distribution of folk and popular culture.

Learning Outcome 4.1.3:

Compare patterns of regions and connections between folk and popular culture.

Learning Outcome 4.1.4:

Compare differences in geographic dimensions of folk and popular music.

Learning Outcome 4.1.5:

Describe the transformation of sports from folk to popular culture.

Learning Outcome 4.2.1:

Introduce environmental and cultural features of material culture.

Learning Outcome 4.2.2:

Compare reasons for distribution of clothing styles in folk and popular culture.

Learning Outcome 4.2.3:

Understand reasons for folk food preferences and taboos.

Learning Outcome 4.2.4:

Describe regional variations in popular food preferences.

Learning Outcome 4.2.5:

Understand factors that influence patterns of folk housing.

Learning Outcome 4.3.1:

Compare the diffusion of TV and the Internet.

Learning Outcome 4.3.2:

Compare the distribution of the social media with that of TV and the Internet.

Learning Outcome 4.3.3:

Understand threats to freedom of use of electronic media.

Learning Outcome 4.4.1:

Summarize challenges for folk culture from diffusion of popular culture.

Learning Outcome 4.4.2:

Summarize two principle ways that popular culture can adversely affect the environment.

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The Cultural Landscape: A Introduction to Human Geography

Chapter Outline Key Issue 1: Where Are Folk and Popular Leisure Activities Distributed?

Culture is defined as a collection of social customs; customs are repetitive acts of groups. Repetitive acts of individuals are called habits. Chapter 4 focuses on two facets of material culture: (1) culture deriving from the necessities of daily life such as food, clothing and shelter, and (2) leisure activities such as the arts and recreation.

Culture is defined as the body of material characteristics, customary beliefs, and social forms that together embody the distinct tradition of a group of people. These three components of culture capture the interest of geographers; in Chapter 4, the visible elements that a group possesses and leaves behind for the future are discussed. Following the examination of migration in Chapter 3, links can be made to the discussion of culture in this Chapter; two locations have similar cultural beliefs, objects, and institutions because people bring along their culture when they migrate. Differences become apparent when two groups have limited interaction.

To analyze the relationship between culture and the behavior of people, geographers differentiate between habit and custom. Habit is a performative act that a particular individual repeats, such as wearing jeans to class every day. A custom is a repetitive act of a group, performed to the extent that it becomes characteristic of the group, such as many students typically wearing jeans to class.

Introducing Folk and Popular Culture Geographers have identified two major categories of culture: folk and popular culture. Folk culture and popular culture differ in their patterns of origins, diffusion, and distribution. Folk culture is practiced by small homogenous groups living in isolated rural areas.

Popular culture is found in large heterogeneous societies that share certain customs despite differences in other personal characteristics. Landscapes heavily influenced by folk culture change relatively little over time, while popular culture’s foundation rests on rapid simultaneous global connections through communications systems, transportation networks, and other modern technology. Rapid diffusion promotes persistent changes in popular culture. Scalar differences are observed in folk and popular culture, as well – globally, popular culture is becoming more dominant (at least for those with the income to have access to it), while many folk cultures are locally based. This global phenomenon threatens the existence of unique folk cultures, potentially reducing local diversity the world over. Popular culture may also pose negative environmental effects, with “built environments” being unsustainable.

Origin, Diffusion, and Distribution of Folk and Popular Culture The distribution of folk and popular culture can be explained by two basic factors: the process of origin and the pattern of distribution.

Origin Customs originate from hearths. Folk customs are often anonymous while popular customs originate in more developed countries as part of the market for recreational (leisure) and disposable income to purchase these material goods.

Diffusion Popular culture diffuses (usually hierarchically) through rapid electronic communications and transportation networks. Folk culture diffuses through relocation diffusion (migration).

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Chapter 4: Folk and Popular Culture Distribution Popular culture is distributed widely across many countries, with little regard for physical factors. The primary barrier to access is lack of income to purchase the materials of popular culture. Folk cultures often (though not always) incorporate elements of the local environment. Groups with relatively little contact with others develop unique folk cultures. Himalayan religious art is used as an example of how isolated religious groups depict the same environment much differently in their art.

Geographic Differences Between Folk and Popular Culture Geographers recognize that cultural features display distinctive regional distributions. Culture regions are often vernacular – people perceive these regions to exist as a component of their cultural identity. Culture regions may also manifest as formal or functional. The region encompassing a folk culture is generally much smaller than one encompassing a popular culture, due to connections (or lack thereof). Limited connections, possibly due to physical barriers, may engender different folk cultures in a relatively small geographic area.

Origin and Diffusion of Folk and Popular Music Music researcher Daniel Levitan argues that every culture in human history has had some tradition of music. Music can be looked to as an example of the differences in the origin, diffusion, and distribution of folk and popular culture.

Folk Music The purpose of folk music is to tell stories or to disseminate information. Folk music typically originates from an anonymous hearth and is transmitted among populations orally. As people migrate, folk music travels with them as part of the diffusion of folk culture.

Popular Music Popular music is deliberately written to be sold and performed. While some forms of popular music contain references to local places or events, the purpose of the music is still to appeal to a variety of people across Earth. As with other elements of popular culture, popular musicians have more connections with performers of similar styles, regardless of where in the world they happen to live, than they do with performers of different styles who happen to live in the same community.

In the past musicians clustered in particular communities according to their shared interest in specific styles. Because of the globalization of popular music, musicians are less tied to the culture of a particular place. Now musicians cluster in communities where other musicians reside regardless of the style of music they play. Musicians are also clustered in large metropolitan areas so they can be near sources of employment.

Origin and Diffusion of Folk and Popular Sports Many sports originated as isolated folk customs and were spread like other folk culture, through the relocation diffusion (migration). The contemporary diffusion of organized sports, however, displays the traits of popular culture.

Folk Culture: Origin of Soccer Soccer is an example of a popular folk custom that was popularized and then globalized. The hearth of soccer is believed to be in England in the eleventh century. Following the Danish invasion of England between 1018 and 1042, workers excavating a building site discovered a Danish soldier’s head, which they began to kick. “Kick the Dane’s head” evolved into boys using an inflated cow bladder in the place of the head, and games were played between two villages. The victorious side was the one to kick the ball into the center of the rival village.

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The Cultural Landscape: A Introduction to Human Geography Popular Culture: Diffusion of Soccer In the 1800s, soccer transformed from a folk custom to a popular culture. Several English soccer clubs formed an association to standardize the rules and to organize professional leagues. Spectators started to pay to see first-class events. Soccer then diffused to other parts of Europe. Soccer later diffused to other parts of the world by new communication systems such as the radio and TV. Today, the global popularity of soccer is exemplified in the World Cup, held every four years.

Olympic Sports Other sports are similar to soccer as elements of popular culture, though the distribution of each sport is different. If a sport becomes popular enough worldwide, it becomes part of the Olympics. For a sport to be to be included in the Olympics it must be widely played in at least 75 countries (50 countries for women sports) and on four continents.

Surviving Folk Sports Most other sports have diffused much less than soccer. Cricket, Wushu, baseball, and lacrosse are examples of sports that never became very popular globally.

Key Issue 2: Where Are Folk and Popular Material Culture Distributed?

Elements of Material Culture Folk culture is more apt to be influenced by environmental conditions, but popular culture is not insulated from these environmental influences. Geographers have noted that folk and popular culture can come into conflict with one another.

Wine Geography The spatial distribution of wine production is indicative of the importance of both environmental and cultural elements. Grapes needed for making decent wine grow better in some places compared to others.

Wine Production: Environmental Factors The distinctive character of a wine stems from a vineyard’s terrior – the unique combination of soil, climate, and other traits at the place where the grapes are grown.

Wine Production: Cultural Factors Cultural values underpin the historical and contemporary production of wine. The distribution of wine production shows that the diffusion of popular customs depends less on the distinctive environment of a location than on the presence of beliefs, institutions, and material characteristics conducive to accepting those customs.

Conflicting Folk and Popular Cultural Values Conflicts may emerge between folk and popular culture.

For example, wearing folk clothing in countries dominated by popular culture can be controversial, and vice versa. Particularly difficult has been the coexistence of the loose-fitting combination body covering, head covering, and veil traditionally worn by women in Southwest Asia and North Africa in contrast to the open-necked blouses, tight-fitting slack, and revealing skirts commonly seen in casual Western-style popular women’s clothing.

Folk and Popular Clothing People living in folk cultures have traditionally worn clothing in part in response to characteristic agricultural practices and climatic conditions. In popular culture, clothing choices generally reflect occupations rather than particular environments.

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Chapter 4: Folk and Popular Culture Folk Clothing Preferences People wear distinctive folk clothing for a variety of environmental and cultural reasons. Women who live in countries in Southwest Asia and Northern Europe are discouraged from wearing popular casual Western-style clothing because of religious reasons. On the other hand, some European countries prohibit women from wearing traditional clothing from Southwest Asia and North Africa because the leaders in government believe that those clothes make women seem like second class citizens.

Rapid Diffusion of Popular Clothing Styles Popular clothing habits have little regard for the climate or topography of an area. Because of the sufficient incomes, the social desirability of dressing for a particular job or social class, and rapid communications, popular clothing styles can change several times per year across the more developed world. Jeans are an example of how Western popular culture has diffused to other countries. Jeans retain local diversity because different regions of the world prefer a particular style of jeans.

Folk Food Customs According to the nineteenth-century cultural geographer Vidal de la Blache, food supply is one of the most enduring connections that tie people to a particular environment. Food preferences are strongly influenced by cultural traditions, and shared food preferences may help to establish social, religious, and ethnic customs.

Food and the Environment The local climate presents a major influence on what can and cannot be grown. The contribution of a location’s distinctive physical features to the way food tastes is known as terroir. Folk cultures have had to adapt their food preferences to conditions in their local environment and this has created distinctive local cuisines around the world. Folk cultures will also eat certain foods that are believed to enhance qualities that are considered desirable by their society.

Food Taboos The development of food taboos are thought to be partly environmental and partly cultural.

Taboos are restrictions on behavior imposed by religious law or social custom. These taboos may help to protect endangered animals or to conserve scarce natural resources. Many religions have food taboos because they protected the environment of the religion’s hearth. Social values can also influence what people eat because people in similar climates and with similar levels of income consume different foods.

Popular Food Preferences Popular food preferences are impacted more by cultural values than by environmental features. Despite this, some regional differences are apparent between and within countries, and environmental factors remain significant in specific items.

Regional Differences: Global Scale The example of soft drink sales can be instructive in examining differences in global preferences. While Coca-Cola accounts for more than half of the world’s soft drink sales, Pepsi is another prominent brand, making up one-fourth of the soft drink market. Pepsi is preferred in Québec, where marketing practices tied the soft drink to French Canadian identity. Political influences may play a role in preference, as seen in the Soviet Union and the Arab countries in Southwest Asia and North Africa.

Regional Differences: U.S. Snack and Fast Food Regional differences in food preferences of developed countries may be associated with cultural or environmental factors, while others are more abstract in their origin. Americans may choose particular beverages or snacks in part on the basis of preferences of what is

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The Cultural Landscape: A Introduction to Human Geography produced, grown, or imported locally. Many regional variations cannot be easily explained by cultural or environmental factors, as can be seen by the differences in the distribution and concentration of McDonalds across the United States.

Folk and Popular Housing The house, as theorized by French geographer Jean Brunhes, is a product of both cultural and natural conditions. American cultural geographer Fred Kniffen considered the house to be a good reflection of cultural heritage, current fashion, functional needs, and the impact of environment.

Folk Housing Singular environmental and cultural factors play a role in the provision of housing in folk cultures.

Environmental Influences Folk housing styles are another example of the influence of the physical environment, with housing design reflecting both cultural norms and environmental influences from the type of building material used to the shape of the house to more efficiently heat, cool, or shed water. Even in areas that share similar climates and available building materials, folk housing can vary because of minor differences in environmental features.

Cultural Influences Some folk housing distinctive design may also derive primarily from religious values and other customary beliefs. Houses in some folk cultures may have sacred walls or corners.

Compass direction may play a big role in how the house was built and how the interior of the house is arranged.

U.S. Folk Housing Older houses in the United States from the east coast toward the Mississippi River display a local folk-culture tradition. The distribution of U.S. folk housing styles reflected whatever style was prevailing at the place on the East Coast from which the people migrated from. Housing built in the 1940s and beyond is indicative of how popular customs differ more in time than in place.

Key Issue 3: Why Is Access to Folk and Popular Culture Unequal?

Diffusion of TV and Internet The world’s most popular and important electronic media format is television (TV). While the Internet has grown in popularity and importance in recent years, TV remains the foremost electronic media format.

Distribution and Diffusion of TV Popular culture is diffused faster and further than ever with the invention and diffusion of forms of electronic communication like television. Television allows images and messages about popular culture, such as professional sports, to spread instantaneously across the globe. Watching TV is now the most popular leisure activity in the world, with the average human watching 3 hours daily and the average American watching 5 hours daily The technology by which television is delivered is changing throughout the world, with ownership rates in developing countries climbing rapidly since the beginning of the twenty-first century.

Diffusion of the Internet Internet service has diffused at a rapid pace throughout the world. The diffusion of the Internet has occurred much more quickly than TV. It is likely to diffuse even further in the years ahead at a rapid rate.

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Chapter 4: Folk and Popular Culture Diffusion of Social Media People in the United States have dominated the use of social media during the early years. Social networking websites like Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube still enjoy their greatest popularity in the United States, but are quickly diffusing to other countries. The possibility of other social media platforms gaining popularity outside the United States also exists.

Diffusion of Facebook Since the founding of Facebook by Harvard University students in 2004, it has diffused rapidly. Mirroring the early dominance of Internet in the United States, Facebook users in the United States outnumbered those in other countries during its early years. As of 2014, the United States and India claim more than 100 million Facebook users each, with developing countries such as Brazil, Mexico, and Indonesia behind. Facebook is not as popular in China and Russia, due to competing social media platforms and restrictions on Internet usage.

Diffusion of Twitter The United States was the source of one-third of all Tweets in 2014, with another one-third originating in India, Japan, Germany, the United Kingdom, Brazil, and Canada. The rising presence of social media in developing countries such as India and Brazil may be a preview of future trends, in which electronic communications advances diffuse rapidly not only in developed countries, but the world over.

External Threat: Developed Countries Control the Media Since media outlets are largely Western (especially television programming), their content may present values or beliefs in conflict with those of a particular place receiving those broadcasts. Government may perceive this Western control as a threat to their national systems and attempt to restrict the programming available to the populace.

Internet Threat: Social Media In some places around the globe residents have sought out Western programming otherwise not available through the use of satellite dishes. Governments around the world are also trying to limit the Internet content in their countries. Social media has started to play an even more significant role in breaking the monopoly of government control over the diffusion of information.

Challenges in Accessing Electronic Media Not every country enjoys the same open access to information and modern electronic communications (e.g. the Internet and cell phones) as the citizens of the United States do. Based on a Freedom on the Net survey of the level of Internet and digital media freedom in 65 countries, 19 countries were categorized as “free,” 31 were classified as “partly free,” and 15 were “not free.” Three categories of restrictions on the free use of the Internet are recognized by Freedom on the Net: banned technology, blocked content, and violated user rights.

Banned Technology Governments can prevent electronic technology deemed unwanted by regulating the underlying technology platforms that are supported by the infrastructure in the country. Some governments do not permit the sale of certain models of phones, tablets, and computers. Devices that are permitted must be configured to exclude certain functionality. Some travelers between free countries, such as from the United States to Western Europe, discover that their devices fail to operate due to incompatible cellular infrastructure. China is an example of a country that aggressively monitors and restricts foreign applications, as evidenced by the relatively small fraction of Facebook and Twitter users living there.

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The Cultural Landscape: A Introduction to Human Geography Blocked Content Some websites and web content is censored or prevented altogether from being displayed on devices in a particular country. The leaders of some developing countries view American dominance of TV programming as a new method of cultural and economic imperialism. Social norms present in this programming may not match those of developing countries; many satellite and cable providers in these developing countries block programming containing such content. Three types of Internet content are routinely censored in select countries: • • •

Political content that expresses views in opposition to those of the current administration or that is related to human rights, freedom of expression, minority rights, and religious movements.

Social content related to sexuality, gambling, and illegal drugs and alcohol, as well as other topics that may be socially sensitive or perceived as offensive.

Security content related to armed conflicts, border disputes, separatist movements, and militant groups.

Violated User Rights Some citizens of countries that are not “free” digitally have devised ways of circumventing government restrictions on ownership of hardware, use of software, and viewing of online content. These governments have codified physical attacks and imprisonment to intimidate their citizens into ceasing these departures. Freedom on the Net has noted that women and the LGBTQQIAAP community have been targeted in a number of countries for their online activities. Iran, Syria, and China have been identified by Freedom on the Net as the worst-offending countries in using the oppressive actions.

Key Issue 4: Why Do Folk and Popular Culture Face Sustainability Challenges?

Sustainability Challenges for Folk Culture Growing connections with popular culture can make it difficult for folk culture to maintain centuries-old practices and customs. A folk culture group often undergoes a process of assimilation, which is a process of giving up cultural traditions, such as food and clothing preferences, and adopting social customs of the dominant culture of a place. Instead of assimilation, a folk group often undergoes acculturation, which is a process of adjustment to the dominant culture of a place, while retaining features of a folk culture, or syncretism (the creation of a new cultural feature through combining elements of two groups).

Preserving Cultural Identity: The Amish The Amish are an example of a group in the United States that shuns any mechanical or electrical power. The globalization of popular culture represents to many people in folk cultural societies a loss of traditional values. Many fear the loss of folk culture, especially because of the rising demand for possessions of a popular culture. For folk culture, increased connection with popular culture can make it difficult to maintain centuries-old practices. Folk societies are trying hard to maintain their unique culture in an age of globalization.

Challenging Cultural Values: Dowries in India The global diffusion of popular culture has challenged the subservience of women that is embedded in some folk cultures. This has been both a good thing and a bad thing for women in developing countries. The family of the bride in India is sometimes expected to provide the groom with a dowry. Some women in India have actually been killed because their family did not pay a large enough dowry to the groom. Although anti-dowry laws were enacted by the government of India in 1961, they are largely ignored and women still face the consequences of the harsh reality of this custom.

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Chapter 4: Folk and Popular Culture Sustainability Challenges for Popular Culture Popular culture can greatly modify or control the environment, with little regard for local environmental conditions, such as climate and soil. The diffusion of some popular customs can negatively impact environmental quality in two ways: landscape pollution and depletion of natural resources.

Landscape Pollution For many popular customs, the environment is altered to enhance participation in a leisure activity or to promote the sale of a product. Although some built environments are designed to look “natural,” they are actually deliberately created by people in the pursuit of popular social customs.

Uniform Landscapes The spatial expression of a popular custom in one location will be similar to another. To build a uniform landscape, hills may be flattened and valleys filled in. Promoters of popular culture actually want a uniform appearance to generate “product [or brand] recognition” and greater consumption. Gas stations, supermarkets, and fast food restaurants all exhibit characteristics of a uniform landscape. Physical expression of uniformity in popular culture has diffused from North America to other countries, further establishing uniformity in the global landscape.

Resource Depletion Popular customs may also involve the overuse and depletion of scarce natural resources. The increased demand for meat is leading to a decrease in the total amount of grain available.

Pollution often times results from popular cultural practices. Recycling consumer products is helping to alleviate all the unwanted by-products that usually end up in landfills or burned in incinerators.

Golf courses require large expanses of open, carefully managed grass. Some golf courses are designed partially in response to local physical conditions. Many courses have little regard for local conditions and usually dramatically alter the natural landscape of an area. Golf course remake the environment by creating of flattening hills, cutting grass, carting in or digging up sand for traps, and draining or expanding bodies of water to create hazards.

Ice Breakers Pop Culture Trivia An exercise in pop culture trivia will remind college students of how much they do know.

Organize a series of questions for the class on popular culture topics ranging from TV shows to Top 40 or “alternative” music, to sports, to Hollywood celebrities.

Now ask a series of questions on a folk-culture-based topic. You might have a favorite to pick from, such as bluegrass music or a lesser-known sport like Jai-Alai. It won’t take long for the students to tire of these meaningless (to them) trivia questions.

Now a discussion can be started on the nature of one trivia contest versus the other. Why do so many students know so much about the first category of culture, and so little about the other examples from folk culture? The discussion will serve as an introduction to the differences between folk and popular culture.

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The Cultural Landscape: A Introduction to Human Geography

Challenges to Comprehension Norms and “Normal” Younger students may not have previously encountered any discussion of cultural relativism or the construction of social norms. The text introduces this idea with a discussion of habits, customs, and taboos but does not explicitly address the challenge of understanding other material cultures from their own perspective.

Consider introducing a common North American custom in an unfamiliar context. For example, “A drug crop is grown in fields, where it is harvested and put into 100-pound bags. These bags are sold by the farmer for anywhere between $70 and $100. The product is then brought into another country, often using middlemen, where it is processed, refined, and sometimes mixed with other substances before being sold on the street. The final market value of the original bag can now be as high as seven to ten thousand dollars. What are we talking about?”

Some students will guess “cocaine”, many more “marijuana,” but few or none will guess the real subject of this word problem: coffee!

Ask your students how they reacted to the idea of the drug as an “illegal” or “abnormal” one versus a “normal” one; then discuss whether we bring these prejudices to bear on other material cultures.

Uniform Landscapes The Chamber of Commerce in your hometown wants to hire you to create a new town seal. Is there a symbol or symbols that reflect the unique identity of your town? Is the cultural and/or physical landscape of your town distinctive enough to create a real sense of place? Will you end up having to turn down the job because your hometown is the definition of “Anytown U.S.A.”?

Assignments Review/Reflection Questions • •

•

•

Describe a distinctive food preference that your family has and trace its origins to a folk hearth. If you don’t have one, use an example that you’ve heard or seen (not from the book).

List some of your food taboos and give an explanation for each. How many have to do with cultural traditions you’ve inherited, and how many have to do with cultural views you’ve adopted as an adult?

Social media, such as Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube is changing the way that popular and folk cultures are diffused. Give and support an argument for how the Internet might aid the preservation, or even expansion, of some folk cultural elements.

Describe one activity of popular culture that you engage in and evaluate its impact on the environment. What might a folk cultural alternative to your activity be?

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Chapter 4: Folk and Popular Culture •

•

Describe a personal habit, a custom that you follow that is not generically “popular culture,” and a culture that you follow. Be sure to define and explain each one, and then try to explain where each one originated.

Do you consider your culture to be part of the “dominant” culture at this school? If “yes,” explain how you observe other cultures and why you make these observations. If “no,” explain how the dominant culture influences your own culture.

Cultural Observation Assignment For this assignment, you’ll observe the cultural landscape of one part of our community. You can choose a location that represents popular culture (e.g., a mall, the campus bookstore, a coffee shop, a park, a street intersection) or folk culture (e.g., a folk art festival, a street market, a musical performance). You’ll need to use all five of your senses to study a particular/event and report on your observation.

Objectives First, prepare a plan of your objectives. Where will you be going? What are you planning to observe?

How will you record your observations? Write this plan down to give your investigation a more direct focus.

Observations Go to the location you’ve selected for your observation and spend some time there. Your report should include detailed observations of the site and situation characteristics of your location, so take careful notes.

Find a good place to make your observations and stay for at least one hour. Take notes on what you’ve decided to observe. You may also change your mind about what is most important to observe.

Attach your observation notes to the end of your assignment.

Results Present the results of your observations. Depending on what and how you choose to observe some elements of culture, you might arrange your results in a table, or you might summarize your observations in several paragraphs.

Discussion Now write about 500 words discussing what you observed. Make sure to relate your observations to key concepts in Chapter 4 and earlier chapters.

Your final paper should have following section: Objective, Results, Discussion, and your observation notes attached after your bibliography.

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The Cultural Landscape: A Introduction to Human Geography For additional review and test prep materials, have your students visit MasteringGeography™ to access a variety of resources, including interactive maps, videos, Google Earth activities, RSS feeds, flashcards, web links, and self-study quizzes.

Thinking Geographically Questions 4.1: In what ways does age affect the distribution of leisure activities in folk or popular culture?

Elderly people in folk culture and popular culture may be limited to only a select number of leisure activities, due to certain disabilities attributed to old age (e.g. a game of chess in a park, rather than competing in triathlons). Folk culture leisure activities enjoyed by older people may include woodworking in Amish communities, or performing bonsai gardening in Japan. Popular culture leisure activities practiced by the elderly may include playing a game on a smart phone, or playing bingo. Their younger counterparts in folk culture in Japan may participate in sumo wrestling, while in Japanese popular culture they may engage in playing video games at an arcade.

4.2: In what might gender affect the diffusion of material culture in folk or popular culture?

Folk culture women may have limited access to many areas of the city. In fundamentalist Muslim societies women are typically not allowed out of the home without a male escort. Their leisure activities are mostly limited to the home.

Women in a popular culture are not restricted to where they can go. Many businesses in malls cater exclusively to women. Many women use the mall as a place to meet up with other women. Many female oriented businesses are also clustered around aerobics studios. Women spend time patronizing these businesses after working out. Women also tend to congregate in parks with large playgrounds because many are taking care of small children.

4.3: Why do many governments consider it important to limit the freedom to use social media?

Governments may see social media as an avenue to introduce unsavory ideas and views to their citizens.

These ideas may foment dissent in these countries, generating the possibility for protest or revolutionary groups to be born. For instance, in the People’s Republic of China, the government does not allow the use of Twitter and Facebook, so they have banned these “threatening” sites in their country.

4.4: What types of folk customs might be able to be communicated through social media?

Folk customs, such as traditional music, may be able to be communicated through social media. For instance, on the social media website Facebook, traditional Azerbaijani may be shared whereas it typically would be relatively hard to access. Oral traditions may also be typed out and stored online, and diffused through social media.

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Chapter 4: Folk and Popular Culture

Pause and Reflect Questions 4.1.1: Can you think of an entertainer, a politician, or another public figure who displays a distinctive habit in choice of clothing?

Regarding political parties in the United States, the Republican and Democratic parties are generally associated with the colors red and blue, respectively. For instance, in a debate between two candidates for President, the participants will generally wear red or blue accented attire.

4.1.2: What geographic factors account for the diversity of cultures in the Himalayas?

Topographic features, primarily the Himalayan Mountains, played an important role in isolating groups of people. This isolation led these groups to develop distinct folk cultures in this region.

4.1.3: What type of music do you like? On what “line” in Figure 4-9 does it fit?

I prefer experimental music – I would most likely would fit on the gray “avant-garde” line.

4.1.4 Do you like your state’s favorite artist?

Jay-Z is my state’s favorite artist.

4.1.5: How many Olympic sports are played at your school?

Golf, tennis, basketball, volleyball, and women’s track are the Olympic sports played at my school.

4.2.1: Can you think of other restrictions on clothing styles in developed countries, perhaps in schools?

Children in schools can’t wear clothes with obscene images or words. Girls in school can’t wear clothing that is too revealing and boys can’t wear pants that expose their underwear. Clothing related to gangs may also be banned from schools.

4.2.2: What sort of folk or popular clothing do you typically wear?

I generally wear clothes associated with the “hipster” subculture in the winter months (e.g. tight jeans, boots), while in the warmer times of year I wear clothes associated with the “yuppie” aesthetic (e.g. short shorts, oxford shirts).

4.2.3 What foods do you avoid? Do you avoid foods because of taboos or for other reasons?

I am a vegan, so I abstain from any foods containing animal products. I avoid these foods for moral reasons.

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The Cultural Landscape: A Introduction to Human Geography 4.2.4: Do your food preferences match the predominant ones in your region?

My food preferences do not match those of my region (I do not eat Krispy Kreme doughnuts).

4.2.5: What factors were considered in the arrangement of the bed in your bedroom?

I have my bed arranged in my bedroom to maximize floor space, as there isn’t much room in my apartment.

4.3.1: The United States has slightly less than 1 TV per person. Does your household have more than 1 TV or less than 1 TV per person? Why might you have more or less than the national average?

My household has one television per person (just me). One might have less than the national average due to budgetary reasons, while one might have more than the national average because they love television, or perhaps use them for multiple purposes (such as a computer monitor).

4.3.2: A recent study of University of Maryland students found that not using any electronics for 24 hours produced anxiety, craving, and other symptoms akin to withdrawal from alcohol or drugs. How do you think you would react to a 24-hour ban on all electronics?

I think I could manage without electronics for 24 hours with no issue – I often camp outside and have no qualms having no access to electronics in the wild.

4.3.3: If you lived in a “not free” country, what use of electronic media might get you into trouble? Why? Social media and the use of message boards (a relatively outdated web phenomenon) would probably get me in trouble, as all manner of issues are discussed in the outlets. These topics can be critical of the government (and other people in power), so they most likely would see reason to censor it.

4.4.1: In what ways might Amish people need to interact with popular culture?

As far as participating in any sort of leisure activity, they would see little reason to interact with popular culture. However, if they are enterprising, they could open up a gift shop on their property and sell Amish-made goods to tourists who are not familiar or a part of the Amish community.

4.4.2: Summarize two principal ways that popular culture can adversely affect the environment.

Car culture is an enduring part of American life, and has been for generations. People take car rides for leisure, and the interstate system laid the foundation for a wide network of automotive activity for all kinds of purposes. Automobiles emit carbon dioxide, a pollutant known to contribute to global warming – obviously this is detrimental to the environment. Popular music is also an important part of popular culture in the United States. Since bottom lines at record companies have taken a hit as a result of music piracy, touring is relied on by bands to make up the difference lost in record sales. The growing touring itineraries have increased the need for trucks to carry to equipment, or private jets to transport musicians – these elements of touring also contribute to global warming.

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Chapter 4: Folk and Popular Culture

Explore Use Google Earth to explore the place in London where the 2012 Summer Olympics were held.

1. Fly to Olympic Stadium, London.

2. Click Historical Imagery. Move the time slider to 9/1999. What sort of structures occupied the site of the stadium then?

It appears to be an industrial area – long buildings appearing to be factories occupied the area of the stadium. There are approximately seven large structures in the area.

3. Click More, then Transportation. Zoom out until you see the nearest subway station. What is the straight-line distance from the station to the stadium? What feature prevents walking in a straight line from the station to the stadium?

Hackney Wick is the nearest subway station, at 0.49 miles away. The River Lea prevents one from walking in a straight line from the station to the stadium.

4. Click View in Google Maps. What is the function of the football-shaped building immediately to the east of the stadium?

It is the Olympic Park Aquatics Centre.

Resources American Cultural History, 19th and 20th Centuries Entertaining and informative details of American popular culture from the last 200 years. Produced by Lone Star College Library references librarians, Kingwood, Texas. http://www.lonestar.edu/library/kin_AmHistory2.htm The National Museum of American History http://americanhistory.si.edu/Exhaustive resource for educators and students.

Connections between Chapters Back to Chapter 1 The spread and influence of different elements of material culture can be understood in the discussion of diffusion. Remind students of the importance of these terms in understanding how folk and popular cultures spread. The globalization of culture is also referenced in Chapter 1.

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The Cultural Landscape: A Introduction to Human Geography Back to Chapter 3 Remind your students that folk cultures are most often spread by relocation diffusion, so the link between Chapters 3 and 4 should be clearer. Students might reflect on whether it is simply migration that is a source of conflict, or whether culture plays a larger role.

Forward to Chapter 5 Language and popular culture are interrelated in the formation of new slang and the creation of new words. As a transition to Chapter 5, have the students list words that did not exist 10 to 20 years ago.

Numerous examples from the Internet and technology will be offered.

Cultural Geography Term Paper Ethnicity is identity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland. Our own ethnicity (culture and experience) shapes our beliefs and also influences our perceptions of differing people and places encountered throughout our lives. Therefore, it is important to reflect on and understand our own opinions. Furthermore, we need to increase our awareness of the diversity of people and places not only in the world at large, but also in our own fascinating, multicultural Southern California environment.

You must, however, get out and about to experience and taste this richness for yourself.

This assignment (fieldwork) is intended to be enjoyable. You choose the time and the place. Many students have combined this assignment with a family outing, a date, time with friends or even have formed informal groups with classmates to venture out together. It is your choice.

Procedure 1. Choose one of the locations from the attached list. No passports are required to explore Southern California’s many ethnic neighborhoods.

2. You need to thoughtfully answer the questions below using as much detail as possible in your descriptions. Be observant to the sights, sounds, and smells that create this unique sense of place.

Your responses to the questions need to be typed (using 12 point font) and double spaced. Your responses need to be numbered and you should not write out the questions. You will be required to turn in at least two full pages, but most students usually need more than two pages to adequately respond to all the questions.

3. You need to write an essay discussing your visit from a geographical perspective. The essay needs to be at least one full page. Your essay must be typed (using twelve point font) and double spaced. Some possible topics in your essay could be: (1) how the landscape is arranged, (2) the creation of a cultural landscape (architecture), (3) characteristics of the homeland country (political, economic, environmental, cultural) that creates push factors for migration, and so on. Be sure to connect the attributes of the homeland your ethnic enclave represents. Include your internal reactions and feelings about this place briefly in your conclusion.

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Chapter 4: Folk and Popular Culture Questions 1. Where did you go? Which ethnic, cultural group is dominant here?

2. Why do you think most of the people in this area migrated to the United States? What do you think are the push/pull factors?

3. What landscape elements do you think give this area a distinctive appearance from surrounding areas? Be specific—describe buildings, architecture, spatial arrangement, clothing, types of stores, and music that you encounter.

4. Try a new ethnic food (it doesn’t have to be expensive, just a little exotic to you and typical of what is common in the homeland). What did you try? Did you like or dislike it? What ingredients were in it?

5. Do you see outward symbols of religious systems that are associated with the homeland? Look closely and describe. Does it help or hinder your cultural understanding of this ethnic group?

6. Do you see evidence of the convergence of traditional and modern worlds? If so describe them—look for impacts of communications and technological systems. What kind of connections are going on between the homeland and this region?

7. Look at products sold in stores and businesses. Do you see references to specific locations in the homeland? What cities and regions are on the labels of products? Where are the goods made?

8. What types of economic activities and businesses do you find here? Are there any surprises? Are there any specific businesses that reflect social customs from the homeland? Describe.

9. Any interesting (or perhaps strange to you) items for sale in these stores? People and cultures perceive and utilize resources differently—what is your cultural response to the unique items you see?

10. New immigrant groups have always tried to recreate their homelands when they migrated to the United States. Why do you think it is helpful for new arrivals to the United States to live in or near an ethnic enclave? Do you think you would be attracted to an American enclave if you moved to a foreign country?

Due Date: The day of the Final Exam. No late papers will be accepted.

AROUND THE WORLD: ETHNIC AREAS PROVIDE GLIMPSES OF OTHER CULTURES Compiled by Lori E. Miller, Recreated from Los Angeles Times, Southland Funbook Alpine Village in Torrance: www.alpinevillage.net 833 West Torrance Boulevard at Harbor (110) Freeway

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The Cultural Landscape: A Introduction to Human Geography Features: This Bavarian-style marketplace, started by German speaking shopkeepers is laced with stores, eateries, nightly entertainment, a market and a wedding chapel. An outdoor Oktoberfest is held September–October.

Hours: Shops generally open from 11A.M.–6 P.M. daily with extended hours for restaurants Parking: Free Chinatown in Los Angeles: www.lachinesechamber.org Bounded by Cesar Chavez Boulevard and Bernard, Figueroa, and Alameda streets Features: Central Plaza, guarded by its Filial Piety, is flanked with narrow walkways and tiny shops.

Nearby are herb shops, fresh fish stores, and eateries.

Hours: Shops generally open from 10 A.M.–6 P.M. daily with extended hours for restaurants Parking: Lots and metered parking along city streets El Pueblo de Los Angeles (Olvera Street) in Los Angeles Intersection of Main and Alameda Streets Features: Considered to be the birthplace of Los Angeles, this historic enclave consists of 27 landmark buildings, as well as a strip of colorful shops and taquerias lining Olvera Street.

Hours: 10 A.M.- 9 P.M. daily. Docent-led walking tours are offered at 10 A.M., 11A.M., and noon Wednesday through Sunday Parking: Various lots and metered parking along city streets Fairfax District in Los Angeles Fairfax Boulevard between Beverly Boulevard and Melrose Avenue Features: Home to a large Jewish population. This district remains an intricate part of the city’s Jewish community. Lining the pavement are storefronts containing mostly delicatessens and Kosher markets.

Hours: Stores generally open from 10A.M.–6 P.M. daily with extended hours for restaurants Parking: Various lots and metered parking along city streets Koreatown in Los Angeles Between 4th Street and Olympic Boulevard, and Western and Vermont Avenue 71 © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 4: Folk and Popular Culture Features: Colorful storefronts and restored bungalows can be found in this area that is home to the Korean Cultural Center (offering art exhibits and a resource library); Korean grocery, music, and clothing stores; and Korean restaurants.

Hours: Vary by establishment Parking: Various lots and metered parking along city streets Leimert Park in Los Angeles Bounded by Crenshaw Boulevard, 43rd Street, Leimert Boulevard, and 43rd Place Features: Consisting of nearly a dozen pedestrian-friendly blocks, this urban village offers a wealth of Afrocentric themed shops and services. Also a popular area for African-American artists, poets, and musicians.

Hours: Stores generally open from 10A.M.–6 P.M. daily with extended hours for restaurants Parking: Various lots and metered parking along city streets Little India in Artesia Pioneer Boulevard between 183rd and 187th streets Features: Among the flour-block stretch of mini malls and Indian eateries are shops laden with silk saris, jewelry, home accessories, and other exotic imports.

Hours: 11A.M.–8 P.M. Tuesday through Sunday Parking: Two-hour street parking is available along Pioneer Boulevard from 7am- 6pm Little Saigon in Westminster 9200 block of Bolsa Avenue Features: The Asian Garden and New Saigon Mall is the gateway to Orange County’s most exotic community. A variety of shops and restaurants, which number more than 200, contain healing herbs, imported wares, jewelry, and a variety of other items. A visit to the Cultural Court reveals a display of artwork and statues depicting Asian history.

Hours: Vary by establishment Parking: Free Little Tokyo in Los Angeles: www.janet.org

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The Cultural Landscape: A Introduction to Human Geography Bounded by Los Angeles Street, Central Avenue, and 1st and 3rd streets Features: This historic neighborhood is home to a cultural center, theater, museum, Buddhist temple, plaza-style shopping center, boutiques, and restaurants.

Hours: Stores generally open from 10A.M.–6 P.M. daily with extended hours for restaurants Parking: Various lots and metered parking along city streets Thai Town in Hollywood: thaicdc.org Along Hollywood Boulevard (between Western and Normandie Avenues) Features: Shops, marketplaces, bookstores, and cafes.

Hours: Most businesses operate from 8 A.M.–10 P.M. Parking: Free parking at Thailand Plaza, as well as metered parking along Hollywood Boulevard and neighboring streets

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5

Languages Learning Outcomes

After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to: Learning Outcome 5.1.1:

Understand how languages are classified.

Learning Outcome 5.1.2:

Identify the world’s largest language families.

Learning Outcome 5.1.3:

Identify the distribution of Indo-European and Sino-Tibetan, the two largest families.

Learning Outcome 5.1.4:

Identify the distribution of the largest language families other than IndoEuropean and Sino-Tibetan.

Learning Outcome 5.2.1:

Identify the origin, diffusion, and current distribution of Indo-European branches.

Learning Outcome 5.2.2:

Identify processes of origin and diffusion of a language branch and a family.

Learning Outcome 5.2.3:

Understand processes underlying current distribution of English.

Learning Outcome 5.2.4:

Understand the concept of lingua franca.

Learning Outcome 5.2.5:

Understand the official status of English and other languages.

Learning Outcome 5.3.1:

Understand the ways that dialects vary.

Learning Outcome 5.3.2:

Understand the distribution of principal U.S. dialects.

Learning Outcome 5.3.3:

Understand challenges in distinguishing between some languages and dialects.

Learning Outcome 5.3.4:

Understand how some countries embrace more than one language.

Learning Outcome 5.4.1:

Understand the classification of languages by severity of threat to their survival.

Learning Outcome 5.4.2:

Understand how some lesser-used languages are being protected.

Learning Outcome 5.4.3:

Understand geographic factors resulting in isolated and extinct languages.

Learning Outcome 5.4.4:

Understand processes of creation of new languages.

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Chapter 5: Languages

Chapter Outline Key Issue 1: Where Are Languages Distributed?

Language is a system of communication through speech, a collection of sounds that a group of people understands to have the same meaning. Language is an important element of culture that people value.

Beginning an analysis of the geographic elements of cultural values with language is useful because it is the medium through which other cultural values, such as religion and ethnicity, are communicated.

Introducing Languages Most people in the United States only know how to speak English. Only 8 percent of college students and 18 percent of high school students take foreign language courses in the United States, whereas in Europe, 75 percent of elementary school students and 94 percent of high school students learn English in addition to their native languages.

Language and Migration Language and migration are geographic areas of interest that share many connections. For instance, the contemporary distribution of languages across Earth can be attributed to the past migrations of peoples. An example in the world can be seen in Madagascar, where the native language is a part of the same language family as languages spoken in Indonesia and the Philippines.

According to researchers, migrants traveled to Madagascar from Indonesia about 2,000 years ago. The common language between the two populations diverged as contact was lost, and the Malagasy language developed into a distinct language over the course of many generations. Geographers analyze the similarities among languages to explain the diffusion and interaction of people around the world.

Classifying Languages Earth’s cultural diversity is readily apparent through the collection of languages spread across its continents. According to Ethnologue, one of the most authoritative sources of languages (see: ethnnologue.com), there are an estimated 7,102 languages, including 90 spoken by at least 10 million people, 304 spoken by between 1 and 10 million people, and 6,708 spoken by fewer than 1 million people. The distribution of some languages is easy for geographers to determine, while others (especially in Africa and Asia) can be difficult (or perhaps even impossible). Ethnologue categorizes languages into five classes: institutional, developing, vigorous, in trouble, and dying. Of the world’s 7,102 languages, 578 are institutional, 1,598 are developing, 2,479 are vigorous, 1,531 are in trouble, and 916 are dying.

An institutional language is a language used in education, work, mass media, and government. The official language of a country is a designated institutional language, used by the government for laws, reports, and public objects such as road signs, money, and stamps. Many countries have more than one official language and may require all public documents to be in all languages. A literary tradition is a component of a(n) (institutional) language, meaning that a written system exists alongside the spoken system. While thousands of literary traditions existing in the world help geographers study the total number and distribution of languages in the world, languages with no written system present problems for researchers trying to examine them.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography A developing language is spoken daily by people of all ages in a population. While the spoken system of a developing language may be relatively widespread, a literary tradition may not be as widely distributed. A vigorous language is spoken daily by people of all ages in a population, but has no literary tradition at all. As their names imply, languages in trouble and dying are considered by Ethnologue to be in various phases of disappearing from use.

Organizing Language Families Languages can be organized into families, branches, and groups. A language family is a collection of languages related through a common ancestral language that existed long before recorded history. A language branch exists within a family, comprising a collection of languages that are related through a common ancestral language that existed several thousand years ago.

The connections between languages in a branch can be seen in archaeological evidence. A language group is a collection of languages within a branch that share a common origin in the relatively recent past and exhibit many similarities in grammar and vocabulary.

Language Families Figure 5-3 is illustrative of the divisions and relationships that exist between language families, branches, groups, and individual languages. Each language family is displayed as an individual tree at ground level, as differences between families predate recorded history. Some linguists have speculated that current conceptualizations of language families descend from larger superfamilies, circa tens of thousands of years ago. Quentin Atkinson, a New Zealander biologist, posits that all languages originate in Africa, attributing this to the complexity and diversity of languages present in Africa today. According to Ethnologue, there are 142 language families. Indo-European and Sino-Tibetan are the two language families used by the most people today, by about 1 billion people. Additionally, 7 language families are used by between 100 million and 500 million people, and 5 language families are used by between 9 and 100 million people.

Two Largest Language Families Figure 5-6 displays language families with at least 9 million native speakers across the globe. The two language families with the most speakers are Indo-European and SinoTibetan, spoken by about 1 billion people.

Indo-European Indo-European is the most extensively used language family, evidenced by its predominant usage in Europe, South Asia, and North and Latin America. Four branches of Indo-European are widely used (Indo-Iranian, Germanic, Romance, and Balto-Slavic), while four other branches are spoken by relatively fewer people (Albanian, Armenian, Celtic, and Greek).

Sino-Tibetan Sino-Tibetan is the second-largest language family in the world as it includes Mandarin (known by the Chinese as Putonghua, or “common speech”), the world’s single most-spoken language.

The languages of China generally are a part of the Sinitic branch of the Sino-Tibetan family. Although other Sinitic branch languages are spoken by at least 20 million each in China, the People’s Republic of China government has imposed Mandarin across the country as its official language.

Other Large Language Families 12 other language families and their distribution are discussed in the following sections.

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Chapter 5: Languages Southeast Asia Language Families The three largest language families present in Southeast Asia are Austronesian, Austro-Asiatic, and Tai-Kadai Austronesian Approximately 6 percent of the world’s population speaks languages of the Austronesian family, with most speakers concentrated in Indonesia. As Indonesia is composed of several thousand different islands, many distinct languages and dialects can be found across the country – according to Ethnologue, 706 living languages are spoken in Indonesia. The most spoken first language in Indonesia is Javanese, spoken by 84 percent of the population (mostly on the island of Java).

Austro-Asiatic The Austro-Asiatic language family is used by approximately 2 percent of the world’s population, with Vietnamese being the most widely used language in the family. Written Vietnamese features a roman alphabet, a vestige of Roman Catholic missionaries work in the country in the seventeenth century.

Tai-Kadai The Tai-Kadai family was once categorized as a branch of Sino-Tibertan. The primary languages of this family are spoken in Thailand and adjacent areas of China. Some scholars believe that populations speaking Tai-Kadai languages may have migrated from the Philippines.

East Asia Language Families Japanese and Korean are the two most commonly used language families in Asia, excluding those in China.

Japanese Written in part with Chinese characters, Japanese also uses two systems of phonetic symbols, used either in place of Chinese characters or alongside them. While the original form of writing Japanese was influenced by the Chinese writing system, the two languages are structurally distinct.

Korean The Korean written system, known as hankul, is distinct from Japanese and Sino-Tibetan languages in that each letter represents a sound, as in Western languages. A majority of Korean vocabulary originated from Chinese words.

Other Asian Language Families In South Asia, the Dravidian language family is predominately used.

The Altaic and Uralic language families were originally conceived to be one language family; however, recent studies have determined that they have disparate geographic beginnings.

Dravidian Dravidian languages are spoken primarily in southern India. Telugu and Tamil are the two most commonly used Dravidian languages. Dravidian is less studied than other widely used language families, and was present in South Asia prior to the arrival of speakers of Indo-European.

Altaic The Altaic languages are theorized to have emerged from the steppe areas bordering the Qilian Shan and Altai mountains between Tibet and China. Turkish is the most commonly used Altaic language.

After the Soviet Union took control of Central Asia in the mid-twentieth century, the use of Altaic languages was suppressed. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s, the countries of Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan adopted Altaic languages as their national tongues.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Uralic The Uralic languages originated from a common language spoken by people in the Ural Mountains region of Russia. Dating back some 7,000 years, Estonians, Finns, and Hungarians all use the Uralic language family.

African Language Families There is a dispute among language scholars regarding the categorization of African languages into families – as a matter of fact, scholars cannot even concede on the exact number of languages used in Africa (Ethnologue describes 2,146 languages in Africa, with only 699 having a literary tradition). Africa is home to the world’s third- and fourth-largest language families: Afro-Asiatic in North Africa and Niger-Congo in sub-Saharan Africa.

Afro-Asiatic Arabic is the primary Afro-Asiatic family language, with 206 million people speaking it as an official language across two dozen countries in Southwest Asia and North Africa. In addition to Arabic, most people use a second language that is distinct from official Arabic. Ethnologue describes 34 individual Arabic languages apart from the official Arabic. Many of the 1 billion Muslims across the world speak some Arabic, as Islam’s holiest book, the Quran (Koran) was written in the seventh century in the language. Hebrew is also a member of the Afro-Asiatic language family, being the original language of Judaism’s Bible and Christianity’s Old Testament.

Niger-Congo More than 95 percent of sub-Saharan Africans use a language from the Niger-Congo family. Yoruba, Igbo, and Swahili are the three most commonly spoken Niger-Congo languages. Nigeria is home to the Yoruba and Igbo languages, while Swahili is the first language of 15 million people and the second language of 25 million people across Africa. Although it is spoken by a great number of people, Swahili is the official language of only one country: Tanzania. While local languages dominate individual villages, Swahili is used by people to communicate with outsiders. Swahili developed through interactions between African groups and Arab traders, so its vocabulary has a pronounced Arabic influence. Swahili is one of the few African languages with a thorough literary tradition.

Nilo-Saharan 43 Million people spread across north-central Africa speak languages of the Nilo-Saharan family. This family is instructive in the debate scholars have had regarding the classification of Nilo-Saharan languages – despite relatively few people speaking these languages, there are six branches, along with many groups and subgroups.

America’s Other Language Family: Quechuan Quechuan is the most widely used language family in the Western Hemisphere aside from Indo-European. Its speakers are mostly concentrated in the Andes Mountains of western South America. According to Ethnologue, 9 million people use a Quechuan language, comprising 44 distinct tongues. Quechuan Cusco is the sole Quechuan language with over 1 million speakers. Spanish is generally a first language for speakers of Quechuan languages. Aymara is another indigenous language of the Andes, with approximately 3 million speakers located in Bolivia.

Key Issue 2: Where Did English and Related Languages Originate and Diffuse?

Roughly one-half of the world population use a language of the Indo-European family, with the roots of the family tracing back before recorded history.

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Chapter 5: Languages Distribution of Indo-European Branches Eight branches make up the Indo-European language family, with four being extensively spoken, and four others comprising fewer speakers.

Germanic Branch English is part of the West Germanic group of the Germanic branch of the IndoEuropean language family. Other West Germanic group languages include Dutch, Flemish, Frisian, Afrikaans, and German. The other important Germanic group is North Germanic. The North Germanic group includes four languages spoken in Scandinavia—Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, and Icelandic.

Romance Branch The Romance branch is composed of descendants of Latin and stretches from Portugal along the Mediterranean to Slovenia and a pocket in Romania and Moldova. Many Romance languages have multiple dialects, some of which may be variously considered languages in their own right. The four most widely used Romance languages are Spanish, Portuguese, French, and Italian. Romanian is separated from other Romance languages by Slavic-speaking countries.

Indo-Iranian Branch The Indo-Iranian branch is the Indo-European language family with the most speakers. The Indo-Iranian branch includes the Indic group which is the main language group in densely populated India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. These languages include Persian (also called Farsi) in Iran, Pashto in eastern Afghanistan and Western Pakistan, and Kurdish. The most commonly used language in the Indic group is Hindi. The Iranian group (Iran and southwest Asia) is separate from the Indic group.

Balto-Slavic Branch Slavic was once a single language, but differences developed when a group of Slavs migrated from Asia to Eastern Europe. The Slavs were isolated from each other and the languages changed over time. The Balto-Slavic branch is further divided into East Slavic and Baltic language groups and these groups include the Russian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian languages. These languages are used in former Soviet countries, with Russian being the most widely spoken. The Balto-Slavic branch also is divided into the West and South Slavic language groups that cover an area in Eastern Europe from Poland to Macedonia. The West and South Slavic group includes Polish, Czech, Slovak, Bosnian, Croatian, and Serbian languages.

Origin and Diffusion of Indo-European The geographic processes of origin and diffusion have played a role in the extant distribution of languages across the world. While these roots can be traced throughout history, language families predate any recording of their development and spread, allowing scholars to only speculate about their beginnings. The origin and distribution of the Romance language branch and the Indo-European language family illustrate these circumstances.

Origin and Diffusion of Romance Languages The Romance languages developed from Latin. The Romans helped diffuse Latin from the Atlantic Ocean on the west to the Black Sea on the east and encompassed all lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea. Most people in the provinces controlled by Rome learned Vulgar Latin, which was a form of Latin used in daily conversation instead of the strict dialect that was used for official documents. After the Roman Empire collapsed, communication among the former provinces declined that distinct languages began to evolve.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Origin and Diffusion of Indo-European Since all members of Indo-European language families are related, they must come from a common origin. Linguists generally accept that all the Indo-European languages descended from a single ancestral language, but disagree on where the language originated and the process by which it diffused. Two hypotheses of the language family’s origin are the Nomadic Warrior Theory, and the Sedentary Farmer Theory.

Nomadic Warrior Theory According to archaeologist Marija Gimbutas, the first Proto-Indo-European speakers were the Kurgan people of central Asia, specifically the area near the border between presentday Russia and Kazakhstan. The Kurgan people were among the first to domesticate horses and use chariots, leading them to migrate in search of grasslands for their animals. The Kurgans traveled westward through Europe, eastward to Siberia, and southeastward to Iran and South Asia, conquering much of Europe and South Asia between 3500 and 2500 B.C. Sedentary Farmer Theory In a theory posited by archaeologist Colin Renfrew, the Indo-European language family’s roots stretch back even further than the dominance of the Kurgans, with its first speakers living in the eastern part of present-day Turkey circa 6700 B.C. Following this theory, Indo-European language diffused into Europe and South Asia in concert with agricultural practices rather than by military conquest.

Origin and Diffusion of English When the Celts landed on the shores of the British Isles around 2000 B.C., they brought with them the Celtic languages. Tribes from mainland Europe invaded the Celtic people around A.D. 450, driving them to remote northern and western parts of Britain, including Cornwall and the highlands of Scotland and Wales.

Germanic Invasion Three primary tribes invaded the British Isles: the Angles, Jutes, and Saxons. The Jutes invaded from northern Denmark, the Angles from southern Denmark, and the Saxons from northwestern Germany. The languages spoken by these three tribes have each played a role in the evolution of Modern English. In fact, the name England stems from “Angle’s Land,” with Angles being spelled Engles in Old English. Before recorded history, all Germanic peoples spoke a common language, allowing differences that developed between Germanic languages to be used in studying their evolution.

Other peoples and languages played a role in the development of English over history, such as the Vikings coming from Norway to northeastern England in the ninth century, Norman Invasion In 1066, England was conquered by the Normans from present-day Normandy in France. This invasion was key in the divergence of today’s English from the current German language.

From the time the Normans invaded until the mid-fourteenth century, French was the official language of England. However, while the entitled class (such as the royal family and nobility) spoke French, the majority of people (who had little education) continued to speak English. After the Statute of Pleading was enacted by Parliament in 1362, English once again became the official language of England. Modern English is influenced by both its Germanic and French descent.

Diffusion of English The colonial legacy of England over the course of four centuries had an enduring impact on the contemporary distribution of English speakers around the world. England’s conquests brought its language to North America, Ireland, South Asia, the South Pacific, and southern Africa. While

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Chapter 5: Languages English was the official language of countries colonized by England, generally only the rulers installed by the crown and a select group of elite local residents could speak it. The United States’ colonized territories also played a role in English’s diffusion in the twentieth century, most notably in the Philippines, where it is still an official language today.

Combining English with Other Languages New languages are being born through the combination of English and other languages. Three examples are most apparent: Franglais, Spanglish, and Denglish.

Franglais is mixture of French and English; Spanglish combines Spanish and English; Denglish is an amalgamation of German and English.

Global Importance of English In the era of globalization, a common language is essential for the global connections that have developed to not only remain, but also grow. English is the most important language of international communication. However, with the omnipresence of English, populations that don’t use English as a first language must be wary of the potential tradeoffs in placing their native languages in a secondary role.

Lingua Franca A language used for international communication are known as Lingua Franca. To aid trade, speakers of two different languages use a lingua franca by mixing elements of the two languages into a simple common one. Meaning “language of the Franks,” the lingua franca was originally applied by Arab traders during the Middle Ages to the language they used to communicate with Europeans, whom they called Franks. The increasing importance of English as a lingua franca can be seen by the percentage of students learning English as a second language in school – more than 90 percent of students in the European Union learn English in either middle or high school. In some places, pidgin languages are used for communication with speakers of other languages. A pidgin language borrows words and grammar rules from a lingua franca, and combines them with some elements of other languages. A pidgin language has no native speakers – it is always spoken in addition to one’s native language.

English on the Internet The Internet has acted as a solidifying force for ensuring English’s digital dominance. More than one-half of all Internet content is in English, meaning that some knowledge of the language is crucial for engagement with others online. The U.S.-based Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) has played a role in the abiding dominance of English on the Internet – this organization manages the assignment of domain names and the suffixes following the dot, such as “com” and “edu.” Since 2009, however, domain names in characters other than Latin, such as Arabic and Chinese, may be used, potentially eroding the ubiquity of English online.

Chinese: The Next Lingua Franca? The large number of people who speak Chinese languages affects the probable rise of Chinese in social media. In addition to the sheer amount of people who will come to speak Chinese languages, the way the languages are written broadens their appeal. Chinese languages are written with logograms, which are symbols that represent words or meaningful parts of words.

Considering this, Chinese would be an ideal language for Twitter, where messages are limited to 140 characters in English.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Official Languages Some countries designate one or more languages as official. The official language is employed by the government to enact legislation and conduct other public business. In some countries, the official language is the only one primarily used in public schools. Europe is home to a large number of official languages, with the E.U. recognizing 24 official and working languages. In 58 countries, English is an official language, more than any other language. More than 2 billion people live in a country that has designated English as an official language, whether they can speak it or not. Although English is primarily spoken in Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States, it does not hold official status in these countries.

Key Issue 3: Why Do Individual Languages Vary among Places?

A dialect is a regional variation of a language distinguished by distinctive vocabulary, spelling, and pronunciation. Generally, speakers of one dialect can understand speakers of another dialect. A subdialect is a subdivision of a dialect. Two subdialects of the same dialect have relatively few differences, primarily in pronunciation and vocabulary. These dialects and subdialects are of keen interest to geographers, as they generally reflect distinctive features of the environments in which groups live.

English Dialects Due to its widespread diffusion around the world, English has an especially large number of dialects and subdialects.

American and British English The colonists from England who settled along the Atlantic Coast in the seventeenth century established English as the dominant language of North America. Isolation from one another allowed British and U.S. English to develop differences in three key ways – vocabulary, spelling, and pronunciation.

Vocabulary New objects and experiences allowed for a unique vocabulary to develop in U.S. English.

The new landforms witnessed by settlers, such as large forests and mountains, were given names. Native Americans lent many words to U.S. English, such as raccoon, moccasin, and canoe. As technological advances occurred on both sides of the Atlantic, they were given different names – an elevator in the U.S. is referred to as a lift in England.

Spelling Differences in spelling between British and U.S. English can largely be attributed to Noah Webster, who with his first comprehensive American dictionary, set out to establish a unique national identity with his work (by dropping the u from many words, and substituting an s for c in many words).

Pronunciation Many words with unaccented syllables are pronounced more clearly in the United States as compared to in England. For example, “necessary” is four syllables long in U.S. English, while it contains only three in British English.

Dialects in the United Kingdom Dialects are also present within individual countries – in both the United States and England, distinct northern and southern dialects exist. In a language with multiple dialects, one dialect may be designated as the standard language, which is a dialect that is well established and widely agreed upon as the most acceptable for government, business, education, and mass communication. Received Pronunciation (RP) is the standard language in England, and is commonly

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Chapter 5: Languages used by elected officials, broadcasters, and actors. Three main dialects are spoken today in England – Northern, Midland, and Southern. The boundaries between these dialects are continually shifting, being influenced by migration patterns.

U.S. Dialects The distribution of dialects is examined through the use of particular words. Every word that is not used nationally has some geographic extent within the country and therefore has boundaries.

Such a word-usage boundary is known as an isogloss. An isogloss can be constructed for each word.

Distribution of U.S. Dialects The four major dialects of the United States are reflected in individual regions: North, Midland, South, and West. The three eastern dialect regions can also be divided into several subdialects. The current distribution of U.S. dialects can be traced to differences in the origin of the English colonists along the East Coast. The early colonies were home to three dialects: North, South, and Midland. The diffusion of particular English dialects across the United States is a result of the westward expansion of colonists from the three East Coast dialect regions. The American West was settled primarily by people from the Midland dialect region; therefore, people from the North and South dialect region sound remarkably different to people there. While mass media has propelled some regionally distinctive words to national prominence, many words, such as the word(s) people use for soft drink, continue to very regionally, African American English The forced migration of Africans to the United States during the eighteenth century to be slaves in southern colonies engendered the development of a dialect heavily influenced by this event. This dialect was created partially to communicate in a code that could not be understood by their white masters. Black dialect words such as jazz and gumbo have since diffused into the standard English language. After many African Americans migrated to the large cities of the Northeast in the twentieth century, they were segregated in both neighborhoods and schools, thus preserving this dialect, known as African American Vernacular English (AAVE), or Ebonics. Some in the African American community see this as a boon to preserving their cultural heritage, while others see it as an obstacle to success in the United States.

Appalachian English Appalachian English, spoken in areas such as rural West Virginia, is a distinct American English dialect. It shares qualities with Ebonics, such as using the double negative, and also adding “a” in front of verbs ending in “ing” (e.g. a-walking). The same advantages and disadvantages are seen in Appalachian English as those in Ebonics. Some speakers of Appalachian English and Ebonics are ”bidialectic,” in that they can speak both their regional dialect and the “standard” English dialect.

Creole Languages A creole, or creolized language, is a language that results from the combination of a colonizer’s language with the language of the indigenous people being oppressed. A creole language initiates when the colonized population adopts the languages of the oppressors, but makes some changes, such as simplifying the grammar and adding words from their native language, and are often considered separate languages from either descendant language. Examples include French Creole in Haiti and Papiamento in Netherlands Antilles.

Dialect or Language? Global-local tensions can often be seen in the characterization of dialects and distinct languages. Geographic concepts such as migrations, increased interaction (connections), and other

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography globalization processes can be used to analyze the relationship between standard languages and dialects.

In most cases of this scenario, the standard language strengthens while regional dialects are suppressed. In some instances, the drive for cultural identity has resulted in the development of distinct languages that were once characterized as dialects.

Dialects Become Languages The Romance branch of the Indo-European language family is illustrative of the difficulty in distinguishing languages from dialects.

Catalán-Valencian-Balear Catalán was once considered a dialect of Spanish, but is now recognized as a separate Romance language by linguists. Catalán is the official language of the country of Andorra, and the highly autonomous Catalonia province in Spain. In eastern Spain, it is spoken by approximately 5 million people. Linguists have also identified distinct dialects of Catalán, such as Balear, spoken in the Balearic Islands of Majorca and Ibiza. Most linguists consider Valencian a dialect of Catalán, while many others consider it a language unto itself.

Galician Whether Galician, which is spoken in northwestern Spain and northeastern Portugal, is a dialect of Portuguese or a separate language remains a point of debate among speakers of Galician. Some, such as the Academy of Galician Language, view it as a separate language, while others, such as the Galician Association of the Language, see it as a dialect of Portuguese.

Moldovan Moldovan is generally recognized as a dialect of Romanian. However, it is written in Cyrillic letters, a legacy of Moldova being a part of the Soviet Union, while written Romanian uses the Roman alphabet.

Italy’s Languages Many regional dialects of Italian, such as Lombard and Napoletano-Calebrese, are now recognized by Ethnologue as sufficiently different to be recognized as separate languages.

Occitan Occitan is a language spoken in southern France and neighboring countries, derived from the name of the French region of Aquitaine. The French government has set up bilingual elementary and high schools called calendretas, teaching both French and Occitan.

Standardizing Languages In efforts to bolster a unified cultural identity, many governments have long promoted the designation of a single dialect as the official or standard language. In France, the Francien French dialect became the standard form of French as Francien was spoken in the Île-de-France region, where Paris, the largest city of the country, is located. Speakers of Spanish and Portuguese have formed councils representing versions of the languages spoken the world over and devised clear rules on grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation to maintain linguistic and cultural unity.

Multilingual Places Multiple languages coexist in some countries, with varying levels of success. Some countries are relatively segregated concerning the geographic distribution of language, while others see speakers of multiple languages intermingle. This coexistence is peaceful in some countries, while others see cultural divisions among groups due to language differences.

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Chapter 5: Languages Switzerland: Institutionalized Diversity Belgium and Switzerland are countries where language differences are readily apparent, as the boundary between Romance and Germanic languages run through both. Switzerland has seen more success in promoting coexistence among multiple languages compared to Belgium. The government of Switzerland recognizes four official languages (German, French, Italy, and Romansh), and delegates power to the local level, helping to preserve this linguistic harmony.

Canada: Bilingual Autonomy Canada recognizes two official languages, French and English. French speakers are most concentrated in the province of Québec, where they were politically disenfranchised for decades under minority rule by English speakers. Tensions between English and French speaking Québécois have eased in recent years, as neighborhoods in the Québec city of Montréal have become more linguistically blended.

Nigeria: Spatial Compromise Divisions in Nigeria can be drawn against linguistic, cultural, and religious boundaries. While Ethnologue recognizes 529 distinct languages in the country, only three are used by more than 10 percent of the country: Hausa, Igbo, and Yoruba. The northern portion of Nigeria is home to a majority of Muslims, while Christians make up most of the population in the south. In the wake of a civil war from 1967-1970 (stemming from the alleged discrimination of the southern Igbo by the northern Yoruba), the capital city was moved to the central city of Abuja, where no one culture or language is predominant.

Belgium: Barely Speaking Belgium is divided roughly in half by language – Southern Belgians speak French, while northern Belgians speak Flemish, a dialect of Dutch. Economic divisions are also evident in Belgium, with the northern region of Flanders being more economically prosperous than the disadvantaged southern region of Wallonia. These cultural, linguistic, and economic differences have led both regions to create autonomous governments, with residents of Flanders even advocating for full independence.

Key Issue 4: Why Do Local Languages Survive?

The distribution of a language is often an indicator of the fate of a cultural group – the more diffuse a language, the stronger the cultural identity associated with it is. While the dominance of English as a lingua franca has solidified its presence as the foremost globalizing language in the world, local diversity in language is now being both protected and preserved.

Endangered Languages 2,447 of the world’s 7,102 living languages are threatened with extinction, per Ethnologue. These languages persevere against globalizing forces through concerted community efforts.

The South Pacific, Latin America, and North America are the world’s regions with the largest share of dying languages, due to the dominance of English, Spanish, and Portuguese in these areas.

Endangered Languages in the South Pacific Although the colonial legacy of English has set the language’s dominant position, languages that existed prior to the arrival of Europeans still remain.

Australia promotes the usage of English as a force for cultural unity, while New Zealand views linguistic diversity as an important element of cultural diversity.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Australia Although Aboriginal Australian peoples make up only 1 percent of the country’s population, 211 indigenous languages have survived colonialism. Despite this linguistic diversity, fewer than 10,000 people speak a non-English native tongue. Restrictions against immigration under a “White Australia” policy played a major role in promoting English as a primary language.

New Zealand 14 percent of New Zealand’s population is of Maori descent, with the Maori tracing their history to a migration by Polynesian people to the island nation over 1,000 year ago. Through recognizing Maori as an official language and establishing the Maori Language Commission, the government of New Zealand has enacted policies to preserve and protect the Maori language. Despite this seemingly attitude of inclusion, New Zealand actually has historically had more stringent immigration policies than neighboring Australia.

Endangered Languages in North America According to Ethnologue, the United States has 61 languages in trouble and 142 languages classified as dying. These languages were largely spoken by Native Americans, whose older speakers are dying without teaching their language to their children.

However, some languages are being “reawakened,” with increased education and cultural pursuits being undertaken (see: the Myaamia language).

Preserving Languages Some languages, such as languages belonging to the Celtic branch of the Indo-European family, are being preserved and protected. While these Celtic languages were widely spoken in present-day Germany, France, northern Italy, and the British Isles 2,000 years ago, today speakers exist in limited numbers in remote parts of Scotland, Wales, and Ireland and on the Brittany peninsula of France.

Brythonic Celtic The Celtic language branch is categorized into Goidelic and Brythonic groups.

Speakers of Brythonic are concentrated in Wales, Cornwall, and the Brittany peninsula in France.

Welsh Welsh remained the primary language in the country until the nineteenth century, when many English speakers migrated there to work in coal mines and factories. As of 2014, 23 percent of the country speaks Welsh, while another 150,000 speakers live in England. The Welsh Language Society (Cymdeithas yr Iaith Gymraeg) has been a driving force in preserving and protecting the language, seeing that it is compulsorily taught in all schools and ensuring governmental and public use.

Cornish Cornish is the Celtic language that originated in the county of Cornwall in southwestern England. Although the last native speaker of Cornish died in 1777, a revival has seen 577 people alive today claiming to be fluent. Classes are taught in schools for both children and adults seeking to learn the language.

Breton Spoken in the Brittany peninsula of France, the number of people fluent in the language has declined from 1 million in 1950 to approximately 200,000 today, with three quarters of the speakers being over the age of 65. In addition to facing this generational problem, the French government has mandated French as the principal language of instruction in public schools.

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Chapter 5: Languages Goidelic Celtic Irish Gaelic and Scottish Gaelic are the two remaining Goidelic languages.

Irish Irish is spoken by 94,000 people on a daily basis, with an additional 1.3 saying that they can speak it and use it occasionally. Usage of Irish is primarily limited to the remote areas of Ireland. After being banned by English colonizers in the fourteenth century, cultural pride in the language has helped preserve and protect it. In 2005, for instance, street signed in portions of western Ireland were banned, and many Irish musicians are now recording in Gaelic.

Scottish Gaelic 59,000 people, or 1 percent of the population, in Scotland speak Scottish Gaelic. The enduring cultural heritage of Scots can be seen in Robert Burns’ poem Auld Lang Syne (popular for New Year’s Eve celebrations).

Isolated and Extinct Languages The level of interaction among groups of people can be measured by the similarities and differences between their languages. Physical isolation has acted as a preserving and fatal force for some languages.

Isolated Languages An isolated language is a language that is unrelated to any other and thus not categorized in any language family. Limited interaction with other groups of people breeds a language that may be classified as isolated. Basque is an example of a vigorous isolated language, in that children in Basque society learn Basque as their first language. Basque is a remnant of languages that existed prior to the arrival of speakers of Indo-European languages, a heritage owed in part to their isolated location in the Pyrenees Mountains of Spain and France.

An Unchanging Language While Icelandic is not considered an isolated language due to its inclusion in the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, its geographic isolation has made it so that relatively few changes to the language have occurred over the past 1,000 years.

Extinct Languages An extinct language is a language that was once used by people in daily activities but is no longer in use. Since 1950, Ethnologue estimates that 367 languages have become extinct, at an annual rate of 6. Languages that face extinction are largely supplanted by languages diffused by globalization.

Introducing the Chapter This chapter begins the text’s discussion of culture as something people value, or care about, as opposed to material things that people take care of.

Language issues are part of many debates over immigration, national identity, and separatist movements around the world. Start a discussion with the seemingly obvious observation that culture is difficult to communicate, and thus diffuse, across a language barrier.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography

Icebreakers American Monolingualism The chapter introduces the concept of language diversity with a discussion of how few languages most Americans speak or understand. Another way to introduce this is with the following joke: Q: What do you call a person who speaks multiple languages?

A: A polyglot.

Q: What do you call a person who speaks two languages?

A: Bilingual.

Q: What do you call a person who speaks only one language?

A: American.

Follow this attempt at humor with a question on why so few Americans know more than one language.

Answers will vary from the global prominence of English to the misconception that “English is easy.”

Dialects Ask the students if they think they speak a particular U.S. dialect. Then go to this website: alphadictionary.com/articles/yankeetest.html You can do this in class. Just have them put their answers down on a piece of paper and go over the answers when they are done. Your students will enjoy this.

Challenges to Comprehension “English Is Easy” Students who speak English and have since birth have the impression that English is an easy or “natural” language to learn while other languages are not.

Try having a conversation with the class on why so few Americans speak other languages other than English. A few students may volunteer that English is simple, but students with knowledge of other languages will be able to correct them. Some may also offer that it is not necessary to speak any other languages, which can prompt a discussion on globalization and the value of understanding other languages.

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Chapter 5: Languages

Assignments Review/Reflection Questions • •

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Why do so few Americans speak another language other than English? Answer the question from a personal perspective and a national perspective.

How do you think Americans who travel abroad but don’t speak other languages are perceived by residents of the places they visit? Compare this to the way recent immigrants to the United States are perceived by English-only speakers in the United States. Can a direct comparison be made?

What is the difference between these situations?

Debate continues over whether English should be the official language of the United States and whether schools should teach in languages other than English. Give an argument for school being taught only in English, and one supporting teaching with other languages in our schools. Which argument do you support, and why? Cite any references you use.

Give several inoffensive examples of words you use that your parents wouldn’t understand. What does this reveal about the nature of languages?

Apply the book’s comparison of language in multilingual states to this country. Which approach do you believe would work better, and why? Given current immigration tends, will this be a concern?

Toponym Analysis Toponyms reveal a lot about the culture, history, and physical geography of your state. Find a detailed map of your state. It needs to have both political features (cities and counties) and physical features (rivers, mountains, and lakes) labeled.

First, identify what non-English language or languages are prominently used in your state’s place names.

Are Native American words commonly used in your state’s place names? Identify any place names that are transplanted from elsewhere (e.g., New London, Connecticut, or Rome, New York). What do these place names reveal about the cultural history of your state?

Next, identify any historical people used in your state’s place names (Columbus, Ohio, or Lincoln, Nebraska)? Some of the names of the people used in the place names of your state may be very important to the history of the local area, but unknown nationally. Places may also be named for the kings and dukes of the resident’s home country.

Lastly, identify any descriptions of physical features used in your state’s political place names (e.g., Grand Rapids, Michigan, or Long Beach, California)? Do these names accurately represent the physical landscape of the area? Are there any place names in your state that represent the native flora and fauna (e.g., Southern Pines, North Carolina, or Wolf Point, Montana)?

Summarize your findings in a few paragraphs. What other questions does your analysis raise?

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography

Thinking Geographically Questions 5.1: As Chinese languages become increasingly important as lingua franca, what distinctive elements make it especially attractive to use, and which make it especially difficult to use?

Chinese languages are written primarily with logograms, making it difficult for non-speakers to learn thousands of different characters to adequately communicate. However, this may also be an attractive element of the language, in that it is a more “compact” written language.

5.2: The two theories of the origin of Indo-European depend on different views underlying the reasons that people migrate. Do you think the “war” theory or the “peace” theory better explains the migration of early humans? Why? I believe the sedentary farmer is more accurate, as the evidence has more historical context (goes 2,000 years further back than the nomadic warrior theory).

5.3: According to Figure 5-28c, which dialects of British English are forecast to expand, and which are expected to contract by 2030?

The Southern dialect is expected to expand further northward, while the Midlands and Northern dialects are projected to contract by 2030.

5.4: What geographic factors might account for this changing distribution?

This changing distribution may be attributable to shifting migration patterns both to and within England.

5.5: Myaamia is an example of a reawakening language. What would have to happen for the language to become even more vigorous in the future?

The children of the people currently taking part in the revitalization of the language will have to continue efforts to protect and preserve the language. An essential piece of continuing this reawakening will be teaching their children the language, and ensuring their children also teach their children, and so on.

Pause and Reflect Questions 5.1.1: What forms of power would have moved boats 2,000 years ago?

Wind and human power would have moved boats 2,000 years ago.

5.1.2: Based on Figure 5-3, which four other languages with at least 5 million speakers belong to the same language family, branch, and group as English?

Afrikaans, German, Bavarian, and Dutch all have at least 5 million speakers and belong to the same language family, branch, and group as English.

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Chapter 5: Languages 5.1.3: Sino-Tibetan is the second-most widely used language family, but it appears on Figure 5-6 to encompass a smaller land area than several other language families. Why is this the case?

Because the areas where people speak languages belonging to the Sino-Tibetan language family are relatively more densely populated than, say, the Niger-Congo language family, which actually covers more land area.

5.1.4: Most languages are named for regions or countries. For example, based on their names, how would you expect the distributions of Austronesians and Austro-Asiatic to differ?

Austro-Asiatic, by virtue of its name, seems like it would encompass a comparatively larger area of the world, whereas Austronesian would be confined to the Australian/Polynesian area. This is purely conjecture based on the names alone, though.

5.2.1: Which branch predominates to the north in Europe, which to the south, and which to the east?

The Balto-Slavic branch predominates to the east, the Germanic branch predominates to the north, and the Romance branch predominates to the south.

5.2.2: Which hypothesis appeals more to you: the “war” hypothesis or the “peace” hypothesis? Why? The “peace” hypothesis appeals more to me, because I would like to think that at their core, humans are peaceful.

5.2.3: School and University: Which word entered the English language through the German invasions and which through the Norman invasion?

School entered the English language through the German invasions, and university through the Norman invasion.

5.2.4: What is the title of the book in Figure 5-20? Type the letters into Google Translate.

The title of the book is тренировочные тесты. It translates to “Practice Tests.”

5.2.5: Is English an official language in your state?

Yes. 5.3.1: In what ways do you learn about differences between American and British English?

It is quite easy to familiarize oneself with British English through watching British television and movies, and reading British literature. It also helps to communicate directly with someone from the U.K., whether that be online or in person.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 5.3.2: Does your English fall into one of these dialects? Why or why not?

Not especially. My dialect is a mixture of Chicago and “Inland South,” growing up in both locations and drawing words and pronunciations from both.

5.3.3: Does your Internet search engine show tildes, cedillas, and circumflexes?

My search engine does, however my keyboard doesn’t have dedicated keys for these accent marks.

5.3.4: What is the most widely used language in the same family as Hausa? What religion’s holiest book is written in that language?

The most widely Afroasiatic language is Arabic. Islam’s holiest book, the Quran (Koran) is written in Arabic.

5.4.1: Asia has 60 percent of the world’s population but only 20 percent of the world’s dying languages.

Why might Asia’s large population centers have relatively few dying languages?

Because the effects of globalization may not have diffused fully to these areas, allowing for a diversity of languages. Parents may be continuing to teach their languages to their children, and the governments of these countries may also have policies implemented to help protect and preserve these languages.

5.4.2: Google Translate includes Irish and Welsh. Type something in English and see whether similar words are used in Irish and in Welsh and whether the words are similar to English.

“Good morning” is “maidin mhaith” in Irish and “bore da” in Welsh. They aren’t very similar at all to their English counterpart, although in the Welsh phrase I suppose “da” may be related to “day.”

5.4.3: Why do you think the sign in Figure 5-47 is written in both Icelandic and English?

Most likely because the government recognizes English as an official language, or perhaps they realize that with English’s status as a lingua franca, it would be wise to include an English translation for tourists who cannot speak Icelandic.

Explore Use Google Earth to explore Wentworth Avenue in Chicago.

Fly to 2230 S Wentworth, Chicago, IL. Use Street View to click on Wentworth Avenue.

1. What language other than English do you see?

Signs appear to be in Chinese.

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Chapter 5: Languages 2. What factors probably determine the amount of English used on signs along Wentworth Avenue?

For safety signs, the government probably mandates that the signage be in English. However, commercial signage may be in English to attract non-Chinese speaking customers.

Resources Ethnologue This is the definitive online source for cataloging, documenting, and understanding world languages.

Lewis, M. Paul (ed.), 2009. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, sixteenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online version: www.ethnologue.com/ National Association for Bilingual Education www.nabe.org/ U.S. English, Inc. Despite widespread belief to the contrary, there is no official language of the federal government of the United States. Here is the website of one organization that hopes to make it so: www.us-english.org/ Office of English Language Acquisition, U.S. Department of Education http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/oela/index.html

Connections between Chapters Back to Chapter 4 An obvious parallel is comparing culture’s globalization and corresponding diminishment of folk cultures and cultural diversity to the globalization of English and the corresponding threat to smaller languages.

While efforts to preserve both folk cultures and local languages are underway, globalization poses a threat to diversity in each case.

Forward to Chapter 6 A major difference between language and religion is the problem of exclusive adherence: While conflicts can arise over language differences, it is possible for people to learn more than one language and/or for translation to occur. Contrastingly, most religious ideologies prohibit the practice of more than one faith and strongly discourage communication with other religions for any purpose other than conversation!

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6

Religions Learning Outcomes

After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to: Learning Outcome 6.1.1:

Identify the world’s major religions.

Learning Outcome 6.1.2:

Describe the distribution of major religions.

Learning Outcome 6.1.3:

Describe regional variations in the distribution of Christian branches.

Learning Outcome 6.1.4:

Describe the distribution of the major branches of Islam and Buddhism.

Learning Outcome 6.1.5:

Describe the distribution of Hinduism and other ethnic religions.

Learning Outcome 6.1.6:

Describe the distribution of religions other than the most numerous ones.

Learning Outcome 6.2.1:

Describe the origins of Christianity and Islam.

Learning Outcome 6.2.2:

Describe the origin of Buddhism and the reason the origin of Hinduism is unknown.

Learning Outcome 6.2.3:

Describe the process of diffusion of universalizing religions.

Learning Outcome 6.2.4:

Understand distinctive migration patterns of Christian groups in modern times.

Learning Outcome 6.2.5:

Understand distinctive migration patterns of Muslims and Jews.

Learning Outcome 6.3.1:

Describe places of worship in various religions.

Learning Outcome 6.3.2:

Describe examples of religious settlements and of religious toponyms.

Learning Outcome 6.3.3:

Compare the administrative organization of hierarchical and locally autonomous religions.

Learning Outcome 6.3.4:

Explain why places are sacred in universalizing religions.

Learning Outcome 6.3.5:

Analyze the importance of the physical geography in ethnic religions.

Learning Outcome 6.3.6:

Understand the roles of holidays and calendars in various religions.

Learning Outcome 6.4.1:

Understand reasons for geographic conflicts between religious and secular cultural groups.

Learning Outcome 6.4.2:

Understand the role of a fundamentalist group such as the Taliban.

Learning Outcome 6.4.3:

Understand reasons for conflict in the Middle East.

Learning Outcome 6.4.4:

Explain the importance of Jerusalem to Jews and Muslims.

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Chapter 6: Religions

Chapter Outline Key Issue 1: Where Are the World’s Religions Distributed?

Religion is a way for a group of people to build cultural identity, much like language. Migration is the primary action through which religion is spread, although it is qualitatively different compared to the diffusion of language through migration. While many migrants learn the language of their new home or destination, they typically retain their religious beliefs. It is also possible for people to speak multiple languages, while most religions require exclusive adherence.

Introducing Religions An exact census on the count of religious membership is not taken in many major countries – for instance, the government of the United States does not ask its citizens which religion they practice. This relatively vague idea of how many people practice a certain religion can invite controversy to many layers of debate regarding religion – for example, adherents may feel that the number of adherents to their religion has been underestimated and therefore accorded less prominence than deserved in world and regional data.

The international statistics used in this chapter are collected by Adherents.com, the Association of Statisticians of American Religious Bodies, the Pew Research Center, and World Religion Database – all organizations unaffiliated with a particular religion. These measure also rely on self-identification. The world’s religions can be categorized as follows: •

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Four largest religions. 77 percent of the world’s population follow one of four religions: Christianity (2.2 billion people), Islam (1.6 billion people), Hinduism (1 billion people), and Buddhism (500 million people).

Folk religions. 6 percent of the world’s population adhere to “folk religions,” although this count is hard to estimate. Chinese traditional, primal-indigenous, and African traditional religions are all prominent folk religions.

Other religions. 1 percent of the world’s population practice a number of other religions. In this group, Juche, Judaism, Sikhism, and Spiritism are the four claiming the most adherents, counting between 14 and 23 million in their ranks. Bahá’í, Cao Dai, Jainism, Shinto, Tenrikyo, and Zoroastrianism are religions with between 1 and 10 million adherents.

The remaining 16 percent of the world’s population consider themselves unaffiliated with any religion. Some folks in this group espouse atheism, which is belief that God does not exist, or agnosticism, which is belief that the existence of God can’t be empirically proven.

Classifying Religions A universalizing religion appeals to people in a broad range of locations. The three universalizing religions with the largest number of adherents are Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism.

Ethnic religions tend to be most appealing to a particular group of people in a particular place. The largest ethnic religion by far is Hinduism, with folk religions also being classified as ethnic. These two categories differ in their origin, diffusion, and distribution patterns.

Global Distribution of Religions In most countries, the religion with the largest share of adherents is either Islam or Christianity. Christianity is the most widely practiced religion in the Western Hemisphere and in most countries of Europe and sub-Saharan Africa. In Southwest Asia, Central Asia, and North 95 © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Africa, Islam is predominantly practiced. Buddhism and Hinduism is also widely practiced in Asian countries. China, the most populous country in the world, is home to the most unaffiliated people.

Judaism is most heavily concentrated in Israel.

Regional Diversity of Religions The four regions with relatively more religious diversity are East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa.

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In East Asia, more than one-half of the people are unaffiliated with any religion. Most of the other one-half are divided about equally between Buddhism and folk religions.

In South Asia, approximately two-thirds of the population practices Hinduism, while the remaining one-third adheres to Islam. At the national scale, divisions are more stark: India is 80 percent Hindu, while more than 90 percent of people in Bangladesh and Pakistan adhere to Islam.

In Southeast Asia, divisions are relatively more equally-split: 40 percent are Muslims, 23 percent Buddhists, and 21 percent Christians. 87 percent of Indonesia is Muslim, while more than 90 percent of Cambodians and Thai are Buddhist. The Philippines are more than 90 percent Christian.

In sub-Saharan Africa, two-thirds of the people are Christian, while one-third are Muslim.

Distribution of Christians Universalizing religions can be divided into branches, denominations, and congregations. A congregation is a local assembly of people brought together for common religious worship. A denomination is a division of a branch that unites a number of local congregations into a single legal and administrative body. A branch is a large, fundamental division within a religion.

Distribution of Branches of Christianity Christianity has three major branches: Roman Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox – however, these three major branches do not encompass all people who adhere to Christianity. Roman Catholics make up 50 percent of the world’s Christians, while Orthodox comprise 12 percent. The remaining 38 percent are split between Protestant and others, although sources cannot come to a consensus on the magnitude of each.

Distribution of Branches in Europe In Europe, 47 percent of Christians are Roman Catholics, 18 percent are Protestants, and 35 percent are Orthodox. Roman Catholicism is extensively practiced in Southwestern and Eastern Europe, while Protestantism and Orthodoxy are practiced widely in Northwestern and Eastern/Southeastern Europe, respectively. Stark geographic divisions can be seen by examining the distribution of branches of Christianity within individual countries, as well – in Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland, Protestantism is predominant in the northern regions of these countries, while Roman Catholicism is concentrated in southern reaches.

Distribution of Branches in the Western Hemisphere Christianity is the most widely practiced religion in the Western Hemisphere by a large margin. 86 percent of the population of the Western Hemisphere adheres to Christianity. A distinct difference in the distribution between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism can be seen in Latin America and North America. In Latin America, 81 percent of the population is Roman Catholic, while 18 percent of Christians are Protestant in the region.

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Chapter 6: Religions churches 7 percent, other Christians 3 percent, and other faiths 5 percent. Additionally, 2 percent of the U.S. population belongs to the Church of Latter-day Saints (Mormonism), concentrated mostly in Utah and neighboring states.

Distribution of Muslims and Buddhists In Central Asia, Southwest Asia, and North Africa, Islam is the predominant religion. Buddhism is clustered primarily in East Asia and Southeast Asia.

Distribution of Muslims The word Islam in Arabic means “submission to the will of God,” and it has a similar root to the Arabic word for “peace.” One who practices Islam is known as a Muslim, which in Arabic means “one who surrenders to God.” While countries in Central Asia, Southwest Asia, and North Africa are home to majority Muslim populations, there are actually greater numbers of Muslims in South and Southeast Asia (as can be seen in countries like Indonesia, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh).

Islam’s Branches Islam is divided into two main branches: Sunni and Shiite (sometimes spelled Shia).

88 percent of Muslims adhere to the Sunni branch, and are the majority branch in most Muslim countries in Southwest Asia and North Africa, as well as in Southeast Asia. There are various schools of thought in Sunni Islam with corresponding geographic distributions – Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, and Shafi’i school are among the most widespread, named after their founders. Shiites are the largest branch in Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, and Yemen. The Ithna Ashari, Ismaili, and Zaidi schools of thought are major sects of Shiite Islam.

Islam in Europe and North America In recent years, North American and European Muslim populations have rapidly increased. In Europe, 5 percent of the population are Muslim. The colonial history of France in North Africa has led it to be home to the largest Muslim population in Europe, with about 4 million adherents. Immigration has contributed a great deal to Germany’s Muslim population, numbering approximately 3 million (mostly from Turkey). The Southeastern European countries of Albania, Bosnia & Herzegovina, and Serbia each are home to about 2 million Muslims. Between 1 and 5 million Muslims currently reside in North America, a dramatic rise from just a few hundred thousand that were living there in 1990.

Distribution of Buddhists Buddhism, the world’s third largest universalizing religion, is clustered primarily in East Asia and Southeast Asia. Three main branches comprise greater Buddhism: Mahayana, Theravada, and Vajrayana. Mayahanists make up approximately 56 percent of Buddhists, primarily in China, Japan, and Korea. 38 percent of Buddhists are Theravadists, being primarily concentrated in Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. Vajrayanists (also known as Lamaists and Tantrayanists) comprise 6 percent of Buddhists, with adherents located primarily in Tibet and Mongolia.

It is difficult to estimate the number of Buddhists, as only a few people (such as Monks) participate Buddhist institutions. Buddhism is also not an exclusive religion, in that people can adhere to both Buddhism and another religion. This is in contrast to Christianity or Islam, which require exclusive adherence.

Distribution of Ethnic Religions The distributions of ethnic religions are generally more clustered than those of universalizing religions. While universalizing religions may diffuse from one culture to another, the adherents of ethnic religions have remained embedded in the culture where they first emerged.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Distribution of Hindus Hinduism, the world’s third-largest religion, is the ethnic religion with the largest number of followers by a large margin, with 1 billion adherents. Compared to the world’s universalizing religions, adherents to Hinduism are geographically clustered in one country – India (with 97 percent residing there). 2 percent of Hindus live in Nepal, while 1 percent are in Bangladesh, and small numbers scattered elsewhere. Hinduism allows for adherents to worship a god or concept from a wide spectrum of possibilities. Despite this diversity of choice, 80 percent of Hindus worship Vishnu (known as Vaishnavism), a loving god. The second largest contingent of Hindus worship Shiva, a protective and destructive god.

Chinese Traditional Ethnic Religions Religions based in East Asia are illustrative of the difficulty of categorizing ethnic religions and calculating the number of adherents. Chinese traditional religions are syncretic, meaning they combine several traditions. In China, these syncretic religions combine Buddhism with Confucianism, Taoism, and other traditional Chinese practices.

Confucianism Confucius was a philosopher and teacher from the Chinese province of Lu. His teachings emphasize the importance of the Chinese tradition of li, which can be translated roughly as “propriety” or “correct behavior.”

Taoism Originating with the government administrator Lao-Zi (also spelled Lao Tzu), Taoism prioritized the mystical and magical aspects of life over the importance of public life, which is emblematic of Confucianism. Tao, which means “the way” or “the path,” cannot be comprehended by reason and knowledge because not everything is knowable.

Primal-Indigenous Ethnic Religions Several hundred million people practice what Adherents.com has classified primal-indigenous religions. People who practice these religions primarily live in Southeast Asia or on South Pacific islands, particularly in Vietnam and Laos. Practitioners of primal-indigenous religions believe that God is present in all things, and that nature is spiritual. Shamanism and Paganism are included in these religions. Shamans believe that invisible forces or spirits affect the lives of the living. Paganism encompasses many different beliefs, although it is mostly associated with the practices of ancient people, such as the Greeks and Romans.

African Traditional Folk Religions Roughly 27 million Africans are estimated by Pew Research Center to follow folk religions, sometimes called animism. Animists believe that inanimate objects such as plants and stones, or natural events such as thunderstorms and earthquakes, are “animated,” or imbued with discrete spirits and conscious life. In present day Africa, 51 percent of the continent’s population is Christian, while 43 percent is Muslim. In the past, folk religionists made up a much larger share of the population; in 1900, 70 percent of the continent’s population adhered to these beliefs, while as recently as 1980 one-half was still classified as practicing folk religions. Remaining folk religionists are situated in a belt that separates predominantly Muslim North Africa and predominantly Christian sub-Saharan Africa.

Distribution of Other Religions In the following sections, 10 religions are outlined in order of the estimated number of adherents. Most of these religions are clustered in one or two countries, with the exception of Bahá’í.

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Chapter 6: Religions Religions with 14 to 25 Million Adherents Four religions have an estimated 14 to 25 million adherents: Sikhism, Juche, Spiritism, and Judaism.

Sikhism All but 3 million of the 23 million Sikhs around the world are clustered in the Punjab region of India. Guru Nanak (1469-1538) founded Sikhism near present-day Lahore, Pakistan. God was revealed to Nanak as The One Supreme Being, or Creator, who rules the universe by divine will. The followers of Guru Nanak became known as Sikhs, Hindu for “disciples.” The Guru Granth Sa-hib (the Holy Granth of Enlightenment), compiled and edited by Guru Arjan in 1604, is the Sikh holy book.

Juche Most North Koreans are categorized by Adherents.com as following Juche, which is Korean for “self-reliance.” Juche was organized by Kim Il-sung, the leader of North Korea between 1948 and 1994.

Some sources classify Juche as a government ideology rather than a religion.

Spiritism Spiritism is the belief that the human personality continues to exist after death and can communicate with the living through the agency of a medium or psychic. Most spiritists are clustered in Brazil.

Judaism About 40 percent of the world’s 14 million Jews reside in the United States and another 40 percent in Israel. The name Judaism derives from Judah, one of the patriarch Jacob’s 12 sons (Israel is another biblical name for Jacob). The Tanakh tells the ancient history of the Jewish people and the laws of the Jewish faith. Judaism is the first recorded religion to espouse monotheism, belief that there is only one God. Judaism offered a sharp contrast to polytheism, or the belief in more than one god.

Christianity and Islam find some of their roots in Judaism.

Religions with 1 to 10 Million Adherents Six religions have an estimated 1 to 10 million adherents: Bahá’í, Tenrikyo, Jainism, Shinto, Cao Dai, and Zoroastrianism.

Bahá’í Bahá’í is a universalizing religion, distributed between India, other Asian countries, Africa, and the Western Hemisphere. Bahá’í was established in Shíráz, Iran, in 1844. It developed from the Bábi faith, under the leadership of Siyyid ‘Ali Muhammad, known as the Báb. Shiite Muslims reacted violently to the birth of the Bahá’í faith, executing the Báb and 20,000 of his followers in the mid-nineteenth century. Husayn ‘Ali Nuri, one of the Báb’s disciples, became known as Bahá’u’lláh and recognized by followers of Bahá’í as the prophet and messenger of God. Bahá’u’lláh believed that he was sent by God to overcome the disunity of religions and establish a universal faith through abolition of racial, class, and religious prejudices.

Tenrikyo Formerly viewed as a branch of Shinto, Tenrikyo was organized as a separate religion in 1854 by a woman named Nakayama Miki (1798-1887). Adherents of Tenrikyo believe that God expressed the divine will through Nakayama’s role as the Shrine of God. Adherents.com estimates that there are 2 million adherents of Tenrikyo worldwide, with 95 percent clustered in Japan.

Jainism Jainism emerged in South Asia approximately 2,500 years ago. With the rise of Buddhism and Hinduism in the region, Jainism faced a decline in importance, especially since Jains believe that nonviolence and self-control are the means to achieve liberation. 4 million Jains, comprising 95 percent of the total Jain population, reside in India. Jains are also distributed in the United States, with 25 of the 50 states accommodating Jain centers.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Shinto The cultural history of Japan is firmly grounded in the country’s ethnic religion, Shinto. The Japanese government report that the country is home to roughly 100 million Shintos, or nearly four-fifths of Japan’s population. Despite this figure, only 4 million Japanese identify themselves as Shinto in response to opinion polls. Some Japanese people view Shinto as a cultural feature rather than a religion.

Cao Dai Cao Dai originated in Vietnam in the 1920s. The name is attributed to adherent’s belief in God as the Supreme Being, Creator, and Ultimate Reality of the Universe. Cao Dai existed in opposition to the French colonial administration and Communists that came to rule the country throughout the twentieth century. With the recognition of Cao Dai by the Vietnamese government in 1997, the number of adherents grew to an estimated 4 million, with the vast majority living in Vietnam.

Zoroastrianism Zoroastrianism was founded around 3,500 years ago by the Prophet Zoroaster (or Zarathustra). Zoroastrianism was more formally organized around 1,500 years ago in the Persian Empire and was the state religion for several ancient empires in Central Asia. The number of adherents decreased in response to the rise of Islam in the region. There are between 2 and 3 million Zoroastrians worldwide, with concentrations in India, Iran, and the United States. It is hard to estimate their numbers as Zoroastrians are said to be reserved in identifying themselves.

Key Issue 2: Why Do Religions Have Distinctive Distributions?

Origin of Christianity and Islam in Southwest Asia Both Christianity and Islam originated in Southwest Asia. It is characteristic of universalizing religions, such as Christianity and Islam, that their places of origin are known and rooted in the events in the life of a man.

Origin of Christianity Christianity was founded upon the teachings of Jesus, who was born between 8 and 4 B.C. in Bethlehem and died crucified in Jerusalem about A.D. 30. Raised a Jew, Jesus preached the coming of the Kingdom of God. The four Gospels of the Christian Bible (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) document miraculous deed that the writers attributed to Jesus. He was referred to as Christ, from the Greek word for the Hebrew word Messiah, which means “anointed.” After being betrayed by his follower Judas Iscariot in the third year of his mission, he was executed as an agitator. On the third day after his death, his tomb was found empty – Christians believe that Jesus died to atone for human sins, that he was raised from the dead by God, and his Resurrection from the dead provides people hope for salvation.

Roman Catholic Branch Roman Catholics accept the teachings of the Bible, as well as the interpretation of those teachings by the Church hierarchy, led by the Pope. The Pope is viewed by Roman Catholics as possessing a universal primacy or authority, and they believe the Church is infallible in resolving theological disputes. The seven sacraments of Baptism, the Eucharist, Penance, Confirmation, Matrimony, Holy Orders, and Anointing the Sick are seen by Roman Catholics as God conveying His grace directly to humanity.

Orthodox Branch Orthodoxy encompasses the faith and practices of a collection of churches that emerged in the eastern part of the Roman Empire. In the fifth century, the Roman and Eastern churches split due to a growing rivalry between the Pope and the Patriarchy of Constantinople. In 1054,

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Chapter 6: Religions Pope Leo IX condemned the Patriarchy of Constantinople, finalizing the split between Rome and Constantinople’s churches. Orthodoxy accepts the seven sacraments but rejects Roman doctrines adopted since the eighth century.

Protestant Branch Protestantism originated with the principles of the Reformation in the sixteenth century. The Reformation movement is viewed as beginning when Martin Luther nailed 95 theses on the door of the church at Wittenberg on October 31, 1517. According to Luther, Christians have primary responsibility for achieving personal salvation through direct communication with God. Grace is achieved through faith rather than through sacraments performed by the Church.

Origin of Islam The foundation of Islamic belief involves performing five acts, known as five pillars of faith: 1. Shahadah, which means that Muslims frequently recite their belief that there is no deity worthy of worship except the one God, the source of all creation, as well as their belief that Muhammad is the messenger of God. 2. Salat, which means that five times daily, a Muslim prays, facing the city of Makkah (Mecca), as a direct link to God. 3. Zakat, which means that a Muslim gives generously to charity as an act of purification and growth.

4. Sawm of Ramadan, which means that a Muslim fasts during the month of Ramadan as an act of self-purification.

5. Hajj, which means that if physically and financially able, a Muslim makes a pilgrimage to Makkah.

Islam, Christianity, and Judaism all consider humanity originating with Adam and Abraham to have been one of his descendants. Jews and Christians trace their story through Abraham’s first wife, Sarah, and her son Isaac. Muslims trace their story through his second wife, Hagar, and her son Ishmael. Muslims believe Abraham took his wife Hagar and son Ishmael to Makkah. Hundreds of years later, according to Islamic belief, one of Ishmael’s descendants, Muhammad, became the Prophet of Islam.

Prophet Muhammad In A.D. 570, Muhammad was born in Makkah. Muslims believe that at age 40, during a meditative retreat, Muhammad received his first revelation from God through the Angel Gabriel. Gabriel revealed God’s words to Muhammad, which was collected as Islam’s holy book, the Quran. Muhammad and his followers faced persecution, and in 622 he was commanded by God to emigrate to the city of Yathrib (present-day Madinah), in an event known as the Hijra (marking the beginning of the Muslim calendar). He returned to Makkah several years later and established Islam as the city’s religion.

Shiite and Sunni Branches The two largest branches of Islam, Sunni and Shiite, harken back to the earliest days of the religion and reflect the disagreement over the line of succession in Islamic leadership.

As Muhammad had no son, his father-in-law, Abu Bakr, became caliph (“successor of the prophet”).

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Following Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman were caliphs, expanding the reach of Islam to Egypt and Persia.

Shiite Muslims believe the line of succession lies with Ali, a cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, while Sunni Muslims believe Abu Bakr as the true caliph.

Origin of Buddhism and Hinduism in South Asia Buddhism has a determined origin, based on the events in the life of a man. Hinduism, however, has unknown or unclear origins, not tied to a specific historical individual.

Origin of Buddhism Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama, born in about 563 B.C. in Lumbinī in present-day Nepal. Gautama lived a privileged life as the son of a lord. After witnessing a decrepit old man, a disease-ridden man, and a corpse on three separate journeys and determining that he could no longer enjoy his comfortable life, Gautama set out on a fourth trip and saw a monk, who taught him about withdrawal from the world. At age 29 Gautama left his palace one night and lived in a forest for the next 6 years, experimenting with techniques of meditation. Gautama emerged as the Buddha, the “awakened or enlightened one,” and spent 45 years spreading his beliefs across India. The Four Noble Truths are core to Buddhist beliefs: 1. All living beings must endure suffering.

2. Suffering, which is caused by a desire to live, leads to reincarnation.

3. The goal of all existence is to escape suffering and the endless cycle of reincarnation into Nirvana (a state of complete redemption), which is achieved through mental and moral self-purification.

4. Nirvana is attained through an Eightfold Path: rightness of belief, resolve, speech, action, livelihood, effort, thought, and meditation.

Theravada Buddhism Theravada is the older of the two largest branches of Buddhism. Theravada means “the way of the elders,” illustrating the Theravada Buddhist belief that they are more aligned with Buddha’s original approach. Theravadists believe that to be a good Buddhist, one must renounce worldly possessions and become a monk.

Mahayana Buddhism Roughly 2,000 years ago, Mahayana split from Theravada Buddhism. Mahayana is translated as “the great vehicle.” Mahayanists believe that that their approach to Buddhism can help more people because it is less demanding than the all-encompassing Theravadist system. Mahayanists emphasize Buddha’s later years of teaching and helping others, while Theravadists affirm the Buddha’s approach to self-help and introspection.

Vajrayana Buddhism Vajrayanas highlight the practice of rituals, known as Tantras, which have been recorded in texts. Vajrayanas believe that Buddha began to practice Tantras during his lifetime, although other Buddhists view Vajrayana as an approach to Buddhism that developed from Mahayana Buddhism several centuries later.

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Chapter 6: Religions Unknown Origin of Hinduism In contrast to the universalizing religions, Hinduism has unknown origins as the religion existed before any recorded history. The earliest Hindu religious documents are about 3,500 years old. The Aryan tribes from Central Asia invaded India about 1400 B.C. and brought their religion with them. Centuries of intermingling with the Dravidians already living in the area modified their religious beliefs.

Historical Diffusion of Religions Universalizing religions have diffused from specific places of origin (or hearths) to other regions of the world, while most ethnic religions have generally remained clustered in a defined area. Islam, Christianity, and Buddhism all originated in Asia and diffused the world over from there.

Diffusion of Christianity Geographers can describe the diffusion of Christianity by reconstructing patterns of communications, interaction, and migration.

Relocation Diffusion of Christianity Christianity first spread from the eastern Mediterranean through relocation diffusion. Missionaries – individuals who help to transmit a universalizing religion through relocation diffusion – relayed the teachings of Jesus along the Roman Empire’s land and sea networks to people in other places.

Expansion Diffusion of Christianity Two types of expansion diffusion established the dominance of Christianity throughout the Roman Empire in the fourth century: hierarchical and contagious diffusion. After the Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity and the Emperor Theodosius proclaimed it as the empire’s official religion in 380, the religion spread into Eastern Europe through the conversion of kings and other elites over the subsequent centuries. Christianity diffused to North and South America, Australia, and New Zealand through the permanent resettlement of Europeans, and subsequent conversion of indigenous populations and intermarriage. Recently, it has further diffused to Africa.

Diffusion of Islam Within a century of Muhammad’s death, Muslim armies conquered areas in Africa, Asia, and Europe. Some of the territory that was conquered by Islamic armies was eventually lost and some of those areas started practicing another religion. As was the case with Christianity, Islam diffused well beyond its hearth. Indonesia, which is the world’s fourth most populous country, is predominately Muslim because Arab traders brought the religion there in the thirteenth century.

Diffusion of Buddhism Buddhism diffused through missionaries also but diffused rather slowly compared to Christianity and Islam. The hearth of Buddhism is in northeastern India. The person most responsible for the diffusion of Buddhism was Emperor Asoka of the Magadhan Empire. The Magadhan Empire controlled a large area of South Asia between the sixth B.C. and the eighth century A.D. and Asoka sent missionaries to territories not controlled by the empire. Merchants diffused Buddhism to China and the Chinese were quite receptive to it. It later diffused to other countries in East Asia, though it lost its original base of support in India.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Recent Migration of Christians Christians (along with other adherents of universalizing religions, such as Muslims and Jews) disproportionately migrate, whereas Buddhists, Hindus, folk religionists, and unaffiliated people are less likely to migrate. Jews especially have migrated from one country to another at some point of their lives, with migrants accounting for 25 percent of the Judaism’s adherents. In contrast, around 5 percent of all Christians and 4 percent of all Muslims have migrated, and only 1 or 2 percent of other religious groups migrating.

Migration Patterns of Christians The destinations of international migrants who are Christian is not reflected in the distribution of Christians. 12 percent of the world’s Christians reside in North America, but is the destination for 34 percent of migrating Christians. 26 percent of the world’s Christians live in Europe, but is the destination for 38 percent of migrating Christians. In contrast, Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa attract relatively few Christian migrants. The largest migration flows of Christians are in and out of Russia and the United States. Canada (except Québec) and the United States have Protestant majorities because their early colonists traveled predominantly from Protestant England. Likewise, some regions of North America are predominantly Roman Catholic due to flows from Roman Catholic areas of Europe and Latin America. Mormons are concentrated in Utah due to the migration of Brigham Young and his followers to the Salt Lake Valley in the mid-nineteenth century.

Migration of Muslims and Jews Compared to Christianity, the pattern of international migration of Muslims and Jews is even less reflected in the distribution of both groups around the world.

Migration Patterns of Muslims Although 20 percent of the world’s Muslims reside in Southwest Asia and North Africa, 34 percent of Muslim migrants are pulled to the region. Saudi Arabia attracts the largest share of Muslim migrants, making up 10 percent of the world total. The largest number of immigrants to Saudi Arabia come from Egypt. 34 percent of Muslims who migrate internationally travel to Europe, which is the home of 3 percent of the world Muslim population. Most Muslims migrate to Russia, Germany, and France when going to Europe. The largest number of Muslim immigrants to Europe have come from Turkey to Germany and from Algeria to France. In contrast, South Asia, with 30 percent of the world’s Muslims, attracts only 6 percent of the migrants.

Migration Patterns of Jews The diffusion of Judaism represents an exception to the usual concentrated distribution of ethnic religions. Judaism is practiced in many countries, not just in its place of origin. Jews were forced to migrate from the Eastern Mediterranean after A.D. 70, mostly into Eastern Europe. They lived among other nationalities but retained their religious practices. Many of the Jews were persecuted and forced to live in neighborhoods, known as ghettos, that were exclusively inhabited by Jews. The distribution of Jews changed after the mass extermination of Jews by the Nazis in World War II, when survivors migrated to Israel.

Key Issue 3: Why Do Religions Organize Space in Distinctive Patterns?

Places of Worship Sacred structures are physical “anchors” of religion. Some structures are designed for a group to gather, while others are designed for individual meditation.

Religious Structures for Assembly Familiar names that identify places for collective religious expression include church, basilica, mosque, temple, and synagogue.

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Chapter 6: Religions Christian Churches The word church can be traced back to the Greek term meaning “lord,” “master,” and “power.” Church refers to both to a gathering of believers and the structure at which the gathering occurs. All three branches emphasize the congregation of people in a church to worship.

In the past, churches dominated the landscape, often being the tallest building in a village or town, often occupying a square or other prominent location. Today, churches built or extant in large cities may not hold such a dominating presence in the landscape, however, in many smaller cities and towns they remain the tallest building.

Muslim Mosques The word mosque is rooted in the Arabic for “place of worship.” Mosques are generally found in larger cities, with simpler structures present in rural villages – both serve as a place for people to gather together for worship. A mosque is designed around a central courtyard – traditionally open-air, although it may be enclosed in harsher climates. The pulpit is placed at the end of the courtyard facing Makkah. Minarets are a distinctive feature of mosques, a tower where people are summoned to worship by a man known as a muezzin.

Sikh Gurdwaras Sikh places of worship are known as gurdwaras. The Harmandir Sahib, or Golden Temple, in Amritsar, India, is the most important gurdwara in the world. The holiest book in Sikhism, the Guru Granth Sahib, is kept at the Golden Temple.

Jewish Synagogues The word synagogue derives from the Greek word for “assembly.” The building is often referred to by the Yiddish word shul. The origin of the synagogue is unclear – it is theorized to have emerged in the sixth century B.C., when Jews were exiled in Babylonia.

Bahá’í Houses of Worship Bahá’i Houses of Worship have been built in every continent in the world to give the impression to the public that Bahá’í is a universalizing religion with adherents the world over.

All Bahá’í Houses of Worship are required to be built in the shape of a nonagon (a nine-sided building).

Religious Structures for Individual Meditation Rather than a place for groups to gather, some religious structures serve as a place of introspection and meditation.

Buddhist Pagodas Following Buddha’s death, his clothes and parts of his body were collected by followers as relics. These relics are kept in Buddhist religious structures known as pagoda. Pagodas typically include tall, many sided towers arranged in a series of tiers, balconies, and slanting roofs.

Pagodas are not intended for congregational worship; rather, individual prayer and meditation takes place at an adjacent temple, at a remote monastery, or in a home.

Hindu Temples Homes are generally the location of important Hindu religious functions. A Hindu temple is a structure designed to bring individuals closer to their gods, and serves as a place for individual reflection and meditation. The size of temples is determined by local preferences and availability of resources, rather than mandated religious standards.

Religious Settlements and Toponyms While churches and burial sites represent smaller-scale manifestations of religion on the landscape, entire settlements centered around a religion reflect largerscale examples of religion’s mark on the landscape.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Utopian Settlements A utopian settlement is an ideal community built around a religious way of life.

Buildings and economic activities are planned to integrate religious principles into all aspects of daily life.

The first utopian settlement in America was Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, founded by Moravian Christians in 1741. Today, Salt Lake City remains as the most prominent utopian city, founded in 1848 and designed around a plan of the city of Zion. Many utopian communities fell by the wayside due to minimal economic prospects or the members of the community maintaining celibacy.

Religious Place Names Roman Catholic immigrants regularly bestowed religious place names, or toponyms, to their settlements in the New World. These religious toponyms are especially prevalent in Québec and the U.S. Southwest.

Administration of Space The method of communication and consistency of doctrine varies between universalizing religions, branches, and denominations, although some administration is present. In ethnic religions, centralized authorities generally do not exist.

Hierarchical Religions Universalizing religions may have hierarchical structures where leadership at a local level reports to a higher-order regional level until a final authority, governing the entire branch, is at the top of the hierarchy. These hierarchical religions have a well-defined geographic extent, with territory organized into local administrative units.

Latter-Day Saints The Mormons exercise strong organization of the landscape. The territory occupied by Mormons is managed by the president and board of the Mormon Church. Small-scale units of territory known as wards comprise about 750 people. These wards then make up stakes, a larger unit of territory with a population of roughly 5,000 people.

Roman Catholic Hierarchy The Roman Catholic Church has organized much of Earth’s inhabited land into an administrative structure ultimately accountable to the Pope in Rome. Priests report to bishops, who in turn report to archbishops. Archbishops report then to the Pope. The Catholic Church divides the world into parishes (headed by a priest), which may be as small as only a few square kilometers and less than a thousand people or as large as several hundred square miles and 5,000 people.

Locally Autonomous Religions Other faiths, known as autonomous religions, give authority to individual churches and only loosely coordinate their operations.

Local Autonomy in Islam Islam provides a great deal of local autonomy because it does not have a formal religious hierarchy or formal territorial organization. Strong unity within the Islamic world is maintained by a relatively high degree of communication.

Protestant Denominations Protestant Christian denominations vary in geographic structure from extremely autonomous to somewhat hierarchical. Episcopalian, Lutheran, and most Methodist churches resemble the Roman Catholic Church in its hierarchical structure, while Baptist and United Church of Christ congregations are extremely autonomous.

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Chapter 6: Religions Ethnic Religions Hinduism is an example of a highly autonomous religion, because worship is generally performed alone or with others in a household. Hinduism has no centralized structure of religious authority.

Sacred Places in Universalizing Religions Universalizing religions are more likely to consider places holy that are associated with key events in the founder’s life, whereas ethnic religions’ holy places are tied to physical features present in their hearths, such as mountains, rivers, or rock formations. This can be observed in the holy places of Buddhism and Islam, which trace the movements of the Buddha and Muhammad.

Pilgrimages, journeys to places considered sacred by religions, are a part of Buddhist and Muslim life.

Buddhist Shrines Buddhism recognizes eight places as the holiest on Earth, with four of them concentrated in northeastern India and southern Nepal. The four aforementioned locations are important places in Buddha’s life, and are homes to either shrines or ruins of shrines. These locations are Lumbinī, Bōdh Gayā, Deer Park in Sarnath, and Kuśinagara. The four remaining locations are sites where miracles performed by Buddha occurred: Srāvastī, Sāmkāśya, Rajagrha, and Vaisālā. These four sites are in ruins.

Holy Places in Islam The holiest places in Islam are in cities associated with the life of Muhammad. The Great Mosque, Masjid al-Haram, is located in Makkah and is the largest mosque in the world. In the Great Mosque is the al-Ka’ba, a cubelike structure thought by Muslims to have been built by Abraham and Ishmael. Inside the Ka’ba is a black stone given to Abraham by Gabriel that is considered by Muslims to signify the covenant with Ishmael and the Muslim people. Muslims, if financially and physically able, are expected to undertake a pilgrimage, or hajj, to Makkah in their lifetimes. Madinah is also a holy city in Islam, and is home to the world’s second-largest mosque.

The Landscape in Ethnic Religions Ethnic religious holy places are typically based on the physical environment of the hearth region of that religion.

Hinduism’s South Asian Landscape The physical geography of India is integral to Hinduism. Indian riverbanks and coastlines are likely to rank among the holiest shrines in Hinduism, according to the geographer Surinder Bhardwaj. Hindus undertake pilgrimages, known as tirthas, to these holy sites as an act of purification. Tirthas to the Ganges, the holiest river in Hinduism, are undertaken as the Ganges is believed by Hindus to have sprung forth from the hair of Shiva. Mt. Kailās, located at the source of the Ganges, is said to be the home of Shiva, and is also a tirtha destination.

Cosmogony and Spirits Cosmogony refers to a religion’s conception of the relationship between humans and nature. A variety of events in the physical environment are more likely to be incorporated into the principles of an ethnic religion. Religious interpretations of this relationship vary from treating the environment as something to be respected for its spiritual nature to something to be dominated for maximum human benefit. Most universalizing religions believe that humans should modify the natural environment.

Muslims and Christians believe they can serve God by cultivating land, draining wetlands, clearing forests, building new settlements, and otherwise making productive use of natural features that God created.

Disposing of the Dead Religions observe different practices in the disposal of their adherents’ remains.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Burial Christians, Muslims, and Jews all practice burial in dedicated cemeteries. Cemeteries are used as parks in Muslim countries, where the idea of using a cemetery as public open space faces less opposition than in Christian societies. In some countries, burying of the dead can remove arable land from being used. In China, for instance, roughly 10 percent of the land from productive agriculture is removed by burial sites.

Other Methods of Disposing of Bodies Hindus favor cremation to burial. Hindus consider cremation an act of purification because it frees the body from the soul for departure to the afterworld. Other groups, such as Tibetan Buddhists, leave the body exposed for scavengers or dispose of the human remains at sea.

Religious Calendars Calendars observed by universalizing and ethnic religions vary based on their defining characteristics. In ethnic religions, the physical geography of their hearths may play a role in determining holidays. In universalizing religions, major holidays reflect events in the life of the founder rather than traits of the physical landscape.

The Calendar in Universalizing Religions In universalizing religions, the calendar tends to be more oriented to holidays celebrating events in the founder’s life.

Islam Islam observes a lunar calendar. In a 30-year cycle, the Islamic calendar has 19 years with 354 days and 11 years with 355 days. As a result, Muslim holidays occur on different dates in different seasons from generation to generation.

Christianity Christians observe the resurrection of Jesus on Easter and his birth on Christmas. Eastern Orthodox Christians use the Julian calendar instead of the Gregorian calendar, so they actually celebrate Easter at a different day than Catholics and Protestants.

Buddhism Buddhists celebrate the Buddha’s birth, enlightenment, and death. However, not all Buddhists recognize these holidays on the same days.

Sikhism Sikhs observe the birthdays and dates of death of the 10 Sikh gurus. A major holiday in Sikhism is the day when the Holy Granth Sahib was installed as its holy text.

Bahá’í Bahá’í employs a calendar established by the Báb and confirmed by Bahá’u’lláh, in which the year is divided into 19 months of 19 days each, with the addition of 4 extra days (with 5 in leap years).

The Calendar in Judaism Judaism bases their calendar on the agricultural calendar of the religion’s homeland in present day Israel. The agricultural holidays later gained importance because they also commemorated events in the Exodus of the Jews from Egypt. The observation of the solstices is important to some ethnic religions, but Judaism uses the lunar calendar rather than the solar calendar.

The Solstice The Solstice, derived from the Latin to “stand still,” holds a significant purpose in some ethnic religions. The winter solstice (December 21 or 22 in the Northern Hemisphere) is a major holiday in some pagan religions. Stonehenge is an ancient monument in southwestern England that is apparently constructed to align with the sun in the summer and winter solstices.

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Chapter 6: Religions Key Issue 4: Why Do Territorial Conflicts Arise Among Religious Groups?

Challenges for Religions in South and East Asia Evolving cultural, political, and economic customs can sometimes be at odds with traditional religious values. In South Asia, Hinduism has recently come into conflict with secular ideas introduced from the West. In East Asia, Communist doctrine has challenged Buddhism and its place in society.

India: Hinduism and Social Equality The caste system of the Hindu religion has been challenged by outside forces since the British colonization of India in the nineteenth century. The caste system indicated the class or distinct hereditary order into which a Hindu was born, according to religious law. When the Aryans invaded India circa 1500 B.C., they divided themselves into four castes that stratified social and economic position. These four castes are: 1. Brahmans, the priests and top administrators.

2. Kshatriyas, or warriors.

3. Vaisyas, or merchants.

4. Shudras, or agricultural workers and artisans.

A fifth class of people, Dalits (untouchables), were theorized to have descended from the indigenous people who were invaded by the Aryans. Until recently, social relations between the castes were limited, and the rights of non-Brahmans, especially Dalits, were restricted. In recent years, the caste system has grown relatively relaxed.

Religion and Communism Religions have conflicted with communist governments, which have either downplayed the role of religion in everyday life or worked actively against religions. The Soviet Union pursued antireligious programs because the government believed that religious doctrine was a potential threat to the success of the country. All church buildings and property were nationalized and could be used only with local government permission. Countries with majority Muslim populations that were once a part of the Soviet Union (e.g. Uzbekistan) are conflicted in maintaining previously secular laws or rewriting them to conform to Islamic tradition. Conflict between communism and religion is evident today in relations between the People’s Republic of China government and its autonomous Xizang (widely known as Tibet) province.

Challenges for Religions in Central and Southwest Asia Religious disputes have become embedded in ethnic and political conflicts in Central and Southwest Asia.

Central Asia: Taliban and Western Values The vast majority of Afghans are Muslims, comprising 99 percent of the population. Adversarial relations among groups with differing ideas of the role of Islam in society has fueled conflicts in the country. A resurgence of religious fundamentalism has especially stoked conflict. Religious fundamentalism is a literal interpretation and a strict and intense adherence to what fundamentalist doctrine defines as basic principles of a religion. The Taliban, a fundamentalist

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography group in Afghanistan, took control of the country in 1996 and imposed strict laws inspired by Islamic values as interpreted by the group. For instance, “western, non-Islamic” activities such as playing music were banned. A U.S.-led coalition overthrew the Taliban in 2001, although they have regained control of parts of the country and neighboring Pakistan.

Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Southwest Asia Jews, Christians, and Muslims have fought one another for control of a small strip of land in the Eastern Mediterranean (or Middle East) in a prolonged series of conflicts. These conflicts are the result of overlapping histories of the three religions. The Crusades were a series of wars fought against Muslims in the Middle East by Christians intent on reclaiming Jerusalem. The Muslim Ottoman Empire controlled Palestine/Israel for most of four centuries between 1516 and 1917. Upon the Ottoman Empire’s defeat in World War I, the United Kingdom took control of the region. The present-day conflict in Palestine/Israel has its roots in ancient history but more recently with the creation of the state of Israel by the United Nations in 1947.

Geographic Perspectives in the Middle East Conflict in the Middle East currently takes place between various countries and groups of people with ambitions to control territory. Differences in religious traditions and their adoption in nationalist ideologies influence the origins of the conflicts and the barriers to peacefully resolving them.

Wars Between Israel and Neighbors Following the United Nations’ 1947 partitioning of the United Kingdom’s Palestine Mandate into two independent states, four wars unfolded as a result of conflicting claims over territory in the region. The 1948-1949 Independence War, 1956 Suez Canal War, 1967 Six-Day War, and 1973 Yom Kippur War were major conflicts that took place in the midnineteenth century, with territory such as the Old City of Jerusalem changing hands several times. In the Six-Day War, the West Bank, the Golan Heights, the Gaza Strip, and the Sinai Peninsula were all captured by Israel. In the Camp David Accords, U.S. President Jimmy Carter mediated an agreement between Egypt’s President Anwar Sadat and Israel’s Prime Minister Menachem Begin where Israel returned control of the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt in exchange for Egypt’s recognition of Israel as a sovereign nation.

Competing Israeli and Palestinian Perspectives Conflict today centers around the status of the West Bank of the Jordan River, the Golan Heights, and the Gaza Strip, which are all territories under Israeli control but claimed by the Palestinians.

Israeli Perspectives The relatively small size of the state of Israel and its three distinct physiographic regions (the coastal plain, a series of hills, and the Jordan River valley) all play a role in Israel’s conception of its dealing with its neighbors. Following the aforementioned wars and the contested Israeli control of specific territories, the West Bank has emerged as a source of much present-day conflict. Israelis occupy areas of the West Bank, comprising 17 percent of its population. Israelis have moved to the area due to their perceived right to live in their historical homeland, and lack of affordable housing in Israel’s pre-1967 borders. Some Israelis support compromising with Palestine, while others wish to retain some control of the West Bank.

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Chapter 6: Religions Palestinian Perspectives Five groups of people consider themselves Palestinian: • • • • •

People living in the West Bank, Gaza, and East Jerusalem territories captured by Israel in 1967.

Some citizens of Israel who are Arabs.

People who fled from Israel to other countries after the 1948-1949 war.

People who fled from the West Bank or Gaza to other countries after the 1967 Six-Day War. Some citizens of other countries, especially Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia.

Until his death in 2004, Yassir Arafat lead the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) in the fight against Israel. Israel permits a limited form of government for Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza, called the Palestinian Authority. The Palestinians are generally not satisfied with either the territory or the power they have been given thus far. Currently, the struggle for power between the Fatah and Hamas parties colors many internal conflicts.

Jerusalem’s Challenging Geography Jerusalem feature sites holy to Islam, Judaism, and Christianity.

Controlling Jerusalem represents a key geographic problem to peace in the region.

Judaism’s Jerusalem Jerusalem is particularly holy to Jews as the location of the Temple, their center of worship in ancient times. The First Temple was destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 B.C., and the Second Temple was destroyed by the Romans in A.D. 70. The Western Wall of the Second Temple remains today.

Following the capture of the Old City of Jerusalem in the 1967 Six-Day War, the Western Wall became a site for daily prayers by observant Jews. Walls have been constructed along the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and the suburbs of Jerusalem to deter Palestinian suicide bombers from entering Jerusalem and the rest of Israel. The West Bank wall is particularly controversial as it places on Israel’s side around 10 percent of the land, home to between 10,000 and 50,000 Palestinians.

Islam’s Jerusalem The holiest Muslim structure in Jerusalem is the Dome of the Rock, built in A.D. 691. Muslims believe that the large rock beneath the structure’s dome is the place from which Muhammad ascended to heaven, as well as the altar on which Abraham prepared to sacrifice his son Isaac (according to Jews and Christians) or his son Ishmael (according to Muslims). The al-Aqsa Mosque was built on the site of the ruins of the Jewish Second Temple. However, because the holy Muslim structures literally sit on top of the holy Jewish structures, the two sets of holy structures cannot be logically divided by a line on a map.

Introducing the Chapter Many instructors find themselves particularly challenged with this chapter, as emotions run high and the classroom has become more politicized with movements for an “academic bill of rights.” Students also can be uncomfortable with issues of faith and observance and/or intolerant of other points of view.

This discomfort can serve as a point of conversation in introducing the chapter. Point out that the geographic study of religion is not interested in whether a particular religion is “right” or “wrong,” but rather that geographers are interested in how religious belief affects the use of space and impacts on the landscape.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Students should have no difficulty realizing the geographic nature of studying religious competition for space, since conflicts based on religions with overlapping claims have been some of the most enduring.

This being said, the brave-of-heart instructor (perhaps with tenure) should not shy away from a discussion of the role of religion in demarcating political space in the United States, as Christian fundamentalism has played a pivotal role in the politics of early twenty-first century America.

Icebreakers Class Survey With a large (and diverse) enough class, you might perform an anonymous survey of faith. Ask students what faith they consider themselves to be a member of, how often they practice their faith at a formal service or gathering, and whether they participate in any religious activities outside of a formal service. A statistical portrait of the class could serve as an introduction to the topic of religious diversity and the North American standard of separation of church and state. Caution: Be careful to not single out minority religions if the class is overwhelmingly of one faith.

Challenges to Comprehension Counting Believers Even though they have already seen countless world maps generalizing all sorts of population data, students frequently wonder aloud in this chapter, “How do they know what percentage of each religion there is?” This discusses an excellent opportunity to discuss random sampling and estimates.

True Believers Overcoming dominant worldviews and prejudices is a major obstacle to a better understanding of our world. However, in the case of religion, some individuals will be unwilling to compromise their beliefs to understand the relative position of other beliefs. This is generally not a problem in terms of memorizing distributions of religions and the like; but you may find some who are unable to think critically beyond an “us” versus “them” mentality.

Assignments Review/Reflection Questions • • • •

How are the differences between universalizing and ethnic religions similar to the differences between folk and popular culture? List several similarities.

Describe some major differences between language and religion.

Describe how language and religion are similar.

Explain why religious conflicts occur. Is it only that religious ideologies disagree, or is geography involved? How do you think religious conflicts can be resolved?

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Chapter 6: Religions Sacred Sites Sacred sites to adherents of a religion can be natural of human created sites that have special meaning for the followers. Some sacred spaces, such as structures or pilgrimage sites, are formal spaces. Others sites such as the apparition of the Virgin Mary on a building or a roadside memorial, are less formal. Sacred spaces can also be part of the natural landscape, for example, Mt. Fuji in Japan or Uluru in Australia.

Choose any religion and select a sacred site to research. Read the chapter for ideas and examples of sacred sites. Here are some additional resources for selecting a sacred site if you’re not sure what to research.

Places of Peace and Power

www.sacredsites.com/

Sacred Destinations

www.sacred-destinations.com

Sacred Sites International Foundation

www.sacred-sites.org/preservation/index2.html

Once you have selected your site, research the following: • • • • •

How did it become a sacred site? Why is it a sacred site?

What is its religious significance? Why is it important to the religion?

Are there any requirements for visiting the site?

Is there controversy surrounding the site? Why or why not?

How does the site affect the economy of the local area? Does it benefit the community?

Turn in a two page paper describing your research or findings. Also include anything else interesting you learned about the religious site you selected.

Thinking Geographically Questions 6.1: Only 3 percent of Hindus live in countries where their religion is in the minority, compared with 72 percent of Buddhists. What differences between these two religions account for this sharp difference in the percentage living as a minority?

Buddhism is a universalizing religion, whereas Hinduism is an ethnic religion. Universalizing religions such as Buddhism see far greater numbers of migrants lending to religious diffusion, while ethnic religions remain near their hearths.

6.2: This image shows refugees from Myanmar being rescued by Indonesian fishermen. These refugees are part of a Muslim group known as Rohingya. Based on Figures 6-9, 6-10, and 6-11, what would be the position of Muslims in Myanmar compared with other religions, and why would the Rohingya seek to reach Indonesia?

The majority of the population of Myanmar practices Buddhism, in contrast to the Muslim Rohingya. The Rohingya may seek refuge from religious and ethnic persecution in neighboring countries with predominantly Muslim populations, such as Indonesia.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 6.3: The Roman Catholic Church created the Archdiocese of Mobile, Alabama, in 1980, and the Archdiocese of Galveston-Houston, Texas, in 2004. What geographic patterns and processes might underlie those decisions?

Emigrants from predominantly Roman Catholic regions to areas such as Mobile and Galveston-Houston may have played a role in the establishment of their respective Archdioceses. Relocation and contagious diffusion specifically may have had an impact on the decision in their formation in predominantly Protestant areas.

6.4: What are some similarities and differences in the reasons underlying construction of the West Bank separation barrier and the U.S.-Mexico border fence?

Religious differences between Israelis and Palestinians influenced the construction of the West Bank separation barrier, while no such difference played a role in the construction of the U.S.-Mexico border fence. The construction of the West Bank separation barrier also plays a role in the division of territory between Israel and Palestine, whereas the border between the United States and Mexico is established and stable. However, security concerns of both the United States and Israel impacted the decision to construct each barrier.

Pause and Reflect Questions 6.1.1: How should a child’s religion be classified if the two parents adhere to different religions?

In a number of possibilities, the parents may come to a mutual agreement to have their household practice both religions simultaneously, while giving their children the option to choose their own religious identity.

6.1.2: In what ways is the distribution of religion and language families similar?

In South America, for instance, the continent is dominated by both the Spanish and Portuguese languages and Roman Catholicism. In another example, England and the United States both predominantly speak English and have Protestant majorities in their populations.

6.1.3: Based on what you see in Table 6-1, what are some of the largest Christian denominations in the United States that do not have highly clustered distributions shown in Figure 6-7?

Roman Catholicism and Mainline Protestantism both have large adherents and distributions that are generally not clustered.

6.1.4: What countries in Figure 6-10 appear to have large concentrations of both Sunni and Shiite Muslims?

Yemen, Turkey, and Afghanistan appear to have large concentrations of both Sunni and Shiite Muslims.

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Chapter 6: Religions 6.1.5: What is the second-most-numerous religion in India?

Islam is the second-most-numerous religion in India.

6.1.6: Most of the religions with at least 1 million adherents are clustered in which continent?

Asia is the continent in which most of the religions with at least 1 million adherents are clustered.

6.2.1: The government of Saudi Arabia prefers to spell some place names differently than is common in English (such as Makkah instead of Mecca). Given your knowledge of the principal language used in predominantly Muslim countries including Saudi Arabia, what might account for this preference?

The spellings preferred by the government of Saudi Arabia may more closely reflect the original names in Arabic, rather than the rough translations and/or spellings provided by English translators when the place names were first translated.

6.2.2: Rank the origins of the three large universalizing religions from earliest to most recent.

In ranked order, from earliest to most recent, the three large universalizing religions are Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam.

6.2.3: Does the diffusion of Islam provide a good example of hierarchical diffusion, relocation diffusion, or both?

The diffusion of Islam can be attributed more to relocation diffusion rather than hierarchical diffusion.

6.2.4: Based on religious preference, which two provinces of Canada appear to have the largest migrants from Québec?

New Brunswick and Saskatchewan appear to have the largest share of migrants from Québec.

6.2.5: What country had the largest Jewish population in 1910?

Russia had the largest Jewish population in 1910.

6.3.1: What differences appear in the images of a Hindu Temple and Christian churches?

Hindu Temples are constructed with the intent for worship of multiple gods, while Christian churches are built for congregations to worship God. Christian churches can be easily identified by the religious imagery of the cross, while the polytheistic nature of Hinduism does not lend itself to a unified set of images.

6.3.2: What examples of religious toponyms can you find in your community?

There are relatively few religious toponyms in my region (the Deep South of the United States). In the western United States, places such as San Francisco and Santa Cruz are examples of religious toponyms.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 6.3.3: What are the different spatial units of administration of the Roman Catholic Church?

The spatial units of administration of the Roman Catholic Church are archdioceses, dioceses, and parishes.

6.3.4: Based on the lives of the Buddha and the prophet Muhammad, what types of sites are likely to be goals of pilgrimages for the followers of a universalizing religion?

The sites related to the life of the founder of a universalizing religion are likely to be goals of pilgrimages for followers of these religions.

6.3.5: What are some of the cultural or religious factors that influence methods of disposing of bodies other than burial?

Hindus perform cremation for most adherents, seeing it as an act of purification. Ancient Zoroastrians traditionally exposed their dead to scavenging birds and animals in an effort to keep the bodies from contaminating the sacred elements of fire, earth, or water.

6.3.6: Why do some religions organize their annual calendars according to the lunar cycle?

Islam organizes its calendar according to the lunar cycle as a means to resolve differences in competing calendars when the religion was being organized in the seventh century.

6.4.1: Why would the Chinese Communists feel it important to dismantle the religious institutions of a poor remote country?

Following the Chinese conquest of Tibet in the mid-twentieth century, the government of the People’s Republic of China view the religious identity of a poor remote country such as Tibet as a threat to their total control of the cultural identity of China. They see the Dalai Lama as a competing political force that could possibly inspire ideas counter to those that the Chinese government wish to impart on its citizens.

6.4.2: Why did the Taliban destroy priceless artistic works from Afghanistan’s ancient past?

The Taliban destroyed these monuments because they viewed them as “graven images,” in violation of Islam.

6.4.3: What is the difference in elevation between Hebron (the largest city in the West Bank) and Tel Aviv (the largest city in Israel)? Refer to Figure 6-56.

Hebron is at a much higher elevation than Tel Aviv.

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Chapter 6: Religions 6.4.4: Why is the Western Wall important in Judaism, and why is the Dome of the Rock important in Islam?

The Western Wall is important in Judaism because it is the last remnant of the Second Temple, constructed in 516 B.C. The Dome of the Rock is important in Islam because it is the site where Muhammad ascended to heaven.

Explore Use Google Earth to explore Masjid al-Haram, Islam’s largest mosque in Makkah, Saudi Arabia.

Millions of Muslims make a pilgrimage to Makkah each ear and gather at Masjid al-Haram Mosque.

Fly to: Masjid al-Haram Mosque, Makkah, Saudi Arabia.

Drag to: Enter Street View to the square in the middle of the mosque.

Click to look around so that North is at the bottom.

Click 3D buildings.

Continue to look around to see the tall building with the clock tower immediately south of the Mosque.

1. What is in the tall building?

A hotel is in the tall building.

2. Why would this building be located immediately next to the mosque?

A hotel would be next to the mosque to accommodate people undertaking hajj.

Resources Adherents.com Detailed statistics on religious adherence, bibliographic materials, sections on “famous adherents,” and religions by geographic location. www.adherents.com Religious Tolerance This site gives a thorough treatment of world religions, controversies among and within religions, and discussions of moral philosophy regarding religion, tolerance, intolerance, and conflict.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Particularly interesting to view is the section dedicated to e-mails the website authors have received over the years. www.religioustolerance.org World Religious History in 90 Seconds A basic, but useful, geography of religious influence in the Old World from 3,000 B.C. to the present day. www.mapsofwar.com/ind/history-of-religion.html

Connections between Chapters Back to Chapter 4 The relationship between universalizing and ethnic religions can be compared to the relationship between folk and popular cultures. Ethnic religions, like folk cultures, tend to be concentrated in one geographic region and generally do not diffuse outside the region. Universalizing religions, like popular culture, tends to be widespread.

Back to Chapter 5 Chapter 5, Language, can be contrasted with religion after the world’s religions are studied. To recap, language presents a formidable barrier to cultural communication, just like religion. However, most religions require exclusive adherence, whereas multiple languages can be learned without affecting the first language.

Forward to Chapter 7 Chapter 7 deals with another significant component of cultural identity (and also of competition for space): ethnicity. A couple differences between religion and ethnicity can help students understand both better: •

•

Religion is often kept inviolate with migration, even over long distances. Ethnicity, however, can change dramatically over even a few generations. This is visible in the formation of new, “hyphenated” ethnicities in the United States and elsewhere.

Ethnic conflict can occur when groups observe different religions. However, ethnicity can serve as grounds for conflict even when both groups share a common religion.

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7

Ethnicities Learning Outcomes

After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to: Learning Outcome 7.1.1:

Introduce the principal ethnicities in the United States.

Learning Outcome 7.1.2:

Clarify differences between ethnicity and race.

Learning Outcome 7.1.3:

Describe the regional distribution of major U.S. ethnicities.

Learning Outcome 7.1.4:

Describe the distribution of ethnicities within urban areas.

Learning Outcome 7.1.5:

Describe the distribution of ethnicities within urban areas.

Learning Outcome 7.2.1:

Describe forced migration from Africa.

Learning Outcome 7.2.2:

Describe the patterns of migration of African American within the United States.

Learning Outcome 7.2.3:

Explain the laws once used to segregate races in the United States and South Africa.

Learning Outcome 7.3.1:

Understand differences between ethnicities and nationalities.

Learning Outcome 7.3.2:

Describe how ethnicities can be divided among more than one nationality.

Learning Outcome 7.3.3:

Identify and describe the principal ethnicities in western areas of Asia.

Learning Outcome 7.4.1:

Describe the process of ethnic cleansing.

Learning Outcome 7.4.2:

Explain the concept of ethnic cleansing in Bosnia & Herzegovina.

Learning Outcome 7.4.3:

Explain the concept of ethnic cleansing in the Balkans.

Learning Outcome 7.4.4:

Identify the principal recent episodes of genocide in Africa.

Learning Outcome 7.4.5:

Identify the principal recent episodes of genocide in Central Africa.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography

Chapter Outline Key Issue 1: Where Are Ethnicities Distributed?

The meaning of ethnicity is often confused with the definition of race and nationality. Ethnicity is identity with a group of people who share cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearth. Ethnicity is often confused with race, which is identity with a group who are perceived to share a physiological trait, such as skin color. The traits that characterize race are those that can be transmitted genetically from parents to children. Nationality is identity with a group of people who share legal attachment to a particular country.

Introducing Ethnicities Ethnicity is a crucial cultural element of local diversity because our ethnic identity is unchangeable. Ethnicity may be complex: our parents come from two ethnic groups or our grandparents from four. Geographers are interested in the distribution of ethnicities. The significance of ethnic diversity is controversial in the United States: •

To what extent does discrimination persist against minority ethnicities, especially African Americans and Hispanics?

•

Should preferences be given to minority ethnicities to correct past patterns of discrimination?

•

To what extent should the distinct cultural identity of ethnicities be encouraged or protected?

Ethnicity is especially of interest to geographers due to its position as an anchor for the preservation of local diversity in the face of globalization trends in culture and economy. While language and religion are expanding globalizing forces, ethnicity is not attempting to achieve global dominance. Despite this, ethnicities compete with one another to control particular places.

Ethnicities in the United States The three ethnicities with the largest number of people are Hispanic American, African American, and Asian American. Hispanic Americans comprise 17 percent of the American population, while African Americans and Asian Americans make up 12 percent and 5 percent, respectively. American Indians, Native Hawaiians, and Alaskan Natives encompass 2 percent of the U.S. population.

Hispanic Americans A Hispanic or Hispanic American is a person who has migrated to (or whose ancestors have migrated) to the United States from a Spanish-speaking country in Latin America. The terms Latino (for males) and Latina (for females) are used interchangeably with Hispanic. Rather than using the terms Hispanic, Latino, or Latina, most Americans of Latin American descent prefer to identify with a more specific ethnicity or national origin. Nearly two-thirds of Hispanic Americans come from Mexico, and one-quarter from the Caribbean islands.

Asian Americans The term Asian American includes Americans who trace their heritage to various countries in Asia. Only 19 percent of Asian Americans identify with the Asian American ethnicity, while 62 percent prefer to identify with their ethnicity as the country of origin of themselves of their ancestors.

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Chapter 7: Ethnicities African Americans The precise ethnic origins of African Americans are relatively unclear. 300 years ago, some Africans were forcibly taken from lands in Africa that were not yet organized into sovereign countries, and records of the ethnic origin of those taken as slaves were not kept. DNA testing has narrowed down the ethnic heritage of most African Americans to three areas in West Africa (present-day Senegal, Mali, Gambia, Guinea, Sierra Leone, and Liberia; Southern Ghana, Togo, Benin, and Nigeria and southeastern Cȏte d’Ivoire; and Western Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola).

Descendants of Indigenous Peoples Three principal ethnic identities are used to group people who lived in North America prior to European colonization: Native American, Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian.

The indigenous ethnic identities with the largest numbers are Native Hawaiians, Cherokee, Navajo, Chippewa, Sioux, and Choctaw. However, the largest numbers of Native Americans cannot be encapsulated in a group. Canada’s aboriginals are grouped into three main ethnic identities: First Nations, Inuit, and Métis.

Ethnicity and Race Racial features were once conceptualized to be scientifically classifiable into a few groups. The biological basis of classifying humans into a handful of races is now categorically rejected by contemporary geographers and other scientists. These biological features are so highly variable among members of a race that any prejudged categorization is totally insignificant. The color of skin is of interest to geographers because it is one characteristic by which people in many societies determine where they reside, attend school, spend their leisure time, and perform many other activities of daily life.

Classification by race is the basis for racism, which is the belief that race is the primary determent of human traits and capacities and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority of a particular race.

A racist is a person who subscribes to the beliefs of racism.

Race and Ethnicity in the United States The U.S. census shows difficulty in distinguishing between ethnicity and race. Most census categories relate to ethnicity, such as Japanese or Asian Indian, because they derive from places. However, the census also offers three race-related categories—black, white, and other race. African American is an ethnicity and black is a race, though the 2010 census combines the two. Most black Americans are descended from African immigrants, but there are some black Americans that trace their cultural heritage to regions other than Africa.

Distribution of U.S. Ethnicities Clustering of ethnicities can occur on two scales within a country.

Ethnic groups may reside in specific regions within the country or a state at the regional scale. At the local scale, ethnic groups may reside in specific communities within urban areas. At the regional scale in the United States, ethnicities have distinctive distributions. Hispanics are clustered in the Southwest, while African Americans are clustered in the Southeast. Asian Americans are clustered in the West (including Hawaii), and Native Americans are clustered in the southwest, north-central regions of the continental U.S., and Alaska.

Ethnic Enclaves A location with a high concentration of an ethnic group that is distinct from those in the surrounding area is known as an ethnic enclave. Most ethnic enclaves are neighborhoods in large cities.

Ethnic enclaves generally form through migration. Cultural features, such as language, religions, and art help define ethnicities and inform the places characteristic of these ethnicities. The geographic concept of

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography chain migration is used to conceptualize the formation of ethnic enclaves, whereby new migrants are offered economic support that may not be as easily accessible as in other areas.

Urban Ethnic Enclaves The clustering of ethnicities is notably apparent at the local, neighborhood scale.

In major metropolises across the world, specific ethnicities primarily reside in distinct neighborhoods. In Paris, the Goutte d’Or neighborhood is emblematic of an ethnic enclave, with immigrants from former African colonies occupying the area. In London, South Asia Indians have clustered in the west, Pakistanis and Bangladeshis have clustered in the northeast, African blacks in the east, and Caribbean blacks in the north and south. In the United States, the City of Chicago is illustrative of the variety of ethnic enclaves that may be present in an urban area, with whites clustered on the North Side, African Americans on the South and West sides, and Hispanics on the Northwest and Southwest sides.

Changing Urban Ethnic Enclaves The areas inhabited by ethnicities have shifted over time. In the early to mid-twentieth century, emigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe traveled to Midwestern U.S. cities to find work in the expanding industrial base. Neighborhoods took names based on the predominant ethnicity present in the area, such as Chicago’s Ukrainian Village. By the late twentieth century, many children and grandchildren of these immigrants moved from urban enclaves to suburbs, sometimes forming ethnoburbs. An ethnoburb is a suburban area with a cluster of a specific ethnic population.

Ethnically Complex Brazil Brazil struggles with characterizing its population by race or ethnicity. Brazil is a “melting pot” like the United States, with the ancestors of the current population emigrating from many places. The majority of immigrants came to Brazil from Portugal and West Africa, but European countries, Japan, Southwest Asia and others are also places of origin. Many indigenous people in Brazil make up their vibrant diversity, also.

Brazil’s Races and Ethnicities Brazil’s census categorizes people based on skin color. Five races are available as options on the census: branco (white), pardo (brown), preto (black), amarelo (yellow), and indigenous. More than 90 percent of the country’s population are brancos and pardos. Many Brazilians, however, do not self-identify using this classification scheme. According to genetic surveys, approximately 70 percent of Brazilians have predominantly Europeans ancestry, 20 percent predominantly African, and 10 percent predominantly Native American. Despite this breakdown, most Brazilians have a mixed of backgrounds.

Clustering of Races in Brazil Distinct regional variation can be seen in the distribution of races in Brazil. Whites are predominantly clustered in the south. In Brazil’s interior north, with the Amazon tropical rain forest as a backdrop, indigenous people mostly make up the population, categorized by the Brazilian census as brown. In the northeast along Brazil’s coast, people classified as brown also are the majority race. The largest number of Blacks forced to migrate to Brazil from Africa in the slave trade also inhabit the northeast. The west-central region of Brazil is occupied by a mix of white- and brownclassified populations.

Distribution of Ethnicities in Guyana Despite its relatively small population of 800,000, the country of Guyana reflects the stark geographic division of ethnicities. Approximately 30 percent of the population are descended from Africans brought to the area as slaves in the seventeenth century, when it was

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Chapter 7: Ethnicities colonized by the Dutch. Roughly 43 percent are descended from indentured servants brought to the country from India in the nineteenth century when it was a British colony. 9 percent of the population is of indigenous descent, and 17 percent is comprised by those of mixed ethnicity. East Indians are clustered along the coast, black and mixed black populations are clustered in the interior north, and the far west is occupied by indigenous peoples.

Key Issue 2: Why Do Ethnicities Have Distinctive Distributions?

International Migration of Ethnicities Most African Americans are descended from Africans compelled to migrate to the Western Hemisphere as slaves in the eighteenth century. In contrast to this forced migration, most Asian Americans and Hispanics are descended from voluntary immigrants to the United States during the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries (excluding those who felt they were forced to emigrate from their homelands, such as Vietnamese and Cubans that came to the United States).

Forced Migration from Africa During the eighteenth century, the British shipped about 400,000 Africans to the 13 colonies that later formed the United States. In 1808, the United States banned bringing in additional Africans as slaves, but 250,000 were illegally imported during the next half-century. The forced migration began when people living along the east and west coasts of Africa, taking advantage of superior weapons, captured members of other groups living farther inland and sold the captives to the Europeans. Many European ships transported slaves from Africa to the Caribbean islands, molasses from the Caribbean to Europe, and trade goods from Europe to Africa—this was known as the triangular slave trade.

Voluntary Migration from Latin America and Asia Quota laws limited the number of people who could immigrate to the United States from Latin America and Asia. After the immigration laws were changed during the 1960s and the 1970s, the population of Hispanic and Asian Americans in the United States increased rapidly. The rapid growth of Hispanics in the United States beginning in the 1970s was fueled primarily by immigration from Mexico and Puerto Rico. Chinese comprised the largest group of Asian Americans, followed by Indians, Filipinos, Koreans, and Vietnamese.

Internal Migration of African Americans In the twentieth century, African Americans exhibited two distinctive migration patterns within the United States. In the first half of the twentieth century, interregional migration from the U.S. South to northern urban areas was undertaken. In the second half of the twentieth century, African Americans migrated interregionally from inner-city ghettos to outer-city and inner suburban neighborhoods.

Interregional Migration At the close of the Civil War, most African Americans were concentrated in the rural South working as sharecroppers. A sharecropper works fields rented from a landowner and pays the rent by turning over to the landowner a share of the crops. Sharecropping became less common in the twentieth century, as the introduction of farm machinery and a decline in land devoted to cotton reduced the demand for labor. At the same time sharecroppers were being pushed off the farms, they were being pulled by the prospect of jobs booming in industrial cities in the North and West. Southern African Americans migrated north and west in two main waves, the first in 1910s and 1920s before and after World War I, and the second in the 1940s and 1950s before World War II.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography

Intraregional Migration African Americans clustered in one or two neighborhoods in big cities. These neighborhoods became known as ghettos, after the term for neighborhoods in which Jews were forced to live in the Middle Ages.

Expansion of the Ghetto During the 1950s and 1960s, African Americans moved from the compact ghettoes into immediately adjacent neighborhoods, following major avenues that radiated out from the center of the city. In Baltimore, for example, the west-side African American ghetto expanded from 1 square mile in 1950 to 10 square miles by 1970, along with a 2-square-mile area on the east-side becoming a predominantly African American-inhabited area.

“White Flight” The expansion of black neighborhoods in American cities was made possible by the emigration of whites from a neighborhood in anticipation of blacks immigrating into the area. Rather than integrate, whites fled. “White Flight” was encouraged by unscrupulous real estate practices. Under blockbusting, real estate agents convinced white homeowners living near a black area to sell their houses at low prices, preying on their fears that black families would soon move into the neighborhood and cause property values to decline.

Segregation by Race The intense discouragement of spatial interaction through legal means, known as segregation, colors a stretch of troubled history in the United States and South Africa. While these segregation laws are no longer on the books in the United States and South Africa, their legacy endures as a feature of the geography of ethnicity in both countries.

United States: “Separate but Equal” In Plessy v. Ferguson, the Supreme Court stated that blacks and whites should be treated equally, but equality does not mean that whites had to mix socially with blacks.

Once the Supreme Court permitted “separate but equal” treatment of the races, Southern states enacted a set of laws to separate blacks from whites as much as possible. These “Jim Crow” laws made blacks sit in the back of buses and restaurants. Throughout the country, house deeds contained restrictive covenants that prevented owners from selling to blacks. Schools were also segregated. U.S. segregation laws were eliminated in the 1950s and 1960s through the Supreme Court decision Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas in 1954. The Civil Rights Acts during the 1960s outlawed racial discrimination, as well.

Despite these efforts, cities are still subject to racial segregation.

South Africa: Apartheid While the United States was repealing laws that segregated people by race, South Africa was enacting them. Apartheid is a legal system that separates different races into different geographic areas. In South Africa, a newborn baby was classified as being one of four races—black, white, colored (mixed white and black), and Asian. Each four races had different legal status. The apartheid laws determined where different races could live, attend school, work, shop, and own land.

Blacks could not vote or run for political office. The apartheid laws were repealed in 1991. In 1994, Nelson Mandela was elected the country’s first black president.

Key Issue 3: Why Might Ethnicities Face Conflicts?

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Chapter 7: Ethnicities Ethnicities and Nationalities Sorting out ethnicity and nationality can be a challenging and complex effort.

Ethnicity and Nationality in North America Nationality is typically kept reasonably distinct from ethnicity and race in common usage in the United States. Nationality classifies citizens of the United States, including those born in the country and those who immigrated and became naturalized citizens.

Ethnicity identifies groups with distinct ancestry and culture, such as African Americans and Mexican Americans. These distinctions are not as clear and controversial in Canada. Québecois are easily distinguishable from other Canadians vis-à-vis cultural traditions, especially language. However, it can be contested whether Québecois constitute a distinct ethnicity within the Canadian nationality or a second French-speaking nationality separate altogether from English-speaking Canadian.

Ethnicity and Nationality in the United Kingdom Distinctions between ethnicity and nationality become confusing in many places. The United Kingdom contains four principle ethnicities and two nationalities. A strong element of ethnic identity in the United Kingdom comes from sports. Even though they are not separate countries, England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland field their own national soccer and rugby teams. They even compete separately in international tournaments, such as the World Cup. Nationalism A nationality must hold the loyalty of its citizens to survive. Nationalism is loyalty and devotion to a particular nationality. States foster nationalism by promoting symbols of the country, such as flags and songs. Nationalism is an example of centripetal force, which is an attitude that tends to unify people and enhance support for the state. Most countries find that the best way to achieve citizen support is to emphasize shared attitudes that unify the people. Loyalty to a particular state can be beneficial to the state’s internal governance but can also lead to intolerance of differences.

Dividing Ethnicities Few ethnicities occupy an area that reflects the territory of a nationality. Ethnicities are sometimes divided among more than one nationality. Several examples are apparent in Asia.

Ethnicities in South Asia When the British ended their colonial rule of the Indian subcontinent in 1947, they divided the country into the two irregularly shaped countries—India and Pakistan. Pakistan comprises two noncontiguous areas, West Pakistan and East Pakistan, which are a thousand miles apart, separated by India. East Pakistan became the independent country of Bangladesh in 1971. The people living in the two areas of Pakistan were predominantly Muslim; those in India were predominately Hindu.

In modern India, with its hundreds of languages and ethnic groups, Hinduism has become the cultural trait shared by the largest percentage of the population.

Muslims have long fought with Hindus for control of territory in South Asia. The partition of South Asia into two states resulted in massive migration because the two boundaries did not correspond precisely to the territory inhabited by the two ethnicities. Approximately 17 million people caught on the wrong side of the boundary felt compelled to migrate during the late 1940s. Hindus in Pakistan and Muslims in India were killed by the rival religions. Pakistan and India never agreed on the location of the boundary separating the two countries in the northern region of Kashmir. The religious unrest in India is further

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography complicated by the 23 million Sikhs in the country, who have long resented that they were not ceded their own independent country when India was partitioned.

Dividing the Kurds When an ethnic group’s distribution spans a national boundary, conflict can result as the ethnic group on one side may wish to reunify with the group on the other side. The Kurds are an ethnic group whose homeland straddles the border between Iraq, Turkey, Iran, and Syria. The Kurds are Muslims who speak a distinctive language in the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family and have their own literature, dress, and other cultural traditions. Many Kurds would like an independent homeland, but the countries in which they are the minority are unwilling to let go of that territory, and have historically restricted aspects of Kurdish culture. Until 1991, the use of the Kurdish language in Turkey was banned, and is still illegal to use in broadcasts and classrooms across the country. In recent years, the Turkish government has permitted Kurds to practice more of their cultural traditions.

Ethnic Diversity in Asia The lack of communication among territories inhabited by ethnicities and by nationalities is particularly prevalent in areas of Southwest Asia and Central Asia. If national boundaries reflected ethnic backgrounds of populations, the map of western Asia would look vastly different.

Ethnicities in Turkey Ethnic Turks constitute roughly three-quarters of the population of Turkey. Turks are descended from migrants to present-day Turkey about 1,000 years ago. The most numerous minority is the aforementioned Kurds, making up 18 percent of the population.

Ethnic Competition in Lebanon Lebanon is 54 percent Muslim, 41 percent Christian, and 9 percent Druze. Lebanon’s most numerous Christians are Maronites, who consider themselves Roman Catholic.

Muslims in Lebanon are about equally split between Sunnis and Shiites. The Druze are sometimes categorized as Muslim, but they do not follow the Five Pillars of Islam and do not self-identify as Muslim. Lebanon’s religious groups have tended to live in different regions of the country. There was a civil war between the two religious groups in 1975 and 1990, with each group forming its own militia to control its territory.

Ethnicities in Syria While Syria is 90 percent Arab, this segment of the population is divided among Sunni Muslims, Alawi Muslims, Christians, Druze, and other Muslim denominations. Greek Orthodox and Greek Catholic are the most numerous Christian denominations. The Alawi, led by the Assad family, have held power in Syria since 1970. A civil war has ravaged the country since 2011, fought between the Assad government and its opponents.

Ethnicities in Iraq The most abundant ethnicities in Iraq encompass 55 percent Shiite Muslim Arabs, 21 percent Kurds, and 19 percent Sunni Arabs. Following the 2003 invasion of Iraq by the United States and the fall of Saddam Hussein, the country has been entangled in a complex and violent struggle among its ethnicities.

Ethnicities in Iran The majority of Iranians are Persians, thought to have descended from Indo-European tribes that migrated from Central Asia into what is present-day Iran several thousand years ago. Persians make up the world’s most numerous ethnicity adhering to Shiite Islam. Azeri and Baluchi are other significant ethnicities present in Iran.

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Chapter 7: Ethnicities Ethnicities in Afghanistan Pashtun, Tajik, and Hazara ethnicities are the most abundant in Afghanistan.

The current conflicts in Afghanistan stem from a 1979 rebellion by several ethnic groups against the Afghan government. In 1995, a Pashtun faction called the Taliban took control of most of Afghanistan, with their governance informed by their fundamentalist interpretation of Islam doctrine. The Taliban was overthrown in 2001 by invading U.S.-led forces, leading to further instability among the country’s ethnicities.

Ethnicities in Pakistan The Punjabi have been the most abundant ethnicity of present-day Pakistan for thousands of years. The montane territory separating Pakistan from Afghanistan is predominantly Baluchi and Pashtun. The Punjabi are predominantly Sunni Muslims, while the Pashtun adhere to Shiite Islam.

Key Issue 4: Why Do Ethnic Cleansing and Genocide Occur?

Ethnic Cleansing occurs when a more powerful group removes all the members of an ethnic group from an area to create more territory for the powerful group. Rather than a clash between armies of male soldiers, ethnic cleansing involves the removal of every member of the less powerful ethnicity—women as well as men, children as well as adults, the frail elderly as well as the strong young. Ethnic cleansing may take the form of large-scale forced migration or genocide, where members of the ethnic group are targeted for extermination.

Forced Migration in Europe The largest forced migration occurred during World War II due to events preceding the war, the war itself, and postwar effects. The deportation of millions of Jews, Romani, and other ethnic groups by German Nazis to concentration camps is the most notorious forced migration in history. As a result of national boundary changes following World War II, millions of ethnic Germans, Poles, Russians, and other groups were forced to migrate.

Multiethnic Yugoslavia After World War I, the allies created Yugoslavia to unite several Balkans ethnicities that spoke similar South Slavic languages. The President of Yugoslavia, Josep Broz Tito, attempted to forge a national Yugoslav identity through acceptance of ethnic diversity in language and religion. The creation of Yugoslavia brought stability that lasted for most of the twentieth century.

Rivalries among the different ethnicities resurfaced after the death of President Tito in 1980, leading to the breakup of the country into seven small countries. The borders of the new countries did not reflect the distribution of ethnicities, leading to several episodes of ethnic cleansing.

Ethnic Cleansing in Bosnia & Herzegovina Ethnic cleansing generally follows four steps: 1. Move a large amount of military equipment and personnel into a village that has no strategic value.

2. Round up all the people in the village. Segregate men from women, children, and the elderly. Place men in detention camps or kill them.

3. Force the rest of the people to leave the village. March them in a convoy to a place outside the territory being ethnically cleansed.

4. Destroy the vacated village, such as by setting it on fire.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Ethnic Cleansing in Bosnia When Yugoslavia’s republics were transformed from local government units into five separate countries, ethnicities fought to redefine the boundaries. Ethnic Serbs and Croats practiced ethnic cleansing of Bosniak Muslims in Bosnia and Herzegovina in hopes of unifying their regions with Serbia and Croatia. Ethnic cleansing ensured that areas did not merely have Serbs and Croats, but were ethnically homogeneous and therefore better candidates for union with Serbia and Croatia. Following the Accords reached in Dayton, Ohio, in 1996 by leaders of the various ethnicities, Bosnia and Herzegovina was divided into three regions, one each dominated by the Croats, Serbs, and Bosniaks.

Ethnic Cleansing Elsewhere in the Balkans Kosovo and Croatia, also former Yugoslav republics, are locations of recent ethnic cleansings.

Ethnic Cleansing in Kosovo With the breakup of Yugoslavia, Serbia took direct control of Kosovo. The Serbs practiced ethnic cleansing in the province of Kosovo, where the large Albanian population was forced to migrate to Albania. At its peak in 1999, Serb ethnic cleansing had forced 750,000 of Kosovo’s two million ethnic Albanian residents from their homes. NATO launched an air attack against Serbia and the Serbs eventually agreed to withdraw from Kosovo. Kosovo became an independent state in 2008.

Ethnic Cleansing in Croatia Croat and other non-Serb ethnicities were also victims of ethnic cleansing

by Serbs in Croatia. Following its declaration of independence in 1991, Croatia faced internal conflict between the aforementioned ethnic groups after its ethnic Serbs attempted to form an independent republic (Krajina) in eastern Croatia. The Serbs expelled roughly 170,000 Croats and other non-Serbs from the eastern part of Croatia. After a four-year war that resulted in a Croat victory, around 20,000 Serbs were expelled and 180,000 left Croatia voluntarily.

Balkanization The term balkanized is used to describe a small geographic area that could not successfully be organized into one or more stable states because it was inhabited by many ethnicities with complex, long-standing antagonisms toward each other. Balkanization is a process by which a state breaks down through conflicts among ethnicities. Balkanization led directly to World War I because the various nationalities in the Balkans dragged the larger powers that they had alliances with into a war. The Balkans have become balkanized again because of the rise and fall of communism in the region.

Ethnic Cleansing and Genocide in Africa The mass killing of a group of people in an attempt to eliminate the entire group from existence is known as genocide. In recent years, several areas of Africa have been affected by conflicts among ethnicities that have led to genocide. Other countries have been either unable or unwilling to stop genocides from occurring.

Ethnicities and Nationalities in Africa Ethnicity was traditionally the most important element of cultural identity in Africa – nationality was considered secondary to ethnicity. Several thousand distinct ethnicities are present in Africa, each with their own languages, religions, and social customs. It is hard to precisely determine the number of ethnicities due to boundaries that may not accurately reflect their geographic distribution, and difficulties in classifying what constitutes a “distinct” ethnicity. Conflict today can be traced to the European colonization of Africa in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, which divided up the continent into countries with little regard for distribution of ethnicities.

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Chapter 7: Ethnicities Ethnic Cleansing and Genocide in Sudan In Sudan, several civil wars have ravaged the country since 1983, resulting in genocide and ethnic cleansing. Sudan’s conflicts with South Sudan and Darfur have affected the most victims. 70 percent of Sudan is Arab and 97 percent Muslim. The balance belong to a large number of other ethnicities descended from groups living in Sudan prior to the arrival of Arabs in the twelfth century. The non-Arab ethnicities are clustered in the west, south, and east of Sudan.

Darfur In response to discrimination and neglect by the Arab-led government in Khartoum, Darfur’s black African ethnicities launched a rebellion in 2003. Janjaweed, marauding Arab nomads, decimated Darfur’s black population. Roughly 450,000 people in Darfur have been victims of genocide and another 2.5 million victims of ethnic cleansing.

South Sudan South Sudan was established in 2011 following a war (lasting from 1983 until 2005) between Sudan’s northern and southern ethnicities. This war resulted in the death of an estimated 1.9 million Sudanese and the ethnic cleansing of approximately 700,000. South Sudan’s largest ethnicities are the Christian Dinka and the folk religionist Nuer. Despite gaining independence, the ethnicities of South Sudan have been unable to cooperate to create a stable government.

Abeyi An area along the border between Sudan and South Sudan known as Abeyi is now the center of conflict among the two groups. Abeyi contains ethnicities aligned with both Sudan and South Sudan. Its legal status as a part of either country was due to be settled by a referendum of its people although this referendum has since been canceled. In the meantime, a peacekeeping force from Ethiopia is preventing either country from seizing control of the territory.

South Kordofan and Blue Nile South Kordofan and Blue Nile are two other border areas containing large numbers of ethnicities aligned with both Sudan and South Sudan. A referendum was to be held in both territories for self-determination by its citizens, but both have been canceled.

Eastern Front Neighboring Eritrea have supported ethnicities in east Sudan in their conflict with Sudanese government forces. The disbursement of oil profits originating from resources in the area is the source of the conflict.

Ethnic Cleansing and Genocide in Central Africa Rwanda’s major groups of Hutus and Tutsis have practiced genocide against one another. The two ethnicities speak the same language, hold similar beliefs, and practice similar social customs. Intermarriage has even lessoned the physical differences between the two groups. The Hutus were farmers and the Tutsis were herders, and relations between settled farmers and herders are often uneasy. Hutus constituted a majority of the population of Rwanda historically, but Tutsis controlled the kingdom of Rwanda for several hundred years and turned the Hutus into their serfs.

Belgium gained control of Rwanda after World War I. Belgium administrators permitted a few Tutsis to attend university and hold responsible government positions, while excluding the Hutus altogether. Hutus gained power when Rwanda became a country in 1962. The Hutus undertook ethnic cleansing and many Tutsis fled to Uganda. The Tutsis invaded in 1990. In 1993, an agreement to share power was signed.

There have been several incidents of genocide between each group since then.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography The conflict between Hutus and Tutsis spilled into neighboring countries, especially the Democratic Republic of Congo. Tutsis were instrumental in the successful overthrow of Congo’s president in 1997.

The new president relied heavily on Tutsis and permitted them to kill some Hutus who had been responsible for atrocities against the Tutsis in the early 1990s. Later, Congo’s president, Laurent Kabila, split with the Tutsis and was assassinated in 2001. The president’s son took power and negotiated an accord with the Tutsis, although violence has persisted among the country’s many ethnicities.

Introducing the Chapter Ethnicity and race are so commonly confused that the terms should be defined at the start of any discussion on the subject.

The first parts of this chapter are concerned with describing the numbers and concentration of generic ethnic groups in the United States, and the origin of migration of one particular group, the African Americans. Note that some figures included in this section and labeled as ethnicities use a racial term, “white,” to describe European ethnicities as a class. The remainder of this section concentrates on the construction of race, racism, and its spatial expression through segregation in the United States and South Africa.

A major goal of teaching should be the deconstruction of race and racism, a formidable challenge in an entry-level course.

Icebreaker The topics of race and ethnicity are often sensitive ones for the class; try to avoid singling out minority members of the audience (visible or not) through example or question. The delicate nature of this issue makes an effective “icebreaker” even more valuable.

Geography Jokes Tell these jokes at your discretion. Some students will detect you’re up to something other than trying to be funny.

Q: How do you confuse a geographer?

A: Put him in a round room and tell him to sit in the corner.

Q: How do you keep geographers happy in old age?

A: Tell them a joke when they are still young.

Q: How many geographers does it take to change a lightbulb?

A: Only one, to hold the bulb while the Earth turns around him or her.

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Chapter 7: Ethnicities Q: What’s the difference between a geographer and a large pizza?

A: The pizza can feed a family of four.

All these jokes were obviously not initially written about geographers, but serve to deconstruct the idea of many ethnic “jokes”—the geographer can be replaced with an unpopular ethnic group. Ask the class: Why are ethnic “jokes” frequently interchangeable? What is the purpose of most of these “jokes”?

This discussion can be furthered by noting the changing butts of ethnic jokes . . . a moment of reflection on students’ part will demonstrate that the most recent migrants to the country or place are frequently subjected to ridicule and scorn. A constructive discussion about the nature of prejudices and stereotypes should follow.

Ethnicity vs. Nationality After the discussion of ethnicity vs. race, students are next challenged with the distinction between ethnicity and nationality. The linchpin to the text’s definition of nationality as separable from ethnicity is whether an ethnic group has a history of, or desire for, self determination.

Ethnic Conflict vs. Religious Conflict Students will occasionally ask why a conflict is portrayed as ethnic in nature instead of religious. An example of an ethnic group that competes for national identity or potential sovereign status is that of the Kurds, who share Islam with other ethnic groups from Turkey, Iran, and Iraq.

Assignments Review/Reflection Questions •

Give some examples from your personal experience that demonstrates the difference between race and ethnicity.

•

List some genetically inherited traits that are usually not associated with race. Why do you think these traits are not used to define race, and skin color so often is?

•

Support the argument “every ethnicity should have its own state.” Now criticize this argument from a geographic perspective.

•

If two conflicting groups have different religions, should the conflict be termed “religious” or “ethnic?” Does the distinction matter?

•

Briefly research and summarize an ethnic conflict not mentioned in the text. Why does ethnic cleansing continue to happen? What can we do to prevent it?

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Ethnicity Field Studies Paper Ethnicity is identity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland. Our own ethnicity (culture and experience) shapes our beliefs and also influences our perceptions of differing people and places encountered throughout our lives. Therefore, it is important to reflect on and understand our own opinions. Furthermore, we need to increase our awareness of the diversity of people and places not only in the world at large, but also in our own fascinating, multicultural Southern California environment. You must, however, get out and about to experience and taste this richness for yourself.

This assignment (fieldwork) is intended to be enjoyable. You choose the time and the place. Many students have combined this assignment with a family outing, a date, time with friends, or even have formed informal groups with classmates to venture out together. It is your choice.

Procedure 1. Choose one of the locations from the attached list (the instructor needs to provide this list). No passports are required to explore your city’s many ethnic neighborhoods.

2. You need to thoughtfully answer the questions below using as much detail as possible in your descriptions. Be observant to the sights, sounds, and smells that create this unique sense of place.

Your responses to the questions need be typed (using 12 point font) and double spaced. Your responses need to be numbered and you should not write out the questions. You will be required to turn in at least two full pages, but most students usually need more than two pages to adequately respond to all the questions.

3. You need to write an essay discussing your visit from a geographical perspective. The essay needs to be at least one full page. Your essay must be typed (using 12 point font) and double spaced. Some possible topics in your essay could be: (1) how the landscape is arranged, (2) the creation of a cultural landscape (architecture), (3) characteristics of the homeland country (political, economic, environmental, cultural) that creates push factors for migration, etc. Be sure to connect the attributes of the homeland your ethnic enclave represents. Include your internal reactions and feelings about this place briefly in your conclusion.

Questions 1. Where did you go? Which ethnic, cultural group is dominant here?

2. Why do you think most of the people in this area migrated to the United States? What do you think are the push/pull factors?

3. What landscape elements do you think give this area a distinctive appearance from surrounding areas? Be specific—describe buildings, architecture, spatial arrangement, clothing, types of stores, and music that you encounter.

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Chapter 7: Ethnicities 4. Try a new ethnic food (it doesn’t have to be expensive, just a little exotic to you and typical of what is common in the homeland). What did you try? Did you like or dislike it? What ingredients were in it?

5. Do you see outward symbols of religious systems that are associated with the homeland? Look closely and describe. Does it help or hinder your cultural understanding of this ethnic group?

6. Do you see evidence of the convergence of traditional and modern worlds? If so describe them—look for impacts of communications and technological systems. What kind of connections are going on between the homeland and this region?

7. Look at products sold in stores and businesses. Do you see references to specific locations in the homeland? What cities and regions are on the labels of products? Where are the goods made?

8. What types of economic activities and businesses do you find here? Are there any surprises? Are there any specific businesses that reflect social customs from the homeland? Describe.

9. Any interesting (or perhaps strange to you) items for sale in these stores? People and cultures perceive and utilize resources differently, what is your cultural response to the unique items you see?

10. New immigrant groups have always tried to recreate their homelands when they migrated to the United States. Why do you think it is helpful for new arrivals to the United States to live in or near an ethnic enclave? Do you think you would be attracted to an American enclave if you moved to a foreign country?

Thinking Geographically Questions 7.1: What are examples of ethnic foods that are now regularly consumed by people of other ethnicities?

In the United States, Mexican restaurants are regularly patronized by white Americans. Many rural communities even have at least one Mexican restaurant, solidifying them as a common feature of the American cultural landscape. Other ethnic restaurants, such as Indian and Vietnamese restaurants, are increasingly becoming more common across the United States, as well.

7.2: South Africa is one of the world’s leading producers of wine. Despite the end of apartheid, very few wineries and vineyards are owned by blacks. Why might this be the case?

Even though apartheid laws were abolished in South Africa in the 1990s, the legacy of their impact on cultural interactions is still felt across the country. Programs may not be in place to help those black South Africans that continue to be systematically discriminated against in many aspects of life, such as education and economic opportunities.

7.3: The Kurds claim to be the world’s largest ethnic group not in control of a country. Based on Figure 7-37, what other ethnic groups might have a strong claim to reorganize territorial boundaries so that they could become the majority?

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography It appears as if the Pashtun, Punjabi, Sindhi, Hazara, and Baluchi ethnicities could all carve out territory to constitute a country with majorities of each respective ethnicity from the existing countries of Afghanistan and Pakistan. These new nations would radically change the map of South and Central Asia.

7.4: The Mostar bridge, pictured in Figures 7-43 and 7-45, was rebuilt to look almost precisely like the original bridge. Why do you think it was important to Bosniaks to replicate the original bridge?

As the bridge was previously a key part of the local landscape, Bosniaks may have wanted to reconstruct the bridge to exactly resemble its previous form to emphasize their rightful place in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Tying their cultural identity to the physical landscape may help the Bosniaks create an enduring connection to their homeland.

7.5: Professional divers jump off bridges as part of competitions. Why might the bridge be an important place to hold professional diving competitions?

Diving competitions at the bridge have been an integral recreational activity for hundreds of years, with the first recorded diving event taking place in 1664. Since 1968, professional diving competitions have been held at the bridge. The historical importance of these competitions has influenced the citizens of Mostar to continue to hold these events. Also, by holding these competitions at the bridge, they are helping to reclaim part of the history that was attempted to be taken away by the Serbs and Croats in their ethnic cleansing of the Bosniaks in the late twentieth century.

Pause and Reflect Questions 7.1.1: President Obama has self-identified his ethnicity as African American. Based on his parents’ ethnicities, what other way might his ethnicity be identified?

Ethnicity is generally left up to individuals themselves to decide. However, based on my knowledge of his parents, he could identify as mixed-race, or identify his ethnicity with the country of origin of his father (Kenyan or American Kenyan).

7.1.2: What might be benefits and challenges of changing the census questions about ethnicity and race from multiple choice to short answer format?

It would be beneficial for change the format of census ethnicity questions from multiple choice to short answer format to let people decide on their own how they choose to self-identify. This may lead to more accurate demographic information in the country. However, this format change would likely require increases in census staff to process forms, and the effort would be hampered by budgetary concerns.

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Chapter 7: Ethnicities 7.1.3: What region of the United States has low concentrations of all four of the ethnicities?

Maine and some areas of the northern states in the U.S. West, such as Montana and the Dakotas, have relatively low concentrations of all four of the ethnicities.

7.1.4: Can you give an example of an ethnoburb in or near your community?

I live in a relatively rural area, so there are no examples of ethnoburbs in or near my community.

However, the closest thing resembling an ethnoburb in my community would be a large trailer park outside of town that is predominantly occupied by Hispanic Americans.

7.1.5: If you had to fill out Brazil’s census, what race would you select for yourself? Why? I would check the “branco” box, as I self-identify as a white person.

7.2.1: Which area of Africa appears to have been the place of origin for most slaves send to the North American colonies?

The upper coastal region of West Africa (Senegambia) appears to have sent the most slaves to North America according to Figure 7-20.

7.2.2: Which has changed the most in Detroit, the number of African Americans or the number of whites?

The number of whites has changed most dramatically in Detroit, with sharp declines occurring from 1950 to the present.

7.2.3: Why might schools in cities like Baltimore and Detroit still be racially segregated (refer to Figures 7-24 and 7-25)?

Schools may still be segregated in Detroit and Baltimore due to enduring systemic racial discrimination that has maintained the landscape feature known as the ghetto. As school districts are drawn to draw children from certain neighborhoods, segregation can be seen in the present-day United States. Many whites have left urban areas over the past decades (“white flight”), segregating students within cities and their suburbs.

7.3.3: How do the ethnic complexities in Southwest and Central Asia make it difficult to set up stable democracies?

Many ethnicities may be included in the ethnic composition of a single country. Disagreements between these ethnicities, such as how to treat religious monuments, may lead to deep rifts in the relationships between these groups. Historical atrocities, such as ethnic cleansing perpetrated against minorities in certain countries, may complicate matters further. Without base cooperation, the formation and maintenance of a stable democracy is difficult.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 7.4.1: What is another example of a country that is inhabited primarily by ethnic Slavs?

Bulgaria is a country that is inhabited primarily by people of Slavic ethnicity.

7.4.2: In which regions within Bosnia & Herzegovina did Serbs gain most of their territory?

The eastern part of Bosnia and Herzegovina is where the Serbs gained most of their territory.

7.4.3: Which two countries carved out of former Yugoslavia have not been mentioned in these two sections on ethnic cleansing? Why might they not have suffered from ethnic cleansing?

Slovenia and the Republic of Macedonia were not discussed in the two sections on ethnic cleansing. They may not have suffered from ethnic cleansing because the ethnic composition of both countries may be more homogenous.

7.4.4: Why might the areas of individual ethnicities be much larger in northern Africa than in the rest of the continent? Refer to Figure 1-47 on page 34 and Figure 2-4 on p. 48.

Areas of individual ethnicities might be larger in northern Africa due to the low population density. Not many people live here as a result of the harsh desert climate.

7.4.5: Why might the European colonial powers have preferred to place in leadership positions members of the minority Tutsis rather than members of the majority Hutus?

By placing a minority in leadership positions, European colonizers may have wished to engender social strife based on ethnicity in order to maintain power in the country.

Explore Use Google Earth to see evidence of ethnic diversity in the heart of Sarajevo, capital of Bosnia.

Fly to Gazi mosque, Sarajevo, Bosnia.

Click 3D buildings.

Under Primary Database, click Places.

1. What other religions are represented by religious symbols in the vicinity of the Gazi mosque?

A Jewish temple and Old Orthodox church are both present in the vicinity of the Gazi mosque.

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Chapter 7: Ethnicities

Resources Japanese Internment The internment of American citizens of Japanese American ethnicity during World War II is an excellent example of when ethnicity and nationality were contested. Discussions may also include racism and racist constructions of the Japanese during the war. Some resources can be found at the National Park Service website: Manzanar National Historic Site (National Park Service): www.nps.gov/manz/index.htm African Americans in the United States The Library of Congress hosts an excellent collection of primary documents online with descriptions and context at: http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/aaohtml/exhibit/ Kosovo The United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo maintains a website at www.unmikonline.org/.

This site features news reports as well as updates on Kosovo’s legal status and future.

Human Rights Watch A website monitors the abuse of human rights around the world and frequently identifies ethnic conflicts: www.hrw.org/ Darfur The U.N. News Centre maintains current information regarding Sudan and South Sudan: http://www.un.org/apps/news/infocusRel.asp?infocusID=88 See also on: https://unmis.unmissions.org/, the homepage of the United Nations Mission in Sudan.

Connections between Chapters Back to Chapter 6 Ethnicity and religion are cited as two of the most common reasons for conflict, so differentiating between the two can be difficult. Students may be asked to decide whether religion or ethnic identity is a stronger component of culture, or if the comparison can even be made.

Forward to Chapter 8 The groundwork for students’ understanding of political geography is laid in Chapter 7’s discussion of nationality, nation-states, and multinational versus multiethnic states.

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Political Geography

8

Learning Outcomes After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to: Learning Outcome 8.1.1:

Understand the difference between a state of the world and a state within the United States.

Learning Outcome 8.1.2:

Explain why it is difficult to determine whether some territories are states.

Learning Outcome 8.2.1:

Understand the development of nation-states.

Learning Outcome 8.2.2:

Understand the differences between a nation-state and a multinational state.

Learning Outcome 8.2.3:

Understand Russia’s status as a multiethnic state.

Learning Outcome 8.2.4:

Describe challenges in creating nation-states in the former Soviet Union.

Learning Outcome 8.2.5:

Explain the concept of colonies and describe their current distribution.

Learning Outcome 8.3.1:

Describe the types of cultural boundaries between states.

Learning Outcome 8.3.2:

Describe the types of physical boundaries between states.

Learning Outcome 8.3.3:

Describe types of physical boundaries between states.

Learning Outcome 8.3.4:

Describe the five shapes of states.

Learning Outcome 8.3.6:

Explain the concept of gerrymandering and three ways it is done.

Learning Outcome 8.3.7:

Describe examples of gerrymandering.

Learning Outcome 8.4.1:

Describe the functions of the United Nations.

Learning Outcome 8.4.2:

Describe the principle military and economic alliances in Europe.

Learning Outcome 8.4.3:

Explain the concept of terrorism and cite U.S. examples.

Learning Outcome 8.4.4:

Describe the major terrorist organizations.

Learning Outcome 8.4.5:

Understand varying degrees of support for terrorism by states in Southwest Asia.

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Chapter 8: Political Geography

Chapter 8 Outline Key Issue 1: Where Are States Distributed?

Political geography is concerned with the study of the way governments organize and administer space on Earth’s surface, and especially the geographic dimensions of conflict. One of Earth’s most fundamental cultural characteristic is the division of our planet’s surface into a collection of spaces occupied by individual countries. Wars have broken out in recent years—both between small neighboring states and among cultural groups within countries—over political control of territory. Old countries have been broken up into collections of smaller ones. Geographers use geographic methods to examine the causes of political change and instability and to anticipate potential trouble spots around the world.

Introducing Political Geography A state is an area organized into a political unit and ruled by an established government that has control over its internal and foreign affairs. It occupies a defined territory on Earth’s surface and contains a permanent population. Country is synonymous with state. Nearly all inhabitable land is organized into states. The land area occupied by states around the world widely varies.

The largest states, Russia, comprises 6.6 million square miles, or 11 percent of the Earth’s entire land area. On the other end of the spectrum are about two dozen microstates, which are states with very small land area. The Vatican is the world’s smallest microstate, coming in at 0.17 square miles. Many microstates are islands, explaining both their small size and sovereignty.

Challenges in Defining States A state has sovereignty, which means independence from control of its internal affairs by other states. A sovereign state is a good example of a formal or uniform region, as the entire area of a state is managed by its national government, laws, army, and leaders. Disagreement over the number of sovereign states in the world is present in the global community. Places that challenge the definition of sovereignty are Korea, China, and Western Sahara.

Korea: One State or Two? Not all states are universally recognized or well defined. Korea was divided in half into two occupation zones by the United States and the former Soviet Union after they defeated Japan in World War II. The division of these zones became permanent in the late 1940s, when the two superpowers established separate governments and withdrew their armies. In 1992, North Korea and South Korea were admitted to the United Nations as separate countries. Progress toward reuniting Korea was halted by North Korea’s decision to build nuclear weapons.

China and Taiwan: One State or Two? Most countries consider China (officially the People’s Republic of China) and Taiwan (officially the Republic of China) as separate and sovereign states. China does not consider Taiwan to be a separate state but part of China. The question of who was the legitimate government of China plagued U.S. officials in the 1950s and 1960s. The United States considered the Nationalists in Taiwan the official government of China until 1971. The United Nations voted that year to transfer China’s seat in the U.N. from the Nationalists in Taiwan to the Communist government in China.

Taiwan is now the most populous state not in the United Nations.

Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands: Who Is Sovereign? The People’s Republic of China, Taiwan, and Japan all claim sovereignty over several small uninhabited islands in the East China Sea. These islands are known as Diaoyu in China, Diaoyutai in Taiwan, and Senkaku in Japan. Japan has controlled the 139 © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography islands since 1895, except between 1945 and 1972, when the United States administered them after the Japanese defeat in World War II. China and Taiwan claim that the islands historically belonged to China until the Japanese government illegally seized them in 1985. China and Japan have created overlapping air zones in the East China Sea to bolster their respective claims to the islands, heightening tensions further.

Western Sahara/Sahrawi Republic: Who Is Sovereign? Most African countries consider the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic a sovereign state. Spain controlled the territory until withdrawing from the area in 1976. An independent Sahrawi Republic was declared. Morocco and Mauritania annexed the territory, but Mauritania decided to withdraw three years later. Morocco now claims most of the territory and has built a wall around it to keep the rebels out. The United Nations has tried but failed to reach a resolution in this situation.

Ancient States The state concept developed in the Middle East. The first states were territories surrounding cities. A city-state is a sovereign state that comprises a town and the surrounding countryside. Walls clearly delineated the boundaries of the city. The city controlled the agricultural land surrounding the city that produced food for the urban residents. The countryside also provided the city with an outer line of defense against attack by other city-states. One city may gain military dominance over the others and form an empire.

Medieval States The largest unified political territory of the preindustrial times was the Roman Empire.

The Roman Empire controlled most of Europe, North Africa, and Southwest Asia. The empire comprised 38 provinces, each using the same set of laws that had been created in Rome. The Roman Empire eventually collapsed in the fifth century. The European portion of the empire was fragmented into a large number of estates owned by competing kings, dukes, barons, and other nobles. Victorious nobles seized control of defeated rivals’ estates. A handful of powerful kings emerged as rulers over a large number of these European estates beginning about the year 1100. The consolidation of neighboring estates under the unified control of a king formed the basis for the development of states.

Nation-states in Europe A nation-state is a state whose territory corresponds to that occupied by a particular ethnicity. To preserve and enhance distinctive cultural characteristics, ethnicities seek to govern themselves without interference. The concept that ethnicities have the right to govern themselves is known as self-determination. By the early twentieth century most of Western Europe was made up of nation-states.

After World War I the Allied leaders used language as the main criteria to create new states in Europe and adjust the boundaries of existing ones. Boundaries were drawn around the states of Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, and Romania to conform closely to the distribution of Bulgarian, Hungarian, Polish, and Romanian speakers. During the 1930s, the Nazis claimed that all Germanic speaking parts of Europe constituted one nationality and should be unified into one state. The Nazis invaded Austria and the German-speaking part of Czechoslovakia. It was not until the Nazis invaded Poland (clearly not a German speaking country) that France and England tried to stop them.

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Chapter 8: Political Geography Key Issue 2: Why Are Nation-states Difficult to Create?

A nation-state is a state whose territory corresponds to that occupied by a particular ethnicity. To preserve and promote distinctive cultural traits, ethnicities seek to govern themselves without interference. The idea of partitioning the world into a set of independent nation-states is relatively new.

Ancient States The state concept developed in the Middle East. The first states were territories surrounding cities. A city-state is a sovereign state that comprises a town and the surrounding countryside. Walls clearly delineated the boundaries of the city. The city controlled the agricultural land surrounding the city that produced food for the urban residents. The countryside also provided the city with an outer line of defense against attack by other city-states. One city may gain military dominance over the others and form an empire.

Medieval States The largest unified political territory of the preindustrial times was the Roman Empire.

The Roman Empire controlled most of Europe, North Africa, and Southwest Asia. The empire comprised 38 provinces, each using the same set of laws that had been created in Rome. The Roman Empire eventually collapsed in the fifth century. The European portion of the empire was fragmented into a large number of estates owned by competing kings, dukes, barons, and other nobles. Victorious nobles seized control of defeated rivals’ estates. A handful of powerful kings emerged as rulers over a large number of these European estates beginning about the year 1100. The consolidation of neighboring estates under the unified control of a king formed the basis for the development of states.

States in Twentieth-Century Europe At the beginning of the twentieth century, Europe’s territory was ruled by several emperors, kings, and queens. Following the first World War, leaders of the victorious countries convened at the Versailles Peace Conference to redraw the map of Europe. Using language as the principle criterion for identifying ethnic groups, the leaders of the Allied powers partitioned Europe into a set of nation-states. Many of the states created at this Conference have not endured as nation-states.

Nation-States and Multinational States Aiming to preserve and promote distinctive cultural traits, ethnicities seek to govern themselves without outside interference. Self-determination is the concept that ethnicities have the right to govern themselves. There is no perfect nation-state, as territory inhabited by a specific ethnicity never directly reflects the boundaries of countries. However, some states, such as Japan, are excellent examples of a nation-state. The ethnic make-up of Japan is 98.5 percent Japanese, 0.5 percent Korean, 0.4 percent Chinese, and 0.6 percent other.

Multiethnic and Multinational States According to a measure of the extent of ethnic diversity in a country created by political scientist James Fearon, states with the least diversity, such as Japan, would be the best examples of nation-states. A multiethnic state is a state that contains more than one ethnicity.

Every nation is multiethnic to some degree, as no state’s population encompasses 100 percent of a single ethnicity. A multinational state is a state that contains more than one ethnicity with traditions of self-determination and self-governance. In some multinational states, distinct ethnic groups control governmental functions in the area of the country it occupies. In others, such as the United States, ethnicities all contribute cultural features to the formation of a single nationality.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Multiethnic Revival in Europe In the 1930s, German National Socialists (Nazis) attempted to form a single state that encompasses all German-speaking areas of Europe. The Nazis achieved their goals of forming this state, and continued to seize lands of non-German-speaking populations (such as Poland), precipitating World War II. Following World War II, a large-scale forced migration in Europe relocated many ethnic groups into newly established territory of the region’s many nation-states. Some of the nation-states formed as a result of World War II, such as Yugoslavia, failed after the collapse of the Soviet Union. Karl Marx posited that the concept of nationality was an outmoded vestige of years past, used by those in power to dominate the working-class. In the twenty-first century, ethnic identity has once again become important in the creation of nation-states in much of Europe. The breakup of the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia during the 1990s gave numerous ethnicities the opportunity to organize nation-states. These ethnic groups were no longer content to just control a local government unit, but sought to be the majority in a completely independent nation-state. The ethnic groups with smaller populations unfortunately found themselves existing as minorities in multinational states or divided among more than one of the new states.

Russia: The Largest Multinational State For decades, the many ethnicities within the Soviet Union were unable to realize their nationalist aspirations and form independent nation-states. The Soviet Union consisted of 15 republics, based on its 15 largest ethnicities. With the breakup of the Soviet Union into 15 independent countries, a number of less numerous ethnicities are now divided among these states.

These 15 states constitute five groups: •

Russia.

•

Three Baltic states: Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania.

•

Three European states: Belarus, Moldova, and Ukraine.

•

Five Central Asian states: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.

•

Three Caucasus states: Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia.

Reasonably good examples of nation-states have been carved out of the Baltic, European, and Central Asian republics. Peaceful nation-states have not been created in any of the small Caucasus republics.

Russia officially recognizes the existence of 39 nationalities, many of which are eager for independence.

Independence movements are flourishing because Russia is less willing to suppress these movements forcibly than the Soviet Union.

Russia in Ukraine Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, prospects for a stable nation-state were favorable in independent Ukraine because it possessed economic assets, such as coal deposits, a steel industry, and proximity to the wealthy countries of Western Europe. Despite these favorable conditions, the Russian minority population clustered in eastern Ukraine rebelled against the Ukrainian government in 2014, leading to the annexation of the Crimean Peninsula by Russia and the War in Donbass. Russia has held a claim on Crimea throughout the past (such as in 1783 and in 1954), bolstering their claim to the territory. Nearly every other country continues to recognize Ukraine’s sovereignty over Crimea.

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Chapter 8: Political Geography Nation-States in the Former Soviet Union The new states in the former Soviet Union are an assemblage of nation-states and multinational states.

Three European States Belarus, Moldova, and Ukraine are located between Russia to the east and European democracies to the west. Belarus peacefully transitioned into an independent nation-state, while Moldova and Ukraine have experienced ethnic tensions.

Belarus and Ukraine The ethnic distinction among Belarusians, Ukrainians, and Russians is difficult to pin down. All three groups speak similar East Slavic languages and believe themselves to have a common ethnic heritage, originating in medieval Europe. Following invasions and conquests of the area by Mongolians, Poles, and Lithuanians beginning in the thirteenth century, Belarusians and Ukrainians became isolated from Russians and developed distinct ethnicities.

Moldova Moldovans are ethnically indistinguishable from Romanians, and Moldova was historically a part of Romania until the Soviet Union took control of it in 1940. Following Moldova’s declaration of independence in 1992, many Moldovans wished to reunify with Romania. However, when Moldova was a Soviet republic, it was ceded lands from Ukraine on the Dniester River, containing ethnic Ukrainians and Russians. Opposition from these groups have prevented Moldovan reunification with Romania.

Three Baltic States Located on the Baltic Sea, the countries of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania are known as the Baltic states. These three states were annexed by the Soviet Union in 1940 under an agreement with Nazi Germany. All three have distinct cultural differences and discernable historical traditions. Most Lithuanians are Roman Catholic, while Estonians and Latvians are predominantly Lutheran. Lithuanians and Latvians speak a language in the Baltic group of the Indo-European family, while Estonian is a Uralic language.

The Caucasus: Many Ethnicities The Caucasus region is situated between the Black and Caspian seas and gets its name from the mountains that separate Azerbaijan and Georgia from Russia. When the Caucasus region was part of Soviet Union the Soviet government promoted allegiance to the Soviet state and quelled disputes among ethnicities, by force if necessary. With the breakup of the region into several independent countries, long-standing conflicts among ethnicities have erupted into armed conflicts. The region’s ethnicities have had varying degrees of success in forming nation-states.

Armenia Armenia is a Christian-majority state that has historically lived under the rule of Turkish Muslims. A century ago, an estimated 1 million ethnic Armenians were killed in what most observers now classify a genocide. Following World War I, the Allies created the independent state of Armenia, although it was soon divided between Turkey and the Soviet Union in 1921. 98 percent of the Armenian population are ethnic Armenians, making it the most ethnically homogenous country in the area.

Azerbaijan Azeris originated with Turkish invaders who migrated from Central Asia in the eighth and ninth centuries and combined with the existing Persian population. Armenians and Azeris have contested the boundaries between their countries, fighting specifically over an Azerbaijani enclave called NagornoKarabakh inhabited primarily by Armenians. While Nagorno-Karabakh is still technically a part of Azerbaijan as a result of a 1994 cease-fire agreement, it acts as an independent republic (known as Artsakh).

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Georgia Georgia is more ethnically diverse than Armenia and Azerbaijan. The population is made up of 71 percent ethnic Georgians, 8 percent Armenians, 6 percent each Azeri and Russian, 3 percent Ossetian, and 2 percent each Abkhazian, Greek, and other ethnicities. Ossetians and Abkhazians have fought the Georgian government for control over the territory that their respective ethnicity predominantly occupies, forming two independent republics. These republics, South Ossetia and Abkhazia, are only recognized by a handful of states (such as Russia, which has installed troops in both areas).

Central Asian States Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan are relatively stable nation-states. In contrast, Tajikistan is a nation-state that has endured a civil war, fought between Tajiks who were former Communists, and a coalition of Muslim fundamentalists and Western-oriented intellectuals. Kazakhstan is a relatively peaceful multinational state divided between Kazakhs and Russians. Kyrgyzstan, however, is relatively unstable, facing prolonged ethnic conflict. Consisting of Kyrgyz, Uzbek, and Russian ethnicities, successive presidents were ousted in the early twenty-first century, and ethnic cleansing of hundreds of thousands of Uzbeks by Kyrgyz is alleged.

Colonies A colony is a territory that is legally tied to a sovereign state rather than being completely independent. In some instances, a sovereign state manages the colony’s military and foreign affairs. In others, it also manages the colony’s internal affairs.

Distribution of Colonies The United Nations has classified 17 places in the world as “non-self-governing territories.” Western Sahara, French Polynesia, and New Caledonia are all examples of this type of territory. The U.N. does not include territories that are uninhabited, or those that they consider to have considerable autonomy in self-governing. Puerto Rico, Greenland, and Hong Kong and Macao are all examples of territories with significant levels of self-governance.

Colonialism Colonialism is an attempt by one country to establish settlements and impose its political, economic, and cultural principles in another territory. European states established colonies for three basic reasons: God, gold, and glory. European states started establishing colonies in the Western Hemisphere in the 1400s. The European colonial era ended in the Western Hemisphere by 1824. European states then started to establish colonies in Africa and Asia. Most African and Asian colonies became independent after World War II. The United Kingdom and France had the largest colonial empire.

Key Issue 3: Why Do Boundaries Cause Problems?

A boundary is an invisible line that marks the extent of a state’s territory. Boundaries completely surround an individual state to mark the outer limits of its territorial control and to give it a distinctive shape. Historically, frontiers rather than boundaries separated states. A frontier is a zone where no state exercises complete political control. Frontiers between states have been replaced by boundaries.

Boundaries may be classified into three categories: •

Cultural boundaries follow the distribution of cultural features.

•

Geometric boundaries are based on human constructs, such as straight lines.

•

Physical boundaries coincide with significant features of the natural landscape.

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Chapter 8: Political Geography Boundary locations may be the source of conflict, both within a country and with its neighbors.

Cultural Boundaries Boundaries have been established when possible to separate speakers of different languages, followers of different religions, or members of different ethnicities.

Religious Boundary: Ireland Ireland is divided by a boundary based on the separation between two major religions: Roman Catholicism in the Republic of Ireland, and Protestantism in Northern Ireland.

Language may also play a role in drawing boundaries, as is evident in the formation of Italy and Germany over common languages in the nineteenth century.

Ethnic Boundary: Cyprus Two nationalities predominantly inhabit the island of Cyprus: Greek and Turkish. Despite its proximity to Turkey, only 24 percent of the island’s occupants are of Turkish descent, while 63 percent are Greek. Following independence from Britain in 1960, the Turkish minority was guaranteed a substantial share of elected offices and control over its own education, religion, and culture. Cyprus has yet to peacefully integrate both nationalities. A wall has been built separating the northern area of the island occupied by ethnic Turks, and the southern area inhabited by Greeks. Today, a portion of the wall has been demolished, and the two nationalities can freely travel between the two areas.

Geometric Boundaries North American and North Africa are two regions where geometric boundaries are particularly prominent parts of the political landscape.

Geometric Boundaries: North America Part of the northern U.S. boundary with Canada is a 1,300-mile straight line along 49° north latitude. A geometric boundary between the United States and Canada is also present along Québec’s boundary with New York and Vermont, and between Alaska and the Yukon Territory. The U.S.-Canada boundary was established through a series of treaties between 1783 and 1903.

Geometric Boundary: North Africa Boundaries between Algeria, Libya, and Egypt on the north and Mali, Niger, Chad, and Sudan on the south are generally geometric. These boundaries can largely be attributed to the colonial legacy of Africa.

Geometric Boundary: South Pole The South Pole contains the only large landmass on Earth’s surface that is not part of a state. These states claim portion of the South Pole: Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. Chile and the United Kingdom have conflicting and overlapping claims. The United States, Russia, and other countries do not recognize the claims of any countries in Antarctica. States may establish research stations there for scientific investigations, but no military activities are permitted.

Physical Boundaries Physical features of the landscape can be appropriate boundaries because they are easily seen, both on a map and on the ground. Deserts, mountains, and water are the three types of physical elements serve as physical boundaries.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Desert Boundaries A desert can act as an effective boundary, as desert terrain is generally hard to traverse and sparsely populated. Desert boundaries are common in North Africa and Asia. The Sahara acts as both a physical and geometric boundary, separating Algeria, Libya, and Egypt on the north from Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, and the Sudan on the south.

Mountain Boundaries Mountains can similarly be effective boundaries, especially if they are hard to traverse, are generally sparsely populated, and are permanent installations of the landscape. If passes are closed during winter months on account of intense storms, contact between nationalities living on opposite sides may be limited or totally impossible. Mountain boundaries can sometime be hard to discern, as can be seen in the relations between Argentina and Chile and their boundary in the Andes Mountains. The two countries could not agree on a common mountain boundary, and nearly went to war over this issue until U.S. mediators helped settle the conflict.

Water Boundaries Rivers, lakes, and oceans are the most common physical features used as physical boundaries. Water boundaries are particularly common in East Africa. For instance, the boundary separating Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda runs through Lake Victoria. While water boundaries may seem to be permanent, the precise position of water may change over time. Rivers can slowly change their course, as can be seen in the Rio Grande boundary separating the United States and Mexico.

The Law of the Sea The Law of the Sea identifies three types of water boundaries: •

Territorial waters. Up to 12 nautical miles from shore, a state may set laws regulating passage by ships registered in other states.

•

Contiguous zone. Between 12 and 24 nautical miles from shore, a state may enforce laws concerning pollution, taxation, customs, and immigration.

•

Exclusive economic zone. Between 24 and 200 nautical miles, a state has the sole right to the fish and other marine life.

Disputes that may arise as a result of the Law of the Sea may be settled at the International Court of Justice.

Shape of States The shape of a state controls the length of its boundaries with other states. Therefore, the shape affects the potential for communication and conflict with neighbors. The shape is also a part of its unique identity. Beyond its position as a centripetal force, the shape of a state can impact the degree of successful of internal administration and can affect social unity. States may take on one of five basic shapes: compact, elongated, prorupted, fragmented, or perforated.

Compact States: Efficient In a compact state, the distance from the center to any boundary does not vary significantly. The ideal theoretical compact state would be shaped like a circle, with the capital at the center and with the shortest possible boundary to defend. A compact state has efficient communication and transportation.

Elongated States: Potential Isolation An elongated state has a long and narrow shape. Elongated states may suffer from poor internal communications. A region located at an extreme end of the elongation might be isolated from the capital, which is usually placed near the center.

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Chapter 8: Political Geography Prorupted States: Access or Disruption An otherwise compact state with a large projecting extension is a prorupted state. Proruptions can provide a state with access to a resource, such as water. Proruptions are also used to separate two states that would otherwise share a boundary.

Perforated States: South Africa A state that completely surrounds another one is a perforated state. In this situation, the state that is surrounded may face problems of dependence on, or interference from, the surrounding state. South Africa completely surrounds the state of Lesotho.

Fragmented States: Problematic A fragmented state includes several discontinuous pieces of territory.

Fragmented states separated by water can face problems and costs associated with communications and maintaining national unity. Fragmented states separated by an intervening state sometimes have problems dealing with the states in between the fragments.

Landlocked States Landlocked states have difficulty engaging in international trade because they lack direct access to the ocean. A landlocked state is completely surrounded by other countries. Landlocked states are most common in Africa, where 14 of the continent’s 54 states have no direct access to the ocean. The prevalence of landlocked states in Africa is a remnant of the colonial era. Landlocked states must cooperate with neighboring states that have seaports.

Governing States A state has two types of government: a national government and local governments. At the national scale, a government can be more or less democratic. At the local scale, the national government can determine how much power to allocate to local governments.

National Scale: Regime Types A democracy is a country in which citizens elect leaders and can run for office. An autocracy is a country that is run according to the interests of the ruler rather than the people.

An anocracy is country that is not fully democratic or fully autocratic, but rather displays a mix of the two types. Democracies and autocracies differ in three essential elements: selection of leaders, citizen participation, and checks and balances. The Arab Spring shows how the world is becoming more democratic.

Local Scale: Unitary and Federal States State organization of internal territory falls into a continuum from a unitary state and a federal state. A unitary state places most power in the hands of central government officials. A federal state allocates strong power to units of local government within the country.

Unitary States The unitary government system works best in nation-states characterized by few internal cultural differences and a strong sense of national unity. Smaller states are also more likely to adopt a unitary government system. Some multinational states have adopted unitary systems so that the values of one nationality can be imposed on others, such as in Kenya and Rwanda.

Federal States Local government poses considerable authority to adopt their own laws in a federal state.

The federal system empowers different nationalities, especially if they live in separate regions of the country. The federal system is more suitable for large states because the national capital may be too remote to provide effective control over isolated regions. Most of the world’s large states are federal, including Russia, Canada, the United States, Brazil, and India.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Electoral Geography The process of redrawing legislative boundaries for the purpose of benefiting the party in power is called gerrymandering. The boundaries separating the 435 legislative districts within the United States are redrawn periodically to ensure that each district has approximately the same population. Boundaries must be redrawn because migration inevitably results in some districts gaining population and losing population. The political party in control of the state legislature naturally attempts to redraw boundaries to improve the chances of its supporters to win seats.

Geography of Gerrymandering A measure of each Congressional district’s level of gerrymandering was devised by the Washington Post. This score was determined by calculating the ratio of the area of the district to the area of a circle with the same perimeter. A district that follows a regular compact shape has a lower score than a district with irregularities. The state judged to have the most gerrymandering is North Carolina.

Key Issue 4: Why Do States Face Threats?

Global Cooperation and Competition The most important global forums for cooperation among states is the United Nations, created at the end of World War II by the victorious Allies. The early years of the U.N. were colored by competition and tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies.

The United Nations The most important global organization is the United Nations. The United Nations has provided a forum for the discussion of international problems. On occasion, the U.N. has intervened in conflicts between or within member states, authorizing military and peacekeeping actions. The U.N. seeks to promote international cooperation to address global economic problems, promote human rights, and provide humanitarian relief. The U.N. members can vote to establish a peacekeeping force and request states to contribute military forces. The U.N. tries very hard to maintain strict neutrality in separating warring factions.

The League of Nations was the world’s first attempt at an international peacekeeping organization. The League of Nations was never an effective peacekeeping organization because it could not stop aggression by these states against neighboring countries. The United States never joined the League of Nations and it fell apart in the 1930s. The United Nations was created at the end of World War II and only had 51 member states. The number of U.N. members reached 193 in 2011.

The Cold War During the Cold War era, The United States and Soviet Union were the world’s two superpowers. To maintain strength in regions that were not contiguous to their own territory, the United States and Soviet Union established military bases in other countries. Both superpowers repeatedly demonstrated they would use military force if necessary to prevent an ally from becoming too independent.

Because the power of the United States and Soviet Union was so much greater than the power of all other states, the world comprised of two camps, each under the influence of one of the superpowers.

Cuban Missile Crisis A major confrontation during the Cold War between the United States and Soviet Union came in 1962, when the Soviet Union covertly began to construct missile-launching sites in Cuba, less than 90 miles from U.S. territory. President John F. Kennedy appeared on television to demand that the missiles be removed, and he ordered a naval blockade to prevent additional Soviet material from

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Chapter 8: Political Geography reaching Cuba. At the U.N., immediately after the Soviet Ambassador denied these installations existed, U.S. Ambassador Adlai Stevenson dramatically revealed aerial photographs taken by the U.S. Department of Defense, showing that the naval blockade in fact did exist. Following this revelation, the missiles were removed.

Competition and Cooperation in Europe During the Cold War that followed World War II, two military alliances and two economic alliances formed in Europe. In the twenty-first century, one of the military alliances and one of the economic alliances continues, whereas the other two have been disbanded.

Cold War-Era Military Alliances After World War II, most European states joined one of two military alliances dominated by the superpowers—NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) or the Warsaw Pact. NATO was a military alliance among 16 democratic states, including the United States and Canada plus 14 European states. For NATO allies, the principle objective was to prevent the Soviet Union from overrunning West Germany and other smaller countries. The Warsaw Pact was a military agreement among seven communist Eastern European countries to defend each other in case of attack. The Warsaw Pact provided the Soviet Union with a buffer of allied states between it and Germany to discourage a third German invasion of the Soviet Union in the twentieth century.

Cold War-Era Economic Alliances Two economic alliances formed in Europe during the Cold War: •

European Union (EU). The EU (formerly known as the European Economic Community, the Common Market, and the European Community) formed in 1958 with six members. The EU was designed to catalyze cooperation in Europe in the wake of World War II.

•

Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON). COMECON formed in 1949 with six members in 1960. Mongolia, Cuba, and Vietnam also joined. COMECON was designed to enhance trader and sharing of natural resources in Communist Eastern Europe. Like the Warsaw Pact, COMECON dissolved in 1991.

The European Union in the Twenty-First Century Economic power is eclipsing political and military power on the world stage. The EU has emerged as the world’s leading superpower because it turned Europe into the world’s wealthiest market. The EU now has 28 members. The main task of the European Union is to promote development within the member states through economic and political cooperation.

A single bank, the European Central Bank, was given responsibility for setting interest rates and minimizing inflation in the EU countries. Most importantly, a common currency, the euro, was created for electronic transactions beginning in 1999 and in notes and coins beginning in 2002. European leaders bet that every country in the region would be stronger economically if it replaced its national currency with the euro. For the first few years that was the case, but the future of the euro has been called into question by the severe global recession that began in 2008. Economically strong countries, especially Germany, have been forced to subsidize the weaker states.

Alliances in Other Regions Economic cooperation has been an important factor in the creation of international organizations that now can be found far beyond Western Europe. Other regional political and military organizations include the Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe, the Organization of American States, the African Union, and the Commonwealth.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Terrorist Attacks Against the United States The systematic use of violence by a group in order to intimidate a populace or coerce a government into granting demands is considered terrorism. Terrorists generally have distinctive attributes, such as: •

Attempting to achieve their objectives through organized acts that spread fear and anxiety among the population, such as bombing, kidnapping, hijacking, taking of hostages, and assassination.

•

Viewing violence as a means of bringing widespread publicly to goals and grievances that are not being addressed through peaceful means.

•

Believing in a case so strongly that they do not hesitate to attack despite knowing that they will probably die in the act.

Terrorist attacks are contrasted from other forms of political violence, such as assassination, in that ordinary people are targeted in attacks rather than political leaders or military groups. The number of terrorist incidents increased from around 1,000 in 2000 to around 10,000 in 2013.

Terrorism against Americans The United States has suffered several terrorist attacks since 1988.

Among the most destructive: •

December 21, 1988. A terrorist bomb destroyed Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland, killing all 259 aboard, plus 11 on the ground.

•

February 26, 1993. A car bomb parked in the underground garage damaged New York’s World Trade Center, killing 6 and injuring about 1,000.

•

April 19, 1995. A car bomb killed 168 people in the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City.

•

June 25, 1996. A truck bomb blew up an apartment complex in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, killing 19 U.S. soldiers who lived there and injuring more than 100 people.

•

August 7, 1998. U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania were bombed, killing 190 and wounding nearly 5,000.

•

October 12, 2000. The USS Cole was bombed while in the port of Aden, Yemen, killing 17 I.S. service personnel.

•

April 15, 2013. Two bombs were detonated near the finish line of the Boston Marathon, killing 3 and injuring more than 180.

•

April 2, 2014. Four people were killed and fourteen injured in an attack on the military base at Fort Hood, Texas.

•

July 16, 2015. Five U.S. military personnel were killed in an attack on two installations in Chattanooga, Tennessee.

•

December 2, 2015. A mass shooting at the Inland Regional Center in San Bernardino, California, killed 14 and injured 21.

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Chapter 8: Political Geography Theodore J. Kaczynski, Timothy J, McVeigh, and Dzhokhar Tsarnaev are some of the terrorists during the late twentieth century and early twenty-first centuries.

September 11, 2001, Attacks The United States has experienced a number of terrorist attacks since the late 1980s, but the attacks of September 11, 2001, caused dramatic concern. The twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York City were the two tallest buildings in the United States before they were destroyed in the attacks. The Pentagon was also damaged. The attacks resulted in nearly 3,000 fatalities.

Terrorist Organizations Some terrorist attacks are the work of one or two individuals who are not formally associated with terrorist organizations. However, most recent attacks have been carried out by members belonging to terrorist organizations. Al-Qaeda, the Islamic State, and Boko Haram are three prominent terrorist organizations from recent years.

Al-Qaeda Al-Qaeda is not a single unified organization and the number of people involved is unknown.

In addition to the original organization founded in 1990 by Osama bin Laden, al-Qaeda also encompassed local franchises concerned with country-specific issues, as well as imitators and emulators ideologically aligned with al-Qaeda but not financially tied to it. Osama bin Laden moved to Afghanistan from Saudi Arabia in the mid-1980s to support the fight against the Soviet army and the country’s Soviet-installed government. Bin Laden used his several hundred-million-dollar inheritance to fund al-Qaeda around 1990 to unite jihad fighters in Afghanistan. Bin Laden left Afghanistan in 1989, and was later expelled from both Saudi Arabia and Sudan. He returned to Afghanistan in 1994. In 1996, he issued a declaration of war, known as a fatwa, against the United States because of U.S. support for Saudi Arabia and Israel. The al-Qaeda network subsequently planned and coordinated the 9/11 attacks in 2001 on the World Trade Center. The deadliest attacks perpetrated by al-Qaeda since the 9/11 occurred in 2007 and 2011, both in Baghdad. Al-Qaeda’s most active affiliate has been in Yemen in recent years. In 2015, the Yemeni affiliate undertook the Charlie Hebdo attack in Paris.

Islamic State (ISIS/ISIL) The Islamic State, also known as the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) and the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), originated in 1999 and became an affiliate of al-Qaeda in 2004. In 2014, ISIS split from al-Qaeda due to a lack of agreement on how to coordinate and consult with each other. Members of the Islamic State are Sunni Muslims who seek to impose strict religious laws throughout Southwest Asia. They have gained control of territory through human rights violations, such as beheadings, massacres, and torture, commanding territory in northern Iraq and eastern Syria. ISIS has found remarkable success in recruiting members on the Internet and social media, showing beheadings and destruction of sites of historical important, such as Shiite Muslim shrines. ISIS has also launched attacks in Europe in 2015.

Boko Haram Boko Haram (Arabic for “Western education is forbidden”) was founded in 2002 in northeastern Nigeria. The organization seeks to impose their interpretation of Islamic law in Nigeria.

Originally a peaceful organization, the group evolved to use violence following the death of its leader, Mohammed Yusuf, and a fierce uprising. Its current leader, Abubakar Shekau, aligned the group with ISIS in 2014.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography State Support for Terrorism In recent years in Southwest Asia, several states have provided support for terrorism. Support may include providing sanctuary for terrorists wanted by other countries, supplying weapons, money, and intelligence to terrorists, and planning attacks using terrorists.

Sanctuary for Terrorists Afghanistan and Pakistan have provided sanctuary for al-Qaeda terrorists. The Taliban came to power in Afghanistan in 1995 and imposed strict Islamic fundamentalist law on the population. The Taliban rule came to an end in 2001, following the U.S. invasion. Destroying the Taliban was necessary in order for the United States to go after al-Qaeda leaders who were living in Afghanistan as guests of the Taliban. The United States also believes that Pakistan security was aware that Osama bin Laden was living in a fortified compound located in the city of Abbottabad which is only 75 miles from Pakistan’s capital.

Supplying Terrorists Iraq and Iran are both alleged to have provided material and financial support for terrorists. Controversy surrounds the degree of their involvement in terrorism.

Iraq The United States removed Iraqi president Saddam Hussein in 2003 because the U.S. government believed that he had biological and chemical weapons that could eventually fall into the hands of terrorists. U.N. experts concluded that Iraq had these weapons at one time but destroyed them in 1991 after its Desert Storm defeat. U.S. officials believed instead that Iraq hid the weapons, though they were never able to find them. The United States also said that close links existed between Iraq’s government and al-Qaeda. Saddam Hussein was not an observant Muslim and did not derive his philosophies from religious principles.

Iran The Iranian Hostage Crisis has long been a source of tension between the United States and Iran.

The United States also accused Iran of harboring al-Qaeda members and trying to curry favor with fellow Shiite Muslims, as both countries have Shiite majorities. Iran has also long provided support to Hezbollah, an organization based in Lebanon that the United States categorizes as a terrorist organization due to its calls for Israel’s destruction. Iran has also aggressively pursued a nuclear program in recent years, causing tension between the country and much of the rest of the world. Iran maintains that the nuclear program is for civilian purposes, such as energy production, while other countries have evidence that it is meant to contribute to weapon development.

State Terrorist Attacks: Libya The government of Libya, including its longtime leader, Muammar elQaddafi, was accused of sponsoring a 1986 bombing of a nightclub in Berlin, Germany, that was popular with U.S. military personnel then stationed there. Libyan agents were found to have planted bombs on Pam Am Flight 103 that killed 270 people over Lockerbie, Scotland, in 1988, as well as 170 people on UTA Flight 772 over Niger in 1989. Qaddafi was overthrown by Libyan protestors in 2011 as a part of the Arab Spring. Qaddafi also was captured and killed following his overthrow.

Introducing the Chapter Students frequently associate the topic of this chapter with “real geography,” and many students report taking an introductory geography class to learn more about different countries.

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Chapter 8: Political Geography This chapter allows those students to quench some of their curiosity in this regard, as well as the larger issues of political geography: the formation of states, including the origin of the state concept, the legacy of colonialism, and political cooperation and conflict, including the new global dimensions of terrorism.

Terrorism is as useful a context as any to begin the chapter; the text does this with the dramatic beforeand-after shots of the World Trade Center. The text’s later discussion of terrorist attacks on the United States prior to September 11, 2001, is also an interesting starting point for student discussion.

Icebreaker: Mental Maps Mental mapping is a great way to demonstrate how we perceive the world. It’s particularly useful for understanding how little we know about some places. This exercise can be used for a variety of lessons, political geography among them.

First, instruct students to start with a fresh sheet of paper in their notebooks. You may wish to hand out blank sheets of copy paper for this exercise.

Instruct the students, “Draw a map of your childhood. You may choose to draw whatever location and time period you wish, at whatever scale you wish. Include whatever details and memories you see fit. You have five minutes.”

Students will produce detailed, sometimes intricately so, maps of their childhood memories and places, especially if given longer than five minutes. Ask for volunteers to share their maps. This might be made easier by sharing your own map first.

Next, say “Turn your papers over and put a dot in the center. Label it with the name of our town. Now fill in as much information as you can on the rest of the map. You have five minutes.”

Students will be able to draw more or less complete maps of the region. It’s interesting to note the scale at which they draw, that is, whether neighboring regions are included or only nearby towns. Many students are fairly challenged by this task.

Finally, have the students take out a new sheet of paper. Say “I want you to draw Africa (or substitute another world region). Again, fill in as much information as you can. You have five minutes.”

Depending on the world region chose, most students will have a difficult to nearly impossible time with this task. Emphasize that the point of this exercise is not to make the students feel stupid, but to understand how we think about and perceive the world. Ask the following questions: • • •

What was put into the map of Africa? The Nile River and Egypt sometimes are the only named features.

Ask what other states were named and make a list of the most frequently named countries.

Why are these states on our mental maps and not others? Are our mental maps complete?

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Challenges to Comprehension State vs. Country The geographic use of the term “state” confuses students who are familiar only with the “United States” use of the term. Be sure to define the term “state” as it is used in the book and contrast this with the use of the term in the sense of the United States.

Terrorists or Freedom Fighters? A real challenge lies in the separation of the political spin and media hyperbole from what may actually be occurring in any particular conflict. Students may fall into any number of camps, but feelings can be quite strong about “right” and “wrong” sides in any particular conflict.

For perspective, try this question: If you are a parent with an injured child, does it matter to you if the people who hurt your child were “liberators” or “terrorists”?

Assignments Review/Reflection Questions •

• • •

When referring to European nations occupying areas around the world, taking over governments and often brutally suppressing any resistance, why do you think the word “colonialism” is used instead of “invasion?” Explain and elaborate.

Using a world map, identify two examples each of the following types of states not referenced in the text: compact, elongated, landlocked, and fragmented.

What are the implications of gerrymandering? Is there any way that voting districts could be divided up that would not result in one group complaining of inappropriate representation?

Look at the text’s definition of terrorism. Modify it or create your own if you wish. Now consider the following questions:

1. Over a nine-month period in 1941–1942, the German Luftwaffe (air force) bombed London, destroying more than 1 million houses and killing approximately 43,000 people. Except for the fact that this act was carried out by the state, does it meet your definition of terrorism?

2. Over a period of two nights (February 13–15) in 1944, the U.S. and British air forces dropped approximately 3,900 tons of highly explosive and incendiary (fire-causing) bombs on Dresden, Germany. Their objective was to destroy Dresden’s rail yard, but they dropped so many bombs all around the city that the resulting firestorm killed about 30,000 people, most of whom were burned alive. Except for the fact that this act was carried out by the state, does it meet your definition of terrorism?

3. Should we draw a distinction between “terrorism” and “war” as separate concepts? Explain your reasoning.

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Chapter 8: Political Geography

Thinking Geographically Questions 8.1: Why might China, Japan, and Taiwan all wish to control the Senkaku/Diaoyu islands, despite their extremely small size?

The territory at sea afforded by control of the Senkaku/Diaoyu islands is the reason Japan, Taiwan, and China are contesting the sovereignty of the islands. Rich natural resource deposits, such as oil and natural gas, are thought to be within the boundaries of their territorial waters, driving this conflict.

8.2: Why might some states in Europe split in the future into multiple states, as occurred in the 1990s in Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union?

Ethnic differences may drive some states to split into multiple states in the future. For instance, in Spain, many people living in the region of Catalonia support forming an independent state, based on their distinctive ethnic identity and cultural characteristics (such as speaking distinct language from Spanish). However, states may break up for purely political reasons, as many in Scotland wish to hold a second referendum on Independence following the United Kingdom’s exit from the European Union (known as the “Brexit”).

8.3: What factors might be promoting the decline of autocracies?

The diffusion of democratic government structures and ideals formulated in Europe and North America to other regions has helped in promoting the decline of autocracies across the world. These democratic ideals may be diffused through the medium of advancing communication technologies, such as mobile phones and social media.

8.4: In what ways might be diffusion of personal electronic devices and social media help promote prodemocratic forces, and in what ways might they provide assistance to terrorists?

If the people living in an oppressive society have their traditional media censored, the diffusion of personal electronic devices and social media may help circumvent the unjust filtering of ideas and information. They may also assist in organizational efforts, allowing protestors to plan coordinated demonstrations. These technologies may help terrorists recruit potential members in countries that they otherwise would not be able to reach.

Pause and Reflect Questions 8.1.1: With virtually all of Earth’s land now allocated to states, how might the number of states increase in the future?

The number of states might increase in the future if current states split into multiple separate states.

8.1.2: Other than military action, how might the sovereignty of these disputed territories be settled?

Diplomatic efforts might be undertaken to solve the sovereignty of disputed territories. Sometimes, a third party acting as a mediator might help efforts to settle disputes.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 8.2.1: What is the importance of the Fertile Crescent in the development of religions, as discussed in Chapter 6? How might the development of ancient states and religions in the region be related?

Organized religion was born in the Fertile Crescent, with the Babylonian civilization forming the first organized religion. Ancient states, in the form of Empires, adopted religions and diffused these beliefs in their realms of influence, creating national identities thousands of years ago.

8.2.2: Are Africa’s principal areas of ethnic cleansing and genocide in Africa among the most ethnically diverse? What might account for similarities or differences?

The areas of ethnic cleansing and genocide in Africa are among the most ethnically diverse in the region, as can be seen in Rwanda, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and the Sudan. The differences in ethnic composition in these regions can be attributed to the legacy of colonization in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries in Africa. National boundaries were drawn by colonizing powers with little regard to the ethnic composition of regions in Africa.

8.2.3: Why is most of Russia classified as sparsely settled? Compare the map of Russia’s ethnicities (Figure 8-18) with the maps of world climate (Figure 1-47) and of population concentrations (Figure 2-4).

Most of Russia is classified as sparsely settled, as the harsh climatic conditions (brutally cold winters) have caused large stretches of the country to have low population density. These conditions hinder agricultural activity that would allow more settlement.

8.2.4: If Abkhazia, Artsakh, and South Ossetia were widely recognized independent states, how would they compare in size to the microstates described earlier in this chapter?

South Ossetia has a land area of approximately 1,500 square miles, Abkhazia has a land area of roughly 3,300 square miles, and Artsakh has a land area of about 4,400 square miles. If widely recognized, these states would have relatively larger land areas than microstates. For instance, the land area of the microstate Lichtenstein is 61 square miles, and the land area of Andorra is about 180 square miles.

8.2.5: What would need to change for Puerto Rico to no longer be classified as a colony of the United States?

Puerto Rico would need to either become the 51st state of the United States or become a completely independent country.

8.3.1: Referring to Chapters 5 and 6, what other cultural boundaries run through the middle of other states in Europe?

Cultural boundaries can be seen in the country of Spain. In the border areas between Spain and France, the provinces of Catalonia, Álava, Biscay, and Gipuzkoa display distinct linguistic difference from the rest of the country. Independence efforts have been underway in the region for years, and momentum is particularly gaining in Catalonia.

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Chapter 8: Political Geography 8.3.2: Where is the U.S.-Canada boundary not based on geometry?

The maritime border between Canada and the United States in the Great Lakes is not based on geometry.

8.3.3: What examples have you seen thus far in this chapter of physical features that have not served as peaceful boundaries?

Historically, the boundary between Argentina and Chile in the Andes Mountains was contested between the two countries until a mediated agreement settled the dispute. Both countries nearly went to war over the issue before it was settled.

8.3.4: Name a state outside of Africa that is landlocked.

Andorra, a microstate located between France and Spain, is landlocked.

8.3.5: What region of the world appears to have the greatest concentration of autocratic regimes?

West, Central, and East Asia appear to have high concentrations of autocratic regimes.

8.3.6: How do the congressional districts in Iowa compare with the three forms of gerrymandering?

Iowa does not have gerrymandered congressional districts. Wasted vote-, excess vote-, and stacked votetypes of gerrymandering have been prevented by districts being drawn by a nonpartisan commission.

8.3.7: How was the city of Las Vegas treated in the two maps drawn by the political parties compared with the final map drawn by the court?

The Democratic plan made Democrats more numerous than Republicans in three of the four districts. By clustering a large share of the state’s registered Democrats in District 4, the Republican plan gave Republicans the majority of registered voters in two of the four districts. The map drawn by the court created regularly shaped districts that minimized gerrymandering.

8.4.1: Why have only a small handful of states joined the U.N. since 2000?

Only a small handful of states have joined the U.N. since 2000 due to two reasons. First, few widelyrecognized new states have been formed in the twenty-first century. Second, newly-sovereign states may only be recognized by a few fellow states, making it difficult for admittance to the U.N. to occur.

8.4.2: What might be the benefits and disadvantages for additional countries to join the European Union?

What might be the benefits and disadvantages for the European Union to let in new members?

States would benefit by joining the E.U. by being better positioned to have stronger economies. Integration into the Eurozone provides many economic advantages, such as the safety net of being bailed out if an economic crisis occurs. Disadvantages for states may include giving up independence in making political and economic decisions that directly impact their populations. The E.U. would benefit by admitting new members by further bolstering their unified, stable economy. The E.U. may face disadvantages by being compelled to assist member states that experience economic downturns. For instance, Germany has singlehandedly loaned out large sums of money to help maintain the solvency of the Greek economy.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 8.4.3: How has travel in the United States been affected by the 9/11 attacks?

Traveling across the United States/Canada border and the United States/Mexico border has become much more difficult. The waiting time to get across the border has increased substantially. Airline tickets have gone up because of the increased TSA fees added to ticket prices. Air travel has become much more of a hassle because of all the security screening that takes place at the airports.

8.4.4: Translate “je suis Charlie.” Why might people in Paris carry signs saying this?

“Je suis Charlie” is French for “I am Charlie.” People might carry signs saying this in Paris and across the world to show solidarity with those affected by the 2015 Charlie Hebdo terrorist attack.

8.4.5: What events have occurred in Iran since this book was published?

A deal between the P5+1 and Iran was struck, limiting the country’s nuclear program for a defined amount of time in return for lifting of some economic sanctions.

Explore Use Google Earth to see Osama bin Laden’s hideout in Abbottabad, Pakistan.

Fly to Osama bin Laden’s compound.

Set the imagery date to 5/8/2010.

Zoom in to eye alt 4,500 ft.

Click 3D buildings to see the extent of bin Laden’s compound.

Deselect 3D buildings and move the imagery date to 3/22/2001.

Then move the imagery date to 6/14/2005.

1. What changed inside the compound boundaries between 3/22/2001 and 6/14/2005? Did bin Laden’s World Trade Center attack take place before, between, or after these dates?

The compound was constructed between these dates. The World Trade Center attack took place between these dates, on 9/11/2001.

Move the imagery date to 4/7/2013.

2. How has the compound changed since 6/14/2005? What happened to bin Laden between 2005 and 2013?

The compound was razed between 6/14/2005 and 4/7/2013. Osama bin Laden was captured and killed by American forces on 5/2/2011.

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Resources Country Name Quiz For those who consider place name geography important the “Test your Geography Knowledge” game is a great tool for helping the memorization of state locations.

It’s online at http://lizardpoint.com/geography/world-countries-magnifier-quiz.php?qid=1806 Good Kurds, Bad Kurds Though a bit dated, this 2001 documentary by Kevin McKiernan provides an excellent example of the relativism of U.S. foreign policy. In this case, the film investigates human rights abuses of Kurds in Turkey, a valuable U.S. ally, at the same time (late 1990s) that the United States was objecting to the oppression of Kurds in Iraq.

Connections between Chapters Back to Chapter 7 As ethnicity and nationality are often intertwined, so are ethnicity and political geography. Remind your class that states can represent the physical embodiment of nationalities, and therefore it should not surprise us when conflicts arise between states.

Forward to Chapter 9 The transition between these two chapters represents a natural break of sorts, as the next chapter concentrates predominately on the study of economic geography.

However, point out that development is often measured at the country level (despite the obvious concerns this raises with respect to uneven development) and that government structures are often looked to for explanation of development status.

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Food and Agriculture

9

Learning Outcomes After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to: Learning Outcome 9.1.1:

Understand the origin of agriculture.

Learning Outcome 9.1.2:

Describe the principle differences between subsistence and commercial agriculture.

Learning Outcome 9.2.1:

Explain differences between developed and developing countries in food consumption.

Learning Outcome 9.2.2:

Explain differences between developed and developing countries in source of nutrients.

Learning Outcome 9.3.1:

Recognize relationships between maps of agriculture and of climate.

Learning Outcome 9.3.2:

Explain the principle forms of subsistence agriculture in lower-density dry regions.

Learning Outcome 9.3.3:

Explain the principal forms of subsistence agriculture in lower-density tropical regions.

Learning Outcome 9.3.4:

Explain the principal forms of agriculture in higher-density developing regions.

Learning Outcome 9.3.5:

Describe the contribution of fishing to the world food supply.

Learning Outcome 9.3.6:

Describe the basic principles of several forms of crop-based commercial agriculture.

Learning Outcome 9.3.7:

Describe the basic principles of several forms of mixed crop and livestock agriculture.

Learning Outcome 9.3.8:

Describe dairy and ranching commercial agriculture.

Learning Outcome 9.4.1:

Explain reasons for loss of farmland.

Learning Outcome 9.4.2:

Understand the importance of the green revolution.

Learning Outcome 9.4.3:

Understand the importance of water in agriculture.

Learning Outcome 9.4.4:

Understand the debate over the planting of GMO seeds.

Learning Outcome 9.4.5:

Explain the contribution of expanding exports to world food supply.

Learning Outcome 9.4.6:

Understand the distribution of undernourishment.

Learning Outcome 9.4.7:

Understand principles of organic farming.

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Chapter 9: Food and Agriculture

Chapter Outline Key Issue 1: Where Did Agriculture Originate?

Agriculture is deliberate modification of Earth’s surface through cultivation of plants and rearing of animals to obtain sustenance or economic gain. Agriculture emerged when humans domesticated plants and animals for their use. Cultivate means “to care for,” and a crop is any plant cultivated by people.

Introducing Food and Agriculture Agricultural activity began before recorded history, making determinations of its origins difficult. A timeline following the logical series of events based on fragments of information about ancient agricultural practices and historical environmental conditions has been pieced together by scholars.

Invention of Agriculture The era when human beings began to domesticate plants and animals and no longer relied entirely on hunting and gathering is known as the agricultural revolution. Researchers believe that the agricultural revolution began circa 8,000 B.C., as the world’s population rapidly increased relative to era’s past. The domestication of plants and animals provided humans larger and more stable sources of food, allowing more people to survive. Environmental and cultural factors likely played into the genesis of the agricultural revolution. Environmental factors, such as climate change and the ending of the last ice age, allowed for a wider spatial distribution of humans, animals, and plants. Cultural factors, such as the accidental and deliberate experimentation with the production of plants, likely resulted in a preference for living in a fixed place rather than as nomads.

Agricultural Hearths The planting of crops and domestication of animals originated in multiple hearths around the world across different eras. Hearths include Southwest Asia, East Asia, Central and South Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, and Latin America. Around 10,000 years ago, barley, wheat, lentil, and olives were cultivated in Southwest Asia. Between 8,000 and 9,000 years ago, animals such as cattle, goats, pigs, and sheep were domesticated in this hearth. From this hearth, cultivation diffused west to Europe and east to Central Asia. In East Asia, rice is thought to have been domesticated more than 10,000 years ago, along the Yangtze River in eastern China. Chickens are theorized to have diffused from South Asia round 4,000 years ago. In Central Asia, the horse is speculated to have been domesticated, mirroring the diffusion of the Indo-European language. Sorghum was domesticated in central Africa approximately 8,000 years ago, and yams are thought to have been domesticated in this hearth even earlier. In Latin America, beans and cotton are thought to have diffused from Mexico, and the potato is considered to have originated in Peru. Maize (corn) is hypothesized to have emerged from the two hearths independently, diffusing north and south.

Subsistence and Commercial Agriculture The key differences in agricultural practices are between those in developing countries and those in developed countries. In developing countries most people work in subsistence agriculture, which is the production of food primarily for consumption by the farmer’s family. Very few people in developing countries work in commercial agriculture which is the production of food primarily for sales off the farm.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Percentage of Farmers In developed countries, roughly 3 percent of the workforce is engaged directly in farming, in contrast to the 42 percent of workers engaged in farming in developing countries. The vast majority of people engaged in farming activity in developed countries work as commercial farmers. Both push and pull factors have contributed to the decline of farmers in the United States. People were pushed away from farms by lack of opportunity to earn a decent income and at the same time they were pulled to higher-paying jobs in urban areas.

Role of Machinery, Science, and Technology Beginning in the late eighteenth century, factories produced farm machinery. Inventions in farming in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries made farming less dependent on human and animal power. The building of railroads in the nineteenth century and highways and trucks in the twentieth century have enabled farmers to transport crops and livestock farther and faster. Experiments conducted in university laboratories, industry, and research organizations generate new fertilizers, herbicides, hybrid plants, animal breeds, and farming practices that produce higher crop yields and healthier animals. GPS devices have allowed farmers to assist in the precise planting of seeds and for spreading different types and amounts of fertilizers. On ranches, GPS can be used to monitor the locations of cattle and tractors. Satellite imagery is a valuable resource for measuring crop progress, as well.

Farm Size The average farm is relatively large in commercial agriculture. Combines, pickers, and other machinery perform most efficiently at very large scales and their considerable expense cannot be justified on a small farm. Farmers spend hundreds of thousands of dollars to buy or rent land and machinery before beginning operations. Commercial farmers frequently expand their holdings by renting nearby fields. The amount of land devoted to agriculture has increased in the United States primarily due to irrigation and reclamation.

Key Issue 2: Why Do People Consume Different Foods?

The modern American or Canadian farm is mechanized and highly productive, especially compared to subsistence farms found in much of the rest of the world. This difference represents one of the most basic contrasts between the more developed and less developed countries of the world.

Diet and Nutrition Consumption of food varies around the world, both in total amount and source of nutrients. These differences result from a combination of level of development, physical conditions, and cultural preferences. In more developed countries, people consume a greater amount of food from various sources than people in developing countries. Climate is a determining factor in what can be easily grown and consumed in developing countries. In developed countries, supply chains allow for food to be sourced from many different climates. Some food preferences and avoidances are expressed without regard for physical and economic factors.

Total Consumption of Food The amount of food that an individual consumes is known as dietary energy consumption. The unit measurement of dietary energy is the calorie in the United States. Most humans derive most of their calories through consumption of a cereal grain. A cereal grain is a grass that yields grain for food and the grain is the seed from a cereal grass. The three leading cereal grains are wheat, rice, and corn (maize). These three grains together account for 90 percent of all grain production and more than 40 percent of all dietary energy consumed worldwide.

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Chapter 9: Food and Agriculture Dietary Energy Needs To maintain a moderate level of physical activity, an average individual needs to consume at least 1,844 kcal per day. Average consumption worldwide is approximately 2,902 kcal per day. People in developed countries are consuming 3,400 kcal a day. The United States has the highest consumption, 3,800 kcal per day per person. In sub-Saharan Africa average daily consumption is 2,400 kcal a day. Some people in sub-Saharan Africa are not getting enough to eat and have to spend a high percentage of their income to obtain food.

Source of Nutrients The United Nations defines food security as physical, social, and economic access at all times to safe and nutritious food sufficient to meet dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. Ten percent of the world population is classified as not having food security.

Protein Protein is a nutrient needed for growth and maintenance of the human body. Many food sources provide protein of varying quantity and quality. One of the most fundamental difference between developed and developing regions is the primary source of protein. In developed countries, the leading source of protein is meat products, including beef, pork, and poultry. In most developing countries, cereal grains provide the largest share of protein.

Key Issue 3: Where Is Agriculture Distributed?

Geographer Derwent Whittlesey mapped the world’s agricultural regions in 1936. Despite many physical and theoretical changes concerning agriculture since his time, his research helped lay the foundation for the modern division of the Earth into agriculture regions.

Agricultural Regions and Climate The overlap between agricultural and climate maps is readily apparent. For example, pastoral nomadism is the predominant type of agriculture in Southwest Asia and North Africa, corresponding to a dry climate, while shifting cultivation is the primary type of agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa. Differences in the type of agriculture can be present within developed and developing countries, as well. These variations can be seen in the deserts of eastern South California contrasted with the verdant valleys of the Salinas valley of Central California. Geographers are reluctant to place too much emphasis on climate as a determining factor in global agricultural differences, due to their strained history with environmental determinism. Agricultural differences in places of similar climate can be attributed to variations in cultural preferences and levels of development.

Subsistence Agriculture in Dry Regions Whittlesey conceptualized 11 distinct agricultural regions, along with areas where agriculture was not present. Five of these regions are important forms of agriculture in developing countries, while 6 are forms of commercial agriculture important in developed countries. The five agriculture regions primarily seen in developing countries are intensive subsistence, wet-rice dominant; intensive subsistence, crops other than rice dominant; pastoral nomadism; shifting cultivation; and plantation. The six agricultural regions primarily seen in developed countries include mixed crop and livestock; dairying; grain; ranching; Mediterranean; and commercial gardening.

Hunters and Gatherers Prior to the agricultural revolution, all humans probably obtained food through hunting for animals, fishing, or gathering plants. Groups of hunters and gatherers generally kept their numbers below 50, as a larger number would quickly exhaust the available resources within walking distance. Groups regularly traveled, with their direction and frequency of migration determined by the 163 © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography movement of game and the seasonal growth of plants at different locations. Men hunted game or fished, while women gathered berries, nuts, and roots. This division of labor is evidenced by archaeological and anthropological findings. Only an estimated quarter-million people of the world’s population still survive by hunting and gathering.

Pastoral Nomadism Pastoral nomadism is a form of subsistence agriculture based on the herding of domesticated animals. Pastoral nomads live primarily in the large belt of arid and semiarid land that includes Central and Southwest Asia and North Africa. The animals provide milk, and their skins and hair are used for clothing and tents. Pastoral nomads consume mostly grain and not meat because their animals are usually not slaughtered. Pastoral nomads mostly obtain grain from farmers in exchange for animal products but have been known to plant crops in some circumstances. The camel is the most highly desired animal in North Africa and Southwest Asia, along with sheep and goats.

Pastoral nomads do not wander randomly across the landscape but have a strong sense of territoriality.

The goal of each nomad is to control a territory large enough to contain the forage and water needed for survival. The precise migration patterns evolve from intimate knowledge of the area’s physical and cultural characteristics. Pastoral nomadism is now generally recognized as an offshoot of sedentary agriculture, not a primitive precursor of it. It is simply a practical way of surviving on land that receives too little rain for the cultivation of crops. Some pastoral nomads practice transhumance, which is seasonal migration of livestock between mountains and lowland pasture areas.

Subsistence Agriculture in Tropical Regions Shifting Cultivation is practiced in much of the world’s tropical, or A, climate regions, which have relatively high temperatures, and abundant rainfall. This type of agricultural activity is practiced by approximately 250 million people across 14 million square miles.

Plantation farming is also found in these areas.

Shifting Cultivation Two key features are indicative of shifting cultivation: •

Farmers clear land for planting by slashing vegetation and burning the debris; shifting cultivation is sometimes called slash-and-burn agriculture.

•

Farmers grow crops on a cleared field for only a few years, until soil nutrients are depleted.

Farmers then leave it fallow (with nothing planted) for many years so the soil can recover.

People who practice shifting cultivation generally live in small villages in the tropics and grow food on the surrounding land. Before planting, they must remove the vegetation that typically covers tropical land.

On a windless day the vegetation is burned. The rains wash the fresh ashes into the soil, providing needed nutrients. The cleared area, known as swidden, is prepared by hand, perhaps with the help of a simple implement such as a hoe. The cleared land can support crops only briefly, usually three years or less. Soil nutrients are rapidly depleted and the land becomes too infertile to nourish crops. When the swidden is no longer fertile, villagers identify a new site and begin clearing it.

Crops of Shifting Cultivation Each village grows crops according to their local custom and taste. The primary crops include upland rice in Southeast Asia, maize (corn) and manioc (cassava) in South America, and millet and sorghum in Africa. Yams, sugarcane, plantain, and vegetables are also grown in

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Chapter 9: Food and Agriculture some regions. Most families grow only for their own needs, so one swidden may contain a large variety of intermingled crops, which are harvested individually at the best time. A “farm field” appears much more chaotic than do fields in developed countries where a single crop is grown over an extensive area.

Ownership and Use of Land in Shifting Cultivation Traditionally, land was owned by the village as a whole rather than separately by each resident. The chief or ruling council allocated a patch of land to each family and allowed them to retain the output. Today, private individuals now own the land in some communities, especially in Latin America. Land used for shifting cultivation covers roughly one-fourth of the world’s land area, a higher percentage than any other type of agriculture, although less than 5 percent of the world’s people are involved in shifting cultivation.

Future of Shifting Cultivation According to the United Nations, land used for shifting cultivation is decreasing in the tropics at the annual rate of roughly 30,000 square miles, or 0.2 percent. Less than half of the land area originally occupied by tropical rain forest remains today, as World Bank loans for development in these regions formerly supported deforestation efforts. Today, shifting cultivation is being replaced by logging, cattle ranching, and the cultivation of cash crops. People in developing countries are also abandoning shifting cultivation at increasing rates, as the method can only support a small number of people in an area without causing environmental damage. Many people consider shifting agriculture to be the most environmentally sound approach for agriculture in the tropics. Practices used in other forms of agriculture, such as applying fertilizers and pesticides and permanently clearing fields, may damage the soil, cause severe erosion, and upset balanced ecosystems.

Plantation Farming Most plantations are located in the tropics and subtropics, particularly in Latin America, Africa, and Asia. Despite being located in developing countries, many plantations are owned or operated by Europeans or North Americans, and they produce crops intended for markets in developed countries. Among the primary crops grown on plantations are cotton, sugarcane, coffee, rubber, and tobacco.

Subsistence Agriculture in Population Concentrations Three-quarters of the world’s population live in developing countries, and most are fed by intensive subsistence agriculture. The term intensive suggests that farmers are required to work intensively to subsist on a parcel of land.

Characteristics of Intensive Subsistence Farming Intensive subsistence farming is primarily undertaken in East, South, and Southeast Asia. Agricultural practices developed over thousands of years, informed by local environmental and cultural patterns, evolve into intensive subsistence farming methods.

Agricultural density (the ratio of farmers to arable land) is extremely high in parts of East and South Asia, forcing families to produce enough food for their survival from a very small area of land. Land is maximized for planting crops; paths are left as narrow as possible, corners of fields and irregularly shaped pieces of land are used rather than left idle, livestock are rarely permitted to graze on land that could be used for growing crops, and land used to grow grain for animal feed is minimized. Land is used even more intensively in parts of Asia by obtaining two harvests per year from one field, a process known as double cropping.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography The typical farm in Asia’s intensive subsistence agriculture regions is much smaller than farms elsewhere in the world. Because agricultural density is so high in parts of East and South Asia, families must produce enough food for their survival from a very small area of land. Most of this work is done by hand or animals rather than the machines, in part due to abundant labor, but largely from lack of funds to buy equipment.

The consumers of the rice also perform the work, and all family members contribute to the effort.

Wet-Rice Dominant The term wet rice refers to rice planted on dryland in a nursery and then moved as seedlings to a flooded field to promote growth. Intensive wet-rice farming is the dominant type of agriculture in southeastern China, East India, and much of Southeast Asia. Wet rice is most easily grown on flat land because the plants are submerged in water much of the time. Most wet-rice cultivation takes place in river valleys and deltas. One method of developing additional land suitable for growing rice is to terrace the hillsides of river valleys. A field is generally prepared by animal power, leveling the area for flooding. The field is then flooded with water. This flooded field is called a sawah in Indonesia and is increasingly referred to as a paddy, which is the Malay word for rice. For the first month, rice seedlings are grown in a nursery and are then transported to the sawah. Rice plants are then harvested with knives, and the chaff (husks) is separated from the seed by threshing the husks on the ground.

Wet Rice Not Dominant Agriculture in much of the interior of India and northeastern China is devoted to crops other than wet rice. Wheat is the most important crop, followed by barley. In addition, some crops are grown in order to be sold for cash, such as cotton, flax, hemp, and tobacco. Land is used intensively and worked primarily by human power, with the assistance of some hand implements and animals. In milder parts of the region where wet rice does not dominate, more than one harvest can be obtained some years through skilled use of crop rotation, which is the practice of rotating use of different fields from crop to crop each year to avoid exhausting the soil.

Fishing The capture of wild fish and other seafood living in Earth’s waters is known as fishing.

Aquaculture, or aquafarming, is the cultivation of seafood under controlled conditions. Both fishing and aquaculture are practiced in subsistence and commercial agriculture.

Fish Production The world’s oceans are divided into 18 major fishing regions, including seven each in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, three in the Indian Ocean, and one in the Mediterranean. Fishing is also undertaken in lakes and rivers. The Pacific Northwest and Asia’s inland waterways are the areas with the largest yields. During the past 50 years, global fish production has grown from roughly 36 to 158 million metric tons. The expansion of aquaculture can be attributed to this increase. The capture of wild fish has stagnated since the 1990s, despite population growth and increased demand to consume fish.

Fish Consumption Human consumption of fish and seafood has grown from 27 million metric tons in 1960 to 132 million metric tons in 2012. Five-sixths of this increase can be attributed to consumption in developing countries. Despite accounting for only 1 percent of all calories consumed by humans, per capita consumption of fish has nearly doubled in developed and developing countries over the past 50 years.

Overfishing China is responsible for one-third of the world’s yield of fish. The populations of some fish species in Earth’s waters have decreased due to overfishing. Overfishing is the capturing of fish faster than they can reproduce. The U.N. estimates that one-fourth of fish stocks have been overfished and onehalf have been fully exploited, leaving one-fourth underfished.

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Chapter 9: Food and Agriculture Commercial Agriculture: Crop Based The system of commercial farming found in developed countries has been called agribusiness because the family farm is not an isolated activity but is integrated into a large food-production industry. Agricultural products are not sold directly to consumers, but to food processing companies. Around 20 percent of U.S. laborers work in food production and services related to agribusiness-food processing, packaging, storing, distributing, and retailing. Agribusiness encompasses such diverse enterprises as tractor manufacturing, fertilizer production, and seed distribution.

Grain Farming A grain is a seed from various grasses, such as wheat, corn, oats, barley, rice, millet, and others. Commercial grain agriculture is distinguished from mixed crop and livestock farming because crops on a grain farm are grown primarily for consumption by humans rather than livestock. Commercial grain farmers sell their output to manufacturers of food products, such as breakfast cereals and breads.

Wheat is the most important grain because it is used to make bread flour. Wheat can be stored relatively easily without spoiling. Because wheat has a relatively high value per unit weight, it can be shipped profitably from remote farms to market.

Mediterranean Agriculture Most crops in the Mediterranean lands are grown for human consumption rather than animal feed. Mediterranean agriculture exists predominates in lands that border the Mediterranean Sea in Southern Europe, North Africa, and western Asia. Farmers in California, central Chile, the southwestern part of South Africa, and southwestern Australia also practice Mediterranean agriculture. Horticulture—which is the growing of fruits, vegetables, and flowers—and tree crops form the commercial base of Mediterranean farming. The hilly landscape typically found in a Mediterranean climate encourages farmers to plant a variety of crops within one farming area. Typically, the three most important crops grown in Mediterranean agriculture are grapes, olives, and wheat. A large portion of California farmland is devoted to fruit and vegetable horticulture, which supplies a large portion of the citrus fruits, tree nuts, and deciduous fruits consumed in the United States.

Commercial Gardening and Fruit Farming This type of agriculture is called truck farming. Truck farms grow many of the fruits and vegetables that consumers in developed countries demand. Some of these fruits and vegetables are sold fresh to consumers, but most are sold to large processors for canning or freezing. Truck farms are usually large-scale operations that take full advantage of machines at every stage of the growing process. Labor costs are kept down by hiring migrant farm workers who work for very low wages. Farms tend to specialize in a few crops, and a handful of farms may dominate national output of some fruits and vegetables.

Commercial Agriculture: Mixed Crop and Livestock Mixed crop and livestock farming is the most common form of commercial agriculture in the United States west of the Appalachians and east of 98° west longitude and in much of Europe, from France to Russia.

Mixed Crop and Livestock Farming Most of the crops grown in mixed crop and livestock farming agriculture are fed to animals rather than consumed directly by humans. In turn, livestock supply manure to improve soil fertility to grow more crops. A typical mixed crop and livestock farm devotes nearly all land area to growing crops but derives more than three-fourths of its income from the sale of animal products, such as beef, milk, and eggs. Mixed crops and livestock farms permit farmers to distribute the workload more evenly through the year. In the United States, corn is the most frequently planted crop

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography because it generates higher yields per area than do other crops. Soybeans are the second most important crop in the United States. Corn and soybeans are commonly fed to livestock.

Importance of Access to Markets In developed countries, the use of land is primarily determined by market forces of supply and demand. The value of the land impacts the form of commercial agriculture practiced on it. The distance from the farm to the market affects the farmer’s choice of crop to plant.

Geographers employ the von Thünen model to help explain the importance of proximity to market in the choice of crops on commercial farms. In choosing an enterprise, the farmer considers two costs: the cost of the land and the cost of transporting products to market. The crops grown around cities can be identified using a concentric circle conceptualization, in the form of four rings: •

First ring. Market-oriented gardens and milk producers were located in the first ring out from the cities. These products are expensive to deliver and must reach the market quickly because they are perishable.

•

Second ring. The next ring out from the cities contained wood lots, where timber was cut for construction and fuel; proximity to market is key for this commodity because of its weight.

•

Third ring. The next ring was used for various crops and for pasture; the particular commodity was rotated from one year to the next.

•

Fourth ring. The outermost ring was devoted exclusively to animal grazing, which requires a great deal of space.

This model assumes that all land in a study area has similar site characteristics and was of uniform quality, although von Thünen recognized that the model could vary according to topography and other distinct physical features (e.g. a river or body of water extending into a ring).

Commercial Agriculture: Animal-based Dairy farming is the most significant agriculture undertaken near large urban areas in developed countries. Ranching is adapted to semiarid or arid land and is practiced in developed countries where the vegetation is too sparse and soil too poor to sustain crops.

Dairy Farming A dairy farm specializes in the production of milk and other dairy products. As milk is highly perishable, dairy farms must be located closer to the market than other products. The ring surrounding a city from which milk can be supplied without spoiling is called the milkshed. Dairy farmers, like other commercial farmers, usually do not sell their products directly to the consumers.

Instead they generally sell their milk to wholesalers, who distribute it in turn to retailers. In general, the farther the farm is from large urban concentrations, the smaller is the percentage of output devoted to fresh milk. Farms located farther from consumers are more likely to sell their output to processors to make butter, cheese, or dried, evaporated, and condensed milk. The reason is that these products keep fresh longer than milk does and therefore can be safely shipped from remote farms. As farming of cows is labor intensive and in some cases cost prohibitive (e.g. the expense of feeding cows during the winter), many dairy farmers have quit.

Livestock Ranching Ranching is the commercial grazing of livestock over an extensive area.

Commercial ranching is conducted in several developed countries besides the United States, and increasingly in developing countries. As with other forms of commercial agriculture, the growth of ranching has been in developing countries. China is the leading producer of meat, ahead of the United 168 © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 9: Food and Agriculture States, and Brazil is third. China passed the United States as the world’s leading meat producer in 1990 and now produces twice as much meat. Developed countries were responsible for only one-third of world meat production in 2013, compared to two-thirds in 1980.

Key Issue 4: Why Do Farmers Face Sustainability Challenges?

Seven challenges confront agriculture in providing more food for a growing and hungry world, while preserving and protecting Earth’s agricultural resources for the future: •

Losing agricultural land to competing uses.

•

Improving the productivity of existing farmland.

•

Conserving scarce resources, such as water and top soil.

•

Identifying the appropriate role in agriculture for biotechnology.

•

Balancing production of food for international trade rather than for local consumption.

•

Meeting the needs of people who are undernourished.

•

Making greater use of organic farming.

Losing Agricultural Land In the past, world food production increased primarily by expanding the amount of land designated for agriculture. As population increased during the Industrial Revolution, people simply staked a claim of unsettled land in uninhabited territory to produce more agricultural land (as seen in the American West during the nineteenth century). Despite only 11 percent of the world’s land area being cultivated, population is growing at a rate that outpaces development of agricultural land.

Loss of Farmland to Urbanization Expanding urban areas have caused a significant loss of farmland, especially in the Eastern Seaboard of the United States. In the United States, 200,000 hectares of the most productive farmland, known as prime agricultural land, is being encroached upon and replaced by expanding urban areas. This issue is especially evident in Maryland, where geographic information systems (GIS) have been used to identify prime agricultural land to preserve as Baltimore and Washington D.C. continue to grow and coalesce into a continuous built-up area.

Desertification In a process called desertification, human actions are causing land to deteriorate to a desertlike condition. This process is more precisely referred to as semiarid land degradation. Excessive crop cultivation, animal grazing, and tree felling exhaust the soil’s nutrients and hinder agriculture. The Earth Policy Institute estimates that 2 billion hectares of land have suffered desertification on Earth.

Overgrazing is considered to be responsible for 34 percent of the total, deforestation for 30 percent, and agricultural use for 28 percent. The U.N. estimates that desertification removes 27 million hectares of land from agricultural production every year.

Improving Agricultural Productivity During the second half of the twentieth century, population increased at the fastest rate in human history. Massive global famine is projected by many experts, as increases in agricultural land cannot keep up with population growth. Increased agricultural productivity has prevented any famines from coming to pass, and has resulted in an expansion of food supply. Today, the same amount of land can produce greater yields due to new agricultural practices.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Intensification by Subsistence Farmers For hundreds if not thousands of years, subsistence farming in developing countries yielded enough food for people living in rural villages to survive, assuming that no drought, flood, or other natural disasters occurred. Suddenly in the late twentieth century, developing countries needed to provide enough food for a rapidly increasing population as well as for urban residents, who cannot grow their own food. Subsistence farmers had to increase the supply of food by adopting new farming methods and leaving farm land fallow for shorter periods of time.

The Green Revolution The invention and rapid diffusion of more productive agricultural techniques during the 1970s and 1980s is called the green revolution. The green revolution involves two main practices: the introduction of new higher-yield seeds and the expanded use of fertilizers. The new miracle seeds were diffused rapidly around the world. To take full advantage of the new miracle seeds, farmers must use more fertilizer and machinery. Farmers need tractors and irrigation pumps to make the most effective use of the new miracle seeds. In developing countries, farmers cannot afford such equipment, fertilizers, and even the fuel for the tractors. To offset these costs, governments in developing countries must allocate scarce funds to subsidize the cost of seed, fertilizers, and machinery.

Increased Productivity: Commercial Farmers Recently, productivity has also increased among commercial farmers. New seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, mechanical equipment, and management practices have allowed commercial farmers to obtain greatly increased yields per area of land.

Conserving Agricultural Resources Plants and animals require water to survive and thrive. Lack of water is putting stress on agriculture in many regions, while an overabundance of water can cause soil erosion.

Agriculture and Water in California California’s limited water supply comes from two main sources: surface water, which is water that travels or gathers on the ground, like rivers, streams, and lakes; and groundwater, which is water that is pumped out from the ground. Recent persistent drought has severely reduced the amount of surface water captured. In years with normal rainfall, 70 percent of California’s water is supplied by surface water. Today, only 40 percent is supplied by surface water as a result of prolonged drought conditions. The distribution of water in California does not mirror the distribution of demand—most water supplies are located in the north, while Central and Southern California is where demand is primarily situated.

Sustainable Land Management Soil erosion is an issue in the U.S. Midwest, where nutrient-rich top soil is washed away by excessive rainfall, or made loose by tillage making them susceptible to being washed away or blown away by wind. Conservation tillage is a method of soil cultivation that reduces soil erosion and runoff. Under conservation tillage, some of all of the previous harvest is left on the fields through the winter.

No tillage leaves all of the soil undisturbed, and the entire residue of the previous year’s harvest is left untouched on the fields. Ridge tillage is a system of planting crops on ridge tops. Ridge tillage compares favorably with conventional farming for yields while lowering the cost of production. Ridge tillage will tend to increase organic matter, improve water holding capacity, and usually cause more earthworms. Although more labor intensive than other systems, ridge tillage is profitable on a per-acre basis.

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Chapter 9: Food and Agriculture Applying Biotechnology to Agriculture In the late twentieth century, developments in genetic modification allow the alteration of genetic composition to ensure the dominance of the most favorable traits for cultivation.

Genetically Modified Organisms A genetically modified organism (GMO) is a living organism that possesses a novel combination of genetic material obtained through the use of modern biotechnology.

A GMO combines genetic material of two or more species that would otherwise not mix in nature.

In 2010, 10 percent of farmland was devoted to genetically modified crops; 77 percent of the world’s soybeans, 49 percent of cotton, and 26 percent of maize were genetically modified in 2010. GM is especially widespread in the United States. Three-fourths of the processed food that Americans consume has at least one genetically modified ingredient. Developing countries are responsible for one-half of the genetically modified food grown, while the United States is responsible for the other one-half. The United States has urged sub-Saharan African countries to increase their food supply in part through increased use of GM crops and livestock. There is strong opposition to GM crops in some African countries, with detractors pointing to potential health problems, export problems, and increased dependence on the United States as issues to consider.

Global Food Trade Total agricultural exports from all countries have grown from $0.4 trillion in 2000 to $1.3 trillion in 2012. Exporting countries benefit from increased revenues, and importing countries meet the food needs of their people. Prior to World War II, Europe was the only major food importing region, as they historically used their colonies as suppliers of food. East Asia and the former Soviet Union became net food importers in the 1950s, Southwest Asia and North Africa during the 1970s, South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa during the 1980s, and Central Asia in 2008. Japan is the clear leader in the import of food, followed by the United Kingdom, China, and Russia. The United States passed Public Law 480, the Agricultural, Trade, and Assistance Act of 1954 in response to the growing global demand for food imports.

Global Trade Patterns Agricultural products are moving predominantly from the Western Hemisphere to the Eastern Hemisphere on a global scale. Latin America has evolved into the largest exporter of agricultural products, headed by Brazil and Argentina—North America, Southeast Asia, and the South Pacific are other major exporting regions. The overall proportion of exports constituted by the United States has declined rapidly, from 18 to 19 percent of the world total in the 1970s to 10 to 11 percent in the twenty-first century. Agricultural exports from the United States have continued to grow rapidly, but developing regions—particularly Latin America and Southeast Asia—have had more rapid growth. To expand production, subsistence farmers need higher yield seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, and machinery. For many African and Asian countries, the main way to obtain agricultural supplies is to import them from other countries. Most developed countries raise funds through the sale of crops in developed countries.

Consumers in developed countries are willing to pay high prices for fruits and vegetables that would otherwise be out of season or for crops such as coffee and tea that cannot be grown in developed countries because of climate. The more land that is devoted to growing export crops, the less that is available to grow crops for domestic consumption.

Drug Crops The export crops chosen in some developing countries, particularly in Latin America and Asia, are those that can be converted to drugs. Cocaine is derived from coca leaf. Heroin is derived from raw opium gum, which is produced by the opium poppy plant. Marijuana is produced from the Cannabis sativa plant.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Global Agriculture and Undernourishment The future of food and agriculture is being pulled in global and local directions. On one hand, an increasingly integrated global agricultural system is devoted to producing the most food at the lowest cost for the world’s 7+ billion people. And in the twenty-first century, food production is higher and undernourishment is lower. However, critics maintain that the global agricultural system is causing major long-term damage to the environment for the sake of shortterm production. They believe that GMOs, international trade, deforestation, and other practices are not sustainable ways to meet humanity’s need for food. While demand in developed countries is rapidly growing for locally grown food produced through sustainable farming methods, critics believe that the local and organic movements are unable to provide affordable food for the world’s population.

Global Scale: Supply and Demand Food prices, rather than food supply, has emerged as the greatest challenge to world food supply in the twenty-first century. For instance, food prices have more than doubled between 2006 and 2008, remained at record high levels through 2014, and declined sharply in 2015. The U.N. credits the record high prices through 2014 to four factors: •

Poor weather, particularly in major crop-growing regions of the South Pacific and North America.

•

Higher Demand, especially in China and India.

•

Lower growth in productivity, especially without major new “miracle” breakthroughs.

•

Use of crops as biofuels instead of food, especially in Latin America.

Increased supplies precipitated the sharp decline in prices in 2015. Record high food prices have mirrored record high increases in the price of prime agricultural land. The rapid population growth seen in subSaharan has strained the ability of farmers to meet local demand, despite increases in food production.

The threat of famine is especially severe in the Horn of Africa and the Sahel.

Undernourishment Undernourishment is dietary energy consumption that is continuously below that needed for healthy life and carrying out light physical activity. According to the U.N., an estimated 795 million people in the world are undernourished, one-half of them in South Asia and East Asia (especially in India and China). India is home to one-quarter of the world’s undernourished population. With regard to percentage of a country’s population, undernourishment is particularly a problem in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Despite these worrying statistics, progress has been made in reducing undernourishment— between 2000 and 2015, the number of undernourished people declined from 924 million to 795 million, and the global percentage declined from 15 percent to 11 in the same period.

Sustainable Agriculture Low population growth and market saturation for most products has maintained steady demand for food in developed countries. The most rapid increase in demand has been for organic food, including non-GMO food.

Organic Farming 1 percent of farmland (43 million hectares) is classified as organic, according to U.N. estimates. 40 percent of the worldwide total of organic agricultural land is concentrated in Australia.

Argentina accounted for 8 percent of the worldwide total, and the United States and China for 5 percent each. According to USDA economists, organic food sales grew from $3.4 billion in 1997 to an estimated $35.9 billion in 2014. In organic farming, crops are grown without application of herbicides and 172 © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 9: Food and Agriculture pesticides to control weeds. GMO seeds are not utilized. Animals consume crops grown on the farm and are not confined to small pens. The confinement of animals to small pens leads to surface water and groundwater pollution, while if they are allowed to roam, manure can contribute to soil fertility.

Antibiotics are not used to promote weight gain, and are only used for therapeutic purposes.

How Clean Is Our Produce? The USDA regularly tests samples of fruits and vegetables for pesticides.

Nearly two-thirds of the 3,015 produce samples tested in 2013 contained residues of at least one of 165 different pesticides. These pesticides remain on produce even if washed or peeled. Apples, peaches, nectarines, strawberries, and grapes are the five most pesticide-ridden fruits at market. The five cleanest are avocados, corn, pineapples, cabbage, and frozen sweet peas.

Government Policies Commercial farmers suffer from low incomes because they are capable of producing much more food than is demanded by consumers in developed countries. Although the food supply has increased in developed countries, the demand has remained constant because the market for most products is already saturated. The U.S. government tries to encourage farmers to avoid producing crops that are in excess supply. The government will pay farmers when certain commodity prices are low and buy surplus production. The surplus crops are sold or donated to foreign countries. The United States has averaged about $20 billion annually on farm subsidies in recent years. European farms are subsidized at an even higher rate compared to their American counterparts.

Introducing the Chapter The chapter reveals the isolation of North Americans from agriculture, as most are not employed in agricultural jobs.

Icebreakers The Meatrix (themeatrix.com) This online Flash animation is an entertaining, accessible criticism of industrial meat production. The first presentation reveals the changes to farming practices in the late twentieth century.

Students should be advised that the presentation is biased against agribusiness practices. Recommend that students write down the four major points of the presentation and invite their comments after showing the segment or segments.

Challenges to Comprehension City Slickers Depending on the location of your school, students may nearly be devoid of any knowledge of agriculture. This is different from previous chapters in that every previous chapter had an element in which students could understand in personal terms: not so with this topic for urban and suburban residents. Use this lack of awareness as a point of teaching for how far removed from the land our society has become.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography

Assignments Review/Reflection Questions •

Which of Whittlesey’s regions is the “odd duck” in that it doesn’t fit perfectly into commercial or subsistence categories?

•

When you shop for food, do you think about where it came from? Does this bother you now that you think about it? Why or why not?

•

Pick one of the following common household foods (hamburger, banana, coffee, or apple) and trace its production, movement, and processing until you purchase it.

•

Why do you think Europeans generally avoid genetically modified food while Americans generally do not?

•

A major criticism of rich countries regarding international trade and development is that the richest countries in the world also offer the greatest agricultural subsidies to their farmers. How would ending rich-country agricultural subsidies help the less developed world?

Recipe Analysis Assignment Have the students follow the directions below.

•

Select a recipe that is associated with a particular culture, ethnic, nation, or other type of region.

The best candidate is one of your favorite family recipes that has been passed down through the generations.

•

Write the individual ingredients for the recipe in detail (as if from scratch). If you don’t have a copy of the recipe you will need to interview a person that does by phone or e-mail.

•

Research on the Internet where the ingredients were originally domesticated. If there are certain ingredients that have not been domesticated, find their natural habitat (shrimp, cranberries, etc.).

Research the domestication of animals (cows, chickens, etc.).

•

Create a map showing the diffusion of the ingredients into your recipe region. Print a blank world map of the Internet.

•

Write a 1–2 page analysis of your research, including how your region’s food has been influenced by diffusion/ migration (the Old Silk Road or Columbian Exchange). Discuss the climate and land use of the region where your ethnic dish is from.

Thinking Geographically Questions 9.1: Several large sculptures honoring the horse are erected in the center of Kazakhstan’s capital Astana.

Why might the horse be specifically honored there?

The horse may have played an integral role in the Kazakhstani people’s heritage of pastoral nomadism, allowing them to traverse large distances to obtain food supplies.

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Chapter 9: Food and Agriculture 9.2: Review what you have eaten today. How conscious were you of where the food was grown or raised?

I am conscious (or conscious to the best of my abilities) of the source and ethical treatment of the food I ate today, as I am vegan and have a limited diet.

9.3: Why or why are you not paying attention to the origin of your food?

I pay attention to the origin of my food because I am concerned about the ethical treatment and well-being of animals.

9.4: Do you have access to a farmers’ market or an organic grocery store? If so, do you go to it? Why or why not?

I live in semi-rural Alabama, so I do not have access to an organic grocery store. However, there is a weekly farmers’ market during the summer months, and I do shop there every few weeks. I shop there whenever I can afford it.

9.5: Although one of the world’s wealthiest countries, Japan is shown in Figure 9-13 as specializing intensive subsistence farming with wet rice dominant. The rice farming is done primarily by elderly people. Why might Japan be retaining traditional rice production despite its wealthy status?

Rice production is maintained in Japan due to the outsize political influence of farmers in the country.

The government also views rice production as a means to contribute to food security, if something were to happen to the global food supply chain.

9.6: The food services at a number of schools and universities now offer some healthy, local, and organic food choices. If yours does, why do you or don’t you select these healthy and local choices? If yours does not, have you asked your school to provide healthier choices? Why have you or have you not asked?

My school does not provide a healthful, local, organic food option at their vendors, aside from grabbing a salad (although this is not organically- or locally-sourced food). I have not asked my school to provide a healthier choice, as I know these options would be prohibitively expensive for my budget, and eating at home is much cheaper.

Pause and Reflect Questions 9.1.1: Which crops appear to have reached the present-day United States first, according to Figure 9-2?

The crops that appear to have entered the United States first are squash, pepper, cassava, cotton, lima bean, maize, potato, and sweet potato.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 9.1.2: What other electronics, in addition to GPS devices, might help a farmer on a very large farm?

Satellite imagery, provided at no cost by the USGS on the Internet, may help farmers measure crop progress. Yield monitors attached to combines allow farmers to determine the precise number of bushels being harvested.

9.2.1: Many restaurants now tell you how many Calories (kilocalories) are in their meals. Does this information influence your choice of meal? Why or why not?

The calorie counts provided by restaurants do influence my choice of meal, as I want to eat the most healthful option possible.

9.2.2: What is your main source of protein?

My main source of protein are beans.

9.3.1: In Figures 9-13 and 9-14, do the agricultural regions match the climate regions more closely in the developed regions of North America and Europe or in the developing regions of Latin America, Africa, and Asia?

The agricultural regions match the climate regions more closely in the developing regions of Latin America, Africa, and Asia.

9.3.3: How would rapid population growth make it difficult to practice shifting cultivation?

Rapid population growth would put pressure on people to utilize fields left abandoned (fallow) for periods as long as 20 years. The practice of moving from one field to another every few years requires more land per person than do other types of agriculture.

9.3.4: What challenges might farmers in East and South Asia face if they wish to adopt farming practices that are less labor intensive than growing wet rice?

Features of the physical landscape and climate may prevent the adoption of less labor intensive farming practices. Limited areas of arable land may also preclude farmers from adopting these alternative farming practices.

9.3.5: The average resident in a developed country consumes around 6 ounces (170 grams) of fish per week. Why might your consumption be higher or lower than the average?

My consumption is lower than the average due to dietary restrictions.

9.3.6: Why might wheat be easier to export than produce from truck farming?

Wheat may be easier to export than produce from truck farming as wheat is not as perishable as produce from truck farming.

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Chapter 9: Food and Agriculture 9.3.7: If the price of wheat dropped to $200 per ton, what would be the maximum distance that the wheat could be profitably shipped?

If wheat dropped to $200 per ton it could only be shipped 8,000 kilometers from farm to market and still be profitable.

9.3.8: What are the two most important ranches animals, according to Figure 9-38?

Cattle and sheep are the two most important ranched animals.

9.4.1: Have you seen loss of farmland near where you live? For what new purpose is the land used?

I have witnessed the loss of farmland near where I live, with the land now being used for residential purposes.

9.4.2: What would be the impact on the green revolution of a decline in energy prices?

A drop in energy prices would allow for the increased operation of farming equipment, as fuel prices would decrease.

9.4.3: According to Figure 9-13, what is the predominant form of agriculture in California?

Mediterranean is the predominant form of agriculture in California.

9.4.4: Does your family avoid foods made with GMO seeds? Why or why not?

I do not avoid foods made with GMO seeds. I believe they serve a valuable place in the global agricultural system, and do not believe they pose health risks.

9.4.5: Why does most consumption of cocaine and heroin occur in developed countries?

Developed countries have more affluence. Many people in affluent countries have disposable income to spend on things that are not necessities.

9.4.6: Why does China appear as a leader in undernourishment in Figure 9-56 but not in Figures 9-57 and 9-58?

China appears as a leader in undernourishment in Figure 9-56 but not in Figures 9-57 and 9-58 because China is the most populous country in the world, and has a high number of undernourished people.

Proportionally, they relatively do not have as high a share of undernourished people, but it is still high.

9.4.7: Does your family go out of its way to get local or organic food? Why or why not?

I do go out of my way to buy organic food, as I believe leading a healthful lifestyle (of which a balanced, healthful diet is a part of) is important.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography

Explore Use Google Earth to see rice growing outside a village in Asia.

Fly to Banaue, Philippines.

Drag to Street View on the balloon marking the location of the village of Banaue.

1. Describe the landscape around the village.

The village is situated in a valley, surrounded by intermittent wooded areas and agricultural fields.

2. According to Figure 9-17, what is the principal form of agriculture in the Philippines?

According to Figure 9-13, the principal form of agriculture in the Philippines is intensive subsistence, wet rice dominant.

Exit ground level view. Zoom in immediately to the north of balloon marking the village.

A series of parallel strips can be seen immediately north of the village.

3. Why would the villagers have created these terraces?

The villagers have created these terraces to maximize the amount of land used for rice cultivation.

Resources Aquaculture Covered in the text on page 360, aquaculture is a growing and sometimes controversial source of the world’s protein. NOAA’s Fisheries Service hosts an informative site on aquaculture in the United States.

The media site is at http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/mediacenter/index.html.

United States Department of Agriculture The USDA has extensive resources online, from environmental issues to rural development. Their main portal is at www.usda.gov/.

Farm Subsidy Database The Environmental Working Group’s Farm Subsidy Database, online at https://farm.ewg.org/, provides resources and references to farm subsidies in every U.S. state as well as summary statistics. It provides a revealing look at how much U.S. taxpayers pay indirectly for their food to be inexpensive in the supermarket.

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Chapter 9: Food and Agriculture Office of the United States Trade Representative The Office of the U.S. Trade Representative serves as a bulldog for American trade policy. The website promotes U.S. trade policy, defending everything from the North American Free Trade Agreement to the Trans-Pacific Partnership at www.ustr.gov/. This site is also relevant to Chapters 10–12.

Connections between Chapters Back to Chapters 4 A number of food items that are consumed in popular culture (Chapter 4) are produced in plantations.

This is fertile grounds for a discussion on the role of popular fads, development, and the agricultural sector in relation to international trade. For example, consider coffee, bananas, shrimp, or out-of-season asparagus, and apples—all are imported to North America.

Chapter 9 introduces the concept of measuring development by measuring the percentage of people working in each sector of the economy. Review this concept upon finishing Chapter 10.

Forward to Chapters 10 and 11 Chapter 10 introduces the concept of measuring development by measuring the percentage of people working in each sector of the economy. Review this concept upon finishing Chapter 10.

The connections between Chapters 9–12 are more obvious as they involve the three sectors of the economy. Agribusiness represents clear connections between agriculture, industry, and services. In fact, subsistence farmers are not connected with the rest of the economy is a critical component of development for LDCs.

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10

Development Learning Outcomes After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to: Learning Outcome 10.1.1:

Understand the Human Development Index.

Learning Outcome 10.1.2:

Identify the HDI standard of living factor.

Learning Outcome 10.1.3:

Identify the HDI education factors.

Learning Outcome 10.1.4:

Identify the HDI health factors.

Learning Outcome 10.2.1:

Describe the U.N.’s measures of inequality.

Learning Outcome 10.2.2:

Describe the U.N.’s measures of gender inequality.

Learning Outcome 10.2.3:

Describe empowerment-related components of gender inequality.

Learning Outcome 10.2.4:

Describe reproductive health elements of the GII.

Learning Outcome 10.2.5:

Compare HDI and GII for selected countries.

Learning Outcome 10.3.1:

Summarize the two paths to development.

Learning Outcome 10.3.2:

Analyze reasons for the triumph of the international trade approach to development.

Learning Outcome 10.3.3:

Identify the main sources of financing development.

Learning Outcome 10.3.4:

Explain alternate strategies for coping with economic downturns.

Learning Outcome 10.4.1:

Explain principles of fair trade.

Learning Outcome 10.4.2:

Describe ways in which differences in development have narrowed or increased.

Chapter Outline Key Issue 1: Why Does Development Vary among Countries?

Countries can be categorized according to their level of development, which is the process of improving the conditions of people through diffusion of knowledge and technology. The development process is continuous, involving never-ending actions to perpetually improve the health and prosperity of the people.

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Chapter 10: Development Introducing Development Countries may be divided into two groups according to their level of development: •

A developed country, also known as a more developed country (MDC) and referred to by the U.N. as a very high developed country, has progressed further along the development continuum.

•

A developing country, also frequently called a less developed country (LDC), has made some progress toward development, though less than the developed countries.

The U.N. classifies developing countries into high, medium, and low developing categories.

Human Development Index The United Nations compares levels of development on an index called the Human Development Index (HDI). The U.N. has computed HDIs for countries annually since 1980.

The highest HDI possible is 1.0, or 100 percent. The HDI considers development to be a function of three factors: a decent standard of living, a long and healthy life, and access to knowledge. Each country gets a score of these three factors, which are then combined into an overall HDI. Development Regions The world is divided by geographers into two developed regions and seven developing regions. Each region has an overall HDI score. The two regions with the lowest HDI scores are sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Some notable exceptions are present in this division of regions, with three other distinctive areas apparent. Japan and South Korea are classified separately rather than included with the rest of East Asia, as their level of development is much higher than that of their neighbors. In the South Pacific, Australia and New Zealand are developed, while the area’s other countries are developing. Due to limited development both under and following communism, the U.N. reclassified Russia from a developed country to a high developing country.

A Decent Standard of Living Accumulating enough wealth for a decent standard of living is essential to development. Geographers have identified ways in which people generate and spend their wealth differently in developed countries compared to those in developing countries.

Income The U.N. measures the standard of living in countries through an index called annual gross national income per capita at purchasing power parity. The gross national income (GNI) is the value of the output of goods and services produced in a country in a year, including money that leaves and enters the country. The purchasing power parity (PPP) is an adjustment made to the GNI to account for differences among countries in the cost of goods. By dividing the GNI by the total population, it is possible to measure the contribution made by the average individual towards generating a country’s wealth in a year. Per capita GNI measures the average (mean) wealth, not the distribution of wealth. Other studies refer to gross domestic product (GDP), which is also the value of the output of goods and services produced in a country in a year. The GDP does not account for money that leaves or enters the country. Per capita GNI (or any other single indicator) cannot measure perfectly the level of a country’s development.

Economic Structure Jobs fall into three categories. Primary sector jobs include activities extracting materials from the Earth through agriculture, mining, fishing, and forestry. Secondary sector jobs process, transform, and assemble raw materials into manufactured products. Tertiary sector jobs involve

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography the provision of goods and services to people in exchange for payment. The share of GNI accounted for by the primary and secondary sector has decreased dramatically in the last century in most developed countries. The tertiary sector accounts for the greatest share of the GNI in developed countries.

Productivity Workers in developed countries are more productive than those in developing countries.

The term productivity means the value of a particular product compared to the amount of labor needed to make it. The value added in manufacturing is the gross value of the product minus the raw materials and energy. Productivity can be measured by the value added per capita. Workers in developed countries produce more with less effort because they have access to more machines, tools, and equipment to perform much of the work.

Access to Knowledge The U.N. considers years of schooling to be the most critical measure of the ability of an individual to gain access to knowledge needed for development. The assumption is that no matter how poor the school, the longer the pupils attend, the more likely they are to learn something. The average person aged 25 or older in a developed country has attended school for 11.5 years. The average person that is aged 25 or older in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa has attended only 4.7 years of schooling. The U.N. also forecasts the number of years an average 5-year-old will spend in school. In developed countries, the U.N. expects that the average 5-year-old will spend an average of 16.3 years in school. The expected average is 9.3 years in sub-Saharan Africa and 10.2 years in South Asia.

The fewer pupils a teacher has, the more likely that each student will receive instruction. The pupil/teacher ratio is the number of enrolled students divided by the number of teachers. The literacy rate is the percentage of a country’s people who can read and write. Students in developing countries are at a disadvantage because most of the textbooks are not published in their native language. Improved education is a major goal of many developing countries, but funds are scarce.

Health and Wealth Good health is as important a measure of development as wealth and knowledge, according to the U.N. A goal of development is to provide the nutrition and medical services needed for people to lead long and healthy lives.

A Long and Healthy Life The health indicator contributing to the HDI is life expectancy. The life expectancy is 80 in developed countries, while life expectancy is 57 in sub-Saharan Africa. People are healthier in developed countries than developing ones. When a person in a developed country gets sick, the country possesses the resources to care for him or her. Longer life spans have led to a higher percentage of older people who have retired and receive public support and a lower percentage of children under age 15 who are too young to work and must also be supported by employed adults. Better health and welfare also allow babies to survive infancy in developed countries.

Consumer Goods Part of the wealth generated in developed countries is used to purchase goods and services. Especially important are goods related to transportation and communication, including motor vehicles, telephones, and computers. These products are accessible to virtually all residents in developed countries and are vital to the economy’s functioning and growth. In contrast, in developing countries, these products do not play a central role in daily life for many people. Most people in developing countries are familiar with vehicles and computers but cannot afford them. Cell phone ownership is

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Chapter 10: Development actually expanding in developing countries, as these devices do not require the large expenditures associated with connecting wires to each individual building.

Key Issue 2: Where Are Inequalities in Development Found?

Unequal and Uneven Development Income, gender, and region are all dimensions that can define inequality within a country. Inequality is also present between countries in the core and periphery of development.

Inequality-Adjusted HDI The Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI) was created by the U.N. to measure the extent of inequality in the world. HDI is modified to account for inequality within a country, producing the IHDI. HDI and IHDI are the same when a country achieves perfect equality. If the IHDI is lower than the HDI, the country has some inequality; the greater the difference between the two measures, the greater the inequality. The highest levels of inequality are seen in subSaharan Africa and South Asia.

Inequality within Developing Countries Brazil and Turkey are among the world’s largest and most populous countries. At the national scale, the two countries fall somewhere near the middle in terms of HDI. Among the 186 countries with HDI scores, Turkey ranks 69th and Brazil ranks 79th. The two countries have similar HDI scores, but Brazil has a lower IHDI, revealing more inequality in Turkey.

Inequality is also evident in the differences in GNI per capita among states or provinces within the countries. In Turkey, wealth is concentrated in the western part of the country, closest to Europe. In the east, where Kurdish people are clustered, wealth is low.

Inequality within Developed Countries Regional differences can be seen within developed countries by examining variations in GNI per capita. These differences are less extreme than in developing countries.

For instance, in the United States, the GNI per capita is 122 percent of the national average in the wealthiest region (New England), and 90 percent of the national average in the poorest region (Southeast). Since 1980, inequality has grown in developed countries, including the United States and U.K. Gender Inequality A country’s overall level of development can mask inequalities in the status of men and women. The U.N. uses two indices to measure gender inequality: the Gender Inequality Index (GII) and the Gender-related Development Index (GDI). At best, women have achieved near-equality with men in some countries, but in other countries the level of development for women lags far behind the level for men. It is the belief of the U.N. that inequality between men and women is a major factor that prevents a country from achieving a higher level of development.

Gender-Related Development Index The Gender-related Development Index (GDI) measures the gender gap in the level of achievement for the three dimensions of the Human Development Index.

Countries are ranked based on their deviation from gender parity in the three factors of the HDI. If females and males had exactly the same HDI scores, the GDI would be 1.000. The lowest scores are in South Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, Southwest Asia, and North Africa.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Gender Inequality Index The UN created the Gender Inequality Index (GII) to measure the extent of each country’s gender inequality. The GII combines multiple measures: reproductive health, empowerment, and the labor market. A score of 0 would indicate that men and women fare equally, and a score of 1.0 would indicate that women fare as poorly as possible in all measures. The higher the GII, the greater the inequality between men and women. The GII is higher in developing countries than developed ones.

GII over Time The U.N. has discovered that gender inequality has declined since the 1990s in all but 4 of 138 countries for which time-series data are available. The greatest improvement has been in Southwest Asia and North Africa. The improvement in gender inequality has been relatively modest in the United States. The United States is ranked 47th in GII, while it also ranks 5th in HDI. This discrepancy may be accounted for by the relatively high birth rate among teenage women and a higher mortality rate among women during childbirth, and a low percentage of women in the national legislature relative to other countries with high HDI. Gender Empowerment and Employment The GII combines three sets of measures to come up with a composite score for gender inequality: empowerment, employment, and reproductive health.

Empowerment In the context of gender inequality, empowerment refers to the ability of women to achieve economic and political power. The empowerment dimension of GII is measured by two indicators: the percentage of seats held by women in the national legislature and the percentage of women who have completed high school.

National Legislature No specific gender-related skills are required to be elected as a representative and to serve effectively. Despite this, fewer women than men hold positions of political power in both developing and developed countries. Rwanda is the only country with a majority of women in its national parliament or congress. The highest percentages are in Europe, with women constituting roughly onequarter of the members of national parliaments. The lowest rates are in Southwest Asia and North Africa.

Secondary School Worldwide, 54 percent of women have completed some secondary school, compared to 64 percent of men. In North America, girls are more likely than boys to complete some high school, and (slightly) more boys than girls are expected to complete some high school in Europe. Boys are much more likely than girls to be high school graduates in developing countries, where for every 10 boys who attend high school, only 6 girls attend as well. In South Asia, this gap is particularly high.

Labor Force The female labor force participation rate is the percentage of women holding full-time jobs outside the home. Globally, 51 percent of women work outside the home, compared to 77 percent of men. Generally, women in developed countries are more likely than women in developing countries to hold full-time jobs outside the home. South Asia, Southwest Asia, and North Africa have substantial gaps between male and female labor participation, while East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa have smaller gaps.

Reproductive Health Poor reproductive health is a major contributor to gender inequality around the world.

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Chapter 10: Development Reproductive Health The reproductive health factor of the GII is based on two indicators: •

The maternal mortality rate is the number of women who die giving birth per 100,000 births.

The ratio is 16 deaths of mothers per 100,000 live births in developed countries and 171 in developing countries.

•

The adolescent fertility rate is the number of births per 1,000 women ages 15 to 19. The rate in developed countries is 19 births per 1,000 women ages 15 to 19, while the rate is 53 in developing countries. The lowest teenage pregnancy rate is in Europe where it is below 10 per 1,000. In sub-Saharan Africa the teenage pregnancy rate is 110.

The U.N. includes reproductive health as a contributor to GII because in countries where effective control of reproduction is universal, women have fewer children, and maternal and child health is improved.

Women in developing countries are more likely than women in developed countries to die in childbirth and to give birth as teenagers. Countries that provide women a full range of reproductive health options have a very low total fertility rate.

Core and Periphery The relationship between developed and developing countries is often described as a north-south split because most of the developed counties are north of the equator, while many developing countries are south. The U.S. social scientist Immanuel Wallerstein identified the relationship between developed and developing countries as one of “core” and “periphery.” In a progressively unified world economy, developed countries constitute an inner core area, while developing countries occupy peripheral locations. Developing countries in the periphery have less access to the world centers of consumption, communications, wealth, and power, which are concentrated in the core areas. Semiperiphery countries are those countries that are either intermediate in level of economic development or situated close to both core and periphery regions.

HDI and Gender Equality Typically, development analysts anticipate that a more developed country will have less gender inequality than a developing country.

Key Issue 3: Why Do Countries Face Challenges to Development?

Developing countries are confronted with two fundamental obstacles in attempting to stimulate more rapid development: •

Adopting policies that successfully promote development.

•

Finding funds to pay for development.

Two Paths to Development Developing countries can choose one of two models to promote development: self-sufficiency or international trade.

Self-Sufficiency Path In the self-sufficiency model, countries encourage domestic production of goods, discourage foreign ownership of business and resources, and protect their businesses from international competition. Key elements of the self-sufficiency path to development include the following:

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography •

Barriers limit the import of goofs from other places (using tariffs or quotas).

•

Fledging businesses are nursed to success by being isolated from competition with large international corporations.

•

Investment is spread as uniformly as possible across all sectors of a country’s economy and in all regions.

•

Incomes in the countryside keep pace with those in the city, and reducing poverty takes precedence over encouraging a few people to become wealthy consumers.

Case Study: India For several decades after it gained independence from Britain in 1947, India was a leading example of the self-sufficiency model. Limiting foreign companies from importing into India and exercising strong control over companies operating in India were policies followed in this model by India.

International Trade Path International trade became more popular beginning in the late twentieth century. The sale of raw materials, food, or manufactured products in the world market brings funds into the country than can be used to finance development.

Rostow Model This approach is idealized in W.W. Rostow’s five-stage model, where countries fit into one of the five following stages: traditional society; preconditions for takeoff; takeoff; drive to maturity; age of mass consumption.

International Trade Examples Rostow’s model appears to have been followed by the four Asian dragons (South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, and Hong Kong) and petroleum-rich Arabian Peninsula states (Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates).

World Trade The international trade approach has been widely adopted over the past decades, with many of the self-sufficiency countries adopting the alternative model by the 1990s.

International Trade Triumphs Trade grew more rapidly than wealth (as measured by GDP) during the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, reflecting the prominence of the international trade model in developing countries. Longtime advocates of the self-sufficiency approach converted to international trade during the 1990s. Even India dismantled its formidable collection of barriers to international trade.

Countries like India converted from self-sufficiency to international trade because of overwhelming evidence at the time that international trade better promoted development. Worldwide, GNI increased more than 4 percent annually in countries strongly oriented towards international trade compared with less than 1 percent in countries strongly oriented toward self-sufficiency.

World Trade Organization The World Trade Organization (WTO) works to reduce barriers to international trade in two principal ways. First, through the WTO, countries negotiate reduction or the elimination of international trade restrictions on manufactured goods, such as government subsidies for exports, quotas for imports, and tariffs on both imports and exports. The WTO also promotes international trade by enforcing agreements. Critics of the WTO maintain that the decisions made behind closed doors increase the bottom lines of large corporations at the expense of those suffering from

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Chapter 10: Development poverty. Conservative critics charge that the WTO undermines the power and sovereignty of individual countries because it can order changes in taxes and law that it deems unfair trading practices.

Financing Development Developing countries do not have access to the funds necessary to fund development, so they obtain financial support from developed countries. Finance comes from two main sources: direct investment by transnational corporations and loans from banks and international organizations.

Foreign Direct Investment An investment made by a foreign company in the economy of another country is known as foreign direct investment (FDI). Foreign direct investment grew rapidly during the 1990s, from $130 billion in 1990 and $1.5 trillion in 2000 to $16.4 trillion in 2013. In 2013, nearly onethird all FDI destined for developing countries went to China and another one-third went to Brazil, Russia, Mexico, and Singapore. The major sources of FDI are transnational corporations that invest and operate in countries other than which the company headquarters are located.

Loans Two U.N. agencies, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank, provide loans developing countries for development. The IMF and World Bank were conceived at a 1944 United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference to promote economic development and stability after the devastation of World War II and to avoid a repetition of the disastrous economic policies contributing to the Great Depression in the 1930s. Developing countries borrow money to build new infrastructure, such as hydroelectric dams, electric transmission lines, flood-protection systems, water supplies, roads, and hotels. The theory is that new infrastructure will make conditions more favorable for domestic and foreign businesses to open or expand. Some countries have been unable to repay the interest on their loans, let alone the principal. Debt actually exceeds annual income in a number of countries.

Development Challenges During Hard Times The effects of the 2008 economic downturn are still felt today, and have made it difficult for many countries to make progress in development. Countries in Southern Europe have been particularly affected.

Stimulus of Austerity? Stimulus and austerity strategies as a solution for fighting economic downturns have deeply divided political leaders and independent analysts. Advocates of stimulus contend that during a downturn, governments should spend more money than they collect in taxes. Governments should stimulate the economy by putting people to work building bridges and other needed infrastructure projects. Advocates of austerity contend that government should sharply reduce taxes so that people and businesses can revive the economy by spending their tax savings. Governments should also sharply reduce spending on public programs in order to keep the debt from growing and hampering the economy in the future.

Structural Adjustment Programs If a country has taken out loans and is unable to pay them off, the IMF, World Bank, and economically healthy developed countries will often compel these countries to adopt austerity programs in exchange for debt forgiveness. Austerity is imposed through ha policy framework paper (PFP) that outlines a structural adjustment program. A structural adjustment program contains economic “reforms” or “adjustments,” such as economic goals, strategies for achieving the objectives, and external financing requirements. These strategies may include spending only what a

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography government can afford, or directing benefits to the poor, among others. Detractors of structural adjustment programs claim that poverty worsens under these programs, by placing priority on reducing government spending and inflation. These changes could result in cuts in health, education, and social services that help the poor or higher unemployment rates.

Europe’s Sovereign Debt Crisis Economic hardships have caused doubts to emerge regarding Europe’s capacity to continue supporting the international trade development path. While many European countries expected a more robust economy upon adoption of the euro as a common currency in 1999, the economic downturn of the early twenty-first century revealed that weaker economies in the union would have to be kept afloat by wealthier member nations. This relationship is most evident between Germany and Greece.

Development for Microfinance An alternative source of loans for would-be business owners in developing countries is microfinance. Microfinance is the provision of a small loan to individuals and small businesses that are unable to get a loan from commercial banks. The Grameen Bank, established in Bangladesh in 1977, is a prominent example of microfinance. The Grameen Bank specializes in making loans to women, who make up three-quarters of the borrowers. These women are often mothers and the sole wage earners in the home.

Key Issue 4: Why Are Countries Making Progress in Development?

Fair trade has been proposed as an alternative to the international trade model of development that promotes sustainability. Fair trade is international trade that provides greater equity to workers, small businesses, and consumers. Fair trade products are made and traded according to standards that protect workers and small businesses in developing countries.

Fair Trade Standards The fair trade movement concentrates primarily on exports from developing countries to developed countries. Sustainability is promoted by offering better trading and working conditions for producers and workers in developing countries. Fair trade organizations, supported by consumers, raise awareness of deficiencies in conventional international production and trade and the role of fair trader in improving economic, social, and environmental conditions for producers and workers.

Three sets of standards distinguish fair trade. One set applies to producers, a second set to workers on farms and in factories, and a third set to consumers.

Fair Trade for Producers Fair trade is a set of business practices designed to promote a number of economic, social, and environmental goals. These include: •

Raising the incomes of small-scale farmers and artisans by eliminating some of the intermediaries.

•

Distributing the profits and risks associated with production and sale of goods more fairly among producers, distributors, retailers, and financiers.

•

Increasing the entrepreneurial and management skills of the producers.

•

Promoting safe and sustainable farming methods as well as working conditions, such as by prohibiting the use of dangerous pesticides and herbicides and by promoting the production of certified organic crops.

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Chapter 10: Development Fair Trade for Workers Fair trade regarding workers’ rights requires the following: •

Workers must be paid fair wages – at least enough to cover food, shelter, education, health care, and other basic needs.

•

Workers must be permitted to organize a union and to have the right to collective bargaining.

•

Workers must be protected by high environmental and safety standards.

Fair Trade for Consumers Most fair trader products are food. Fair trade products reach consumers primarily through cooperatively owned groceries. A cooperative store is a member-owned, membergoverned business that operates for the benefit of its members according to common principles agreed upon by the international cooperative community. The consumer-owned cooperative movement originated in the nineteenth century, as a result of poor working conditions and inequalities during the Industrial Revolution.

Measuring Progress Since the U.N. began measuring HDI in 1980, both developed and developing regions have made progress in the HDI, as well as the variable contributing to the HDI. Progress varies among the three variables contributing to the HDI, though.

Indicators of Progress The gap in HDI between developed and developing countries has narrowed since 1980, although HDI has increased more rapidly in developing regions than in developed ones. GNI per capita has increased much more rapidly in developed countries than in developing countries since 1980.

Since 1980, mean years of education has increased by around the same number in developed and developing countries. Life expectancy has increased by around the same number of years in developed and developing countries in the same time period.

Sustainable Development Goals To reduce disparities between developed and developing countries, the 193 members of the U.N. adopted 17 Sustainable Development Goals in 2015. All U.N. members agreed to achieve these goals by 2030. The Sustainable Development Goals replaced eight Millennium Development Goals adopted in 2002 with the goal of achieving them by 2015.

Introducing the Chapter Development captures the imagination of many students in a way that some other topics in economic geography do not. The great puzzle of why so many states continue to be poor despite many honest efforts to improve the lives of their people remains to be solved.

The chapter starts with a discussion of where less developed and more developed countries are distributed and the indicators of development. Some students may protest that many of the indicators are more or less connected with wealth, and that people may be poor and uneducated but still happy. Ask whether happiness can be measured between cultures and countries. Someone may volunteer Bhutan, which references the “gross national happiness” of its citizens.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Icebreaker: Vacation Start a discussion with the class about “where would you like to go on vacation.” Decide on a popular less-developed destination and discuss what it is that makes it an attractive destination. Create a list of those amenities, which are likely to include an agreeable climate, scenery, and low prices for food and lodging. Now ask the class to consider the following questions: •

Are the people who live in this place year-round fortunate to live at such a desirable destination?

•

What do the local people depend on for income? Does tourism play a role?

•

What do the people in this country, who do not live in a tourist area, do for work?

•

Can any of these people, who wish to, come to our country on a vacation? Why not? Is that fair?

Challenges to Comprehension Students may ask whether there are any countries that are “medium developed” instead of simply “less” and “more.” Instead of answering this question directly, consider asking your students to look at the HDI and make up their own minds. Note that some development agencies do reference low, medium, and high levels of development. Also, suggest that if there were three categories, they might be named something else, such as “more developed”, “less developed”, and “more less developed.” Of course, the status of Russia raises the question of whether a country can become less developed (Russia’s HDI is the same as Latin America).

Former Soviet Countries The Human Development Index (HDI) for Russia and Latin America are equal. Thus, students want to know, how can one be considered less developed and the other more developed?

The best answer is probably that Russia has seen its level of development drop from a higher level, whereas Latin America’s HDI has been increasing.

The main statistic of distinction between these regions is that Russia is in the late stage 4 of the demographic transition, with declining populations, while Latin America as a region is in stage 3, with population growth still creating issues for urban areas, job growth, the economy, and the environment.

Assignments Review/ Reflection Questions •

If you were to create an index of development, what indicators would you use, and why? How would you weigh each indicator? Could your index be used around the world, or would it be mostly relevant to our society?

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Chapter 10: Development •

The HDI is used to measure development at a whole-country level. Is it adequate to measure development within a country? Why or why not? (Another way of thinking about this: Are there minority groups that may be “glossed over” by the HDI?)

•

The GDI is used as a way of ranking development scores to compare the development of women compared to men in society. However, looking at the Gender Development Index rankings might imply that those countries at the top of the list have gender equality. Discuss whether this is the case or not.

•

Discuss whether our economy requires other countries to remain underdeveloped. That is, could we maintain our standard of living if the rest of the world had the same level of development, and thus presumably the same wages and costs of living? What does this mean for the future?

Assignments: Two Dollars per Day An estimated 2.8 billion of the world’s population subsists on less than U.S. $2 per day.

Research and write a four-to-five page descriptive essay (approximately 1200 words) describing in detail what your life on this income ($700 per year) would be like. Make sure to include: •

What do you do for work? Describe your daily routine.

•

What happens when you become sick or injured?

•

What are your most pressing concerns?

•

What are the hopes for the future for yourself and your family?

Thinking Geographically 10.1: The United Nations held the Human Development Data Visualization Competition in 2015.

Participants were encouraged to create innovative ways to depict HDI data. The winter was the “Human Development Tree” created by Jurjen Verhagen, from the Netherlands (Figure 10-53). To view the “Human Development Tree” and the other eight finalists, enter Human Development Data Visualization Competition in your search engine, or go to hdrdata.tumblr.com. Which visualization do you think is the most effective? Is the winning visualization effective? Why? I like the “Human Development Index Change and Regime” and the winner, “Human Development Tree.” I think the winner is the most effective, as it is the visually least-busy, while still effectively communicating information to the audience.

10.2: Based on the world maps included in Key Issue 2, which two of the nine world regions appear to have the highest levels of inequality? Do these two regions have high or low HDIs? Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia appear to have the highest level of inequality. They also have low HDIs.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 10.3: What factors might account for the high levels of inequality and the distinctive HDIs in these two regions?

Gender inequality may play a major role in the high levels of inequality and the distinctive HDIs in these two regions.

10.4: In Figure 10-54, what might be the reaction of the rickshaw driver to sharing the road with the BMW? What might be the reaction of the BMW driver to sharing the road with the rickshaw?

I would imagine that the rickshaw driver would resent the driver of the BMW, as the driver of the BMW clearly has more wealth than the rickshaw driver. It could be considered disposable wealth as well, as BMWs operate just as well as a cheaper vehicle. The BMW driver may view the rickshaw driver as an annoyance, as they may be taking up space on the road.

10.5: The Trans-Kalahari Corridor consists of several new roads and rail lines connecting Namibia with Botswana and South Africa. In what condition does the road appear?

The road appears to be in very good condition. It looks as if it could be brand new.

10.6: What important elements of development can be seen in Figure 10-55, in addition to the road? Why would it be important for Namibia to have connections with South Africa?

The only other element of development I can view is the semi-truck driving along the road. Namibia’s connection with South Africa would be beneficial to both countries, as increased mutual trade could engender positive economic growth for both. Aid may be able to be transported to Namibia from the more prosperous South Africa along these roadways, as well.

10.7: As a very poor country, Namibia lack the resources to build this infrastructure, so how do you think it got built?

Foreign direct investment probably played a major role in the construction of this highway.

10.8: The U.N. lets you change the numbers used to calculate the HDI to see the impact on a country’s level of development. Go to hdr.undp.org/ and search for the Calculating the Indices using Excel tool.

Select the HDI worksheet. Country A is an example of a high developing country. The U.N.’s cutoff for a developed country is 0.80. Change one or more of the four data columns until you get an HDI above 0.80.10.9: Which of the four columns needs to change the most in order for Country A to be reclassified from developing to developed? Which of the four columns needs to change the most to reclassify Country D as developed?

Life expectancy is the column that needs to be changed the most for both countries to be reclassified as developed.

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Chapter 10: Development

Pause and Reflect Questions 10.1.1: Which developing regions appear to have relatively high diversity in the HDIs of individual countries?

Latin America and East Asia appear to have the most diversity in the HDIs of individual countries.

10.1.2: Figure 9-3 shows the percentage of workers engaged in agriculture. Does a country with a high percentage of agricultural workers, as shown in Figure 9-3, typically have a high HDI or low HDI? Countries with a high percentage of agricultural workers typically have a low HDI. 10.1.3: The United States has a lower pupil/teacher ratio than Canada. Does that mean that the pupil/teacher ratio in the United States is more favorable or less favorable than in Canada?

The pupil/teacher ratio in the United States is more favorable than in Canada, where it is higher.

10.1.4: In addition to cell phones, what other electronic devices might diffuse rapidly to developing countries because of low cost of equipment and lack of need for costly infrastructure?

Radios are likely to diffuse rapid to developing countries, if they haven’t already. Radios may play a valuable role in relaying information to isolated areas (especially shortwave radios).

10.2.1: In the United States, the HDI is .914 and the IHDI is .755. In Canada, the HDI is .902 and the IHDI is .833. Which country has greater inequality?

Lower IHDI scores indicate higher inequality, so the United States has greater inequality compared to Canada.

10.2.2: The GII is .262 in the United States and .136 in Canada. Which country has greater gender inequality?

The United States has higher gender inequality, as a higher GII score indicates higher gender inequality.

10.2.3: What is the gender ratio on the governing body of your local community?

Our city council is 100 percent male.

10.2.4: What combination of development features might be making several countries in Latin America and Asia be considered semi-periphery instead of periphery?

Relationships between Latin America and North America, and Asia with Japan and Australia and New Zealand, may have impacted their classification as semi-periphery instead of periphery.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 10.2.5: In summary, how close is the relationship between development and gender inequality?

There is an inverse relationship between development and gender inequality, as can be seen in Figure 10-29.

10.3.1: Many countries that have adopted the international trade model are relatively small states (see Chapter 8). Why might a nation’s size be a factor in the early adoption of the international trade path?

A small nation might not have access to the diversity of natural resources a large nation would, meaning that they would be compelled to trade with other countries to meet local demand for goods.

10.3.2: Top WTO officials meet every two years in a so-called ministerial conference. Where was the most recent conference held? Use the Internet to search for “WTO ministerial conference” to see if there were protests at the conference.

The most recent WTO ministerial conference was in Nairobi, Kenya in 2015. There were protests at the event.

10.3.3: Why might Apple, Microsoft, and Alphabet rank as three of the world’s largest transnational corporations?

These companies might rank as three of the world’s largest transnational corporations because they have among the highest revenues of any corporation, and operate in many nations across the world.

10.3.4: Do the terms of a structural adjustment program seem harsh for a country or fair? Why? They seem harsh to me. To expect a developing country to progress towards greater development under the onerous terms usually associated with structural adjustment programs is quite ridiculous. These programs often hurt the most vulnerable in a population the most. Loan forgiveness, with not stipulations, should be implemented for countries that are financially disadvantaged.

10.4.1: Are you aware of the availability of fair trade products in your community? Is there a co-op in your community?

I am aware of the availability of fair trade products in my community. I can only find free trade coffee in my community. There is not a co-op in my community.

10.4.2: Which Sustainable Development Goals appear to be making the most limited progress? Why might that be the case?

Number 13, urging action to be taken against climate change, seems to have made the most limited progress. A worldwide consensus laying out concrete, legally-binding assurances for every nation to cut carbon emissions must be achieved for any true progress to be made on the issue.

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Chapter 10: Development

Explore In some years, Niger has the lowest HDI of any country.

Fly to Arlit, Niger.

1. Nearly the entire landscape is a desert. For a city to exist in the desert, it needs water. Where is Arlit’s water being stored?

It appears as if Arlit’s water is being stored in a series of cisterns.

Zoom in to around 3,000 feet eye alt.

2. What is the material of the roads and open space? Do you see any grass?

The roads and open space are all desert. I don’t see any grass.

3. Set imagery date to 2004. What differences do you see in 2004 and 2014? In which direction has the town grown most rapidly?

The town has grown a lot, as can be seen by the increasing urbanization in the area. The town has grown most rapidly in the northerly direction.

Zoom out to around 45,000 feet eye alt.

Niger is one of the world’s leading sources of uranium. The reason for Arlit’s existence is the uranium mine at the top of the image.

Click Roads, center the image on the uranium mine, and zoom in to 32,000 feet eye alt.

4. How might the uranium mine affect Arlit’s level of development in transportation, income, employment, and environmental quality?

The uranium mine probably led to greater development of roads and the international airport, along with higher incomes and higher rates of employment in comparison to other areas in Niger. However, I imagine that the environment surrounding Arlit has degraded as a result of the uranium mining activity.

Resources United Nations Development Program Online at www.undp.org/, the U.N. Development Program’s site contains reams of information about development, including the annually themed Human Development Report.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Transparency International Some critiques of development charge that corruption in government plays a role in hindering development. Students can explore this through the reporting of Transparency International (www.transparency.org), a corruption monitoring and reporting organization operating around the world.

Life and Debt The 2001 film by Stephanie Black presents the case against the IMF’s structural adjustment policies in Jamaica. The theme of the film echoes the introductory paragraphs of the chapter, contrasting the tourist experience with the lives of everyday Jamaicans in poverty.

Extremely popular with students, it features interviews with then deputy director of the IMF and the former prime minister of Jamaica. The film serves as an excellent connection to Chapter 9 because it raises the issue of farm subsidies in the developed world.

Bhutan: The Last Place There is a 2002 Frontline World documentary on the arrival of satellite TV to Bhutan, a mountain kingdom which did not have a television until 1999.

Orville Schell comments of the Bhutanese conception of “gross national happiness” and the effects of TV in his essay at http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/bhutan/ United States Agency for International Development (USAID) This is a clearinghouse of information on U.S. international development, including current projects, reports, and the agency’s policy priorities and standards. It is online at www.usaid.gov/.

Connections between Chapters Back to Chapters 2 and 9 Instead of relying on the tenuous connection to Chapter 8, refer to Chapter 2. While many will have forgotten by now, ask what connection there is between countries in stage 2 of the demographic transition and their level of development . . . some lights should go on! A natural transition from Chapter 9 is suggested by the discussion in Key Issue 1 of measuring the division of labor by economic sector. This idea that the percentage of a country’s labor force in each sector of the economy can serve as an indicator of development, prepares students to learn about each sector. The tremendous difference between the least developed countries and developed countries in agriculture is particularly relevant.

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Industry and Energy

11

Learning Outcomes After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to: Learning Outcome 11.1.1:

Understand the causes of the Industrial Revolution.

Learning Outcome 11.2.1:

Describe the locations of the three principal industrial regions.

Learning Outcome 11.2.1:

Identify the two types of situation factors.

Learning Outcome 11.2.2:

Explain why some industries locate near markets.

Learning Outcome 11.2.3:

Describe how the optimal location for steel production has changed.

Learning Outcome 11.2.4:

Explain why industries use different modes of transportation.

Learning Outcome 11.2.5:

Understand the three types of site factors.

Learning Outcome 11.2.6:

Explain the distribution of clothing production.

Learning Outcome 11.3.1:

Describe the distribution of production of the three fossil fuels.

Learning Outcome 11.3.2:

Explain the principal sources of demand for fossil fuels.

Learning Outcome 11.3.3:

Understand the distinctive distributions of reserves of the three fossil fuels.

Learning Outcome 11.3.4:

Understand changing patterns of oil trade and demand.

Learning Outcome 11.3.5:

Describe the distribution of nuclear energy and challenges in using it.

Learning Outcome 11.3.6:

Identify alternative sources of energy and challenges to using them.

Learning Outcome 11.3.7:

Compare passive and active solar energy.

Learning Outcome 11.3.8:

Describe causes and effects of air pollution at global, regional, and local scales.

Learning Outcome 11.3.9:

Compare and contrast point and nonpoint sources of water pollution.

Learning Outcome 11.3.10:

Describe principal strategies for reducing solid waste pollution.

Learning Outcome 11.4.1:

Explain reasons for the emergence of new concentration of industries.

Learning Outcome 11.4.2:

Explain reasons for changing distribution of industry in developed regions.

Learning Outcome 11.4.3:

Understand the attraction of locations with skilled labor and those with unskilled labor.

Learning Outcome 11.4.4:

Understand the concepts of recycling and remanufacturing.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography

Chapter Outline Key Issue 1: Where Is Industry Distributed?

Introducing Industry and Energy The hearth of modern industry – meaning the manufacturing of goods in a factory – was in northern England and southern England during the second half of the eighteenth century. From these two locations, industry diffused to Europe and to North America in the nineteenth century and to other regions in the twentieth century.

Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution was a series of improvements in industrial technology that transformed the process of manufacturing goods. Prior to the Industrial Revolution, people made household tools and agricultural equipment in their own homes or obtained them in the local village.

Home-based manufacturing was known as the cottage industry system.

Several inventions transformed the way in which goods were manufactured, beginning with the steam engine. The revolution in industrial technology created an unprecedented expansion in productivity, resulting in substantially higher standards of living. The Industrial Revolution resulted in new social, economic, and political inventions, not just traditional ones. The changes involved a gradual diffusion of new ideas and techniques over decades rather than an instantaneous revolution. Among the first industries impacted by the Industrial Revolution were iron, transportation, textiles, chemicals, and food processing.

Fossil Fuels Historically, people relied primarily on power supplied by themselves or by animals, known as animate power. Supplementing animal power was energy flowing from water and burning biomass fuel, which is fuel derived from plant material and animal waste. Biomass remains an important sources of fuel in some developing countries, by during the past 200 years, developed countries have converted primarily to energy from fossil fuels. A fossil fuel is an energy source formed from the residue of plants and animals buried millions of years ago. As sediment accumulated over these remains, intense pressure and chemical reactions slowly converted them into fossil fuels that are used today. Five-sixths of the world’s energy needs are supplied by three fossil fuels: coal, petroleum, and natural gas.

Industrial Regions Industry is concentrated in Europe, North America, and East Asia. European industrial areas tend to be located in regions with abundant energy, raw materials such as iron ore, and labor concentrations. North American industrial areas are located in a band from the Great Lakes to the East Coast and the California Coast. East Asia’s industrial areas are in China along the coast and in Japan.

Key Issue 2: Why Are Situation and Site Factors Important?

Geographers try to explain why one location may be more profitable for a factory than others. A company typically faces two costs centered around geography: •

Situation factors involve transporting materials to and from a factory. A firm seeks a location that minimizes the cost of transporting inputs to the factory and finished goods to consumers.

•

Site factors result from the unique characteristics of a location. These labor, capital, and land.

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Chapter 11: Industry and Energy Situation Factors: Proximity to Inputs Manufacturers purchase from suppliers of inputs, such as minerals, materials, energy, machinery, and supporting services. They sell to companies and individuals who purchase the products. The farther a product is transported, the higher the cost, so a manufacturer tries to locate its factory as close as possible to its inputs and markets. The optimal plant location is as close as possible to inputs if the cost of transporting raw materials to the factory is greater than the cost of transporting the product to consumers. The optimal plant location is as close as possible to the customer if the cost of transporting raw materials to the factory is less than the cost of transporting the product to consumers.

Mineral Resources Minerals are particularly important inputs for many industries. Minerals are either nonmetallic or metallic. In weight, more than 90 percent of minerals that humans use are nonmetallic.

Building stones, gemstones, and fertilizers are examples of nonmetallic minerals that humans commonly use. Metallic minerals have properties that are especially valuable for fashioning machinery, vehicles, and other essential elements of contemporary society. Many metals are capable of combining with other metals to form alloys with distinctive properties important for industry. A ferrous alloy contains iron and a nonferrous one does not. Iron is extracted from iron ore, by far the world’s most widely used ore.

Important metals used to make ferrous alloys include chromium, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, tin, titanium, and tungsten. Important metals used to manufacture products that don’t contain iron and steel include aluminum, copper, lead, lithium, magnesium, zinc, precious metals, and rare earth metals.

Proximity to Inputs: Copper Industry Copper production involves several steps. Mining copper ore is a bulk-reducing industry because the heavy, bulky ore that is extracted from the mines is mostly waste.

The second step in copper production is the concentration mills that grind the ore into fine particles that produce copper. Copper smelters then remove more impurities. The purified copper produced by smelters is treated at refineries to produce copper cathodes, about 99.99 percent pure copper. Most refineries are located near smelters. Copper that is ready for use in other products is produced in foundries. As a bulk reducing industry, copper concentration mills and smelters are built near the mines to minimize transportation costs. Since so much waste has already been disposed of, proximity to the mines is a less critical factor in determining the location of the foundries.

Situation Factors: Proximity to Markets For many firms, the optimal location is close to customers.

Proximity to markets is a critical locational factor for three types of industries: bulk-gaining industries, single-market manufacturers, and perishable-products companies.

Bulk-Gaining Industries A bulk-gaining industry makes something that gains volume or weight during production. To minimize transport costs, a bulk-gaining industry needs to locate near where the product is sold. A prominent example of a bulk gaining industry is the fabrication of parts and machinery from steel and other metals. For example, steelmakers have traditionally located near raw materials; steel fabricators have traditionally located near the markets. Beverage bottlers also locate near large markets to cut down on the cost of shipping.

Single-Market Manufacturers A single-market manufacturer is a specialized manufacturer with only one or two customers. The optimal location for these factories is often close proximity to the customers.

An example of a single-market manufacturer is a producer of buttons, zippers, clips, pins, or other specialized components attached to clothing. The makers of parts for motor vehicles are another example of specialized manufacturers with only one or two customers.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Perishable-Products Companies To deliver their products to consumers as rapidly as possible, perishable-product industries must be located near their markets. Because few people want stale bread or sour milk, food producers such as bakers and milk bottlers must locate near their customers to assure rapid delivery. The daily newspaper is an example of a product other than food that is highly perishable because it contains dated information. Newspaper publishers must locate near the markets to minimize transportation costs. People demand their newspaper as soon after it’s printing as possible.

Motor Vehicle Production and Sales The motor vehicle is a noted example of a fabricated metal product that is likely to be built near its market. Around 90 million new vehicles are sold every year worldwide.

China accounts for 27 percent of those sales, other Asian countries 22 percent, North America 23 percent, and Europe 17 percent. China and the rest of Asia each have 26 percent of world production, and Europe and North America each have 19 percent. Most of the vehicles that are produced in these regions are sold in their respective markets.

Changing Situation Factors: Steel The two principal inputs in steel production are iron ore and coal.

The majority of steel was produced at large integrated mill complexes. They processed iron ore, converted coal into coke, converted the iron into steel, and formed the steel into sheets, beams, rods, or other shapes.

Changing Distribution of U.S. Steel Because of the need for large quantities of bulky, heavy iron ore and coal, steelmaking traditionally clustered near sources of the two key raw materials. Within the United States, the distribution of steel production has changed several times because of changing inputs. As sources and importance of these inputs changed, so did the optimal location for steel production within the United States. The increasing importance of proximity to markets is demonstrated by the recent growth of steel minimills. Rather than iron ore and coal, the main input into minimill production is scrap metal. Minimills are less expensive to operate then traditional steel mills and they can locate near their markets because their main input—scrap metal—is widely available. World steel production is declining in developed countries and increasing in developing countries. Overall world steel production doubled between 1980 and 2013, with the biggest increase in production taking place in China.

Truck, Train, Ship, or Plane? Inputs and products are transported in one of four ways: via ship, rail, truck, or air. Shipping costs are variable depending on the mode of transport used. The farther a product is transported, the lower the cost per unit distance. Longer-distance transportation is cheaper per unit distance in part because firms must pay workers to load goods on and off vehicles, whether the material travels 10 kilometers or 10,000. The cost per kilometer decreases at variable rates for each of the four modes because of the loading and unloading expenses differ for each mode: •

Trucks are primarily used for short-distance delivery because they can be loaded and unloaded quickly and at low costs.

•

Trains are often used to ship to destinations that take longer than one day to reach, such as between the East and West coasts of the United States. Loading trains takes longer than loading trucks, but once under way, trains aren’t required to make daily rest stops like trucks.

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Chapter 11: Industry and Energy •

Ships are attractive for transport over very long distances because the cost per kilometer is very low. Ships are slower than land-based transportation, but unlike trains or trucks, they can cross oceans.

•

Airplanes are most expensive for all distances, and are usually reserved for expedited delivery of small-bulk, high-value packages.

Break-of-Bulk Points Mixed modes of transportation are often used. Industries which use a number of different shipping modes tend to locate at break-of-bulk points, which is a location where transfer among transportation modes is possible. Important break-of-bulk points include seaports and airports.

Containerization has facilitated transfer of packages between modes. Containers may be packed into a rail car, transferred quickly to a container ship to cross the ocean and unloaded into trucks at the other end.

Large ships have been specially built to accommodate large numbers of rectangular boxlike containers.

Regardless of transportation mode, costs increase each time inputs or products are transferred from one mode to another. For example, workers must unload goods from a truck and then reload them onto a plane.

Just-in-Time Delivery Proximity to market has become more relevant in recent years due to the emergence of just-in-time delivery. Just-in-time delivery is the shipment of parts and materials to arrive at a factory moments before they are needed in the production process. Just-in-time delivery is especially important for delivery of inputs, such as parts and raw materials, to manufacturers of fabricated products, such as cars and computers. Under a just-in-time system, parts and materials arrive at a factory frequently, in many cases daily or even hourly. Just-in-time delivery minimizes the costs a manufacturer incurs in wasteful inventory, and in storage space. However, natural disasters, traffic, and labor unrest can disrupt just-in-time delivery systems.

Site Factors in Industry Site factors are industrial location factors related to the costs of factors of production inside a plant. For some companies, site factors are more important than situation factors in deciding the location of a plant. Labor, capital, and land are three production factors that vary among locations.

Labor Minimizing labor costs is important for some industries and the variation of labor costs around the world is large. A labor-intensive industry is an industry in which wages and other compensation paid to employees constitutes a high percentage of expenses. The reverse case, an industry with a much lowerthan-average percentage of expenditures on labor, is considered capital intensive. A labor intensive industry is not the same as a high-wage industry. Labor-intensive is measured as a percentage, whereas high-wage is measured in dollars. Motor vehicle workers are paid much higher hourly wages than textile workers, yet the textile industry is labor intensive and the auto industry is not.

Capital The U.S. motor-vehicle industry concentrated in Michigan early in the twentieth century largely because that region’s financial institutions were more willing than eastern banks to lend money to the industry’s pioneers. High-tech industries have been risky propositions—roughly two-thirds of them fail— but Silicon Valley financial institutions have continued to lend money to engineers who have good ideas so that they can buy the software, communications, and networks they need to get started. The ability to borrow money has become a critical factor in the distribution of industry in developing countries.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Land Contemporary factories operate most efficiently when laid out in one-story buildings. Raw materials are typically delivered at one end and moved through the factory in conveyors or forklift trucks.

The land needed to build one-story factories is now more likely to be available in suburban and rural locations. With trucks now responsible for transporting most inputs and products, proximity to major highways is important for factories. Especially attractive is the proximity to the junction of a longdistance route and the beltway, or ring road that encircles most cities.

Changing Site Factors: Clothing Production of textiles (woven fabrics) and apparel (clothing) is a prominent example of an industry that generally requires less-skilled, low-cost workers. Textile and apparel production involves three principal steps: spinning of fibers to make yarn; weaving or knitting of yarn into fabric; and assembly of fabric into products. Spinning, weaving, and sewing are all labor intensive compared to other industries, but the importance of labor varies somewhat among them. Textile and apparel production involves three principle steps: spinning, weaving, and assembly.

Spinning Fibers can be spun from natural or synthetic elements. The primary natural fiber is cotton, and synthetics now account for three-quarters of world thread production. Because it is a labor-intensive industry, spinning is done primarily in low-wage countries. China produces one-quarter and India onefifth of the world’s cotton thread.

Weaving For thousands of years, fabric has been woven or laced together by hand on a loom, which is a frame on which two sets of threads are place at right angles to each other. One set of threads, called the warp, is strung lengthwise. A second set of threads, called the weft, is carried in a shuttle that is inserted over and under the warp. For mechanized weaving, labor makes up a high percentage of the total production cost. As a result, weaving is primarily found on low-wage countries.

Assembly Sewing by hand is a human activity with a past that stretches back tens of thousands of years.

Textiles are cut and sewn to be assembled into four main types of products: garments, carpets, home products such as bed linens and curtains, and industrial items such as headliners for motor vehicles.

Developed countries play a larger role in assembly than in spinning and weaving because most of the consumers of assembled products are located in developed countries.

Key Issue 3: Why Do Industries Face Resource Challenges?

Two issues are at the forefront for geographers when considering resources: •

We deplete scarce resources, especially petroleum, natural gas, and coal, for energy production.

•

We destroy resources through pollution of air, water, and soil.

Energy Supply Earth’s energy resources are not distributed evenly. Coal is formed in lush, swampy tropical areas rich in plants. Thanks to the slow movement of Earth’s drifting continents, the tropical swamps of 250 million years ago have relocated to the mid-latitudes. Petroleum and natural gas formed millions of years ago from residue deposited on the seafloor. Some still lies beneath such seas as the Persian Gulf and North Sea, but other reserves are located beneath land that was underwater millions of years ago. The United States is highly dependent on all three fossil fuels.

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Chapter 11: Industry and Energy Demand for Energy Industry relies on availability of abundant low-cost energy. Large quantities of energy are required to operate factories as well as to transport inputs into factories and products from factories to consumers. Energy is also required to produce food, keep homes comfortable, and transport people. Demand for energy comes from four primary types of consumption in the United States: •

Industries. Factories use approximately 40 percent natural gas and 30 percent each coal and petroleum.

•

Transportation. Almost all transportation systems run on petroleum products.

•

Homes. Natural gas and coal provide approximately equal shares of home needs.

•

Commercial. Stores and offices have uses and sources similar to those of homes.

Developing countries comprised more energy usage than developed countries for the first time in 2006.

China is currently the world’s leader in energy demand. The highest per capita consumption of energy remains in developed countries.

Petroleum Challenges Most of the world’s petroleum is produced in Southwest Asia and North Africa and Central Asia, regions where religious, ethnic, and political conflicts are common. Several developing countries possessing substantial petroleum reserves, principally in Southwest Asia and North Africa, created the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in 1960. OPEC was originally formed to enable oil-rich countries to gain more control over their resources. U.S. and European transnational companies, which had originally explored and exploited the oil fields, were selling the petroleum at low prices to consumers in developed countries and keeping most of the profits. Countries possessing the oil reserves nationalized or more tightly controlled the fields, and prices were set by governments rather than by petroleum companies. Under OPEC, world oil prices have increased sharply on several occasions, although gas prices are currently low in the United States, especially when adjusted for inflation.

Fossil Fuel Reserves The supply of energy remaining in deposits that have been discovered is called a proven reserve.

Proven Reserves Developed countries have historically possessed a disproportionately high supply of the world’s proven fossil fuel reserves: •

Coal. World reserves are approximately 1 trillion metric tons. At current demand, proven coal reserves would last 130 years. Developed and developing regions each have about one-half of the supply of proven reserves.

•

Natural Gas. World reserves are approximately 200 trillion cubic meters. At current demand, proven natural gas reserves would last 56 years. Less than 10 percent of proven reserves are in developed countries, primarily the United States.

•

Petroleum. World reserves are approximately 1.6 trillion barrels. At current demand, proven petroleum reserves would last 55 years.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Potential Reserves The supply in deposits that are undiscovered but thought to exist is a potential reserve. When a potential reserve is actually discovered, it is reclassified as a proven reserve. Potential reserves can be converted to proven reserves from fields that have yet to be developed, or from fields yet to be discovered. Extraction from both types of fields is relatively (and possibly prohibitively) expensive.

Unconventional Resources Resources are considered unconventional if we lack economically feasible or environmentally sound technology with which to extract them. As demand increases for a resource and prices rise, exploiting an unconventional source can be profitable. Oil sands and hydraulic fracturing (commonly known as fracking) are two current examples.

Petroleum Futures Developed countries provide a large share of the world’s fossil fuels, but they demand more energy than they produce, so they must import fossil fuels, especially petroleum, from developing countries.

World Oil Trade The largest flows of oil are from Russia to Europe and from Southwest Asia to Europe and to Japan. The United States and Europe import more than half their petroleum, and Japan imports more than 90 percent. Canada and Saudi Arabia now supply much higher shares of petroleum to the United States than in the past. With demand increasing rapidly in developing countries, developed countries face greater competition in obtaining the world’s remaining supplies of fossil fuels. Many of the developing countries with low HDIs also lack energy resources, and they lack the funds to pay for importing them Declining Demand Demand for petroleum has been dampened in developed countries through conservation. Factories have reduced their demand for petroleum, principally by consuming more natural gas. Higher gas mileage standards have been enacted by regulatory bodies in many countries to help ease demand for petroleum. While the world will not totally deplete petroleum reserves in the twenty-first century, at some point extracting the remaining reserves will be so expensive and environmentally damaging that use of alternative energy sources will accelerate, and dependence on petroleum will diminish. In the future, all countries will need to pursue sustainable development strategies based on increased reliance on renewable energy sources.

Nuclear Energy While nuclear power is not renewable, some view it as an alternative to fossil fuels. The large amount of energy released from a small amount of material makes it an attractive alternative. One kilogram of enriched nuclear fuel contains more than 2 million time the energy in 1 kilogram of coal.

Challenges are presented by nuclear power, though.

Distribution of Nuclear Power Nuclear power supplies 14 percent of the world’s electricity. Two-thirds of the world’s nuclear power is generated in developed countries, with Europe and North America responsible for generating one-third each. Only 30 of the world’s nearly 200 countries employ nuclear power in some capacity, including 19 developed countries and only 11 developing countries.

Potential Accidents A nuclear power plant produces electricity from energy released by splitting uranium atoms in a controlled environment in a process known as fission. One product of all nuclear reactions is radioactive waste, certain types of which are lethal to people exposed to it. While nuclear

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Chapter 11: Industry and Energy power plants cannot explode, it is possible to have a runaway reaction, which overheats the reactor, causing a meltdown, possible steam explosions, and scattering of radioactive material into the atmosphere. The nuclear incidents in Chernobyl and Japan’s Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plants are prominent examples of nuclear-related disasters.

Radioactive Waste The waste from nuclear fission is highly radioactive and lethal, and it remains so for many years. Plutonium for making nuclear weapons can be harvested from this waste. Pipes, concrete, and water near the fissioning fuel also become “hot” with radioactivity. No one has yet devised permanent storage for radioactive waste.

Bomb Material Nuclear power has been used in warfare twice, in August 1945, when the United States dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, ending World War II. No government has dared to use these bombs in conflicts since because leaders realize that a full-scale nuclear war could terminate human civilization. The United States and Russia each have several thousand nuclear weapons.

China, France, and the United Kingdom have several hundred nuclear weapons each, India and Pakistan several dozen each, and North Korea a handful. Israel is suspected of possessing nuclear weapons but has not admitted to it, and Iran is developing the capability.

Limited Reserves Like fossil fuels, uranium is a nonrenewable resource. Proven uranium reserves will last about 124 years at current rates of use. And they are not distributed evenly around the world: Australia has 23 percent of the world’s proven uranium reserves, Kazakhstan 15 percent, and Russia 10 percent.

High Cost Nuclear power plants cost several billion dollars to build, primarily because of the elaborate safety measured required. Without double and triple backup systems at nuclear power plants, nuclear energy would be too dangerous to use. Uranium is mined in one place, refined in another, and used in still another. Mining uranium can pollute land and water and damage miners’ health. The complexities of secure transportation add to the cost. Consequently, generating electricity from nuclear plants is much more expensive than from coal-burning plants. Some nuclear power issues might be addressed through nuclear fusion, which is the fusing of hydrogen atoms to form helium. Fusion can occur only at very high temperatures (millions of degrees) that cannot be generated on a sustained basis in a power-plant reactor with current technology.

Energy Alternatives Earth’s energy resources are divided between those that are renewable and those that are not. Nonrenewable energy resources form so slowly that for practical purposes, they cannot be renewed. Examples are the three fossil fuels that currently supply most of the world’s energy needs.

Renewable energy resources have an essentially unlimited supply and are not depleted when used by people. Water, wind, and the Sun supply sources of renewable energy.

Hydroelectric Power Generating electricity from the movement of water is called hydroelectric power.

Hydroelectric is now the world’s second-most-popular source of electricity, after coal. Two-thirds of the world’s hydroelectric power is generated in developing countries and one-third in developed countries. A number of developing countries rely on hydroelectric power for most of their electricity.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Biomass Biomass fuel is fuel derived from plant material and animal waste. Biomass energy sources include wood and crops. When carefully harvested in forests, wood is a renewable resource that can be utilized to generate electricity and heat. The waste from processing wood, such as for building construction and demolition, is also available. And crops such as sugarcane, corn, and soybeans can be processed into motor-vehicle fuels. The prospects for increasing the use of biomass for fuel is limited, for several reasons: •

Burning biomass may be inefficient, as the energy required to produce the crops may be as much as the energy supplied by the crops.

•

Biomass already serves essential purposes other than energy, such as providing much of Earth’s food, clothing, and shelter.

•

When wood is burned for fuel instead of being left in the forest, the fertility of the forest may be compromised.

Wind Power Wind power has greater potential for increased use because only a fraction of the resource, wind, has been harnessed. Despite its perceived and actual benefits, wind power has been harnessed in only a few places. 90 percent of total world wind energy production is concentrated in China, North America, and Europe. A significant hurdle for developing countries in pursuing wind power is the high cost of wind turbine construction. Some critics oppose construction of wind turbines because they can be noisy, lethal for birds and bats, and may obscure the natural beauty of a landscape.

Geothermal Energy Energy from hot water or steam is called geothermal energy. Natural nuclear reactions make Earth’s interior hot. Toward the surface, in volcanic areas, this heat is especially pronounced. The hot rocks can encounter groundwater and produce heated water or steam that can be tapped by wells. Harnessing geothermal energy is most feasible at sites along Earth’s surface where crustal plates meet, which are also the sites of many earthquakes and volcanoes. The United States, the Philippines, and Indonesia are the leading producers of geothermal power.

Solar Energy The ultimate renewable resource for sustainable development is solar energy supplied by the Sun. Solar energy provides the possibility for countries at low levels of development to promote sustainable development. Solar energy may serve as a way for developing countries to obtain electricity needed to operate businesses, schools, and hospitals. Solar sources currently supply only 1 percent of the electricity generated in the United States, although the potential for growth is limitless.

Passive Solar Energy Solar energy is harnessed through either passive or active methods. Passive solar energy systems capture energy without using special devices. These systems use south-facing windows and dark surfaces to heat and light building on sunny days. The Sun’s rays penetrate the windows and are converted to heat. Greenhouses are a prime example of the applications of passive solar energy.

Active Solar Energy Active solar energy systems collect solar energy and convert it either to heat energy or to electricity. The conversion can be accomplished either directly or indirectly. In direct electric conversion, solar radiation is captured with photovoltaic cells, which convert light energy to electrical energy. The photovoltaic cell was invented by Bell Laboratories in 1954. In indirect electric conversion, solar radiation is first converted to heat and then to electricity.

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Chapter 11: Industry and Energy Solar Powered Electricity Solar power can be produced at a central station and distributed by an electric company, as coal- and nuclear-generated electricity are now supplied. There is little incentive for public and private utility companies to pursue solar technology, as coal remains cheap and significant investments in nuclear power have already been made. In developing countries, the largest and fastestgrowing market for photovoltaic includes the 2 billion people who lack electricity, especially residents of remote villages. In order for countries to justify the expense of adopting solar powered electricity technologies, the cost of cells must drop and their efficiency must improve.

Air Pollution Pollution occurs when more waste is added than air, water, and land resources can handle.

At ground level, Earth’s average atmosphere is made up of about 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, and less than 1 percent argon. The remaining 0.04 percent includes several trace gases. Air pollution is a concentration of trace substances at a greater level than occurs in average air. These high concentrations of trace gases in the air can damage property and negatively affect the health of people, other animals, and vegetation. Most air pollution is caused by factories and power plants, in addition to motor vehicles.

Factories and power plants produce sulfur dioxides and solid particulates, principally from burning coal.

Carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides are released into the atmosphere when motor vehicles burn petroleum.

Global-Scale Air Pollution Geographers can examine air pollution at three scales: global, regional, and local. Climate change and ozone damage are both global-scale issues.

Climate Change Between 1880 and 2014, the average temperature of Earth’s surface increased by 0.89°C (1.6°F). An international team of U.N. scientists has concluded that this temperature increase is directly linked to human actions, particularly the burning of fossil fuels in factories and vehicles. Carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels are burned. According to U.N. scientists, the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased by more than one-fourth during the past 200 years. A concentration of trace gasses in the atmosphere can block or delay the return of some of the heat leaving the surface heading for space, thereby raising Earth’s temperature. When fossil fuels are burned, one of the trace gasses, carbon dioxide, is discharged into the atmosphere. The anticipated increase in Earth’s temperature, caused by carbon dioxide trapping some of the radiation emitted by the surface, is called the greenhouse effect. As a country’s per capita income increases, its per capita carbon dioxide emissions generally increase.

Ozone Damage The stratosphere contains a concentration of ozone gas. The ozone layer absorbs dangerous ultraviolet rays from the Sun. Were it not for the ozone in the stratosphere, ultraviolet rays would damage plants, cause skin cancer, and disrupt food chains. Earth’s protective ozone layer is threatened by pollutants called chlorofluorocarbons.

Regional-Scale Air Pollution Air pollution may damage a region’s vegetation and water supply through acid deposition. Acid deposition is the accumulation of acids on Earth’s surface. Sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides enter Earth’s atmosphere through the burning of fossil fuels, combine with oxygen and water to form sulfuric acid and nitric acid, and are deposited on Earth’s surface. Acid precipitation is the conversion of sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides to acids that return to Earth as rain, snow, or fog. Acid precipitation damages lakes, killing fish and plants. On land, concentrations of acid in the soil can injure

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography plants by depriving them of nutrients and can harm worms and insects. Buildings and monuments made of marble and limestone have suffered corrosion from acid rain. Geographers are particularly interested in the effects of acid precipitation because the worst damage is not experienced at the same location as the emission of the pollutants.

Local-Scale Air Pollution At the local scale, air pollution is especially severe in places where emission sources are concentrated, such as urban areas. Urban air pollution has three basic elements: •

Carbon monoxide. Breathing carbon monoxide reduces the oxygen level in blood, impairs vision and alertness, and threatens those with breathing problems.

•

Hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides in the presence of sunlight form photochemical smog, which causes respiratory problems, stinging in the eyes, and an ugly haze over cities.

•

Particulates. These pollutants include dust and smoke particles. The dark plume of smoke from a factory stack and the exhaust of a diesel truck are examples of particulate emission.

Water Pollution Water pollution is a widespread problem because it is easy to dump waste into a river and let the water carry it downstream, where it becomes someone else’s problem. Water can decompose some waste without negatively affected other activities, but the volume of waste often exceeds the capacity that many rivers and lakes can accommodate.

Demand for Water Humans use approximately 3.6 trillion cubic meters (950 billion gallons) of water per year, or around 500 cubic meters (132,000) per capita. The most demand is for electricity, followed by agriculture and municipal sewage systems. Water usage is either nonconsumptive or consumptive.

Nonconsumptive water usage is use of water that is returned to nature as a liquid. Most industrial and municipal uses of water are nonconsumptive because the wastewater is primarily discharged into lakes and streams. Consumptive water usage is use of water that evaporates rather than being returned to nature as a liquid. Most agricultural uses are consumptive because the water is used primarily to supply plants that transpire it and therefore cannot be treated and reused.

Impact on Aquatic Life Polluted water can harm aquatic life. A commonly used measure of water pollution is biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), which is the amount of oxygen required by aquatic bacteria to decompose a given amount of organic waste. Aquatic plants and animals consume oxygen and so does the decomposing organic waste that humans dump in the water. If too much waste is discharged into water, the water becomes oxygen starved and the fish die. Many factories and power plants use water for cooling and then discharge the warm water back into the river or lake. Fish adapted to cold water, such as salmon or trout, might not be able to survive the warmer water.

Point Source Pollution The sources of pollution can be divided into point sources and nonpoint sources.

Point source pollution enters a body of water at a specific location. Nonpoint source pollution comes from a large, diffuse area. Point source pollutants are usually smaller in quantity and much easier to control than nonpoint source pollutants. Water-using manufacturers and municipal sewage are the two main point sources of water pollution.

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Chapter 11: Industry and Energy Nonpoint Source Pollution Nonpoint sources usually pollute in greater quantities and are much harder to control than point sources of pollution. The principal nonpoint source is agriculture. Fertilizers and pesticides spread on fields to increase agricultural productivity are carried into rivers and lakes by irrigation systems or natural runoff.

Solid Waste Pollution The average American generates about 2 kilograms (4 pounds) of solid waste per day. Residences generate around 60 percent of the solid waste, while businesses account for the remaining 40 percent. Paper products account for the largest share of solid waste in the United States, especially among residences and retailers. Manufacturers throw away large quantities of metals as well as paper.

Sanitary Landfill Using a sanitary landfill is by far the most common strategy for disposal of solid waste in the United States. Thousands of small-town “dumps” have been closed and replaced by a small number of large regional ones. Given the shortage of landfills, alternatives have been sought to dispose of solid waste. A rapidly growing alternative is incineration. Burning releases some toxins into the air and some toxins also remain in ash. Thus solving one pollution problem may increase another.

Hazardous Waste Disposing of hazardous waste is especially difficult. Hazardous waste includes heavy metals (including mercury, cadmium, and zinc), PCB oils from electrical equipment, cyanides, strong solvents, acids, and caustics. These may be unwanted by-products generated in manufacturing or waste to be discarded after usage. If poisonous industrial residuals are not carefully placed in protective containers, the chemicals may leach into the soil and contaminate groundwater or escape into the atmosphere.

Key Issue 4: Why Are Industries Changing Locations?

Emerging Industrial Regions In 1970, nearly one-half of world industry was in Europe and nearly one-third was in North America. Currently, these two regions constitute only one-quarter each of world industry. Industry’s share of total economic output has steadily declined in developed countries since the 1970s. The share of world industry in other regions has increased – from one-sixth in 1970 to onehalf in 2010.

Outsourcing Transnational corporations have been particularly aggressive in using low-cost labor in developing countries. To remain competitive in the global economy, they identify steps in their production processes that can be performed by low-paid, low-skilled workers in developing countries.

The new international division of labor is the selective transfer of some jobs to developing countries.

Transnational corporations allocate production to low-wage countries through outsourcing, which is turning over much of the responsibility for production to independent suppliers. Outsourcing has led to intense scrutiny in the determination of optimal locations in the production process. Outsourcing contrasts with the approach typical of traditional mass production, called vertical integration, in which a company controls all phases of a highly complex production process.

Mexico and NAFTA The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), effective in 1994, eliminated barriers to moving goods among Mexico, Canada, and the United States. Because it is the nearest lowwage country to the United States, Mexico attracts labor-intensive industries that also need proximity to the U.S. market. Plants in Mexico near the U.S. border are known as maquiladoras, from the Spanish verb

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography maqullar, which means “to receive payment for grinding or processing corn.” Under U.S. and Mexican laws, companies receive tax breaks if they ship materials from the United States, assemble the components at a maquiladora plant in Mexico, and export the finished product back to the United States.

BRIC Countries Much of the world’s future growth in manufacturing is expected to locate outside the principle industrial regions described earlier. The financial analysis firm Goldman Sachs coined the acronym BRIC to indicate the countries it expects to dominate global manufacturing during the twentyfirst century: Brazil, Russia, India, and China. The four BRIC countries together currently control onefourth of the world’s land area and contain 3 billion of the world’s 7 billion inhabitants. Their economies rank second (China), seventh (Brazil), ninth (Russia), and eleventh (India) in the world.

Industrial Change in Developed Countries In developed countries, industry is shifting away from the traditional industrial areas of northwestern Europe and the northeastern United States. In the United States, industry has shifted from the Northeast toward the South and West. In Europe, government policies have encouraged relocation toward economically distressed peripheral areas.

Intraregional Shifts in North America The United States lost 2.3 million manufacturing jobs between 1950 and 2015. The northeastern United States lost 3.7 million jobs in manufacturing in the same period.

The South added 1.3 million manufacturing jobs, and the far western states gained 1.1 million. Industrial growth in the South since the 1930s has been stimulated in part by government policies to reduce historical disparities. The Tennessee Valley Authority brought electricity to much of the rural South, and roads were constructed in previously inaccessible sections of the Appalachians, the Piedmont, and Ozarks. Steel, textiles, tobacco products, and furniture industries have become dispersed through smaller communities in the South, many in search of a labor force willing to work for less pay than the North and forgo joining a union. Motor vehicle production is an example of an industry that has been attracted to the South on account of these factors. The principle lure for many manufacturers to locate in the South has been right-to-work laws. A right-to-work law requires a factory to maintain a so-called “open shop” and prohibits a “closed shop”. In a “closed shop” a company and union agree that everyone must join a union to work in the factory. The percentage of workers who are union members is much lower in the South than elsewhere in the United States. Twenty-five U.S. states have right-to-work laws that make it much more difficult for unions to organize factory workers, collect dues, and bargain with employers from a position of strength. More importantly, the region has been especially attractive for companies working hard to keep out the unions altogether.

Intraregional Shifts in Europe Manufacturing has diffused from traditional industrial centers in northwestern Europe towards Southern and Eastern Europe. Several European countries situated east of Germany and west of Russia have become major centers of industrial investment since the fall of communism in the early 1990s. These countries offer manufactures an attractive combination of two important site and situation factors: labor and market proximity. The workers offer manufacturers good value for money; they are less skilled but much cheaper than in Western Europe and they are more skilled than workers in Asia and Latin America. The region is also close to the wealthy markets of Western Europe.

Skilled or Unskilled Labor? Many manufacturers are torn between the benefits of locating in regions with low-skilled low-cost labor and those with highly skilled higher-cost labor.

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Chapter 11: Industry and Energy Skilled Labor Two location factors influence industries to remain in these traditional regions: availability of skilled labor and rapid delivery to market. Traditionally, factories assigned each worker one specific task to perform repeatedly. Some geographers call this approach Fordist production because the Ford Motor Company was one of the first companies to organize its production this way early in the twentieth century. Many industries now follow a lean, or flexible, production approach. The term post-Fordist production is sometimes used to describe lean production in contrasts with Fordist production. Four types of work rules distinguish post-Fordist lean production: teams, problem solving, leveling, and productivity.

Recycling and Remanufacturing Recycling is the separation, collection, processing, marketing, and reuse of unwanted material. Remanufacturing is the rebuilding of a product to specifications of the original manufactured product using a combination of reused, repaired, and new parts.

Recycling Recycling has increased in the United States from 7 percent of all solid waste in 1970 to 34 percent in 2013. As a result of recycling, about 87 million of the 254 million tons of solid waste generated in the United States in 2013 did not have to go to landfills and incinerators, compared to 34 million of the 200 million tons generated in 1990. The percentage of materials recovered by recycling varies widely by product: 50 percent of paper products and 24 percent of yard trimmings are recycled, compared to less than 10 percent for other sources of solid waste.

Remanufacturing Recycled materials can be remanufactured into new products. Four major manufacturing sectors accounted for more than half of the recycling activity: paper mills, steel mills, plastic converters, and iron and steel foundries. Common household items that contain remanufactured materials include newspapers and paper towels; aluminum, plastic, and glass soft-drink containers; steel cans; and plastic laundry detergent bottles.

Introducing the Chapter The chapter enters on a dark note: the loss of manufacturing jobs in the United States at the dawn of the twenty-first century. It’s a fine place to start for many of our students, and a great way to make what might otherwise be perceived as a boring subject matter very relevant. A similar approach to the outsourcing of service jobs can be used to introduce Chapter 12.

Icebreaker: Rivers and Cities This exercise can also be used for Chapter 13, Urban Patterns.

Using an online mapping service, challenge the students: Can you name a major North American city that is not located on a river or with access to the ocean?

Las Vegas will invariably come up. Use the opportunity to discuss why Las Vegas is located where it is.

Most other examples are on the ocean, on a river, or both. Enter the city name into the search tool to demonstrate this.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Next ask the following: Can you think of any other cities in the world?

Again, students will be hard pressed to find a city of significant size that is not served by a river, the ocean, or both.

The availability of efficient transport (not to mention water supply) is fundamental to a city with industrial output at any appreciable scale.

Challenges to Comprehension Other “Industries” Similar to the confusion over the meaning of “state”, students may have heard “industry” used in more general terms than the text’s strict definition. For clarity, simply explain that industry applies only to manufactured goods of some sort, and does not include the following “industries”: •

The recreation industry

•

The restaurant industry

•

The hospitality industry

•

The travel industry

Site vs. Situation Students usually grasp the reasons for an industry locating close to inputs vs. close to markets—but then they forget these reasons for industrial location as soon as they learn about site factors, or confuse the two.

The review questions below may help students distinguish between these issues: Sometimes site factors are so overwhelming that situation factors are ignored, and vice versa. In other cases a combination of site and situation factors may be at play.

Assignments Review/Reflection Questions •

Name some industries local to our town. Identify and explain the situation and site factors involved in each industry’s location.

•

Now pick an industry and describe how its closing would affect the town’s economy. Would the jobs lost in the closing be the only effects? Explain.

•

Give an example, not from the text, of an industry that is likely to locate closer to inputs, and explain.

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Chapter 11: Industry and Energy •

Give an example, not from the text, of an industry that is likely to locate closer to markets, and explain.

•

If industrial location is chosen according to situation factors in order to minimize transportation costs, explain why many industries are locating in Southeast Asia and shipping goods to markets in North America.

•

Given current trends in the movement and growth of industry, is industry likely to remain important as a source of employment in our country? Why or why not?

Industry Assignment Americans are the number one consumers of goods on the face of the planet. We accumulate so much “stuff” that we fill up our garages, attics, and even rent storage units to house our excess.

The purpose of this activity is to illustrate how the items in your house reflect the globalization of economic production. Based on the idea of spatially fixed and spatially varied costs, corporations will search for the lowest production costs in order to increase profits. Increasingly, the cost of labor is the driving force in the migration of projection centers to less developed countries. Keeping production costs low allows producers to sell goods at affordable costs to more developed countries and still realize a profit.

Instructions 1. Select 30 items in your home (electronics, appliances, clothing, furniture, etc.) and list the item, a general category (electronics, clothing, etc.), and where each was produced.

2. Analyze the data you’ve collected. Where was most of your stuff produced? Is there a correlation between the types of items and the location of their production? Are there any results you did not expect? Is there a relationship between the costs of goods and the production location? How much of your stuff was made in the United States? Does quality influence the location of production? Does the type of item influence the location of production?

3. Write up a description of how the items in your home reflect the globalization of economic production. Look at the countries that come up in your chart and refer to Chapters 9 and 11 in your textbook to find helpful information (for example, maquiladoras, Wal-Mart, and so forth).

4. Fill in the map illustrating the flow of goods into your home. Add up the number of times that products in your household were manufactured in a particular country. Write the number on or next to that country. If a country did not produce any goods in your household, leave it blank.

TURN IN THE FOLLOWING: 1. Minimum 2-page written analysis of your items related to topics covered in text and class. Must be typed and double spaced.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 2. The filled out map.

3. List of 30 items. Describe what the item is and what country it was manufactured in. This can be handwritten (please be neat).

Thinking Geographically Questions 11.1: What situation and site factors hurt the ability of the United Kingdom to maintain the leadership in industry that it gained in the nineteenth century?

Situation factors such as proximity to inputs, and site factors such as low-wage labor, may play a role in hindering the United Kingdom’s ability to maintain the leadership in industry that it gained in the nineteenth century.

11.2: Volkswagen received $577 million in government incentives to locate a factory in Chattanooga, Tennessee, in 2012. Do you think it’s worth it for governments to provide large incentives like this? Why or why not?

I think it is absolutely worth it for governments to provide large incentives like this so that domestic manufacturing returns. These plants provide well-paying jobs that can sustain families that live in historically economically disadvantaged regions, such as the South. It’s not just the Volkswagen plant that moves into Chattanooga; it’s also the businesses that supply parts to Volkswagen, such as glass manufacturers and seat manufacturers.

11.3: What strategies does your community employ to encourage recycling? What additional strategies might be effective in your community? Why? My city is nice in that recyclables do not need to be sorted before being taken out, so it requires very little effort to set aside recyclables. Recycling cans picked up by the trash service are also included in monthly trash service at no additional expense. My city would benefit from placing recycling containers in the downtown area. If these containers were placed there, it would make people aware of the option to recycle.

11.4: What has been the impact on Canada of the changes in the distribution of vehicle assembly plants in North America (refer to Figure 11-76)?

Mexico benefited from foreign investment, job creation, tax receipts, and new technology that occurred because of NAFTA. Many factories (called maquiladoras) have been built near the United States/Mexico border, and they have provided decent paying jobs for many Mexicans. NAFTA has unfortunately negatively affected farmers in the state of Chiapas because they have to somehow compete with heavily government subsidized corn coming from U.S. states like Iowa and Illinois. A pig, for example, can be raised and sold for 20 percent less in Iowa than it would cost to raise and sell a pig in Mexico, so this has There are less employment opportunities in Canada as a result of the changes in the distribution of vehicle assembly plants in North America, as these plants either scaled down production or, in the case of a plant in southwestern Québec, shut down altogether.

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Chapter 11: Industry and Energy 11.5: Why might situation and site factors be placing Canadian plants at a disadvantage compared to those in Mexico?

Site factors, such as access to low-wage labor in Mexico, have placed Canadian plants at a disadvantage compared to those in Mexico. Additionally, shifting patterns in steel production (moving from the Midwestern corridor in the United States to China) is a situation factor that may have negatively impacted Canadian plants.

Pause and Reflect Questions 11.1.1: The use of one of the three fossil fuels is increasing in the United States in the twenty-first century.

Which one is it? Why might that be the case?

The use of natural gas is increasing in the United States, partially due to domestic proven reserves being discovered.

11.1.2: Compare the world’s principal industrial areas with population distribution (Figure 2-4). Are industrial areas generally in regions of high population density or low? Why? Industries are generally located in regions of high population density, as easy access to labor is a site factor that encourages industrial activity in these regions.

11.2.1: What is an example of a product purchased by consumers that is made of copper?

Copper wiring is used in homes and other buildings for transmission of electricity, as it is an excellent conductor of electricity. Similarly, copper is used in integrated circuits due to its conductivity.

11.2.2: Why isn’t wine bottled near the market, as beer and cola are?

Wine is dependent on grapes grown in specific regions, where soils generate unique flavor profiles. This property of wine is known as terroir, as defined in Chapter 4. Wine must be bottled as soon as it is produced to retain these flavors.

11.2.3: Pittsburgh’s football team is named “Steelers,” but based on Figure 11-16, what city’s team might be a more appropriate choice for the nickname?

Pittsburgh’s team could now be named “the Scientists,” or “the Researchers.”

11.2.4: How might weather conditions influence the choice of a factory site between the North and the South in the United States?

The South experiences relatively mild temperatures year-round, giving them a climatic edge on the North.

Air conditioning has allowed people to deal with the hot summers, and snow and other inclement weather may not hinder shipping and other business-related activities during the winter.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 11.2.5: Labor accounts for around 5 percent of the cost of manufacturing a car. Does this mean that motor vehicle manufacturing is a labor-intensive industry? Explain.

Car manufacturing is not a labor intense industry. A labor intense industry is an industry in which wages and other compensation paid to employees constitutes a high percentage of expenses.

11.2.6: Check the labels on the shirt you are wearing at this moment. Where was it made?

My shirt is made in the United States; it is a vintage K-Mart shirt from the 1960s, which reflects the domestic textile industry that was present at that time.

11.3.1: Which country produces at least 20 quad BTUs of all three fossil fuels?

No country produces at least 20 quad BTUs of all three fossil fuels.

11.3.2: Referring to Figure 11-36, what world region of developing countries appears to have the highest per capita demand for energy?

Central Asia appears to have the higher per capita demand for energy.

11.3.3: What are the only two countries named on all three pie charts of proven reserves?

Russia and Kazakhstan are the only two countries named on all three pie charts of proven reserves.

11.3.4: Do you consider fuel efficiency when you or your family buy a new vehicle? Why or why not?

Yes, I consider fuel efficiency when buying a new vehicle. I want to reduce my fuel consumption so I don’t have to pay as much at the pump, and so that my car doesn’t emit as much carbon dioxide when burning fuel.

11.3.5: Should dependency on nuclear energy be increased or decreased? Why? It should be decreased, as there is no safe, sustainable way of disposing of radioactive waste.

11.3.6: Does your local power company offer options for using alternative energy? Check the company’s website.

My local power company is affiliated with the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), and they do offer incentives for installing solar panels.

11.3.7: Why are people warned not to leave a dog or child unattended in a parked car during the summer?

Passive solar energy that enters a car when it is parked warms the car considerably and could cause adverse health effects, or even death.

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Chapter 11: Industry and Energy 11.3.8: What gas is now most commonly used as a coolant instead of CFC? Use a search engine to find the answer.

Hydrochlorofluorocarbons have replaced CFCs. 11.3.9: How might a change in the sources of energy used in factories help improve water quality?

If factories and power plants did not use water for cooling (and subsequently discharging the warm water back into the river or lake), it could prevent warm water from entering these bodies of water and causing environmental problems, such as fish kills.

11.3.10: Where does your solid waste go?

My solid waste is both recycled, repurposed and thrown away in the trash which is taken to the local landfill.

11.4.1: Take a close look at an iPhone (yours or a friend’s or relation’s). Can you find any evidence that it was made at Foxconn in China?

From a cursory inspection, I cannot find evidence that it was made at Foxconn. I believe if you opened the phone up and looked at individual components, you would see their logo stamped on some of them.

11.4.2: Motor vehicle production has increased in Turkey and Morocco. What might be advantages and challenges of producing vehicles in these countries instead?

For Turkey, it would be advantageous to produce vehicles domestically because a relatively large market is there for them to be sold at. However, persistent political and social unrest creates an uncertain and unstable economic environment, and may scare off any future motor vehicle companies from locating production facilities there. Morocco is a developing country with a base of low-wage workers, so it is advantageous for the motor vehicle companies to locate facilities there. Despite this, the local market for motor vehicles is probably not as large as it would be in neighboring Europe. This proximity, though, is probably a reason facilities are being built in Morocco.

11.4.4: Which of the four types of recycling do you use most often? Why? I most often use curbside programs, as it is the most convenient way to recycle.

Explore Saltaire is a village in the United Kingdom built in the early years of the Industrial Revolution by Sir Titus Salt. Surrounding his factory, Salt built houses for the workers.

Fly to Saltaire.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Zoom in to eye alt around 3,500 ft. Salt’s original factory is the large building immediately north of the balloon.

Click More, then turn on Transportation layer. The factory was built before the invention of cars and trucks.

1. What two modes of transportation from the nineteenth century (still visible immediately to the north and south of the factory) would have been used to move materials and products?

Rail and ship would have been two modes of transportation used by the Salt factory in the early years of the Industrial Revolution.

Turn on Photos. Move the cursor over one of the photos on top of the factory.

2. What was Salt’s factory used for? (Hint: Turn on Gallery in the Primary Database and click on the “i” (for information) icon near the north side of the factory.)

Salts Mill was originally a textile factory.

Drag street view to the southwest side of the factory complex.

3. Why might the structure no long be suitable for manufacturing?

Site and situation factors may have evolved over time to make this an unsuitable location for textile manufacturing. Manufacturing can be done cheaper and closer to inputs in places that are more “business friendly.” For example, in India, cotton is grown and apparel is manufactured there, in close proximity to the primary input. A base of low-wage labor further justifies a business’s decision to manufacture there.

Resources Roger and Me This 1989 film chronicles the effects of GM plant closures in Flint, Michigan, as the job losses ripple throughout the city, resulting in economic depression. Students might be assigned the film as an out-ofclass paper project or shown part of the film in class.

The Urban Game The Urban Game, developed by Larry Treadwell of Ft. Lauderdale (Florida) High School, provided students with a hands-on stimulation of the development and industrialization of urban areas in the first 100 years of the industrial revolution. A full round of the game will take students about 1½ to two hours, but stages may be combined to speed the process.

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Chapter 11: Industry and Energy Consider modifying the game into an assignment or breaking the class into small groups to accomplish the activity. www.thecaveonline.com/APEH/TheUrbanGame.htm Office of the United States Trade Representative The Office of the U.S. Trade Representative serves as a bulldog for American trade policy. This website promotes U.S. trade policy, defending everything from the North American Free Trade Agreement to development through trade: www.ustr.gov/ U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics This website provides enough statistics on labor and industry to last a lifetime, including detailed statistics on labor, job markets, inflation, productivity, unemployment, and much more. www.bls.gov/

Connections between Chapters Back to Chapters 9 and 10 Industry and agriculture are not closely related. However, when agricultural workers leave their farms to work in industries, the country’s food supply may be changed as factory workers can no longer grow their own food. This relates to a country’s attempts to develop, referring back to Chapter 9.

Forward to Chapter 12 As industrial employment declines continue, job losses are usually made up in the service sector.

However, some services are now being outsourced to off-shore locations. This issue serves as the case study for Chapter.

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Services and Settlements

12

Learning Outcomes After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to: Learning Outcome 12.1.1:

Describe the three types of services.

Learning Outcome 12.2.1:

Explain the concepts of market area, range, and threshold.

Learning Outcome 12.2.2:

Explain the distribution of different-sized settlements.

Learning Outcome 12.2.3:

Explain how to use threshold and range to find the optimal location for a service.

Learning Outcome 12.2.4:

Describe the concept of periodic markets in developing countries.

Learning Outcome 12.3.1:

Describe the factors that are used to indentify global cities.

Learning Outcome 12.3.2:

Explain two types of business services in developing countries.

Learning Outcome 12.3.3:

Explain the concept of economic base.

Learning Outcome 12.4.1:

Describe the differences between clustered and dispersed rural settlements.

Learning Outcome 12.4.2:

Identify important prehistoric, ancient, and medieval urban settlements.

Learning Outcome 12.4.3:

Explain the two dimensions of urbanization.

Learning Outcome 12.4.4:

Describe the location of the fastest-growing cities.

Chapter Outline Key Issue 1: Where Are Services Distributed? Most people in developed countries work in such places as shops, offices, restaurants, universities, and hospitals. These are examples of the tertiary, or service, sector of the economy. A service is any activity that fulfills a human want or need and returns money to those who provide it.

Introducing Services and Settlements Services account for more than two-thirds of GDP in most developed countries, compared to less than one-half in most developing countries. Services cluster in developed countries because more people who are able to buy services live there. Within developed countries, larger cities offer a larger scale of services than do small towns because more customers live there. Services are located in settlements – this connection between services and settlements is of keen

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Chapter 12: Services and Settlements interest to geographers. A settlement is a permanent collection of buildings where people reside, work, and obtain services. They occupy a very small percentage of Earth’s surface, well under 1 percent, but most people live in settlements as few choose to reside in isolation.

Three Types of Services The service sector of the economy is subdivided into three types: consumer services, business services, and public services. Each of these sectors is divided into several major sub sectors: •

Consumer Services. The principle purpose of consumer services is to provide services to individual consumers who desire them and can afford to pay for them. Nearly half of all jobs in the United States are in consumer services. Four main types of consumer services are retail and wholesale services, leisure and hospitality services, health and social services, and education.

•

Business Services. The principle purpose of business services is to facilitate the activities of other businesses. One-fourth of all jobs in the United States are in business services. The three main types of business services are transportation and information services, professional services, and financial services.

•

Public Services. The purpose of public services is to provide security and protection for citizens and businesses. About 10 percent of all U.S. jobs are in the public sector. Excluding educators, one-sixth of public-sector employees work for the federal government, one-fourth for one of the 50 state governments, and three-fifths for one of the tens of thousands of local governments.

Changing Service Employment All growth in employment in the United States has been in services, whereas employment in primary and secondary sector activities has declined. Within business services, jobs expanded most rapidly in professional services (such as engineering, management, and law), data processing, advertising, and temporary employment agencies. On the consumer services side, the most rapid increase has been in the provision of health care, but other large increases have been recorded in education, entertainment, and recreation.

Key Issue 2: Where Are Consumer Services Distributed?

Central Place Theory The concept of central place theory helps to explain how the most profitable location can be identified. Central place theory was first proposed by German geographer Walter Christaller in the 1930s, based on his studies in southern Germany. August Lösch in Germany and Brian Berry and other in the United States further developed the concept during the 1950s.

Market Area of a Service A central place is a market center for the exchange of goods and services by people attracted from the surrounding area. The central place is so called because it is centrally located to maximize accessibility. Businesses in central places compete against each other to serve as markets for goods and services for the surrounding region. The area surrounding a service from which customers are attracted is the market area or hinterland. To establish a market area, a circle is drawn around the node of a service on a map. The territory around the circle is its market area. Because most people prefer to get services from the nearest location, consumers near the center of the circle obtain services from local establishment. The closer to the periphery of the circle, the greater the percentage of consumers who will choose to obtain services from other nodes. People on the circumference of the market-area circle are equally likely to use the service or go elsewhere.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Range of a Service The range is the maximum distance people are willing to travel to use a service.

People are willing to go only a short distance for everyday consumer services, such as groceries and pharmacies. But they will travel longer distances for other services such as a concert or professional ball game. As a rule, people tend to go to the nearest available service. Therefore, the range of a service must be determined from the radius of a circle that is irregularly shaped rather than perfectly round. The irregularly shaped circle takes in the territory for which the proposed site is closer than competitors’ sites.

Threshold of a Service The threshold of a service is the minimum number of people needed to support the service. Every enterprise has a minimum number of customers required to generate enough sales to make a profit. So once the range has been determined, a service provider must determine whether a location is suitable by counting the potential customers inside the irregularly shaped circle. How expected consumers inside the range are counted depends on the product. Convenience stores and fast-food restaurants appeal to nearly everyone, whereas other goods and services appeal primarily to certain consumer groups.

Hierarchy of Consumer Service We spend as little time and effort as possible obtaining consumer services and therefore go to the nearest place that fulfills our needs. We travel greater distances only if the price is much lower or if the item is unavailable locally.

Nesting of Services and Settlements According to central place theory, market areas across a developed country would be a series of hexagons of various sizes, unless interrupted by physical features such as mountains and bodies of water. There are four different levels of a market area: hamlet, village, town, and city. Larger settlements provide consumer services that have larger thresholds, ranges, and market areas.

Only consumer services that have small thresholds and short ranges are found in hamlets or villages because too few people live in these areas to support many services. A large department store cannot survive in a hamlet or village because the threshold exceeds the population within range of the settlement.

Towns and cities provide consumer services that have larger thresholds and ranges. A city has a much larger variety of services than you would find in a hamlet or village. The nesting pattern can be illustrated with overlapping hexagons of different sizes. Hamlets with very small market areas are represented by the smallest contiguous hexagons. Larger hexagons represent the market areas of larger settlements and are overlaid on the smaller hexagons because consumers from smaller settlements shop for some goods and services in larger settlements.

Rank-Size Distribution In many developed countries, geographers observe that ranking settlements from largest to smallest (population) produces a regular pattern. This is called the rank-size rule, in which the country’s nth-largest settlement is 1/n the population of the largest settlement. The second-largest city is one-half the size of the largest, the fourth-largest city is one-fourth the size of the largest, and so on.

When plotted on logarithmic paper, the rank-size distribution forms a fairly straight line. In the United States and a handful of other countries, the distribution of settlements closely follows the rank-size rule. If a country does not follow the rank-size rule, it may follow the primate city rule. A country’s largest city is called the primate city. If a country follows the primate city rule it means that the country’s largest settlement has more than twice as many people as the second-ranking settlement. The absence of ranksize distribution in many developing countries indicates that there is not enough wealth in the society to pay full variety of services. The absence of a rank-size distribution constitutes a hardship for people who must travel long distances to reach an urban settlement with shops and such services as hospitals.

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Chapter 12: Services and Settlements Market Area Analysis A suitable site is one with the potential for generating enough sales to justify using the company’s scarce capital to build it. Service providers often say that the three most important factors in determining whether a particular site will be profitable are, “location, location, and location.”

One corner of an intersection can be profitable and another corner of the same intersection unprofitable.

The gravity model predicts that the optimal location of a service is directly related to the number of people in an area and inversely related to the distance people must travel to access it. The best location will be the one that minimizes the distances that all potential customers must travel to reach the service.

Periodic Markets A periodic market is typically set up in a street or other public space early in the morning, taken down at the end of the day, and set up in another location the next day. A periodic market provides goods to residents of developing countries, as well as rural areas in developing countries, where sparse populations and low incomes produce purchasing power too low to support full-time retailing.

Many vendors in periodic markets are mobile, driving their trucks from farm to market, back to the farm to restock, then to another market. Other vendors, especially local residents who cannot or prefer not to travel to other villages, operate on a part-time basis, perhaps only a few times a year.

Key Issue 3: Where Are Business Services Distributed?

Hierarchy of Business Services Geographers identify a handful of urban settlements known as global cities (also called world cities) that play an especially important role in global business services. Global cities can be subdivided according to a number of criteria.

Business Services in Global Cities Global cities are most closely integrated into the global economic system because they are at the center of the flow of information and capital. Business services (including financial institutions, headquarters of large corporations, and lawyers, accountants, and other professional services) concentrate in disproportionately large numbers in global cities.

Ranking Global Cities Global cities are divided into three levels: alpha, beta, and gamma. A combination of economic, political, cultural, infrastructure, communications, and transportation factors are used to identify global cities and to distinguish among the various ranks.

Consumer and Public Services in Global Cities Because of their large size, global cities have retail services with extensive market areas. A disproportionately large number of wealthy people live in global cities, so luxury and highly specialized products are especially likely to be sold there. Global cities are also centers of national and international political power. Most are national capitals, and they contain mansions or palaces for the head of state. Structures for national legislature and offices for government agencies are also located in global cities. Also clustered in global cities are offices for groups having business with the government, such as representatives of foreign countries, trade associations, labor unions, and professional organizations.

Business Services in Developing Countries In the global economy, developing countries specialize in two distinctive types of business services: offshore financial services and back-office functions. These businesses typically located in developing countries for a number of reasons, including the presence of supportive laws, weak regulations, and low-wage workers.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Offshore Financial Services Small countries exploit niches in the circulation of global capital by offering offshore financial services. The privacy laws and low tax rates in offshore centers can also provide havens to tax dodges and other illegal schemes. By definition, the extent of illegal activities is unknown and unknowable. A prominent example of an offshore banking center is the Cayman Islands.

Several hundred banks with assets of more than $1 trillion are legally based in the Caymans. Most of these banks have only a handful of people, if any, actually working in the Caymans.

Business-Process Outsourcing A second distinctive type of business service found in peripheral regions is back-office functions, also known as business-process outsourcing (BPO). Typical back-office functions include insurance claims processing, payroll management, transcription work, and other routine clerical activities. Traditionally, companies housed their back-office staff in the same office building downtown as their management staff, or at least in nearby buildings. Rising rents downtown have induced many business services to move routine work to lower-rent buildings elsewhere. For many business services, improved telecommunications have eliminated the need for spatial proximity. Selected countries have been able to attract back office work for two reasons related to labor: low wages and ability to speak English.

Economic Specialization of Settlements Settlements can be classified by the distinctive types of economic activities that take place there. All sectors of the economy—be they the various types of agriculture, the various types of manufacturers, or the various types of services—have distinctive geographic distribution.

Economic Base The economic activities in a settlement can be divided into two types: basic and nonbasic businesses. A settlement’s distinctive economic structure derives from its basic industries, which export primarily to consumers outside the settlement. Nonbasic industries are enterprises whose customers live in the same community. A community’s unique collection of basic industries defines its economic base. A settlement’s economic base is important because exporting by the basic industries brings money into the local economy, thus stimulating the provision of more nonbasic consumer services for the settlement.

Settlements in the United States can be classified by their type of basic activity. In a postindustrial society, such as the United States, increasingly the basic economic activities are in business, consumer, or public services. The result can be a cluster of businesses that reinforce each other’s growth. For example, Boston’s basic sector in biotechnology consists of a cluster of business sectors that complement one another.

Distribution of Talent Some cities have a higher percentage of talented individuals than others. Talented individuals are attracted to cities with the most job opportunities and financial incentives. Individuals with special talents also gravitate toward cities that offer more cultural diversity. Florida measured talent as a combination of the percentage of people in the city with college degrees, the percentage employed as scientists or engineers, and the percentage employed as professionals or technicians. Attracting talented individuals is important for a city because these individuals are responsible for promoting economic innovation. They are likely to start new businesses and infuse the local economy with fresh ideas.

Key Issue 4: Why Do Services Cluster in Settlements?

Services in Rural Settlements Rural settlements are either clustered or dispersed. A clustered rural settlement is an agricultural-based community in which a number of families live in close proximity to each other, with fields surrounding the collection of houses and farm buildings. A dispersed rural settlement is characterized by farmers living on individual farms isolated from neighbors rather than alongside other farmers in settlements.

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Chapter 12: Services and Settlements Clustered Rural Settlements A clustered rural settlement typically includes homes, barns, tools, sheds, and other farm structures, plus consumer services, such as religious structures, schools, and shops. In common language, such a settlement is called a hamlet or village. Clustered rural settlements are often arranged in one of two types of patterns: circular or linear. New England colonists built clustered settlements centered on an open area called a common. Settlers grouped their homes and public buildings, such as the church and school, around a common. Each villager owned several discontinuous parcels on the periphery of the settlements to provide the variety of land types needed for different crops. Beyond the fields, the town held pastures and woodland for the common use of all residents. However, quaint New England towns are little more than picturesque shells of clustered rural settlements because today’s residents work in shops and office rather than on farms.

Dispersed Rural Settlements A dispersed rural settlement, typical of the North American rural landscape, is characterized by farmers living on individual farms isolated from neighbors rather than alongside other farmers in settlements. The Middle Atlantic colonies were settled by more heterogeneous groups than those in New England. Most arrived in Middle Atlantic colonies individually rather as members of a cohesive religious or cultural groups. Dispersed rural settlement patterns dominated in the American Midwest in part because the early settlers came primarily from the Middle Atlantic colonies.

Dispersed rural settlements were considered more efficient for agriculture than clustered settlements. A prominent example was the enclosure movement in Great Britain between 1750 and 1850. The British governments transformed the rural landscape by consolidating individually owned strips of land surrounding a village into a single large farm owned by an individual. When necessary, the government forced people to give up their former holdings. The enclosure movement brought greater agriculture efficiency, but it destroyed the self-contained world of village life.

Services in Early Urban Settlements Before the establishment of permanent settlements as service centers, people lived as nomad, migrating in small groups across the landscape in search of food and water. At some point, groups decided to build permanent settlements. Several families clustered together in a rural location and obtained food in the surrounding area. No one knows the precise sequence of events through which settlements were established to provide services. Based on archaeological research, settlements probably originated to provide consumer and public services. Business services followed later.

Prehistoric Urban Settlements The first ancient cities may have been in Mesopotamia. Ancient Ur, Athens, and later Rome were all centers of services more complex than those found in smaller rural settlements. Medieval cities represented an expansion of trade and increased liberty for residents compared to the life of rural serfs. Medieval cities lacked space for construction because they were surrounded by walls, so ordinary shops and houses were nestled into the side of the walls and large buildings. After the collapse of the Roman Empire, most of the world’s largest urban settlements were clustered in China.

Early Consumer Services The earliest permanent settlements may have been established to offer consumer services, specifically places to bury the dead. Having established a permanent resting place for the dead, the group might then install priests at the site to perform the service of saying prayers for the deceased. This would have encouraged the building of structures—places for ceremonies and dwellings.

Settlements also may have been places to house families, permitting unburdened males to travel farther in their search of food.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Early Business Services Early urban settlements were places where groups could store surplus food and trade with other groups. People brought plants, animals, and minerals, as well as tools, clothing, and containers, to the urban settlements, and exchanged them for items brought by others. To facilitate this trade, officials in the settlement set fair prices, kept records, and created currency.

Early Public Services Early settlements housed political leaders as well as defense forces to guard the residents of the settlement and defend the surrounding hinterland from conquest by others.

Ancient Urban Settlements Settlements were first established in the eastern Mediterranean about 2500 B.C. These settlements were trading centers for the thousands of islands dotting the Aegean Sea and the eastern Mediterranean and provided the government, military protection, and other public services for their surrounding hinterlands. These settlements were organized into city-states, self-governing communities that included the settlement and nearby countryside. Athens, the largest city-state in ancient Greece, made substantial contributions to the development of culture, philosophy, and other elements of Western civilization. The rise of the Roman Empire engendered urban settlement. The fall of the Roman Empire in the fifth century caused urban settlements to decline.

Medieval Urban Settlements With the fall of the Roman Empire, the majority of the world’s largest urban settlements were clustered in China. Urban life began to revive in Europe in the eleventh century, as feudal lords established new urban settlements. The lords gave residents charters of rights with which to establish independent cities in exchange for their military service. After the end of serfdom, urban dwellers set about expanding trade. Surplus from the countryside was brought into the city for sale or exchange, and markets were expanded through trade with other free cities. By the fourteenth century, Europe was covered by a dense network of small market towns. The most important public services occupied palaces, churches, and other prominent buildings arrange around a central market square.

Percent Urban The process by which the populations of urban settlements grow is known as urbanization. Urbanization has two dimensions: an increase in the percentage of people living in urban settlements and an increase in the number of people living urban settlements. These two factors have different global distributions and occur for different reasons.

Differences Between Urban and Rural Settlements A century ago, social scientists observed striking differences between urban and rural residents. An urban dweller follows a different way of life than a rural dweller. These urban settlements differentiated from rural areas by their large size, high population density, and socially heterogeneous people. These characteristics produced differences in the social behavior of urban and rural residents.

Large Size If you live in a rural settlement, you know most of the other inhabitants and may even be related to many of them. The people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you see in local ships and at church. In contrast, if you live in an urban settlement, you can know only a small percentage of the other residents.

High Density High density also produces social consequences for urban residents. The only way that a large number of people can be supported in a small area is through specialization. Each person in an urban settlement plays a special role or performs a specific task to allow the complex, urban system to function smoothly. By the same token, high density also encourages social groups to compete to occupy the same territory.

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Chapter 12: Services and Settlements Social Heterogeneity The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people. A person has greater freedom in an urban settlement than in rural settlement to pursue an unusual profession, sexual orientation, or cultural interest. In a rural settlement, unusual action might be noticed and scorned, but urban residents are more tolerant of diverse social behavior. Regardless of values and preferences, in a large urban settlement, individuals can find people with similar interests.

Percentage in Urban Settlements The percentage of the world’s population living in urban settlements has increased rapidly, from 3 percent in 1800 to 6 percent in 1850, 14 percent in 1900, 30 percent in 1950, and 45 percent in 2000. The population of Earth’s urban settlements exceeded that of rural settlements for the first time in human history around 2008. The percentage of people living in urban settlements mirrors a country’s level of development. In developed countries, 77 percent live in urban areas, compared to 48 percent in developing countries. The gap in urbanization between developed and developing countries is closing rapidly.

Site of Urban Settlements Developed countries have a higher percentage of urban residents, but developing countries have more of the very large urban settlements. Seven of the 10 most populous cities are in developing countries: Jakarta, Delhi, Manila, Shanghai, Karachi, Beijing, and Guangzhou. All but 3 of the 100 fastest-growing urban settlements are in developing countries. Five of the 13 growing at more than 4 percent per year are in Africa, 3 are in India, 4 are elsewhere in Asia, and 1 is in Latin America.

The three exceptions are in the United States: Atlanta, Austin, and Las Vegas are among the top 100 fastest-growing urban settlements. In developing countries, migration from the countryside is fueling half of the increase in population in urban settlements, even though job opportunities may be scarce.

Introducing the Chapter Students will have a familiarity born of direct experience with many jobs in this sector, thus, it does not warrant as lengthy an introduction. Try the following icebreaker to stimulate discussion and approach central place theory in a roundabout way.

Icebreaker: Central Places Choose three close together (within 100 miles of each other) towns: the one your school is located in and two others, so that the relative sizes are at least 1:5:25 (each town is at least five times the size of the next of the next). Give students an overview of each town and the population size so they are familiar. Now ask the following: which towns would be likely to have a . . .

• gas station?

• fast-food restaurant?

• general practitioner?

• shopping center?

• shopping mall?

• movie theater?

• theater for plays or performances?

• professional piano tuner?

• lawyer for traffic court?

• neurosurgeon?

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography • • • •

thrift store? lawyer for international litigation? luxury fashion shop (e.g., Fendi, Prada, Versace)? … etc. . . .

The examples will lead students to the “obvious” answer that the more specialized services will be located in the larger city, while the basic services will be found in every town. However, students will probably not have considered why this pattern is so predictable. You could go back through the list and ask which services are more or less specialized to reveal this, or simply begin a discussion of threshold and range.

Challenges to Comprehension Range vs. Threshold Though both are elementary concepts, students do not always grasp the difference between them. Here is a way to explain the distinction by comparing high-range services and high-threshold services.

High-range services are specialized enough that people will travel great distances to use them. Because they are high-range, their range by default includes a large population (all the people within the range are potential customers). However, many services are so specialized that a low percentage of people within their range will use the service. Examples include specialized medicine, some artists, or specialized producer services.

High-threshold activities can have low ranges, but need a large population to support the business. People would not travel very far for the service, so the service locates central to large populations. Examples include superstores, malls, and fast-food restaurants.

False Hierarchies Students may assume that since services are presented as the tertiary sector of the economy, service jobs are intrinsically more valuable than those in the primary and secondary sectors. Disabuse them of this notion by pointing out that service jobs include low-paid, low-skill jobs like housekeeping and restaurant work.

On the other hand, some students may feel that workers in the first two sectors are the ones doing “real work,” especially if they work in those sectors. Discussions of this topic can create debates about worker productivity, Marxism, and capitalism.

Assignments Review/Reflection Questions • •

Make a list of the service jobs you’ve had, and identity each by type according to the text.

Describe the type of job you’re hoping to start after college. Is it a service? What does this, combined with your previous answer, tell you about the range of service jobs?

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Chapter 12: Services and Settlements •

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Would it be difficult to do well at the job you’ve described above if you lived in a very small town? Use the concepts of threshold, range, and central place theory to describe why high-paying jobs are easier to find in large cities.

Present the reasoning of a person who chooses to live downtown, near the central business district (CBD). Answer as though you’re explaining to a friend why you chose to live there. Reference concepts from the text in your answer.

Now present the reasoning of a person who chooses to live in the suburbs while they work in the city. Again, answer as though you’re explaining your decision to a friend and reference concepts from the text.

Thinking Geographically Questions 12.1: Sharing services for housing, such as Airbnb, are illegal in many cities in the United States and Europe. Sharing services for transportation, such as Uber, are strongly opposed in many places. Figure 12-46 shows a protest against Uber by taxi drivers in Budapest, Hungary. Why would cities make these services illegal or difficult to use?

Cities may want to make services like Uber and Airbnb illegal because they would lack certain regulatory oversight on services provided through these companies. While these services may be convenient for users and independent contractors, regulation is in place for a reason (e.g. cabs are routinely maintenanced and ensured to be road-worthy). Taxi driver unions and hotel lobbying organizations may also appeal to municipal governments to prevent these services from being available to citizens.

12.2: Education services frequently attract other types of consumer services to nearby locations. What are examples of distinctive consumer services that are located near a university in your community? Why might these consumer services pick locations near a university?

For a small university town in Alabama, my community offers a decent variety of consumer services that cater to a diverse group of people. For example, there is a Thai restaurant in the downtown area of my community – probably the only restaurant of its kind for 150 miles. This kind of consumer service would pick a location near a university because they know international students will patronize their business.

12.3: What evidence can you find in your community of economic ties to alpha++ or alpha+ cities?

Figure 12-48 offers one example.

Similar to Figure 12-48, the only consumer services in my town that are linked to alpha++ cities are financial services, such as a Bank of America branch located downtown.

12.4: Professional sports teams are examples of services with large ranges, thresholds, and areas, and consequently they cluster in large urban settlements. Google “Largest U.S. Metropolitan Statistical Areas.” Compare the list with the distribution of Major League Baseball teams shown in Figure 1-29.

What are the largest metropolitan areas without a team? What is the smallest settlement with a team?

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Charlotte, Portland, and Orlando are the largest metropolitan statistical areas without a team. Milwaukee is the smallest settlement with a team.

Pause and Reflect Questions 12.1.1: In which sectors of the economy do you or members of your family work? If in the service sector, in which types of services are these jobs?

My father works in the secondary sector of the economy, treating lumber. I work in the tertiary sector of the economy (service), as a graduate student at a university. My job is in the public services sub-sector.

12.2.1: What occurs in nature in the shape of hexagons? You can do an Internet search for “naturally occurring hexagons.”

Bees make their hives in the shape of hexagons. Bees make their hives in a honeycomb shape.

Geographers use hexagons to depict the market area of a good or service because hexagons offer a compromise between the geometric properties of circles and squares.

12.2.2: Does Peru follow the rank-size rule or the primate city rule? Use you search engine to find “most populous cities in Peru.”

Peru is definitely a good example of the primate city rule. Lima is almost 10 times larger than the second most populous city in the country.

12.2.4: Identify an example of a periodic market in developed countries.

A periodic market in a developed country could be a farmers’ market.

12.3.1: How would you expect an alpha city such as Chicago to differ from a beta city such as Houston or a gamma city such as Phoenix?

A wider variety of services would definitely be present in an alpha city compared to beta and gamma cities. There are likely to be more political institutions located in alpha cities, although Phoenix is the capital of Arizona and houses the state government, while Chicago is not the capital of Illinois and does not house the state government. There are probably more public transportation options in alpha cities, making urban life much easier compared to cities lacking such infrastructure; the “L” in Chicago, along with its extensive bus network, allows for one to travel the city with ease. A city that contains more sprawl, like Phoenix, may not be suitable for such a public transportation system.

12.3.2: If it is 3 P.M. on a Tuesday where you live, what time and day is it at a call center in India? Refer to Figure 1-15.

If it is 3:00 P.M. on a Tuesday in Alabama it would be 6:30 A.M. on Wednesday in New Delhi, India.

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Chapter 12: Services and Settlements 12.3.3: Do settlements with high concentrations of scientists and professionals rank high on “coolness” or low? What might account for that pattern?

Cities with high concentrations of scientists and professionals do generally mirror cities that rank high on “coolness.” These scientists and professionals may work for companies that have associated their branding with “coolness” (e.g. tech companies in San Francisco), or they may be “cool” by virtue of being a large urban settlement that attracts “cool” people that aren’t professionals or scientists.

12.4.1: In which sector of the economy would you expect most of the residents of Newfane, Vermont, or Condicote, United Kingdom, to be employed? Why? I would guess that the residents of these two towns to be employed in the primary sector of the economy, as both communities seem to be rural clustered settlements surrounded by farmland or dense forestland.

12.4.2: In prehistoric times, before the invention of settlements, why might caves have played an important role?

People lived in caves. They provide a natural shelter from the elements.

12.4.3: What migration factor discussed in Chapter 3 might help to explain why the percentage of people in developed countries living in urban areas may not continue to increase?

Counterurbanization may play a role in the size of urban areas not continuing to increase.

Explore Use Google Earth to explore North America’s largest shopping mall.

Fly to West Edmonton Mall, Alberta.

Show Ruler and measure the area occupied by the mall, including parking lots, inside the rectangle formed by the four perimeter streets. Explore the four streets that form the perimeter of the mall by zooming in to eye alt around 2,500 ft and dragging to Enter Street View.

Large consumer service centers such as a mega-mall often attract other consumer services nearby.

1. Can you see any evidence of consumer services adjacent to the mall? Why might the continent’s largest mall have relatively few services immediately adjacent?

It doesn’t appear as if there are any consumer services adjacent to the mall. There might be few services immediately adjacent to the mall because all of the services are located in the mall itself.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 2. What is the principal use of land on the other sides of the four perimeter streets?

The land surrounding the mall is primarily used for residential purposes.

3. What evidence do you see of transportation services for people to arrive other than in individual passenger cars?

It appears as if there are multiple bus stops surrounding the mall, allowing for public transportation to the mall.

Resources U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics This website provides enough statistics on labor and industry to last a lifetime: www.bls.gov/.

Detailed statistics are available on labor, job markets, inflation, productivity, unemployment, and much more.

U.S. Census Bureau Service Annual Survey http://www.census.gov/services/index.htmlThis website details statistics (some collected quarterly) on employment in the service sector. This site includes definitions of each service industry (type), detailed data on each type, and the survey forms used to collect the data.

Connections between Chapters Back to Chapter 11 As industrial jobs are lost to higher productivity or simply “offshored,” service jobs represent the majority of job growth in the developed world. Technology and efficiency has been able to create site and situation factors which allow some jobs to move, but many services are location-specific to where the market is.

However, an excellent example of the rapidity of this change is the increasing number of North Americans (though still very small) who travel to places as far away as India for surgery or other healthcare to save medical costs. Not even doctors’ jobs are completely safe in the global marketplace!

Forward to Chapter 13 The transition is nearly seamless since Chapter 12 already introduces the fact that settlements and services occur together. With earlier discussions of central place theory and the hierarchical organization of settlements, students should be prepared to delve deeper into urban geography.

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Urban Patterns Learning Outcomes After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to: Learning Outcome 13.1.1:

Understand various definitions of urban settlements.

Learning Outcome 13.1.2:

Describe the distinctive features of the CBD.

Learning Outcome 13.1.3:

Understand the use of vertical space in the CBD and the exclusion of some land uses.

Learning Outcome 13.2.1:

Describe models of internal structure of urban areas.

Learning Outcome 13.2.2:

Analyze how the three models help to explain where people live.

Learning Outcome 13.2.3:

Describe how the three models explain patterns in European cities.

Learning Outcome 13.2.4:

Describe patterns in precolonial and colonial cities in developing countries.

Learning Outcome 13.2.5:

Understand how the three models of urban structure describe patterns in cities in developing countries.

Learning Outcome 13.2.6:

Describe stages of development and apply urban models to Mexico City.

Learning Outcome 13.3.1:

Understand the impact of suburban growth on local government.

Learning Outcome 13.3.2:

Describe suburban sprawl.

Learning Outcome 13.3.3:

Explain ways in which suburbs are segregated.

Learning Outcome 13.3.4:

Describe the benefits and drawbacks of public transport.

Learning Outcome 13.3.5:

Describe the strategies to reduce the impact of motor vehicles in urban areas.

Learning Outcome 13.4.1:

Understand challenges faced by cities.

Learning Outcome 13.4.2:

Describe the process of gentrification.

Learning Outcome 13.4.3:

Consider contrasting trends in American cities.

Learning Outcome 13.4.4:

Strategies for improving city air.

Learning Outcome 13.4.5:

Consider alternative future vehicles for the city.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography

Chapter Outline Key Issue 1: Why Are Downtowns Distinctive?

Introducing Urban Patterns Models have been developed to explain why differences occur within urban areas. In developing countries people are migrating into cities in large numbers, whereas in developed countries people are increasingly likely to be moving out to suburbs.

Central City Historically, urban settlements were very small and compact. As these settlements have rapidly increased in size, however, definitions have been created to describe their different parts: the central city, the urban area, and the metropolitan area. A central city (or simply city) is an urban settlement that has been legally incorporated into an independent, self-governing unit known as a municipality. Virtually all countries have a local government system that recognizes cities as legal entities with defined boundaries.

Urban Area An urban area consists of a central city and its surrounding built-up suburbs. The U.S. census recognizes two types of urban areas. The urbanized area is an urban area with at least 50,000 inhabitants. An urban cluster is an urban area with between 2,500 and 50,000 inhabitants.

Metropolitan Area The U.S. Bureau of the Census has created a method of measuring the larger functional area of a settlement, known as the metropolitan statistical area (MSA). An MSA includes an urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000, the county within which the city is located, and adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of residents working in the central city’s county. The census has also designated smaller urban areas as micropolitan statistical areas (μSAs). A μSA includes an urbanized area of between 10,000 and 50,000 inhabitants, the county in which it is located, and adjacent counties tied to the city. The census combines MSAs and μSAs in several ways.

A core-based statistical area (CBSA) is any one MSA or μSA. A combined statistical area (CSA) is two or more contiguous CBSAs tied together by commuting patterns. A primary statistical area (PSA) is a CSA, an MSA not included in a CSA, or a μSA not included in a CSA. The Central Business District The central business district (CBD) is the core of the city where many services cluster. Services are attracted to the CBD because of its accessibility. The CBD is usually near the original site of settlement. The CBDs of older cities are often situated along a body of water.

Public Services in CBDs Public services typically located in a CBD include city hall, courts, county and state agencies, and libraries. Public services are located in the CBD to facilitate access for people living in all parts of town. Sports facilities and convention centers are found in the CBD and attract many suburbanites and out-of-towners. Cities place these facilities in the CBD because they hope to stimulate business for downtown restaurants, bars, and hotels.

Business Services in CBDs People in business services such as advertising, banking, journalism, and law depend on proximity for professional colleagues. Even with the diffusion of modern communications, many professionals still exchange information with colleagues primarily through face-to-face contact. A central location also helps businesses that employ workers from a variety of neighborhoods.

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Chapter 13: Urban Patterns Consumer Services in CBDs Retail services were once important to the CBD but are now less so. Changing shopping habits and residential patterns have reduced the importance of retail services in the CBD. Retailers with High Thresholds Retailers with a high range and threshold traditionally preferred a CBD location in order to be accessible to many people. Many large retail stores have moved to the suburbs.

Changing shopping habits and residential habits have reduced the importance of retail services in the CBD. Retailers with High Ranges High-range retailers are often specialists, with customers who patronize them infrequently. These retailers once preferred CBD locations because their customers were scattered over a wide area. Some retailers with high ranges have located in CBDs because they are visited by tourists. Some local residents also patronize shops in the CBD as a leisure activity on evenings and weekends.

Retailers Serving CBD Workers Specialized retailers and those serving downtown workers still remain in the CBD. Retailers selling office supplies, computers, and clothing or offering shoe repair, rapid photocopying, or dry cleaning are actually expanding in the CBD. The number of downtown office workers has increased and downtown offices are now requiring more services. The total volume of sales in downtown areas has been stable, but the pattern of demand has changed.

Competition for Space in CBDs A CBD’s accessibility produces extreme competition for the limited available land. As a result, land values are very high in the CBD. As a result of intense competition for land, the CBD has distinctive features. The CBD has a three-dimensional character, with more space used below and above ground level than elsewhere in the urban area. Land uses commonly found elsewhere in the urban area are rare in the CBD. Activities Excluded from the CBD High rents and land shortage discourage two principal activities in the CBD – industrial and residential.

Lack of Manufacturing in the CBD In the past, inner-city factories and retail establishments relied on waterfront CBDs that were once lined with piers for cargo ships to load and unload and unload and warehouses to store goods. Port facilities have moved to more modern facilities downstream. Port cities have transformed their waterfronts from industry to recreational activities. Derelict warehouses and rotting piers have been replaced with new offices, shops, parks, and museums, becoming major tourist attractions.

Lack of Residents in the CBD Many people used to live downtown. Many people were pulled to suburbs that offered larger homes with private yards and modern schools. They were pushed from CBDs by high rents that businesses and retail services were willing to pay and by dirt, crime, congestion, and poverty that they experienced by living downtown. Downtown living has become attractive recently to people without school-age children. People without school-age children are attracted to the entertainment, restaurants, museums, and nightlife that is clustered downtown.

Vertical Features of the CBD The CBD makes more intensive use of space below and above ground.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography The Underground CBD A vast underground network exists beneath most CBDs. The typical “underground city” includes garages, loading docks for deliveries to offices and shops, electric and telephone wires, and pipes for water and sewer service. Subway trains run beneath the streets of large CBS. Skyscrapers Skyscrapers develop to maximize the floor space in the highest-demand areas. Downtown skyscrapers give a city one of its most distinctive images and unifying symbols. The first high-rises caused great inconvenience to neighboring structures because they blocked light and air movements. Most North American and European cities enacted zoning ordinances early in the twentieth century in part to control the location and height of skyscrapers.

CBDs outside North America Outside of North America, CBDs are less likely to be dominated by commercial services. They instead feature religious or historical structures and parks. CBDs outside of North America are also more likely to have residents. However, the 24-hour supermarket is rare outside of a North American CBD because of shopkeeper preferences, government regulations, and long-time shopping habits. Many CBDs outside of North America ban motor vehicles from busy shopping streets.

Key Issue 2: Where Are People Distributed in Urban Areas?

Models of Urban Structure Sociologists, economists, and geographers have developed three models to help explain where different types of people tend to live in an urban area – the concentric zone, sector, and multiple nuclei models. The peripheral model is a modification of the multiple nuclei model. The three models have been applied to cities in the United States and in other countries with varying levels of success. The three models describing the internal social structure of cities were developed in Chicago.

Concentric Zone Model The concentric zone model, created in 1923 by sociologist E.W. Burgess, was the first model to explain the distribution of different social groups within urban areas. According to the concentric zone model, a city grows outward from a central area in a series of concentric rings, like growth rings of a tree. The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but the same basic types of rings appear in the same order.

Sector Model In the sector model, developed in 1939 by land economist Homer Hoyt, the city develops in a series of sectors, not rings. Certain areas of the city are more attractive for various activities, originally because of an environmental or even by mere chance. Once a district with high-class housing is established, the most expensive new housing is built on the outer edge of that district, farther out from the center. The best housing is therefore found in a corridor extending from downtown to the outer edge of the city. To some extent the sector model is a refinement of the concentric zone model rather than a radical restatement.

Multiple Nuclei Model According to the multiple nuclei model, developed by geographers C.D. Harris and E.L. Ullman in 1945, a city is a complex structure that includes more than one center around which activities revolve. Examples of these nodes include a port, a neighborhood business center, a university, an airport, and a park. The multiple nuclei theory states that some activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas others try to avoid them. Heavy industry and high-class housing rarely exist in the same neighborhood. The nodes of consumer and business services around the beltway are called edge cities.

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Chapter 13: Urban Patterns Edge cities originated as suburban residences for people who worked in the central city, and then shopping malls were built to be near the residents.

Applying the Models in North America The three models of urban structure help us understand where people with different social characteristics tend to live within and urban area.

Social Area Analysis The study of where people of varying living standards, ethnic background, and lifestyle live within an urban area is social area analysis. Social area analysis helps to create an overall picture of where various types of people tend to live, depending on their particular personal characteristics. Effective use of the models depends on the availability of data at the scale of individual neighborhoods. Urban areas in the United States are divided into census tracts that each contain approximately 5,000 residents and correspond, where possible, to neighborhood boundaries. Each decade the U.S. Bureau of the Census publishes data summarizing the characteristics of the residents and housing in each tract. Social scientists can use social area analysis to compare the distribution of characteristics and create an overall picture of where various types of people tend to live.

Limitations of the Models None of the three models taken individually completely explains why different types of people live in distinctive parts of a city. Critics view the models as too simple and fail to consider the variety of reasons that lead people to select particular residential locations. Because the three models are all based on conditions that existed in U.S. cities between the two world wars, critics also question their relevance to contemporary urban patterns in the United States or in other countries.

Applying the Models in Europe American urban areas differ from those elsewhere in the world. These differences do not invalidate the three models of internal urban structure, but they do point out that social groups in other countries may not have the same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods within their cities.

CBDs in Europe Europe’s CBDs have a different mix of land uses than those in North America.

Differences stem from the medieval origins of many of Europe’s CBDs. European cities display a legacy of low-rise structures and narrow streets, built as long ago as medieval times. More people live downtown in cities outside of North America. More people live in Europe’s CBDs in part because they are attracted to the concentration of consumer services, such as cultural activities and animated nightlife. The most prominent structures in Europe’s CBDs are often public and semipublic services, such as churches and former royal palaces, situated on the most important public squares. Europe’s CBDs contain professional and financial services. However, business services in Europe’s CBDs are less likely to be housed in skyscrapers than those in North America.

The Three Models in Europe The urban structure in Paris can be used to illustrate similarities and differences in the distribution of people in U.S. and European cities: •

Concentric Zones. As in U.S. urban areas, the newer housing in the Paris region is in outer rings, and the older housing is closer to the center. Unlike in U.S. urban areas, though, much of the newer suburban housing is in high-rise apartments rather than single-family homes.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography •

Sectors. Again, as in U.S. urban areas, higher-income people cluster in a sector in the Paris region. The wealthy lived near the royal palace beginning in the twelfth century and the Palace of Versailles from the sixteenth century until the French Revolution in 1789.

•

Multiple Nuclei. European urban areas, including Paris, have experienced a large increase in immigration from other regions of the world. In contrast to U.S. urban areas, most ethnic and racial minorities reside in the suburbs of Paris.

Pre-modern Cities in Developing Countries Cities in developing countries may date from ancient times. For most of recorded history, the world’s largest cities have been in Asia. However, until modern times, most Asians lived in rural settlements. The ancient and medieval structure of these cities was influenced by the cultural values of the indigenous peoples living there.

Ancient and Medieval City: Beijing Archaeological evidence of Beijing dates from 1045 B.C., although the city may have been founded thousands of years earlier. A succession of invaders and dynasties shaped what is now the central area of Beijing.

Beijing During the Yuan Dynasty Kubla Khan, founder of the Yuan Dynasty, constructed a new city called Dadu beginning in 1267. The Drum Tower was constructed at the center of the city. The heart of Dadu was three palaces built on Qionghua Island in the middle of Taiye Lake. The two palaces to the west of the lake housed the imperial family, and the eastern one contained offices. Residential areas were laid out in a checkerboard pattern divided by wider roads and narrower alleys. Three markets were placed in the residential areas.

Beijing in the Ming Dynasty After capturing Dadu in 1368, the Ming dynasty reconstructed it over the next several decades. The imperial palace was demolished and replaced with new structures, including the Forbidden City and the Temple of Heaven.

Colonial Legacy When Europeans gained control of much of Africa, Asia, and Latin America, their colonial policies left an indelible mark on many cities. One feature of European control was the imposition of standardized plans for cities. For example, all Spanish cities in Latin America were built according to the Laws of the Indies, drafted in 1573. The laws explicitly outlined how colonial cities were to be constructed. In some places, European colonial powers built a new city next to the existing one. The new city was the location for colonial services, such as administration, military command, and international trade, as well as housing for European colonists. In other cases, European colonial powers simply demolished the precolonial city.

Applying the Models in Developing Countries The three models of urban structure described earlier in this chapter help to explain contemporary patterns within the urban areas in developing countries. Rapid growth of population and land area has strengthened the applicability of the models in some cities but reduced their usefulness in other instances.

Concentric Zones in Developing Countries The concentric zone model has been used to examine cities in developing countries most frequently, most notably by geographer Harm deBlij’s model of subSaharan African cities. The inner rings are inhabited by higher-income people, as they have the most 238 © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 13: Urban Patterns attractive residential areas due to proximity to businesses and consumer services. These inner rings also offer vital public services, such as water, electricity, paved roads, and garbage pickup. As cities grow rapidly in developing countries, rings are constantly being added on the periphery to accommodate immigrants from rural areas attracted by job opportunities. Many residential areas in the outer rings take the form of informal settlements, also known as squatter settlements. The United Nations has identified an informal settlement as a residential area where housing has been built on land to which the occupants have no legal claim or has not been built to the city’s standard for legal buildings. Informal settlements have few services because neither the city nor the residents can afford them.

Multiple Nuclei in Developing Countries T.G. McGee’s model of a Southeast Asian city superimposes on concentric zones several nodes of squatter settlements and what he called “alien” zones, where foreigners, usually Chinese, live and work. McGee found that Southeast Asian cities do not typically have a strong CBD. Instead, the various functions of the CBD are dispersed to several nodes. Cities in some developing countries show evidence of the multiple nuclei model by containing a complex mix of ethnic groups.

Sectors in Developing Countries Geographers Ernest Griffin and Larry Ford show that in Latin American cities, wealthy people push out from the center in a well-defined elite residential sector. The elite sector forms on either side of a narrow spine that contains offices, shops, and amenities attractive to wealthy people, such as restaurants, theaters, parks, and zoos. The wealthy are also attracted to the center and spine because services such as water and electricity are more readily available and reliable there than elsewhere. Wealthy and middle-class residents avoid living near sectors of “disamenity,” which are land uses that may be noisy or polluting or that cater to low-income residents.

Changing Urban Structure of Mexico City Mexico City provides an ideal example of a city in a developing country that has passed through three stages of development: pre-Europeans origin, the European colonial period, and postcolonial independence. The modern city also displays evidence of the models of urban structure.

Precolonial Mexico City The Aztecs founded Mexico City—which the called Tenochtitlán—on a hill known as Chapultepec (“the hill of the grasshopper”). They eventually moved their settlement to a 10square-kilometer island in Lake Texcoco in 1325. The node of religious life was the Great Temple. Most food, merchandise, and building materials crossed from the mainland to the island by boat, and the island was laced with canals to facilitate movement. As the Aztecs conquered neighboring populations over the following two centuries, Tenochtitlán grew to a population of a half-million.

Colonial Mexico City The Spanish conquered Tenochtitlán in 1521, after a two-year siege. They destroyed Tenochtitlán, dispersed or killed most of the inhabitants, and constructed a new city on the site.

The Spanish built Mexico City around a main square, called the Zócalo, on the site of the Aztecs’ sacred precinct in the center of the island. Streets were laid out in a grid pattern extending from the Zócalo.

Mexico City Since Independence At independence, Mexico City was a relatively small city. The population grew modestly during the nineteenth century, reaching around 500,000 in 1900. The population grew dramatically during the twentieth century, to 3 million in 1950 and 21 million in the urban area in 2015. Millions have migrated to the cities in search of work. In 1903, most of Lake Texcoco was drained by a gigantic canal and tunnel project, allowing the city to expand to the north and east.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Key Issue 3: Why Do Urban Areas Expand?

A suburb is a residential or commercial area situated within an urban area but outside the central city.

Suburbs have existed on a small scale since ancient times; residential areas were often located outside the walls surrounding a city. As cities grew rapidly during the nineteenth century, as part of the Industrial Revolution, more extensive suburbs appeared.

Origin and Growth of Suburbs In 1950, only 20 percent of Americans lived in suburbs compared to 40 percent in cities and 40 percent in small towns and rural areas. The percentage living in suburbs rose rapidly thereafter. Ten years after, one-third of Americans lived in cities, one-third in suburbs, and onethird in small towns and rural areas. Suburbs offer varied attractions – a detached single-family dwelling rather than a row house or an apartment, private land surrounding the house, space to park cars, and a greater opportunity for home ownership.

Annexation The process of legally adding land area to a city is annexation. Normally, land can be annexed to a city only if a majority of the residents in the affected area vote in favor of the annexation.

Peripheral residents generally desired annexation in the nineteenth century because the city offered better services, such as water supply, sewage disposal, trash pickup, paved streets, public transportation, and police and fire protection. Today, cities are less likely to annex peripheral land because residents prefer to organize their own services rather than pay the city taxes for them.

Local Government Fragmentation Because MSAs in the United States are composed of many independent suburbs and central cities as well as counties, local governments are fragmented and less able to deal with regional problems. Most U.S. metropolitan areas have a council of government, which is a cooperative agency consisting of representatives of the various local governments in the region. The council of government may be empowered to do some overall planning for the area that local governments cannot logically do. Two kinds of strong metropolitan-wide governments have been established in a few places in North America: consolidations of city and county governments, and federations.

Smart Growth Some U.S. cities have pursued smart growth laws to limit sprawl. Smart Growth is legislation and regulations to limit suburban growth and preserve farmland.

Suburban Sprawl Sprawl is the development of suburbs at relatively low density and at locations that are not contiguous to the existing built-up area. When private developers select new housing sites, they seek cheap land that can easily be prepared for construction – land often contiguous to the existing builtup area.

The Peripheral Model According to the peripheral model, an urban area consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential and business areas tied together by a beltway or ring road.

Density Gradient North American cities once followed a density gradient where density decreased consistently with increasing distance from the city center. Two changes have impacted the density gradient in recent years: fewer people living in the center, and fewer differences in density within urban areas. These two changes flatten the density gradient and reduce the extremes of density between inner and outer areas traditionally found within cities.

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Chapter 13: Urban Patterns Overlapping Metropolitan Areas In the northeastern United States, large metropolitan areas are so close together that they now form one continuous urban complex, extending north of Boston to south of Washington, D.C., this region is known as Megalopolis. Other continuous urban complexes exist in the United States—the southern Great Lakes between Chicago and Milwaukee on the west and Pittsburgh on the east, and southern California from Los Angeles to Tijuana.

Suburban Segregation Many suburbs display two forms of segregation: •

Segregation of social classes. Housing in given suburban community is usually built for people of a single social class, with others excluded by virtue of the cost, size, or location of the housing.

Segregation by race and ethnicity also persists in some suburbs.

•

Segregation of land uses. Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities that are confined to compact, distinct areas.

U.S. and U.K. Suburbs The supply of land for the construction of new housing is more severely restricted in European urban areas than in the United States. Officials try to limit sprawl by designating areas of mandatory open space. Several British cities are surrounded by greenbelts, or rings of open space. New housing is built either in older suburbs inside the greenbelts or in planned extensions to small towns and new towns beyond the greenbelts.

Residential Segregation Low-income people and minorities are unable to live in many U.S. suburbs because of the high cost of the housing and unwelcoming attitudes of established residents. Suburban communities discourage the entry of those with lower incomes and minorities because of fear that property values will decline if the high-status composition of the neighborhood is altered. The homogeneity in suburban communities is legally protected through zoning ordinances. A zoning ordinance is a law that limits the permitted uses of land and maximum density of development in a community. Zoning ordinances typically identify districts designed only for single-family houses, apartments, industry, or commerce.

Suburban Services Consumer and business services are also expanding in suburbs. A number of actors account for this trend.

Suburbanization of Consumer Services The suburbs created segregated land uses, with residential areas separate from retail and manufacturing activities, with the consequence of requiring automobile ownership for all trips. Retailing has been increasingly concentrated in planned suburban shopping malls.

Corner shops have been replaced by supermarkets in small shopping centers. Generous parking lots surround stores. Malls have become centers for activities in suburban areas that lack other types of community facilities.

Suburbanization of Business Services Offices that do not require face-to-face contact are increasingly moving to suburbs, where rents are lower than in the CBD. For some workers suburban office locations can pose hardships. Secretaries, custodians, and other lower-status office workers may not have cars and public transportation may not serve the site. Factories and warehouses have migrated to suburbia for more space, cheaper land, and better truck access. Suburban locations facilitate truck shipments by providing good access to main highways and no central city traffic congestion.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Legacy of Public Transport The intense concentration of people in the CBD during working hours strains transportation systems because a large number of people must reach a small area of land at the same time in the morning and disperse at the same time in the afternoon. Rush hour is the four consecutive 15-minute periods that have the heaviest traffic. Public transit is better suited than motor vehicles to moving large numbers of people because each transit traveler takes up far less space.

Public Transport in the United States In the United States public transit service in minimal or nonresistant in many cities. Only 5 percent of commuting trips in the United States take place using public transport. The minimal level of public transit service in most U.S. cities means that low-income people may not be able to reach places of employment. Rapid transit (subways or fixed light-rail) is increasing in some U.S. cities. Public transportation in the United States is caught in a vicious circle because fares do not cover operating costs. As patronage declines and expenses rise, the fares are increased, which drives away passengers and leads to service reductions and still higher fares. Public expenditures to subsidize construction and operating costs have increased, but the United States does not fully recognize that public transportation is a vital utility deserving of a large subsidy.

Public Transit in Other Countries In hundreds of cities around the world, extensive networks of bus, tram, and subway lines have been maintained, and funds for new construction have been provided in recent years. Wikipedia lists 148 cities with underground heavy-rail systems and 371 cities with light-rail systems in operation as of 2014. Another 36 heavy-rail systems were scheduled to open between 2015 and 2020, including 16 in China. Cities with existing service have been expanding them, also.

Reliance on Motor Vehicles The average American travels 36 miles per day. In urban areas, public transport is better suited than motor vehicles to moving large numbers of people because each transit traveler takes up far less space. Public transport is cheaper, less polluting, and more energy efficient than privately owned motor vehicles. Nonetheless, 83 percent of trips in the United States are by car or truck, 12 percent are by walking or biking, 2 percent each are by public transport or school bus, and 1 percent is by other means.

Transportation Epochs Transportation improvements have played a crucial role in the changing structure of urban areas. Geographer John Borchert identified five eras of U.S. urban areas resulting from changing transportation systems: •

Sail-Wagon Epoch (1790-1830)

•

Iron Horse Epoch (1830-1870)

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Steel Rail Epoch (1870-1920)

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Auto-Air-Amenity Epoch (1920-1970)

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Satellite-Electronic Jet Propulsion (1970-?)

Cities have prospered or suffered during the various epochs, depending on their proximity to economically important resources and migration patterns. Parallel to this, cities retain physical features from the earlier eras that may be assets or liabilities in subsequent eras.

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Chapter 13: Urban Patterns Benefits and Costs of Motor Vehicles There are around 1.2 billion motor vehicles in the world, including 255 million in the United States. The perceived cost and comfort, choice, and flexibility of motor vehicles has maintained the mode of transportation’s dominance in the United States. The U.S. government encourage the use of cars and trucks by paying 90 percent of the cost of limited-access, highspeed interstate highways, which stretch for 48,000 miles across the country. U.S. policies also keep fuel prices cheaper than those found in Europe, further supporting the use of motor vehicles. The consumption of land is one unseen costs of motor vehicle culture. An average city allocates about one-fourth of its land to roads and parking lots. Congestion is an issue not often considered by motorists as well; the average American wastes about 18 gallons of fuel and loses 42 hours per year sitting in traffic jams.

Autonomous Driving Vehicles Future transportation systems are likely to include various forms of autonomous vehicles. Vehicles currently possess technological capabilities supportive of hands-free driving, such as sensors and GPS, and they can perform hands-free functions, such as automatic braking, parallel parking, and prevention of unsafe lane changes. Autonomous vehicles are likely to result in fewer accidents caused by human error, provide mobility for people who are too young to drive or have a disability, and decrease the safe distance between vehicles and therefore increase the number of vehicles that can fit on a road. Still unsettled are many practical problems created by autonomous vehicles, such as liability and insurance.

Key Issue 4: Why Do Cities Face Sustainability Challenges?

The City Challenged One hundred years ago, low-income inner-city neighborhoods in the United States teemed with throngs of recent immigrants from Europe. Such neighborhoods that housed perhaps 100,000 a century ago may contain fewer than 5,000 inhabitants today. Those remaining may face significant challenges, distinct from those faced by suburban inhabitants.

Social Challenges The underclass is a group in society prevented from participating in the material benefits of a more developed society because of a variety of social and economic hardships. A disproportionately large share of the underclass live in inner-city neighborhoods, where they are trapped in an unending cycle of hardships. Inadequate job skills, a culture of poverty, homelessness, the presence of drugs, crime, inadequate social and consumer services, and municipal finances that cannot meet budgetary needs due to low tax revenues are some of the issues the underclass deal with in this environment.

Physical Challenges Large houses built by wealthy families in the nineteenth century are subdivided by absentee landlords into smaller dwellings for low-income families. This process of subdivision of houses by successive waves of lower-income people is known as filtering. Landlords stop maintaining houses when the rent they collect becomes less than the maintenance cost. The building will soon deteriorate and grows unfit for occupancy. The owner at this point may abandon the property because the rents that can be collected are less than the cost of taxes and upkeep. Some banks engage in redlining—drawing lines on a map to identify areas in which they will refuse to loan money.

The City Renewed The process of converting an urban neighborhood from a predominantly low-income, renter-occupied area to a predominantly middle-class, owner-occupied area is known as gentrification.

Most cities have at least one substantially renovated inner-city neighborhood that has attracted higher-

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography income residents. A deteriorated inner-city neighborhood is attractive for several reasons. The houses located there may be larger and more substantially constructed, containing attractive architectural details.

These dwellings are also conveniently located near offices downtown, and cultural and recreational amenities.

Removing Public Housing Many substandard inner-city houses have been demolished and replaced with public housing. Public housing is government-owned housing rented to low-income individuals, with rents set at 30 percent of the tenant’s income. A housing authority, established by the local government, manages the buildings, and the federal government pays the cost of construction and maintenance, repair, and management that are not covered by rent. The U.S. government has stopped funding construction of new public housing. Because of poor conditions, high-rise public housing projects have been demolished in many U.S. cities. As a result of lower allocated funds, the supply of public housing and other government-subsidized housing in the United States decreased by roughly 1 million units between 1980 and 2010. During that same period, the number of people in need of low-rent dwellings increased by more than 2 million.

Reviving Consumer Services Some consumer services are returning to the inner city, in part to meet day-to-day needs of residents of gentrified neighborhoods. Inner-city consumer services are also attracting people looking for leisure activities, such as unusual shops in a dramatic downtown setting or view of a harbor. Several North American CBDs have combined new retail services with leisure services.

The City Contrasted Contemporary American cities display ever-sharper contrasts. In some places, young, white, and wealthy people are moving back into the city. In other places, cities face significant problems.

The City Cleaned According to the United Nations, sustainable development is “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” The future sustainability of cities depends largely on how we structure our future transport. U.S. scientists working with the U.N. devised a strategy with three key elements to promote sustainable changes in future transportation.

•

Sharp decrease in the use of the three fossil fuels.

•

Increase in the use of renewable energy.

•

Use of carbon capture and storage (CCS), which involves capturing waste CO2, transporting it to a storage site, and depositing it where it will not enter the atmosphere.

The City Controlled The future health of urban areas depends on relieving traffic congestion.

Geographic tools, such as the Geographic Positioning System (GPS) and electronic mapping, are playing key roles in the design of intelligent transportation systems, either through increasing road capacity or through reducing demand.

Controlling Vehicles The current generation of innovative techniques to increase road capacity is aimed at providing drivers with information so that they can make intelligent decisions about avoiding congestion. Demand to use congested roads is being reduced in a number of way, primarily through congestion charges, tolls, permits, and bans of vehicle from certain portions of central areas of cities.

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Chapter 13: Urban Patterns Alternative Fuel Vehicles Consumers in developed countries are reluctant to give up their motor vehicles, and demand for vehicles is soaring in developing countries. One of the greatest challenges to reducing pollution and conserving nonrenewable resources is reliance on petroleum as automotive fuel, so carmakers are scrambling to bring alternative-fuel vehicles to the market. Diesel, hybrid, ethanol, full electric, plug-in hybrid, and hydrogen fuel cell technologies are all technologies being researched and developed by automotive companies to help solve this enduring problem.

Introducing the Chapter The chapter begins with two major themes of urban geography: diversity and spatial inequality. Consider starting the chapter discussing what factors and processes lead to the formation of cities, a natural segue from Chapter 12.

Icebreaker: The Cultures of Cities Start a brainstorm on what we think of when we think of cities. Write words or phrases that students generate on the board. Depending on the background of your students, there may be a leaning in the words towards pleasant or unpleasant associations.

Discuss the list you’ve created, including the questions: • • • •

Why do people live in cities?

What problems do we associate with cities?

What differences are there between the city and the countryside, that is, in politics, recreation, cost of living?

How is the city changing?

This discussion will start the class thinking about the North American city.

Challenges to Comprehension Costs of Sprawl Students from a suburban setting frequently do not grasp the inefficiencies of sprawl, as it is the only model of urban life they have known. For example, many students in an introductory human geography class answer the question “Why do people live in the suburbs?” with “Because everything is close and convenient, you can drive anywhere you need to go.” True enough, if you don’t mind paying for the car and gas.

A great way to demonstrate alternative models is through a look in the “coordinate questions” below, where two cities of the same population are contrasted.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography

Assignments Review/Reflection Questions Why do people live in cities? Why do people live in suburbs?

Indentify whether you live in the city or in the suburbs and explain why you live there (if you live with your parents or on campus, explain your parent’s choice of house).

How are cities in North America different from cities in Europe?

How are cities in Europe similar to cities in less developed countries?

Describe the issues associated with suburban “leapfrog” development. How could these issues be resolved in North America?

Coordinate Questions Look at the following locations in Google Earth. You may want to use two windows so you can switch back and forth between the two easily.

52 N, 0.99 W (Buckingham, Buckinghamshire, England) 43.7 N, 116.35 W (Eagle, Idaho, USA) Answer the following questions: •

Each of these small towns is to the north and west of a larger city. Find these larger cities and name them.

•

Describe the land uses beside housing and their distribution in each of the cities.

•

Estimate the population of each town. Make sure your scale is similar for each town.

•

Now look up the population for each town using a simple Internet search. Report what you find.

•

Describe the approach to land use and planning taken in each town.

•

Which represents a greater infrastructure cost, and why?

•

Which represents a greater impact on the environment and why?

•

Which represents a greater impact on the aesthetic appeal of the countryside, and why?

Alternate: Write a three-to-four page (750–1,000 word) paper discussing the differences between the two locations.

Your paper should include reference to the population size and regional location of each place. Also compare the land-use planning, infrastructure costs, and environmental impact of each town based on your observations from the satellite photos.

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Chapter 13: Urban Patterns

Thinking Geographically Questions 13.1: Some professional sports arenas and stadiums are located in the CBD, and some are located in suburbs. What are the advantages and drawbacks for the fans of each location?

For fans traveling to stadiums and arenas in suburbs, they have the luxury of not dealing with the congestion that they might find in stadiums and arenas located in a CBD. For fans attending a sporting event at a stadium or arena in a CBD, they have access to cultural and consumer amenities that are generally located in a CBD that might not be available in suburban areas.

13.2: Identify the ring, sector, and node in which you (or a friend or relation) live within an urban area.

Do conditions in your place fit the overall patterns expected of the three models? Why or why not?

I live in the zone of independent workers’ homes, the middle-class residential sector, and medium-class residential node. Based on my knowledge of my town (I have only lived here six months), these three models are somewhat accurately reflected in the distribution of people in the area. As far as I know, there isn’t much of a low-class residential sector or node in my town – most of these residences are located further out in the county. This may be due to the urban area I inhabit not being especially dense.

13.3: What impact might a car-sharing service such as Uber or Lyft have on patterns of urban transport?

I think it would actually increase congestion, as these independent contractors will be operating in addition to the preexisting taxi cab services located in a city. It might also decrease reliance on public transportation, leading to tough decisions regarding funding of these services if the user base and revenues decline.

13.4: What are the impacts of gentrification on low-income inner-city residents? What are some of the benefits and challenges to providing housing for low-income residents in a gentrifying neighborhood?

There are many negative impacts on low-income inner-city residents as a result of gentrification, notably sky-high increases in rents and the demolition of affordable housing. Maintaining affordable dwellings for low-income residents in gentrifying inner-city neighborhoods is key, as access to renewed consumer and public services in these areas would greatly benefit these people. However, often there are insufficient government funds to pay for public housing in these areas, or public housing may simply not exist.

Discriminatory real estate and banking practices may play a role in pushing these residents out of their homes, as well.

Pause and Reflect Questions 13.1.1: Do you live inside or outside a central city? An urban area? A metropolitan area?

I live inside a central city. I live in an urban area. I live in a metropolitan area.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 13.1.2: Do you ever spend time in a CBD? If so, for what reasons?

I spend time in a CBD, as that is where I like to go out to eat and drink on the weekends.

13.1.3: What might be the attractions of living in a former factory near the CBD? The rent to live in a former factory would likely be somewhat affordable for living near a CBD. Also, one would have convenient access to cultural amenities and consumer services.

13.2.1: If you cut down a large tree, which of the three models will the cross-section resemble? Why is the cross-section of a tree a good analogy for one of the models of urban structure?

The cross-section of a felled tree would most resemble the concentric zone model. A cross-section of a tree would be a good analogy for this model because the concentric rings of a tree would resemble the concentric zones of the model.

13.2.2: Would you expect the distribution of families with children to follow most closely the concentric zone, sector, or multiple nuclei model? Why? I think the distribution of families with children would follow the sector model, as there are low-class residential and middle-class residential sectors distributed relatively evenly across the model, probably reflecting these families’ distribution in reality.

13.2.3: Are Europe’s famous tourist sites located predominantly in inner or outer rings? Why might this be the case?

They are primarily located in inner rings. Prominent structures built hundreds of years ago were typically located near the center of town, where CBDs are currently located.

13.2.4: Which node is Fès do you think would be more interesting to visit, the Medinah or the French colonial center? Why? I would prefer to visit the Medinah, as the narrow, winding streets sound really neat to navigate.

13.2.5: Would you expect the distribution of families with children in developing countries to follow most closely the concentric zone, sector, or multiple nuclei model? Why? I would think that Griffith-Ford’s sector model of a Latin American city would be the best fit, because it allows for a mixed distribution of each sector in the urban area.

13.2.6: Why might the Spanish wish to destroy the Great Temple? Why might contemporary Mexicans wish to excavate and explore the ruins?

The Spanish would have wanted to destroy the Great Temple so that they could impose their political, social, and cultural norms on the indigenous population. Contemporary Mexicans may wish to excavate and explore the ruins so that they might find artifacts that may shed light on their heritage.

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Chapter 13: Urban Patterns 13.3.1: How might urban growth boundaries help to slow suburban growth?

Implementing smart growth policies would limit the expansion of existing suburban areas and help protect and preserve rural land for agricultural, recreation, and wildlife.

13.3.2: Name a city in Megalopolis that you consider a strong candidate to become part of an MSA in the near future. Why that city?

I would think Willimantic, as it is already surrounded by metropolitan statistical areas on all sides.

13.3.3: Are you able to walk from your home to consumer services? Would you want to live near shops?

Why or why not?

I am able to walk from my home to consumer services. I would want to live near shops, as I frequently patronize them already and I appreciate the exercise that walking provides me.

13.3.4: Do you regularly utilize public transport? Why or why not?

I do not regularly use public transportation, as it does not exist in my town.

13.3.5: What are some benefits and costs of removing urban freeways, such as in Boston?

Adding public space in the place of urban freeways allows for more pedestrian activity near the CBD. Diverting this traffic may decrease business revenues if alternative transportation links to the CBD are not present.

13.4.1: How might additional investment in education address some of these features of the underclass?

Increasing education funding will address some of the persistent poverty, as increased funding is associated with higher graduation rates, higher rates of employment with jobs that provide a living wage, and lower rates of poverty in adulthood.

13.4.2: What might be the attractions and the challenges of buying groceries in places like the Reading Terminal or Ferry Building?

There are probably unique items that are offered at these locations, but they are probably too expensive to buy on a regular basis.

13.4.3: What similarities and differences do you observe between the maps of Chicago (Figure 13-63) and Paris (Figures 13-21, 13-22, and 13-23)?

It is hard to discern any similarities or differences between Paris and Chicago, as the maps are displaying different types of information that don’t immediately provide any insight into their similarities and

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography differences. I would guess that there are a greater proportion of whites living near the city center in Chicago, while in Paris there is a large cluster of immigrants near the center of the city.

13.4.4: What is happening in or near your community to reduce generation of electricity through fossil fuels?

I live in a town with a hydroelectric dam, which offsets some demand for electricity generated by fossil fuels.

13.4.5: What strategies are being used at your university or in your school district to promote alternatives to cars and trucks?

There is a university bus system that provides limited transportation throughout campus and the surrounding residential area.

Explore Use Google Earth to explore transport and housing in Curitiba, Brazil.

Fly to Praca GK Gilbran, Curitiba, Brazil.

Select Bus in the Transportation menu.

Select More then click on the triangle and the box next to Transportation and select Bus. Drag to enter Street View to the bus stop on the southeast side of the triangle formed by the praca (park).

1. What is unusual about the bus stops, compared to those in other cities?

It appears as if a side road specifically for bus use is located here.

2. What type of housing structures surround the praca?

It appears as if high-rise, multi-family unit buildings are in the area.

Fly to 240 Rua Brasilio Bontorim, Curitiba, Brazil.

3. Describe differenced in the appearance of this suburb compared to a typical one in the United States.

The houses appear to be even more densely packed than in suburbs in the United States, and there are no paved roads in the neighborhood.

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Chapter 13: Urban Patterns

Resources World Bank youthink! Issues: Urbanization The World Bank has a student-oriented information page on urbanization at http://blogs.worldbank.org/youthink/category/tags/urbanization United Nations Human Settlements Program (UN-HABITAT) UN Habitat looks at human settlements around the world: http://www.unhabitat.org/

Connections between Chapters Back to Chapter 1 This chapter highlights the tension between globalization and local diversity, as emphasized in the introduction. Reviewing this overarching theme helps students realize the overlap.

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