Arts and Culture An Introduction to the Humanities, Combined Volume, 4E Janetta Rebold Benton Soluti

Instructor’s Manual for

Arts & Culture: An Introduction to the Humanities By

Janetta Rebold Benton and Robert DiYanni

Fourth Edition Volume 1

by

Helen Barnes and Jan Gaug Butler Community College

Table of Contents Introduction

4

Chapter 1

5

Chapter 2

24

Chapter 3

31

Chapter 4

46

Chapter 5

58

Chapter 6

68

Chapter 7

74

Chapter 8

80

Chapter 9

85

Chapter 10

89

Chapter 11

95

Chapter 12

105

3

Introduction Given the breadth of the humanities, sometimes it is difficult for instructors to know what to focus on within an era. It is also a struggle to provide students with a curriculum that is interesting to them as well as appropriately expressive of the age. In light of the former, this Instructor’s Manual accompanying Arts and Culture has been designed to offer a variety of teaching strategies with both the students’ and instructors’ needs in mind. Each chapter of this manual includes the following parts: • • • • • • • • • •

Learning Objectives to help the student and instructor work towards specific outcomes.

Critical Thinking Questions for engaging students with the material.

A Summary of the thematic focus of the chapter in the text.

The resources available online in MyHumanitiesKit and integrated throughout the Outline.

An Outline for preparing lectures, for an overview of important ideas, or for use as a check sheet.

Teaching Strategies for presenting key points.

Discussion points to engage students in the classroom.

Additional Lecture Topics that may go beyond the scope of the text, but are of interest to students.

Assessments to provide options for checking student progress against the Learning Objectives.

And Resources for further information.

The teaching strategies and discussion ideas provide both specific and general methods for the instructor. Students need examples of similarities and differences between fields of interest and eras to understand cultural borrowing, a social movement, the impact of a historical event, or the development of new philosophies as evidenced in the arts. Because instructors need a variety of sources to easily find those examples and ways of presenting them, each chapter in this Instructor’s Manual is designed to provide a variety of choices. However, we hope instructors will use an idea that will lead them to discover something innovative on their own.

Our goal has been to create an Instructor’s Manual that is easy to use and provides inspiration for the instructor in the classroom.

Helen Barnes Lead Instructor, Fine Arts and Humanities Butler Community College Jan Gaug Instructor English and Humanities Butler Community College Friends University

4

1 PREHISTORIC, MESOPOTAMIAN, AND EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATIONS CHAPTER OVERVIEW THE EARLIEST CULTURES Prehistoric society and the birth of the visual arts MESOPOTAMIA: THE CRADLE OF CIVILIZATION The expansion of agrarian peoples’ borders and ideas in the ancient Near East THE CIVILIZATION OF THE NILE A divided Egypt comes together through a shared culture and religion THE OLD KINGDOM Dynasties 3-6: The rise of the pyramids, frontal sculpture and relief painting THE MIDDLE KINGDOM Dynasties 11-14: Egypt prospers THE NEW KINGDOM Dynasties 18-20: A mature and powerful Egypt rules in art and world politics LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, the student should be able to . . . . . . discuss the concept of civilization. . . . define key terms. . . . explain the connections between works from the featured cultures and their ideals. . . . identify Paleolithic, Neolithic, Mesopotamian, and Egyptian visual works. . . . connect the development of agriculture and writing to societal changes. . . . compare and contrast a variety of works from periods ranging from the Paleolithic to ancient Egypt.

5

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. What are the qualities of a civilized culture (see pg. 14, Connections: the Fundamentals of Civilization)?

2. Which work best exemplifies the specific ideals of a culture of your choice?

Why? 3. Compare and contrast the position of pharaoh in ancient Egypt to that of the Mesopotamian king. In what ways did geography affect their respective attitudes?

How did they each use art and religion to strengthen their respective positions in society?

4. Trace the development of writing. How did it change society?

5. In ancient Egypt, the “industry of the afterlife” was an important aspect of their culture. What evidence supports this? What are the ties of this industry to religion?

6. How was the Neolithic an era of revolution?

CHAPTER SUMMARY A culture is a way of living built up by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next. A civilization is a culture that is able to express itself well and organize itself as a social, economic, and political entity. The first evidence of a culture is found in the artifacts of the earliest homo sapiens about 37,000 years ago, during the last part of the Paleolithic period. Then, during the short period from 10,000 B.C.E. to 8000 B.C.E., the Mesolithic period, glaciers began to recede northward. The wheel was invented and the arts of weaving and ceramics were developed. Beginning around 8000 B.C.E. in the Neolithic period, hunters and gatherers became herders and farmers, and more permanent societies began to grow. These people eventually lived in communities and built communal structures.

Mesopotamian civilization developed in the valley between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, including parts of what is today Israel, Lebanon, Syria, and Iraq. At the time it was the most fertile land in the world. The Sumerians founded their civilization between 3500 and 3000 B.C.E., and the government reached its zenith by about 2800 B.C.E. They established city-states and local governments, were polytheistic, built monumental architecture, made statues, invented writing, and created the world’s first epic literature. The Akkadians overthrew the Sumerians, and there followed the Babylonians, Assyrians, and Persians.

Ancient Egyptian civilization developed from about 5000 B.C.E. to about 3100 B.C.E. in two parts, Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt, but in 3100 B.C.E., the two were united. Egyptian history is divided into about thirty dynasties. These are grouped into several major periods: the Old Kingdom (2686-2181 B.C.E.); the Middle Kingdom (2040-1786 B.C.E.); and the New Kingdom (1552-1069 B.C.E.).

The New Kingdom was followed by a period that ended in about 525 B.C.E., when

6

Egypt was absorbed into the Persian Empire. During its existence, the ancient Egyptian civilization created some of the most consistent and enduring works of art, such as the pyramids, wall paintings, temple complexes, and sculpture.

MyHumanitiesKit RESOURCES, CHAPTER ONE Objectives Flashcards Study Critical Thinking Multiple Choice Interact – Closer Look: Stonehenge Cuneiform Writing Palette of Narmer Review and Explore Image Links Humanities PPT Glossary Audio Glossary College Art Association Write and Research MySearchLab: www.MySearchLab.com KEY TERMS culture post and lintel anthropomorphic statue in the round relief civilization agriculture ziggurat cromlech stele Paleolithic cuneiform battered

dualistic religion henge Neolithic pictographic weeper holes polytheistic myth ideogram dynasties hieroglyphics serdab sphinx mastaba

Early Civilizations: SUGGESTED TEACHING OUTLINE I. THE EARLIEST CULTURES

7

A. THE ROLE OF ART IN HUMAN LIFE ➢ DISCUSSION Many instructors spend several days at the beginning of the course discussing the role of art in our lives, and teaching the elements of art, architecture, music, and literature. Since Arts and Culture “jumps right in” to the material, it will work quite well to cover these broader issues where appropriate throughout the semester. In order to get students thinking about the role of art in their lives, divide the class in half. One section represents local school board members who would like to drastically cut arts and music programs; the other half represents school board members who want to keep, or even increase, the arts offerings.

After students have discussed among themselves, lead a debate regarding the pro’s and con’s of the arts in our schools and broader culture. To facilitate discussion, have students consider an appropriate quote. For example, Richard Dreyfuss, star of Mr. Holland’s Opus, wrote the following in an editorial in USA Today (Friday, January, 19, 1996): “Cutting music and arts programs is a mistake in the short run. It is a disaster for all of us in the long run.”

B. THREE PHASES OF THE STONE AGE: • Paleolithic (“old stone”) [ca. 40,000 B.C.E. to 10,000 B.C.E.] • Mesolithic (“middle stone”) [ca. 10,000 B.C.E. to 8000 B.C.E.] • Neolithic (“new stone”) [ca. 8000 to 3000 B.C.E.] II. PALEOLITHIC PERIOD A. WHAT WE KNOW OF SOCIETY 1. Religion 2. Hunters/Gatherers B. WALL PAINTINGS [Fig. 1.1] Hall of the Bulls, Lascaux, France 1. Discovery/Acceptance of Authenticity 2. Lascaux Closed to Public 3. Geographic Distribution throughout Europe 4. Locations in the Caves: 5. Process of Creation: 6. Artistic Characteristics: a. Chief subject matter = animals b. Pictorial definition (naturalism) c. Captures motion/essence of each species d. Profile View/Twisted Perspective: e. Lacks frame/setting; individual objects, often overlapping 7. Purpose and Function?

8. Examples

8

➢ ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: In addition to presenting the discoveries of Altamira and Lascaux, present a lecture on the oldest known cave paintings, in the Chauvet Cave that was discovered in 1994. Chauvet’s book on the discovery in listed in the “Resources” section, and the relevant website is listed at the end of the chapter. ➢ DISCUSSION: Divide students into four groups, presenting each group with a print of one of the works listed here. Ask them to interpret the work as best they can. After ten minutes, have the class work together to develop a list of questions that pertain to the interpretation of ancient art, such as: What does the painting tell us about the artists who drew it? What does the painting tell us about their values and interests? What motivated artists to paint images on cave walls? Are there any certainties in archaeological research? After group discussion, present a brief overview of the history of archaeology and its methods of research.

C. SCULPTURE 1. Estimated Age 2. Materials: (media) 3. Categories of Sculpture: relief/ freestanding (in-the-round) 4. Sculptural Methods a. Carving b. Modeling 5. Typical Subjects for Prehistoric Sculpture 6. Example a. [Fig. 1.2] Woman of Willendorf/Venus of Willendorf, ca. 25,00020,000 B.C.E. ➢ DISCUSSION This work, although barely four inches high, provides many possible directions for discussion: 1) building on the overview of archaeology suggested above, let students discuss what might be the possible function of such a work, and then provide them with the current archaeological thinking on the subject; 2) “What’s in a name?” Have students discuss the ramifications of calling this work “woman” versus calling it “Venus”; 3) since this work may represent the “ideal” prehistoric woman, use it as a springboard for discussing the ideal of feminine beauty today, and perhaps through the ages. ➢ ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPICS: 1) Since this work may have been created by a woman, provide an overview of the role of women in art from prehistory to the present; 2) trace the portrayal of women in art from prehistory to the present [John Berger’s Ways of Seeing provides both an essay and photo essay on the subject. His most often quoted statement is: “Men act. Women appear.”] You might present this idea now, and return to it as appropriate throughout the semester (for example, when you discuss Aphrodite of Knidos, Duccio’s Madonna and Child Enthroned, Bronzino’s Allegory with Venus and Cupid, Boucher’s Bath of Diana,

9

Picasso’s Les Demoiselles d’Avignon, Warhol’s Marilyn Monroe, or Bettye Saar’s The Liberation of Aunt Jemima.

III. MESOLITHIC PERIOD [c. 10,000-8000 B.C.E.] A. WHAT WE KNOW OF SOCIETY B. ROLE OF ART DURING THIS ERA IV. NEOLITHIC PERIOD [ca. 8000-2000 B.C.E.] A. WHAT WE KNOW OF SOCIETY B. WALL PAINTINGS 1. Changes from the Paleolithic Era 2. [Fig. 1.3] Herd crossing river, hunters with bows and arrows, ca.

8000-3000 B.C.E., rock painting, Valtorta Gorge, Levant, Spain ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Whenever possible, use comparisons, either within the same era or across eras. Here, it would be logical to have students compare the Valtorta rock painting [Fig. 1.3] with Paleolithic examples.

C. MEGALITHS (“large stones”) 1. Location 2. Three distinct stone structures a. Menhirs b. Dolmens c. Cromlechs [Fig. 1.4] Stonehenge, Wiltshire, England, completed ca. 2000 B.C.E. ➢ DISCUSSION: Why does Stonehenge continue to capture the imagination? A village was discovered within two miles of Stonehenge in 2006-2007. What does the proximity of people add to the discussion?

Also, there is evidence that Stonehenge may be one of a number of ritual spaces in the area, including a “Woodhenge,” that are all part of a complex celebratory cycle. How does this affect our understanding of Neolithic cultures? ➢ TEACHING STRATEGIES: 1) in MyHumanitiesKit, examine Chapter One, Interact, Closer Look: Stonehenge; 2) show a video on Stonehenge; 3) discuss what we know regarding the construction methods used to create cromlechs. Residents of Easter Island have demonstrated how their ancestors created the megalithic Ancestor Figures on their island, and scholars surmise that a similar approach was used in the West.

10

V. MESOPOTAMIA: THE CRADLE OF CIVILIZATION A. BACKGROUND: Civilizations to be studied: • SUMERIAN (ca. 3500-2350 B.C.E.) • AKKADIAN (ca. 2360-2180 B.C.E.) • NEO-SUMERIAN [not discussed in book] (ca. 2150-1800 B.C.E.) • BABYLONIAN (ca. 1830-1550 B.C.E.) • ASSYRIAN (ca. 1100-612 B.C.E.) • NEO-BABYLONIAN (612-539 B.C.E.) • PERSIAN (ca. 539 B.C.E.-330 B.C.E.) B. SUMERIAN ART 1. Location 2. Formation of towns/livelihood 3. Development of Writing ➢

TEACHING STRATEGIES: 1) build on the discussion of writing you began in the overview to the Paleolithic Era; 2) in MyHumanitiesKit, look at Chapter One, Closer Look: Cuneiform Writing to help demonstrate how cuneiform is based upon pictographs, simple pictures that represent a thing or concept; 3) you might want to discuss how written communication has evolved over the years, particularly in light of computer technology.

4. Literature: The Epic of Gilgamesh

➢

DISCUSSION: Refer students to Cross Currents, Sumerian Myth and the Bible, then 1) Have students consider how some stories from the Bible may have been influenced by this work; 2) Clearly explain that students should not simply dismiss a “myth” as an illusion, falsehood, or mistaken belief. Emphasize that myths functioned in the ancient world as professions of collective belief and allegiance, more like today’s religious creeds and political constitutions. Ask students to think of a story that they have been told that they take as true and that has some importance in their lives. Their story may be religious, scientific, political, educational—any important story that is connected to their lives and aspirations. Have them share their stories in small groups, explaining the story’s significance to them. Then, as a whole class, solicit a sampling of the stories, comparing them to the mythic tales of ancient civilizations. What are some of the reasons students give to affirm why they believe the stories are true? Have students think about the following: “Why might a reasonable person believe or affirm this story as true for him- or herself, and for the culture as a whole?”

11

➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: some of the earliest pieces of music we have are the Hurrian cult hymns from ca. 1400 B.C.E. One of them, a hymn to Nikkal, wife of the moon god, has been transcribed, and is available on CD. Play it at this point, or when you show the lyre from the tomb of Queen Puabi.

5. Religion 6. Architecture a. Role of the temple b. Two temple types 1) low 2) high (ziggurat) [Fig. 1.5] Ziggurat of King Urnammu (Nanna), Ur, Iraq, ca.

2500--2050 B.C.E.

➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: 1) explain that the Old Testament reference to the building of the Tower of Babel refers to the building of a ziggurat.

Consider showing Brueghel’s Tower of Babel painting in this regard; 2) consider the ziggurat and pyramid as sacred mountains, built to remove humans from the everyday plane of existence and bring them closer to the gods. Encourage students to brainstorm about other sacred stories or sites involving mountains (Sinai, Olympus, the Sermon on the Mount). Ask students to consider how mountains and other high places still appeal to worshippers and adventurers, and what attractions draw people to such places.

7. Sculpture a. [Fig. 1.8] Victory Stele of Naram-Sin, ca. 2300-2200 B.C.E.

➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: compare this portrayal of the human form to the early, stick-like representations of humans from prehistoric art.

b. [Fig. 1.6] Standing man, formerly thought to represent Abu, god of vegetation, Tell Asmar, ca. 2600 B.C.E. ➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: explain how scholars believe this work was used in worship; focus on the prominence of the eyes, which probably represent eternal vigilance; have students brainstorm on the significance of eyes and vision throughout history (“the evil eye”; the eyes as a “window to the soul”, “making eyes” at someone, etc.) What is the mystique of a celebrity in sunglasses?

c. [Fig. 1.7] Inlaid Standard, from the “royal cemetery” at Ur, ca. 2700-2600 B.C.E.

12

➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: “walk” students through this work, explaining its sequential arrangement. You might want to relate it to similar works, such as Trajan’s Column or the Scenes of the Dionysiac Mystery Cult, Villa of the Mysteries.

➢

TEACHING STRATEGIES: 1) play the Hurrian cult hymn, if you didn’t play it earlier; 2) Discuss the seemingly amusing use of animals in human roles, relating it to later, similar treatments by Aesop, various children’s authors, and even Disney; 3) explain its possible portrayal of the afterlife

C. AKKADIAN ART 1. Background [Fig. 1.8] Victory Stele of Naram-Sin, ca. 2300-2200 B.C.E.

➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: 1) list as many ways as possible in which this work demonstrates the power of the ruler; 2) since art has often been used for political propaganda, spend some time discussing it here; 3) consider providing a brief overview of the use of art for political purposes, such as the pyramids, Trajan’s column, and the Palace at Versailles.

E. BABYLONIAN ART 1. BACKGROUND [Fig. 1.9] Code of Hammurabi, Stele from Susa, ca. 1760 B.C.E. ➢

ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: a more in-depth look at Hammurabi’s law code and its impact on future legal systems

F. ASSYRIAN ART 1. Location 2. Character of the art and culture 3. Architecture 4. Sculpture [Fig. 1.10] Human-Headed Winged Lion, from the northwest palace of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud, ca. 883-859 B.C.E. [Fig. 1.11] Ashurnasirpal II Killing Lions, from the palace of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud, Iraq, ca. 850 B.C.E. [Fig. 1.12] Sack of the City of Hamanu by Ashurbanipal, from the palace of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh, Iraq, ca. 650 B.C.E. G. NEO-BABYLONIAN ART 13

1. Rebuilding of Babylon [Fig. 1.13] Ishtar Gate, from Babylon, ca. 575 B.C.E. ➢

ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: The Hanging Gardens of Babylon

➢

ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: The Germans and archaeology, or “How did this work end up in Berlin?”

H. PERSIAN ART 1. Historical Background 2. Religion 3. [Fig. 1.15] Vase handle in the form of a winged ibex, from Persia, fourth century B.C.E. 4. [Fig. 1.14] Palace of Darius and Xerxes, Persepolis, Iran, 518-ca. 460 B.C.E. Egypt: SUGGESTED TEACHING OUTLINE I. BACKGROUND A. LOCATION B. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: Examine how Hubert Robert’s The Pyramid [Fig. 1.33] was painted during a revival in France of monumental Egyptian architecture. Many works were proposed in competitions organized by the French government, but none was ever built.

➢

TEACHING STATEGY: Ask students to consider why Egyptian art and civilization are still so fascinating to us today. City historical examples of this phenomenon, including Napoleon’s expeditions, the Art Deco craze of the 1920s, and the tour of many of the finds from King Tut’s tomb in the 1970’s and early 1980’s. Have films from popular culture, such as the Indiana Jones movies, added to our fascination with archaeology?

C. SENSE OF TIME IN EGYPTIAN DYNASTIC DESIGNATIONS ➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: Since there is so little change in art and architecture throughout ancient Egypt, I prefer to teach the material by category (architecture, painting, sculpture, etc.) rather than stressing chronological order. I do, however, provide students with the following overview of the three kingdoms, and take care to place works within their appropriate era.

14

• • • •

Old Kingdom (ca. 2686-2181 B.C.E.) Middle Kingdom (ca. 2040-1786 B.C.E.) [100-year break due to invasion by the Hyksos People] New Kingdom (ca. 1552-1069 B.C.E.)

After New Kingdom: • 525 B.C.E.: Persians conquered Egypt • 332 B.C.E.: Alexander the Great added both Egypt and Persia to his empire • 323 B.C.E.: Death of Alexander; Ptolemy took control of Egypt and his descendants ruled until Roman conquest in 30 B.C.E. ➢

DISCUSSION: Emphasize the fact that Egyptian art remained relatively consistent for over 1000 years, explaining the reasons for this lack of change. Ask students to consider these questions: Which of the world’s civilizations are relatively more or less advanced at this moment in human history?

What factors are most important in explaining these different states of advancement?

Direct students to write out answers to these questions in their notes.

Then divide the class into small groups and ask them to brainstorm as many different possible answers to these questions as they can. Remind the groups that brainstorming is intended to generate ideas, not to organize or evaluate ideas.

In the whole class, focus on their answers to the second question, the factors of progress. Record some of each groups’ ideas on a chalkboard.

Note when one group reinforces an idea already contributed by another.

Try to generate a list of at least ten factors.

Direct students individually to rank order their top five, in order of importance. Ask them whether their primary factors can explain the relative advancement of different human civilizations to 1,000 B.C.E. (approximately the latest date covered in this chapter).

D. EGYPTOLOGY 1. Napoleon’s campaign of 1799 ➢

ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: consider spending some time discussing the French fascination with things Egyptian, particularly the collection of scholars, linguists, antiquarians, and artists Napoleon took with him to Egypt.

15

➢

DISCUSSION: King Menkaure (Mycerinus) andQueen [Fig. 1.22] are in Boston; the Rosetta Stone [Fig.1.18] is at the British Museum. How do students feel about this? Is something lost when works are removed from their place of origin?

2. Rosetta Stone [Fig. 1.18]

➢

ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: elaborate on Jean-François Champollion’s more than two-decade effort to crack the code of the Rosetta Stone.

3. Hieroglyphics

➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: There are many excellent books and websites available on hieroglyphics. Put together a brief explanation of how they “work”, and then give students a few examples to decipher.

E. EGYPTIAN RELIGION 1. Herodotus: “religious to excess” 2. Included polytheism, magic, politics, strong belief in the afterlife a. Polytheism b. Magic ➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: In Chapter 10 of The Creators, Daniel Boorstin provides an excellent discussion of the building of the pyramids, including a discussion of the role of magic in the lives of the ancient Egyptians. c. Egyptian Concept of Death

➢

TEACHING STRATEGY/DISCUSSION: Using examples from this chapter, invite students to discuss the awareness of death and the belief in a life after death as factors in the development of human civilization. Begin the discussion by asking students to jot down something they believe about the meaning or the experience of death and the life that may lie beyond. Affirm that these thoughts may be connected to religious beliefs and that those beliefs are welcome in this discussion.

Next, have students examine one example of a work of art in the text related to death and the afterlife. Ask students to consider the following questions: What beliefs about death can they deduce from this example?

How do the beliefs of ancient peoples compare to their own?

16

Ask students to share their answers informally in pairs or small groups. On the chalkboard, record insights from the small-group discussions. Finally, propose to students that a belief in life after death is one of the things that most clearly distinguishes humans from other animals. Have students summarize by recording in their notes: 1) a new insight or understanding from this discussion, and 2) one question that remains perplexing or confusing to them.

3. Major deities and their visual depictions [Table 1-2] ➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: If possible, show slides of a selection of Egyptian deities, explaining their role in Egyptian life and how the Egyptians depicted them.

F. [Fig. 1.17] Palette of Narmer, ca. 3100 B.C.E. In MyHumanitiesKit, look at Chapter One, Interact, Closer Look: Palette of Narmer. ➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: Have students compare this work with the Victory Stele of Naram-Sin [Fig. 1.8].

II. MONUMENTAL ARCHITECTURE A. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PYRAMIDS ➢

ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: The Seven Wonders of the World include the greatest ancient works of technology, art, and architecture compiled by Greek and Roman authors. The Seven Wonders include the Great Pyramids of Giza, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the Statue of Zeus at Olympia, the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, the Colossus of Rhodes, and the Lighthouse of Alexandria.

➢

DISCUSSION: Even though the Great Pyramid of Giza was the first Wonder to be built, it is the only one to survive. Ask students to cite examples of other extant monuments and structures that they consider to be wonders of the world. Examples may include: the Colosseum in Rome, Stonehenge in England, the Taj Mahal in Indian, etc. Ask students to cite examples of modern monuments and structures that they consider architectural wonders. Examples may include: the Panama Canal, the Eiffel Tower in Paris, and the Clock Tower in London.

➢

DISCUSSION: Examine the history of the Wonders. What did each of the Seven Wonders signify for their builders? What do they reflect for us today? What common features do the Seven Wonders share?

1. Mastabas 2. [Fig. 1.19] Stepped Pyramid of King Zoser, Saqqara, ca. 2600 B.C.E. 17

➢

DISCUSSION: Have students compare the stepped pyramid of Zoser of the Sumerian ziggurat in terms of building materials, design principles, cite, and purpose.

3. [Fig. 1.20] Great Pyramids of Giza, ca. 2530 B.C.E.

➢

SUGGESTED RESEARCH PROJECT: Why is there a pyramid on the back of the American dollar bill?

4. [Fig. 1.21] Great Sphinx. Giza, ca. 2500 B.C.E.

➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: Remind students of the riddle of the Sphinx, as told in the story of Oedipus.

➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: consider showing a documentary on the construction and function of the Sphinx.

B. TEMPLES 1. Pylon (Worship) [Fig. 1.25] Temple of Amen-Mut-Khonsu, Luxor, ca.

1390 B.C.E. and Ramesses II, ca. 1260 B.C.E. ➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: Show a plan of a pylon temple, pointing out the various parts of the structure. Particularly highlight the idea of size to denote power and the concept of progression, as the worshipper moves from the open colonnaded areas to the forbidden “holy of holies”. Ask students to relate this to the idea of progression along the nave of a Christian church towards the altar. Can they cite other examples of physical movement as part of various religions’ worship and ritual?

➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: If possible, show slides of sphinxes lining the way to a temple. Discuss the meaning of size and repetition in art, particularly to denote power.

2. Mortuary: [Fig. 1.24] Funerary Temple of Queen Hatshepsut. Deir-elBahri, ca. 1480 B.C.E.

➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: use this work, and/or King Menkaure (Mycerinus) and Queen [Fig. 1.22] to present what we know of male and female roles in ancient Egyptian culture.

[Fig. 1.28] Nobleman Hunting in the Marshes, ca. 1400 B.C.E.

III. STATUARY AND SCULPTURE A. Sculptural Conventions 1. [Fig. 1.22] King Menkaure (Mycerinus) and Queen, ca. 2470 B.C.E. 18

➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: explain how there were two basic poses for portrayals of the pharaoh: 1) sitting or 2) standing. Stress that less important individuals were portrayed less formally. With these principles in mind, have students compare King Menkaure (Mycerinus) and Queen with Nobleman Hunting in the Marshes [Fig. 1.28], as well as the following sculpture:

➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: King Menkaure (Mycerinus) and Queen has traditionally been interpreted as the portrayal of the royal couple. See Witcombe’s website for a very different interpretation. [http:witcombe.sbc. edu/mendaure/menkaure-statue. html.] This can lead to an interesting class discussion of the role of interpretation in art history.

2. [Fig. 1.27] Four Seated Figures of Ramesses II, ca. 1260 B.C.E.

➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: Read the poem “Ozymandias”, by English poet Percy Bysshe Shelley, which is based on a statue in the mortuary temple of Ramesses II.

B. RELIEF SCULPTURE AND PAINTING 1. Egyptian Canon of Proportions ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: If available, show a diagram of the Egyptian Canon of Proportions, explaining how it works. Foreshadow a similar development in Greek art.

2. Fresco Technique [Fig. 1.28] Nobleman Hunting in the Marshes, ca. 1400 B.C.E. ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Examine the process of fresco painting as a technique and talk about its transformations through the ages (Renaissance revival). There are contemporary fresco painters who keep this technique alive. What is their attraction to fresco? ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Since this work is simpler and less colorful than many examples, it is a good work to demonstrate the canon of proportions.

[Fig. 1.23] Ti Watching a Hippopotamus Hunt, Relief in the Mastaba Tomb of Ti, ca. 25002400 B.C.E. ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Explain that—in addition to showing the deceased engaging in earthly pastimes—this work probably suggests that Ti is fighting against evil, since the companions of Seth—the god of darkness—were believed to disguised themselves as hippopotamuses.

19

[Fig. 1.28] Nobleman Hunting in the Marshes, ca. 1400 B.C.E. ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Compare this with Ti Watching a Hippopotamus Hunt [Fig. 2.8], noting how little change has occurred over 1000 years.

3. [Fig. 1.26] House and Garden of the Scribe Nakte, from Nakte’s Book of the Dead, Eighteenth Dynasty C. AKHENATEN’S STYLE (ruled ca. 1352-1336 B.C.E.) 1. Change in Belief 2. Unusual appearance [Fig. 1.30] Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and Their Children Worshiping the Sun, 1348-1336 B.C.E. 3. [Fig. 1.31] Queen Nefertiti, ca. 1348-1336 B.C.E. ➢

DISCUSSION: How does this work relate to contemporary ideas regarding the ideal of beauty?

IV. TUTANKHAMEN’S TOMB ➢

ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: What we know of King Tut and Howard Carter’s spectacular discovery in 1922.

➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: there are many excellent videos on the discovery and contents of King Tut’s Tomb.

V. EGYPTIAN MUSIC [Fig. 1.29, Musicians and Dancers] VI. EGYPTIAN LITERATURE: LYRIC POETRY ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Have students read “The Song of the Harper.”

Explain the concept of “carpe diem”, highlighting how the Egyptian work shares this concept with later Roman poetry.

ASSESSMENTS Student self-reviews: MyHumanitiesKit, Review and Explore Instructor Test Bank

20

RESOURCES IMAGES: MyHumanitiesKit, Image links BOOKS: Early Civilizations Bahn, Paul. Images of the Ice Age. New York: Facts on File, 1988.

Beltrán, Antonio, ed. The Cave of Altamira. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1999.

Breuil, Henri. Four Hundred Centuries of Cave Art. New York: Hacker, 1979.

Reprint of 1952 ed.

Burl, Aubrey. Great Stone Circles. New Haven: Yale University Press,1999.

Chauvet, Jean-Marie, et al. Dawn of Art: The Chauvet Cave. New York: Abrams, 1996.

Clottes, J., and D. Lewis-Williams. The Shamans of Prehistory: Trance and Magic in the Painted Caves. New York: Abrams, 1998.

Chippendale, Christopher. Stonehenge Complete. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1994.

Collon, Dominique. Ancient Near Eastern Art. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995.

Graziosi, Paolo. Paleolithic Art. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960.

Laing, Lloyd Robert, and Jennifer Laing. Ancient Art: The Challenge to Modern Thought. Dublin: Irish Academic, 1993.

Lloyd, Seton, and Hans Wolfgang Muller. Ancient Architecture. New York: Rizzoli, 1986.

Mellaart, James. The Earliest Civilization of the Near East. London: Thames & Hudson, 1965.

Pfeiffer, John E. The Creative Explosion: An Inquiry into the Origins of Art and Religion. New York: Harper & Row, 1982.

Ruspoli, Mario. The Cave of Lascaux: The Final Photographs. New York: Abrams, 1987.

Saggs, H.W.F. Civilization before Greece and Rome. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989.

Scarre, Chris. Exploring Prehistoric Europe. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.

Wolkstein, Dianne, and Samual Noah Kramer. Inanna: Queen of Heaven and Earth. New York: Harper and Row, 1983.

Egypt Aldred, Cyril. Egyptian Art in the Days of the Pharahos, 3100-320 B.C. London: Thames and Hudson, 1980.

Andrews, Carol. Ancient Egyptian Jewelry. New York: Abrams, 1991.

Arnold, Dieter. Temples of the Last Pharaohs. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.

21

Boorstin, Daniel J. The Creators: A History of Heroes of the Imagination. New York: Vintage Books, 1992.

Egyptian Art in the Age of the Pyramids. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1999.

Grimal, N. A History of Ancient Egypt. Trans. Ian Shaw. Oxford: Blackwell, 1992.

James, T.G.H., and W.V. Davies. Egyptian Sculpture. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983.

Kozloff, Arielle P., and Betsy M. Bryan. Egypt’s Dazzling Sun: Amenhotep III and His World. Cleveland: Cleveland Museum of Art, 1992.

Leeming, D. The World of Myth. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.

Lehner, Mar. The Complete Pyramids. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1997.

Menu, Bernadette. Ramesses II: Greatest of the Pharaohs. Discoveries. New York: Abrams, 1999.

Reeves, C.N. The Complete Tutankhamun: The King, the Tomb, and Royal Treasure. London: Thames & Hudson, 1990.

Robins, G. Women in Ancient Egypt. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993.

Smith, William Stevenson. The Art and Architecture of Ancient Egypt. Rev. ed.

Pelican History of Art. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998.

Wilkinson, Richard H. Reading Egyptian Art: A Hieroglyphic Guide to Ancient Egyptian Painting and Sculpture. London: Thames & Hudson, 1992.

VIDEO/DVD: Early Civilizations Lascaux: The Prehistory of Art, Films for the Humanities & Sciences, 61 minutes.

Mesopotamia: I Have Conquered the River, Films for the Humanities & Sciences, 59 minutes.

Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, Teacher’s Video Company, 100 minutes.

Stonehenge in Context: From Modern Myth to Ancient History, Films for the Humanities & Sciences, 51 minutes.

Writing. Films for the Humanities & Sciences, 52 minutes.

Egypt Ancient Egypt. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 47 minutes.

David Macauley’s Pyramid. PBS, 60 minutes.

Egypt. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 49 minutes.

Egypt: Gift of the Nile. Educational Video Network, 22 minutes.

Nile: River of the Gods. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 102 minutes.

22

The Riddle of Amarna. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 27 minutes.

23

2 AEGEAN CULTURE AND EARLY GREECE CHAPTER OVERVIEW AEGEAN CULTURES Early Mediterranean people, myth and the arts THE RISE OF ANCIENT GREECE Western civilization takes root NOTE: Although we have included “The Rise of Ancient Greece” material in the Chapter 2 Summary and all relevant Key Terms, we suggest treating all of Greek art within the context of Chapter 3. Greek art demonstrates quite clearly the concept of the evolution of art, and it works very well to focus upon the Classical phase, presenting it in terms of what came before and what followed. Therefore, please see Chapter 3 in the Instructors’ Manual for all Greek material, including Resources.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, the student should be able to . . . . . . define key terms. . . . compare and contrast the arts and cultures of the Aegean and Early Greece. . . . outline the specific contributions of the Minoans to architecture. . . . identify the Presocratic philosophers and outline their specific ideas. . . . trace the development of visual arts in Early Greece. . . . compare and contrast black-figure and red-figure pottery. . . . explain the connection between the Greek religion and its culture and arts. . . . name some of the gods and goddesses of the Greek pantheon.

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. What contributions to architecture are specifically Minoan?

2. Compare and contrast the Woman of Willendorf to the Cycladic statuette of a woman. What were the beliefs associated with each one? What does the appearance of each say about their respective cultures of origin?

24

3. Examine the Toreador Fresco and works from Mesopotamia featuring bulls.

Why was the image of the bull so important to these cultures? How are some of these ideas still important today and how do we see them presented?

4. Who were the two early archeologists working in the Aegean and what were their discoveries? What are some of the differences between archeology then and how it is practiced now?

5. How are Gilgamesh and Achilles alike or different in representing the idea of an “epic hero”? What about their characters reflects the values of either Mesopotamian culture or Homeric Greek culture?

6. Outline the characteristics of a few of the Greek pantheon and compare them to other gods or goddesses from contemporary religions you may be familiar with. How are the deities different?

CHAPTER SUMMARY A number of cultures flourished along the coasts of the eastern Mediterranean and on the islands of the Aegean Sea between about 3000 and 1100 B.C.E. For centuries the principal evidence that these cultures existed was found in Homer's Greek epics, The Iliad and The Odyssey, until the discoveries of archeologists Heinrich Schliemann (Troy and Mycenae) and Arthur Evans ( Knossos on Crete), confirmed the truth of Homer's words.

These civilizations were the basis of later Greek traditions and beliefs.

The early Aegean period was dominated by a rich maritime culture which included trading with Egypt. In addition, the Aegean cultures shared a common Greek language.

The earliest Aegean civilization developed in the Cyclades about 2500-2000 B.C.E. Archeologist Sir Arthur Evans established that life flourished on the island of Crete between about 2800 and 1400 B.C.E. The Minoan civilization had developed significantly by 2000 B.C.E. Then about 3000 B.C.E., Greek-speaking peoples began to invade the Greek mainland from the north, inaugurating the Mycenaean Age. After 1500 B.C.E., when the Minoan culture began to decline, these mainland peoples began to have increasing influence. They built strong fortresses and were more militaristic. Mycenae was the richest and most powerful center, so the entire culture has taken its name from this city.

In about 1000 B.C.E., the Greeks of the mainland began to forge a new civilization that would last until the fifth century B.C.E. The history of this civilization is divided into the Geometric period, from 1000-700 B.C.E.; the Orientalizing period, from 700-600 B.C.E.; and the Archaic period, from about 600-480 B.C.E. The Geometric Period is sometimes referred to as the Heroic Age, since it was during that time that Homer created his poetic epics The Iliad and the Odyssey.

The communities which began to emerge took the form of independent city-states, each called a "polis." It is the development of the Greek polis which led to the later

25

Western ideal of democracy. In the Orientalizing period, the Greek city-states began to trade abroad and to colonize. For the first time in 300 years, Greece made contact with the civilizations of the Near East, in particular, Egypt and Persia. These contacts had a great impact on Greek art and life. The Archaic period was a time of rapid change and development in ancient Greece.

Nothing distinguishes the rise of ancient Greece as a civilization more than its love of pure thought. The Greeks were the first to practice “philosophy,” literally “the love of wisdom,” in a systematic way. Both before the ascendancy of Socrates and his pupil Plato in the fifth century B.C.E. and after, Greek thinkers hotly debated the nature of the world and their place in it. Prominent groups included the materialists, who explained the world in terms of the four elements; the atomists, who conceived of the world as being made up of atoms and the void; and the pythagoreans, who viewed numbers at the heart of all things.

MyHumanitiesKit RESOURCES, CHAPTER TWO Objectives Flashcards Study Critical Thinking Multiple Choice Interact – Closer Look: Snake Goddess or Priestess Review and Explore Image Links Humanities PPT Glossary Audio Glossary College Art Association Write and Research MySearchLab: www.MySearchLab.com

KEY TERMS Linear A and B corbelled dome platform pediment dromos labyrinth rhyton colonnade Doric amphora

pithos mythology entablature entasis capital terra cotta polis (pl. poleis) crepis kouros (pl. kouroi) tholos 26

Kamares Ware Geometric style stylobate kore (pl. korai) frieze Palace Style krater column Archaic smile architrave faience oinochoe peristyle

philosophy calyx krater lintel olpe shaft red-figure style atomist relieving triangle black-figure style fluted ashlar masonry lyric

SUGGESTED TEACHING OUTLINE I. AEGEAN CULTURES A. BRIEF HISTORY B. CYCLADIC CULTURE [ca. 2500-2000 B.C.E.] 1. Background 2. [Fig. 2.1] Statuette of a woman, third millennium B.C. E. ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Contrast the Woman of Willendorf [Fig. 1.2] with the Cycladic statuette of a woman [Fig. 2.1]. Examine how both figures are thought to have been connected with early beliefs about human fertility. Discuss again how scholars must resort to piecing together clues as to a work’s function and meaning. ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Compare this statuette with modern works

by Henry Moore, Constantin Brancusi , or Barbara Hepworth. Ask students to list what similarities they observe. Are they coincidental?

3. [Fig. 2.2] Landscape, wall painting with areas of modern reconstruction, from Akrotiri, Thera, Cyclades, before 1630-1500 B.C.E. C. MINOAN CULTURE [ca. 2800-1400 B.C.E.] 1. Background • Sir Arthur Evans, British archaeologist (1900) ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: discuss in detail the work of Evans at Knossos, including methods of archaeology and of reconstruction.

Have students consider the role of myth (such as that of King Minos and the labyrinth) in spurring on the efforts of early archaeologists.

What have been the positive effects of archaeology, and what have been 27

some negative effects? In this regard, particularly consider how archaeological methods have improved over the years. ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: show a documentary about the discoveries at Knossos.

2. Palace at Knossos [Figs. 2.3 and 2.4] • The Myth of the Minotaur

➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: consider showing Titian’s The Rape of Europa as you recount the myth 3. Minoan Fresco: [Fig. 2.4]: Toreador Fresco, Palace Complex, Knossos, Crete, ca. 1550-1450 B.C.E. ➢ ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: explain the meaning of the bull in ancient cultures and bring the topic up to date with Picasso’s art (such as Guernica) and the continuing practice of bullfights and the “running of the bulls” in Spain.

4. Minoan Religion [Fig. 2.5] Snake Goddess, from the Palace Complex, Knossos, Crete, ca. 1700-1500 B.C.E. Also, in MyHumanitiesKit, examine Chapter Two, Interact, Closer Look: Snake Goddess or Priestess? ➢ ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Use the “Then and Now, the Snake Goddess” section of the chapter as a springboard for presenting the nature of historical revisionism that has occurred in response to the Feminist movement. ➢ ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: discuss what the authors call “the demonization of women” in ancient cultures.

5. Minoan Painted Pottery 6. Discoveries at Thera ➢ ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Consider presenting the ongoing Greek excavations at the site of Akrotiri on the island of Santorini (ancient Thera).

D. MYCENAEAN CULTURE [ca. 1600-1300 B.C.E.] 1. Background

28

•

Heinrich Schliemann, German businessman turned archaeologist (late 1860s) • The Legend of Agamemnon: [Fig. 2.8] Gold mask, from tomb V of Grave Circle A, Mycenae, ca.

1550-1500 B.C.E. 2. Citadels [Fig. 2.6] Lion Gate, Mycenae, ca. 1300-1200 B.C.E. • Cyclopean Masonry (relate term to the mythological Cyclops) 3. Tombs 4. Mycenaean Pottery [Fig. 2.9] Warrior Vase, from Mycenae, ca. 1200 B.C.E. II. THE RISE OF ANCIENT GREECE – Please see Chapter 3 in the Instructors’ Manual ASSESSMENTS Student self-reviews: MyHumanitiesKit, Review and Explore Instructor Test Bank

RESOURCES IMAGES: MyHumanitiesKit, Image links BOOKS: Barber, R.L.N. The Cyclades in the Bronze Age. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1987.

Betancourt, Philip P. A History of Minoan Pottery. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965.

Cadogan, Gerald. Palaces of Minoan Crete. London: Methuen, 1980.

Doumas, Christos. Thera, Pompeii of the Ancient Aegean: Excavations at Akrotiri, 1967-1979. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1983.

The Wall-paintings of Thera. Athens: Thera Foundation, 1992.

Fitton, J. Lesley. Cycladic Art. 2nd ed. London: British Museum, 1999.

Graham, James W. The Palaces of Crete. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987.

Higgins, Reynold. Minoan and Mycenaean Art. Rev. ed. World of Art. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1997.

McDonald, William A., and Carol G. Thomas. Progress into the Past: The Rediscovery of Mycenaean Civilization. 2nd ed. Bloomington: Indiana Univ.

Press, 1990.

29

Marinatos, Nanno. Art and Religion in Thera: Reconstructing a Bronze Age Society. Athens: Mathioulakis, 1984.

Preziosi, Donald and Louise Hitchcock. Aegean Art and Architecture. Oxford History of Art. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1999.

Warren, Peter. The Aegean Civilizations from Ancient Crete to Mycenae. 2nd ed.

Oxford: Elsevier-Phaidon, 1989.

VIDEOS: Crete & Mycenae. Museum Without Walls. KVC Home Video, 54 minutes.

King Minos and the Minoans of Crete. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 48 minutes.

Minoan Civilization. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 53 minutes.

30

3 THE RISE OF ANCIENT GREECE CLASSICAL AND HELLENISTIC GREECE CHAPTER OVERVIEW THE RISE OF ANCIENT GREECE Western civilization takes root CLASSICAL GREECE The golden age of the arts HELLENISTIC GREECE A geographic expansion of the empire, and a scholarly exploration of the past REMINDER NOTE: “The Rise of Ancient Greece” section of Chapter 2 is included with Chapter 3. All of Greek art is treated within the context of the Suggested Teaching Outline following the Summary. All Greek resources appear at the end of this chapter as well.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, the student should be able to . . . . . . define key terms. . . . understand the significance of the Persian Wars on the development of Greece as a nation. . . . trace the changes in the sculptural presentation of the human form from the Archaic to the Hellenistic era, noting stylistic differences. . . . outline the development of Classical philosophy, along with the major philosophers and their contributions. . . . define the qualities of the Classical style in art, music, and theatre. . . . identify the Greek Orders of Architecture and identify works which use these styles. . . . discuss the political transformations in Greece that led to the creation of democracy. . . . outline the development of theatre. . . . be familiar with the works of the early playwrights. . . . explain the influence of Alexander the Great on the spread of Hellenic culture and the 31

resulting global influences.

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. What influences did the development of philosophy have on art, architecture, and religion?

2. Trace the changes in the sculptural presentation of the human form from the Archaic era to the Hellenistic. What stylistic changes were evident? What were some of the outside influences on these changes in appearance?

3. Who were Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle? Compare and contrast their ideas.

How do their ideas still affect us today?

4. What were the causes and results of the Persian Wars?

5. Define the “Classical style”. What are its important qualities? What kinds of works do we still use this term for today? Give an example.

6. Why was the Acropolis so important? What are some of the buildings there and what are their unique qualities?

7. How did Greek theatre start? What was its developmental process and who were some of the major playwrights?

8. Compare and contrast Athenian and Spartan society.

9. What was the influence of Alexander the Great on the spread of Hellenic culture?

CHAPTER SUMMARY Before 490 B.C.E., the Greeks had developed a highly sophisticated culture, but it pales in comparison to the Athenian Golden Age that began with the Athenian defeat of the Persians in 479 B.C.E. and ended in 404 B.C.E., when Athens fell to Sparta. This Golden Age sparked a Classical period in Greece that extended until the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C.E. Classical Greek culture was crucial to the development of Western civilization. The Greeks developed a rich culture which excelled in pottery, sculpture, architecture, poetry, and drama and also in medicine, philosophy, athletics, and government. Classical Greece was the first civilization to explore the human condition, and their ideal of political freedom served as the basis for the belief in individual expression.

Athenian government moved gradually but consistently toward democracy. The first comprehensive code of laws was developed around 621 B.C.E., followed by the right of even the lowest class citizen to participate in the political assembly and sit on juries.

After 508 B.C.E. Athens was divided into demes (neighborhoods), each allowed 50 seats in the Council of Five Hundred, creating the first democracy.

The ancient Greeks left a great cultural legacy in architecture and sculpture. In architecture, they developed three orders: the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, the Parthenon the perfect example of the Classical Doric temple. Sculpture was central to the architecture of the Acropolis, most often featuring the human figure. But the freestanding nude statue became a hallmark of Greek accomplishment, evident in the 32

transition from Archaic sculpture with its rigid frontality, to Classical sculpture of the free-standing nude with naturalness and perfection in a relaxed and balanced pose.

Greek plays were performed in huge outdoor amphitheaters built into the slopes of hillsides. The words were mostly sung to music, which was an integral part of Greek life, associated with festivals and banquets, as well as marriages and funerals. Music was considered so important that all Greek philosophers made a point of discussing it.

One of the most enduring legacies of Greek civilization is its philosophy. The Greeks were among the first to ponder the nature of human existence, and to wonder about individual will, the nature of love, and the meaning of freedom. Socrates (469399 B.C.E.), the most famous of Western philosophers, emphasized the spiritual, the intellectual, and the moral, providing Western thought with a new philosophical direction. For Plato (427-347 B.C.E. , human beings should be less concerned with the material world and more concerned with unchanging spiritual "forms." Aristotle (384322 B.C.E.) differed from his predecessors in believing that there were no absolutely unchanging ethical norms. His most famous pupil was Alexander the Great.

In 336 B.C.E., Alexander the Great took control of the Greek mainland at age 20. He set out to expand the Macedonian empire, which he did until his death in 323 B.C.E. The Hellenistic era began with Alexander's death. Hellenistic art focused on the individual and on emotional states. Where Classical Greek architecture favored balance and order, the Hellenistic period showed a new assertiveness.

The philosophical schools of this period were Stoicism, Skepticism, and Epicureanism, and Cynicism. Although none of them has had the long-term impact of Platonism or Aristotelianism, Stoicism and Epicurianism dominated Greek philosophy during the Hellenistic period. Whereas Cynicism advocated a detachment from desire, Stoicism argues that human beings must accept whatever fortune brings. Epicureanism argues that the way to achieve lasting pleasure is to avoid "kinetic" pleasure in favor of "static" pleasure. Skepticism emphasizes achieving a state of unperturbed equilibrium through suspending judgment about nearly everything. All four philosophies were embraced by the Romans, with Stoicism also later finding a home in Christian philosophy.

MyHumanitiesKit RESOURCES, CHAPTER THREE Objectives Flashcards Study Critical Thinking Multiple Choice Interact – Closer Look: The Classical Orders The Parthenon Review and Explore Image Links 33

Humanities PPT Glossary Audio Glossary College Art Association Write and Research MySearchLab: www.MySearchLab.com KEY TERMS Classical frieze contrapposto half step echinus Hellenistic triglyphs white-ground whole step atlantes demes metopes lekythoi

gigantomachy modes acropolis Ionic tragedy Stoicism lyre agora entablature dramatic irony Epicureanism caryatids stoas

Corinthian Oedipus complex Skepticism Abacus orders Golden Section Sophists Cynicism syllogism Doric entasis

SUGGESTED TEACHING OUTLINE I. BACKGROUND A. SIGNIFICANCE OF GREEK CIVILIZATION FOR WESTERN SOCIETY ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Divide the class into small groups, asking the students to list as many ways as they can in which ancient Greece has impacted modern society. Then ave each group read through its list, noting their answers on the chalkboard. Be prepared to elaborate on some of the influences, such as government, language, or science. ➢ ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Research the Olympiad begun in 776 B.C.E. at Olympia, and compare these Olympic Games with the Olympics held today. See Then and Now on “The Olympiad.” ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: James Burke’s video Day the Universe Changed—It Started with the Greeks provides a thought-provoking introduction to the contribution of the Greeks to western society.

B. MAJOR STYLE PERIODS OF GREEK ART 34

• • • • •

Geometric (ca. 1000-700 B.C.E.) Orientalizing (ca. 700-600 B.C.E.) Archaic (ca. 600-480 B.C.E.) Classical or Golden Age (ca. 480-323 B.C.E.) Hellenistic Age (ca. 323-146 B.C.E.)

➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Emphasize that the focus of this chapter will be upon the Classical or Golden Age of Greek art, seen in light of earlier and later developments. ➢ DISCUSSION: Present the western tendency to see art and culture as an evolutionary process. What is gained and what is lost from this view?

C. RELIGIOUS BELIEFS ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Again, begin with what the students know.

Encourage them to share what they know of Greek mythology. How do Greek beliefs compare with those of the earlier cultures studied?

D. PHILOSOPHY ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: You may want to spend a good deal of time presenting Greek philosophy, including Plato and Aristotle, as well as the philosophies of Stoicism, Epicureanism, Skepticism, and Cynicism. If so, it is probably good to introduce them now, so they can serve as “filters” through which the students consider the works of art. I prefer to have students read the invaluable “Philosophy” section in the text, and focus in class on humanism, idealism, and rationalism as they relate to the arts.

1. Important Ideas • Humanism (“man is the measure of all things”) • Idealism • Rationalism 2. Result of these philosophies for art ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Foreshadow here things you will be emphasizing as you present the works. For example: the fact that Greek sculpture is almost exclusively about people reflects its humanism; the Greek emphasis upon “improving” over time, such as the change in pottery styles, reflects its idealism; and the logical proportions of the Parthenon illustrate their concern for the rational.

E. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GREEK ART 1. Change/Growth: 2. Establishment of Standards

35

➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: This is a good place to introduce the concept that art does have standards. Students often feel that none of it matters, there are no rules, and anything goes. (It seems that some modern art has been particularly pernicious in planting this view.)

Take the opportunity here to emphasize that art does not exist in a vacuum. It reflects the culture of which it is a part, and there have historically been very clear standards as to what constituted a “good” work of art.

3. Love of: balance / order / calm / symmetry / proportion II. ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECTURAL SCULPTURE ON THE ACROPOLIS A. ATHENS, FIFTH CENTURY B.C.E. [“The Age of Pericles”] ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Read aloud the oration Pericles delivered in 430 B.C.E. at a state funeral for Athenian citizens who had died in battle.

Emphasize Pericles’ emphasis upon the “love of beauty”, the use of buildings as “things of the mind,” and his insistence that “we are an education to Greece.” ➢ DISCUSSION: Ask students to compare Pericles’ speech to modern political speeches. Can they imagine today’s leaders stressing beauty and the intellect, or pursuing such a lofty goal as using cultural products to “educate” the world? Why or why not?

B. CHIEF BUILDINGS OF THE ACROPOLIS [Fig. 3.1] 1. Temple of Athena Nike [Fig. 3.7] ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Students are often surprised to learn the meaning of the word “nike” (victory). Include a slide of Nike Fastening Her Sandal in your discussion.

2. Propylaea ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Emphasize the building not only as the lofty entranceway to the Acropolis but also as an early museum, featuring both sculptures and paintings.

3. Erechtheion [Fig. 3.6] ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Focus on the Porch of the Maidens, emphasizing the term caryatid (relate atlantes).

36

➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: The text mentions the six maidens as exemplifying “unity and variety”, an arts term you may want to introduce here.

4. Focus: Parthenon: [Fig. 3.3], examine MyHumanitiesKit, Chapter Three, Interact, Closer Look: the Parthenon. ➢ ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Expand the Connections section regarding “Landscape and Architecture.” Vincent Scully’s The Earth, The Temple, and The Gods is most useful in this regard. a. Purpose • Religious ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: remind students that the Parthenon was meant to be seen from the outside. Religious rituals took place in the open air.

• political • cultural b. Reasons for Modern-Day Appearance • explosion (1687) • Elgin Marbles (1801) ➢ DISCUSSION: Should the Elgin Marbles be returned to Greece?

•

pollution (20th Century)

c. Architectural Terms: [Fig. 3.2] i. Method of Construction: Post-and-Lintel ii. Facade [Fig. 3.3] ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: compare the proportions and effect of the Parthenon façade [Fig. 3.3] with that of the Temple of Hera I at Paestum. iii. Column Parts [Fig. 3.2] • Base • Shaft aa. Entasis: curve along the tapering lines of a column bb. Flutes: indentations in the column • Capital iv. Column Types (Greek Orders) [Fig. 3.2], examine MyHumanitiesKit, Chapter Three,

37

Closer Look: The Classical Orders. ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Explain the geographic significance of the terms for each of the column types. Emphasize the synthesis of the Doric and Ionic orders in the Athenian acropolis buildings and its connection to Athens’ ambition to be a capital of all of Greece.

• Doric • Ionic (volutes) • Corinthian (Hellenistic and Roman) v. Entablature Parts [Fig. 3.2] • Architrave • Frieze aa. triglyphs bb. metopes • Cornice vi. Pediment d. Visual Adjustments • no straight lines • columns closer together at the corners • gentle arching of the stylobate (top step) and architrave • entasis of the columns • columns lean inward WHY? e. Parthenon Sculptures i. Function “Of all the visual arts, sculpture was one of the best suited to the expression of Greek thought, for it embodied the central philosophy of the Greeks--that humans were the measure of all things. The most significant life experiences were those that could be grasped directly by the senses and the mind. To be convincingly real, therefore, an object must have convincing form. Sculpture was perfectly suited to such a purpose.” [Milo Wold, An Introduction to Music and Art in the Western World] ii. Three Sculptural Types/Three Locations • Metopes [High Relief] [Fig. 3.4] Topic: lapiths and centaurs ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Explain the story of the lapiths and centaurs as exemplifying Athenians’ love of reason over passion.

38

Reason for High Relief ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Explain how lighting conditions necessitated different levels of relief on different parts of the buildings.

Cella Frieze [Low Relief] [Fig. 3.5] ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Explain that although now interpreted as the royal family of King Erechtheus preparing its youngest daughter for sacrifice, the cella frieze has historically been interpreted as representing the Pan-Athenaic Procession.

Reason for Low Relief •

Pediment Sculptures [Free-standing] [Fig. 3.4]

➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: The east pediment sculptures represent the Birth of Athena. All events take place in one day, conforming to Aristotle’s concept of the unities. height)

Reason for Freestanding Sculpture (lighting conditions and

➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Now that the Parthenon has been thoroughly studied, review the key principles of humanism.

Assign groups to study different aspects of the design and decoration of the Parthenon (exterior and floor plan, “deviations,” pedimental sculptures, Doric frieze, cella frieze) in light of the definition of classical humanism. Ask each group to describe its aspect and to explain how it illustrates the principles of classical humanism. iii. Influence of the Parthenon upon Later Eras • Roman [Temple of “Fortuna Virilis”, Fig. 4.7 ; Pantheon, Figs.

4.12 and 4.13] • Renaissance [Alberti’s Sant’Andrea ; Michelozzo’s Palazzo Medici-Riccardi] • Baroque [Louvre, St. Paul’s Church] • Neoclassical [Chiswick House, Monticello] III. HELLENISTIC ARCHITECTURE A. OVERVIEW OF HELLENISTIC CULTURE B. PERGAMON’S ALTAR OF ZEUS [Fig. 3.17] Term to know: gigantomachy (the subject of the revolt of the giants) 39

IV. GREEK SCULPTURE A. MALE NUDE (KOUROS) 1. Goal: create the ideal human form (works show increased knowledge of anatomy, stance and proportion) 2. Early Figures: Stylized [ Kouros, Fig. 2.14; compare King Menkaure (Mycerinus) and Queen, Fig. 1.19] 3. Later: More naturalistic [Kritios Boy, ca. 480 B.C.E., Fig. 3.8] 4. Standard of Beauty: youthful/athletic/unemotional/carefully proportioned/natural stance Key Term: contrapposto • Doryphoros (The Spear-Bearer) [Fig. 3.9], expresses the Canon of Polykleitos ➢ CANON OF POLYKLEITOS: [Greek sculptor of the mid-400s B.C.E.; His treatise, called a “canon” or “rule”, consisted of rules for creating the ideal human form. The canon depended precisely ordered and balanced interrelationships between the various parts of the body.] The document is lost, but was summarized by another ancient writer as follows: “Beauty consists of the proportion of the parts; of finger to finger; of all the fingers to the palm and the wrist; of those to the forearm; of the forearm to the upper arm; and of all these parts to one another, as set forth in the Canon of Polyclitus [Polylkeitos].”

B. FEMALE NUDE (KORE=CLOTHED MAIDEN) 1. Earlier works: more conservative, rigid 2. Development: still clothed, but with facial expression (“Archaic smile”) and more body conscious [Fig. 2.17: Kore from Chios, ca. 520 B.C.E.] 3. Later: nudity [Fig. 3.10: Aphrodite of Knidos by Praxiteles, ca. 350-300 B.C.E.] C. HELLENISTIC DEVELOPMENTS IN SCULPTURE: [323-146 B.C.E.] 1. Characteristics • Action • Violence • Display of Emotion (suffering/death) • Windblown drapery • More individualistic • More diversity of ages (childhood and old age as well as youthful vigor)

40

2. Examples • Nike of Samothrace, ca. 200-190 B.C.E [Fig. 3.19] • Laocoön and His Sons, ca. 150 B.C.E. [Fig. 3.20] E. INFLUENCE OF GREEK SCULPTURE ON WESTERN ART AND THINKING ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Show examples of paintings and sculptures from throughout western civilization that reflect Greek influence.

Encourage students to discuss the function of sculpture in Greek society, compared to representations of the human body in contemporary culture (photography, film, video, etc.) What does this tell us about each culture?

IV. GREEK POTTERY ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Assign members of the class to bring in a container or packaging (box, can, bottle, compact disc case, etc.) from their daily life. Give the most interesting examples to small groups of students. Instruct each group to compare their modern-day container with Greek vases, in terms of design, function, and aesthetic value. Ask each group to speculate about what an archaeologist might learn about today’s civilization if he or she dug up this container five hundred years from now.

A. ART VERSUS CRAFT (why we include “pots” in a discussion of fine art) B. POTTERY AS A FORM OF PAINTING [Figs. 2.12 and 2.13] ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Use the examples to illustrate the skill of Greek painters. Explain that we know they were very skilled painters, but the only significant evidence of their skill comes from their pottery.

C. PURPOSE OF GREEK POTTERY D. TYPICAL SUBJECT MATTER E. STYLISTIC CHANGES OVER TIME • Geometric (ca. 1000-700 B.C.E.) [Fig. 2.10] Funerary Krater ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Relate the early development of narrative in pottery to the love of storytelling in Greek literature.

• •

Orientalizing (ca. 700-600 B.C.E.) [Levy Oinochoe, east Greek, ca. 650 B.C.E.; Fig. 2.17: Pitcher (olpe) from Corinth, ca. 600 B.C.E.] Archaic (ca. 600-480 B.C.E.)

41

•

1. Black-Figure (ca. 600-480 B.C.E.) [Fig. 2.12: Exekias, Ajax and Achilles, 550-525 B.C.E.; Fig. 2.13: Pan-Athenaic amphora, ca. 560555 B.C.E.] 2. Red-Figure (ca. 530-450 B.C.E.) [Fig. 2.20: Death of Sarpedon by Euphronios, ca. 515 B.C.E.] Classical (ca. 480-323 B.C.E.) 1. White Ground [Fig. 3.12: “Achilles Painter,” Muse and Maiden, lekythos, ca. 445-430 B.C.E.] ➢ DISCUSSION: Invite students to discuss the “humanism” of Greek vase painting. In light of the increasing naturalism of Greek painting as evidence of the humanistic spirit, how might we interpret the rejection of naturalism in early modern painting?

[Wylie Sypher’s classic text Loss of the Self in Modern Literature and Art might assist you as you prepare the lead the discussion]

VI. GREEK MUSIC A. UNKNOWNS: (particularly how the music sounded) B. ROLE OF MUSIC IN SOCIETY C. DOCTRINE OF ETHOS ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: It helps students to remember the Doctrine of Ethos if you paraphrase the expression “you are what you eat” as “you are what you listen to.” ➢ DISCUSSION: Invite a discussion of the Doctrine of Ethos. Begin by asking students how they use music to calm themselves or to create a festive mood. (Student athletes often mention the usefulness of music in preparing for the “big game.”) Compare their responses to the Greek theory of music and states of mind, and discuss its implications for the issues of music labeling and censorship. ➢ ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Expand on Connections, “Music and Mathematics in Ancient Greece.”

1. Plato on Music ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: One of my favorite quotes from Plato regarding the Doctrine of Ethos is “Let me make the music of a nation and I care not who makes its laws.” Plato stresses a sound mind in a sound body by emphasizing the value of both music and gymnastics (athletics). You can use this information as background for two different areas of discussion: 1) what are we to say to the fact that Plato greatly values the arts (music) and athletics, the two areas which are 42

often severely cut in school budgets? or 2) Discuss rulers who saw the power of the arts, but for drastically different reasons from Plato, and with tragic results. (Hitler, Stalin, etc.) Is it fair to say that repressive cultures often seem to “get it” in terms of the value and power of the arts more than more democratic cultures? Why might that be?

2. Aristotle D. CONTRIBUTION OF GREEKS TO WESTERN MUSICAL THINKING VII. GREEK LITERATURE A. HOMER’S ILIAD AND ODYSSEY B. SAPPHO AND THE LYRIC POEM C. THE EMERGENCE OF GREEK DRAMA ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Explain how ancient Greek theaters [Fig. 3.13] were used for performance. ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Since much of Greek theater was sung, play an example of Greek theatrical music. One of the best we have is the Euripides (?) Orestes tragedy excerpt. In this stasimon, or ode sung while the chorus remained fixed in the orchestra, the women of Argos beg the gods to have mercy on Orestes, who has murdered his mother, Clytemnestra. It dates from either 408 B.C.E., the date of Euripides’ play, or the third century B.C.E., the date of the papyrus on which the music is preserved.

ASSESSMENTS Student self-reviews: MyHumanitiesKit, Review and Explore Instructor Test Bank RESOURCES IMAGES: MyHumanitiesKit, Image links BOOKS: Avery, Catherine, ed. The New Century Handbook of Greek Mythology and Legend. New York: Appleton-Century Crofts, 1972.

43

Boardman, John. The Oxford History of Classical Art. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.

The Parthenon and Its Sculptures. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1985.

Cantarella, E. Pandora’s Daughters. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987.

Comotti, G. Music in Greek and Roman Culture. Trans. R. Munson. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989.

Ford, A. Homer: The Poetry of the Past. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press, 1992.

Francis, E.D. Image and Idea in Fifth-Century Greece: Art and Literature after the Persian Wars. London: Routledge, 1990.

Golden, Mark. Children and Childhood in Classical Athens. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990.

Green, Peter, ed. Hellenistic History and Culture. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992.

Jenkins, Ian. The Parthenon Frieze. Austin: Univ. of Texas Press, 1994.

Kunze, Max. The Pergamon Altar: Its Rediscovery, History, and Reconstruction.

Berlin: Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Antikensammlung, 1991.

Pollitt, J.J. Art in the Hellenistic Age. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1986.

Pomeroy, S., and others. Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History. New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1999.

Rayor, Diane, trans. Sappho’s Lyre: Archaic Lyric and Women Poets of Ancient Greece. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1992.

Richter, Gisela. A Handbook of Greek Art. New York: Da Capo, 1987.

Vlastos, G. Socrates: Ironist and Moral Philospher. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991.

Woodford, S. An Introduction to Greek Art. Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1986.

VIDEOS: The Acropolis Now: The Public Face of the State. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 25 minutes.

Ancient Greece. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 46 minutes.

Art of the Western World Series. Video One, Part I: The Birth of the Classical Tradition. ABC-CLIO, Inc., 30 minutes.

Day the Universe Changed Series, Video One: It Started with the Greeks.

Churchill Films, 52 minutes.

Greek Drama: From Ritual to Theater. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 55 minutes.

Greek Drama: Reconstructing a Greek Theater. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 25 minutes.

Music of Man Series: The Quiver of Life. Home Vision, 60 minutes.

44

Pandora’s Box: The Roles of Women in Ancient Greece. 47 minutes.

The Spirit of Alexander the Great. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 26 minutes.

Women in Classical Greek Drama. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 30 minutes.

45

4 ROMAN CIVILIZATION CHAPTER OVERVIEW ETRUSCAN CIVILIZATION Rome’s ancestors set the stage for greatness THE ROMAN REPUBLIC Conquest, feats of engineering, and portrait sculpture THE EMPIRE All roads lead to Rome—Augustus builds, Constantine converts to Christianity LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, the student should be able to . . . . . . define key terms. . . . identify works of art from Etruria, Republican, and Imperial Rome. . . . discuss the contributions of the Romans to architecture and city planning. . . . compare and contrast the cultures of Etruria, Republican , and Imperial Rome. . . . trace the history of Rome from its inception to the rise of Constantinople. . . . explain the relationship between the Greek and Roman pantheons. . . . discuss major Roman writers and philosophers. . . . understand the influence that Greece had on Rome.

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. How did the Roman presentation of the human figure in sculpture differ from that of the Greeks?

2. What did the first-century B.C.E. poet Horace mean when he said, “Captive Greece conquered her wild conqueror”? How extensive was this “conquest”?

3. Compare and contrast Republican and Imperial Rome. Consider similarities/differences in the arts and government.

4. What were some of the major contributions of the Roman culture to Western culture as a whole?

5. What are the principle themes addressed in the poetry of Catullus and Horace?

6. What are the qualities of satire? Who were some of the major writers associated with this style? What kinds of things did they address?

46

7. Define the term “propaganda”. How and why do we see this embodied in the art of Rome? Give a specific example.

8. In what ways is Roman mural painting similar and different from Egyptian, Minoan, and Etruscan?

CHAPTER SUMMARY In many ways Rome inherited its culture from Greece, and the Romans spread Greek art and literature throughout the world. The Romans also produced remarkable achievements on their own in the fields of politics, law, and engineering. Furthermore, the Western aptitude for organization and problem-solving comes from the Romans.

They excelled in engineering, invented civil law, including property rights, and were responsible for the idea of "natural law," which described a set of rights beyond property rights, an idea which evolved into the "inalienable rights" described in the Declaration of Independence. The Romans developed the idea of civility in social behavior and civilized conduct and discourse in public life. The other legacy of the Romans is their use of Latin: its descendents are Italian, Spanish, and French.

Relatively little is known about the Etruscans, who inhabited the central Italian mainland beginning about 800 B.C.E. , but their temple form was a modification of the Greek temple, and much of what we do know is from the significant number of Etruscan tombs. The Etruscans were defeated in 509 B.C.E., and from that time until 27 B.C.E., Rome was a republic based on the patrician/plebian model. In about 287 B.C.E., Rome began a series of military campaigns that would eventually result in its control of the largest and most powerful empire ever created. In 49 B.C.E., Julius Caesar effectively ended the republican government and became dictator of an empire that included Italy, Spain, Greece, Syria, Egypt, and North Africa. In 31 B.C.E., Octavian, who renamed himself Caesar Augustus, became emperor of the entire Roman world, ushering in the era of Pax Romana.

Roman art was influenced by Greek art. However, the Romans differed in emphasis and focus in their art - the Romans were realistic rather than abstract. Unlike the Greeks, the Romans adopted the Greek columns, but used the Corinthian order the most, and the Romans favored circular temples, such as the Roman Pantheon, with a dome, a unique roman contribution. They also made extensive use of Greek sculptures, but Roman sculptures focused on real people, particularly political figures, not idealized heroes. After Augustus's rise to power in 27 B.C.E., sculpture became more Greek and more idealized. In literature, Roman writers never matched the achievements of their Greek predecessors; Roman poets used Greek genres, but satire appears to have been an authentic Roman invention. The Literature of the Pax Romana era and afterwards is regarded as the pinnacle of Roman cultural accomplishment. And while Greek theater excelled at tragedy, Roman theater excelled at comedy. The only surviving Roman paintings are on walls in the form of murals.

There are four styles of mural: 1) the masonry style, 2) the architectural style , 3) the ornate style, and 4) the fantasy style. Even philosophical traditions of Greece migrated to Rome. Beginning in the second century B.C.E., Stoicism was the dominant Roman

47

philosophy.

Roman ingenuity and efficiency in engineering are evident in their water systems, theaters, public buildings, and use of arches. Water moved by gravity through aqueducts from mountain streams into cities, ensuring drinking water, clean streets, and removal of waste and rain through an underground drainage system. The Roman Forum was the center of city life, and Augustus perpetuated the building of permanent stone theaters, such as the Colosseum, which used arches, an idea developed from the Etruscans.

The empire started to flounder in the second century C.E. The army was corrupt, the Senate was powerless, plague ravaged Rome, and the empire's borders were threatened by barbarians. In the early fourth century, Constantine seized control of the entire empire and moved the seat of government to Byzantium, ending Rome's long ascendancy as the cultural center of the Western world.

MyHumanitiesKit RESOURCES, CHAPTER FOUR Objectives Flashcards Study Critical Thinking Multiple Choice Interact – Closer Look: Urban Life and Imperial Majesty Review and Explore Image Links Humanities PPT Glossary Audio Glossary College Art Association Write and Research MySearchLab: www.MySearchLab.com KEY TERMS Tuscan order pietas tetrarchy oculus satire Tufa composite order amphitheater coffers dome

Patricians engaged columns travertine murals odes Plebians concrete Patronage aqueducts vault 48

SUGGESTED TEACHING OUTLINE I. ETRUSCAN CIVILIZATION A. BACKGROUND B. ARCHITECTURE 1. Temples [Fig. 4.1] Reconstruction of an Etruscan temple according to Vitruvius ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Compare and contrast the Etruscan temple with the Greek temple.

2. Tombs [Fig. 4.2] Tomb of the Reliefs, Cerveteri, third century B.C.E., interior [Fig. 4.3] Tomb of Hunting and Fishing, Tarquinia, wall painting, ca. 520 B.C.E. C. SCULPTURE 1. Sarcophagi [Fig. 4.4] Wife and Husband Sarcophagus, from Cerveteri, ca. 520 B.C.E. ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Present what we know of the Etruscans’ beliefs regarding death. Have students relate these to the beliefs about death of the earlier cultures studied.

2. [Fig. 4.5] Capitoline She-Wolf, ca. 500 B.C.E. II. ROMAN CIVILIZATION A. BACKGROUND ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Explain the meaning of Horace’s famous observation that “captive Greece took her captor captive.” Summarize the ways in which Rome was influenced by Greece and the ways in which Rome was different (see the related activity at the end of III). ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Present a slide of the ancient world in order to demarcate the Roman Empire. List some of the ways in which Rome assimilated such far-flung and diverse cultures within its realm. ➢ DISCUSSION: Ask students in the class to assume, for the moment, that every other country in the world was inevitably becoming more like the United States. Ask students, individually or in groups, to think of ways in

which life in other nations might benefit from the influence of U.S. political, economic, and cultural ways. At the same time, ask students to think of ways that other cultures might be harmed by U.S. influence.

Record their hypothetical thoughts in two columns on the chalkboard.

Once you have a generous list of both benefits and harm, ask students which of these effects is already occurring in the sphere of U.S. political and cultural influence. Invite students to find analogies to ancient Rome’s imperial sway. Evaluate the relative benefit and harm to smaller nations that fall under the influence of dominant or imperial powers. ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: You may present Roman art in two halves, the art of the Roman Republic and the art of the Empire, or you may choose, as I suggest, to treat Roman art by type (public architecture, religious architecture, sculpture, painting, etc.), making mention of the distinctions between republican and imperial art as appropriate.

B. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 1. Goal: enclose large interiors with a minimum of interior supports (buildings larger and taller than Greek; used post-and-lintel less often) 2. Primary building types: buildings for use (less emphasis upon sacred) 3. Chief Contributions (although some they did not invent) ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Consider using the video Art of the Western World (1) –The Classical Ideal: The Imperial Stones of Rome.

This thirty-minute provides an excellent overview of Roman art and architecture, including the building principles. a. Arch: curving architectural form made of bricks or other masonry, often in the shape of a semicircle but sometimes rising to a point at the top (this was invented by the Babylonians) i. Parts of an arch: • Voussoir: individual stones that comprise the arch • Springing: point at which the curve of the arch begins • Keystone: the central, uppermost voussoir of an arch ii. Arches can be extended in various ways to produce other structures: • Arcade: series of arches side-by-side [Fig. 4.8, Pont du Gard, Nimes, France, late first century B.C.E.-early first century C.E.] • Barrel (tunnel) vault: a vault, or masonry roof, based on an extension of the round arch; in effect, many round arches placed one behind the other [Fig. 4.20, Arch of Constantine, 312-15 C.E.] • Groin (cross) vault: a vault, or masonry ceiling, resulting when two barrel vaults intersect; popular in both Roman and medieval architecture to roof a square area 50

•

Dome: an architectural structure generally in the shape of a hemisphere; theoretically, an arch rotated 360 degrees on its vertical axis; provides roofing over a large area without vision-blocking supports b. Concrete: mixture of rubble and mortar; Romans discovered that pozzolana, a volcanic material, caused concrete to harden more slowly, making it possible to bond larger structures. Buildings were made of concrete (inexpensive and easy to work with) and then faced with a veneer of more expensive, attractive materials, such as marble 4. Public Buildings ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Compare Roman urban life, as revealed in the excavated cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum, with urban life today. Using David Macaulay’s City (book or video), illustrate the Romans’ planning of urban space and construction. Invite students to make comparisons or analogies to contemporary methods of urban planning.

• Roman Forum • Basilica • Baths • The Colosseum [Fig. 4.10] 5. Private Buildings a. Apartment Buildings called insula b. Houses c. Villas: [Fig. 4.22] Villa at Boscoreale, cubiculum, first century B.C.E. 6. Civil Engineering Projects: Roads/Sewers/Bridges/Aqueducts [Fig. 4.8: Pont du Gard, near Nimes, Frances, late first century B.C.E.—early first century C.E.] 7. Religious Architecture • [Fig. 4.7] Temple of “Fortuna Virilis,” late second century B.C.E.-first century B.C.E.] • The Pantheon [Figs. 4.11 and 4.12] portico niche oculus coffer ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Using slides, draw an extended comparison between the Parthenon and the Pantheon. Have students discuss the Roman Pantheon as an exemplar of Roman architectural principles: emphasis on verticality, interior decoration, and use of the arch. Encourage students to draw

51

analogies to buildings in their community that are introverted, like the Pantheon, or extroverted, like the Parthenon. ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: examine MyHumanitiesKit, Chapter Four, Interact, Closer Look: Urban Life and Imperial Majesty.

8. Commemorative Architecture ➢ DISCUSSION: Ask students to think of the most effective television commercial or magazine advertisement that they have seen. Then ask students to think of the most pleasing or beautiful commercial or ad, in terms of aesthetic value. After describing several examples, ask students to compare the means by which commercials sell products and please the eye. By analogy, turn to the works of artistic propaganda of ancient Rome. Ask students if they findthe same tension or overlap between political message and artistic value.

•

The Ara Pacis, 13-9 B.C.E. [Fig. 4.14]

➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Have students compare the relief sculptures of the Ara Pacis with those of the Parthenon’s cella frieze [Fig. 3.5, Procession of Figures, ca. 440 B.C.E.]. ➢ ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Many scholars believe that the prominent placement of families in the Ara Pacis frieze was to encourage family life at a time when Roman family life was in decline. Present a lecture on the Roman family, its decline, and the steps Augustus took to strengthen it. See Connections, “The Ara Pacis and the Politics of Family Life.”

•

The Column of Trajan, 106-13 C.E. [Figs. 4.15 and 4.16]

➢ DISCUSSION: Have students relate the message of this work and its means of presentation with earlier works studied, such as the Victory Stele of Naram-Sin [Fig. 1.7] or the Palette of Narmer [Fig. 1.14].

•

Arch of Constantine, 312-15 C.E. [Fig. 4.20]

➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Illustrate the influence of Roman art and architecture on public architecture today. Show slides of St. Peter’s in Rome, the U.S. and state capitols, Thomas Jefferson’s library at the University of Virginia, and other domed buildings.

Compare modern sports arenas to Rome’s Colosseum. Ask students to speculate on the reasons that later architects have borrowed so slavishly from Roman forms. Compare modern borrowings to the 52

imitative and antiquarian spirit of the Romans themselves. (note: mention that we will discuss the influence of Greco-Roman architecture several times during the course.) ➢ STUDENT ASSIGNMENT: Have students research one arch that has been erected in recent times. Students should come to class prepared to explore the following questions: Why was the arch erected? How is the arch celebrated? What does the arch commemorate? How does public architecture become linked to a city? Is there a common thread across all arches studied?

C. ROMAN SCULPTURE 1. Portrait Busts • A Roman Patrician with Busts of His Ancestors, late first century B.C.E. [Fig. 4.9] • Portrait bust of Julius Caesar, first century B.C.E. [Fig. 4.6] • Caracalla, ca. 215 C.E. [Fig. 4.18] 2. Sculpture in the Round (Freestanding) • Augustus of Prima Porta [Fig. 4.13, ca. 20 B.C.E.; compare, Polyclitus, Doryphorus (Spear-Bearer), ca. 450-440 B.C.E. • Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius [Fig. 4.17, gilded bronze, 164-66 C.E.] • Constantine the Great, head from a huge statue, 325-26 C.E. [Fig. 4.19] ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Using slides and illustrations in this text or others, pair Roman works with the relevant Greek models. Assign groups of students to analyze the ways in which Roman artists and architects imitated the Greek works: Augustus of Primaporta / Polyclitus’ Spearbearer Ara Pacis Augustae / the Altar of Zeus Temple of Fortuna Virilis / the Parthenon Trajan’s Column / the Parthenon cella frieze As students report their findings, encourage them to hypothesize reasons—differences in function, form, and symbolic meaning—for Roman alterations.

D. ROMAN MOSAICS AND PAINTING 1. Terms to Know ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Provide the terms below for the students’ notes and have them learn them on their own.

TERMS TO KNOW

53

• • •

Medium: the material used to create a work of art (oil, watercolor, brick, marble, etc.)

Support: the surface on which a work of two-dimensional art is made; for example, canvas, paper, or wood.

Pigment: a coloring material made from various organic or chemical substances. When mixed with a binder, it creates a drawing or painting medium.

Historically, pigments made from expensive materials were associated with a ruler or religious figure. Example: the color blue came from the powder of a semiprecious stone lapis lazuli (from Afghanistan) and was therefore reserved for special people, such as the Virgin Mary.

•

Binder: a substance in paints that causes particles of pigment to adhere to one another and to a support (Ex. Linseed oil).

Types of Painting Media: • Fresco: painting medium in which colors are applied to wet plaster, thus bonding the image with the painting surface; most often used for murals (wall painting) [Popular from antiquity through the Renaissance, but continues to be used to the present day; very durable, but suffers the fate of the wall to which it adheres].

• Encaustic: painting medium in which the binder is hot beeswax [Popular in antiquity; known for giving a luminous quality to skin tones; revived in the 1960’s for Jasper John’s Flags].

• Tempera: painting medium in which the binder is egg yolk [Popular in the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Difficult to work with, since it dries quickly; produces flat, precise work with crisp outlines].

• Oil: painting medium in which the binder is linseed oil [The most popular medium from the 1400s to the 1950s, when acrylic was developed; easy to work with for painters, and produces incredibly accurate textures (hair, fur, metal, etc.) and beautiful colors].

• Watercolor: painting medium in which the binder is gum Arabic.

Thought of as an intimate art, usually small in scale and executed with great freedom and spontaneity; done quickly; cannot be easily corrected; fragile as it ages].

• Acrylic: a plastic substance commonly used as a binder for paintings and as a casting material for sculpture [Introduced in the 1950s; offers quick drying time, pure and intense colors, and great flexibility in methods of application].

• Mosaic: an art form in which small pieces of tile, glass, or stone (called tesserae) are fitted together and embedded into a background to make a pattern or image. Often used for floor and wall decoration. Especially associated with ancient Roman and Byzantine art.

54

2. Painting Genres ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Since the Romans painted in all four of the usual painting genres, it is a good opportunity to introduce them here.

Stress the Romans’ skills of observation, naturalistic detail (such as shadows), and treatment of perspective. Note that western artists will depart from these techniques during the Middle Ages. a. Portrait b. Still Life c. Narrative, Scenes of Dionysiac mystery cult, Villa of the Mysteries, Pompeii, ca. 60 B.C.E d. Landscape ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Give students a brief taste of the landscape in later western art, such as the Dutch Baroque and French nineteenth century. Are the reasons for painting landscape during these different eras similar or different?

3. Roman Painting Styles a. First [Fig. 4.21] Casa di Sallustio, Pompeii, second century B.C.E. b. Second [Fig 4.22] Villa at Boscoreale first century B.C.E. c. Third [Fig. 4.23] House of M. Lucretius Fronto, Pompeii, mid-first century C.E. d. Fourth [Fig. 4.24] Ixion Room, House of the Vettii, Pompeii, 63-79 C.E. ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Compare Roman portrait sculpture and mosaic to the arts of daily life today: snapshot photography, video recording, etc. Ask students to compare the design and decoration of a Pompeiian interior to home interiors today. ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Almost the only Roman painting to survive is found on walls in the form of murals. Describe the development of new schools of mural painting, including the Mexican mural movement with “Los Tres Grandes,” ghetto wall painters of the 1960s and 1970s, graffiti artists of the 1970s, and Judith F. Baca’s Great Wall of Los Angeles project begun in 1976.

E. ROMAN MUSIC 1. Unknowns 2. Importance of music to Roman society ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Although we know that music was very important to the Romans, none of it remains. Based upon what we know of the music, however, we can assess its influence. Discuss the impact of

55

Roman music, positive and negative, upon the music of the early Christian church.

F. ROMAN HISTORIANS 1. Sallust 2. Livy 3. Tacitus 4. Suetonius ➢ DISCUSSION: Have students react to the famous observation that “if we do not know history, we are bound to repeat it.” How important is it to have those among us who record and interpret the past?

G. ROMAN PHILOSOPHY 1. Stoicism ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Have the students read the selection from Marcus Aurelius’ Meditations. Afterwards, ask them to describe, orally or in writing, the ways that their lives would change if they adopted the philosophy of Roman stoicism. For students who imagine significant differences, invite them to discuss the basic tenets of their personal philosophy of life. Ask students to evaluate stoicism as a philosophy useful in the modern world.

H. ROMAN LITERATURE 1. Catullus 2. Virgil 3. Horace 4. Ovid 5. Seneca 6. Petronius ASSESSMENTS Student self-reviews: MyHumanitiesKit, Review and Explore Instructor Test Bank

RESOURCES IMAGES: MyHumanitiesKit, Image links BOOKS: 56

Adam, J.P. Roman Building: Materials and Techniques. Trans. A. Mathews.

Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994.

Boardman, John. The Oxford Illustrated History of Classical Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993.

Bradley, I.R. Slavery and Society in Rome. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.

Comotti, G. Music in Greek and Roman Culture. Trans. R. Munson. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989.

Dupont, F. Daily Life in Ancient Rome. London: Blackwell, 1993.

Elsner, J. Art and the Roman View: The Transformation of Art from the Pagan World to Christianity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.

Galinsky, K. Augustan Culture: An Interpretive Introduction. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996.

Grant, M. The Art and Life of Pompeii and Herculaneum. New York: Newsweek, 1979.

Kleiner, D.E.E. Roman Sculpture. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1992.

Macaulay, D. City: A Story of Roman Planning and Construction. Boston: Little, Brown, 1975.

MacNamara, E. Everyday Life of the Etruscans. New York: Dorset, 1987.

Pollitt, J.J. The Art of Rome c. 753 B.C.-A.D. 337: Sources and Documents.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.

Sprenger, Maja, and Gilda Bartolini. The Etruscans: Their History, Art and Architecture. New York: Abrams, 1983.

Wheeler, M. Roman Art and Architecture. New York: Praeger, 1965.

VIDEOS: Art of the Western World (1)—The Classical Ideal: (II) The Imperial Stones of Rome. ABC-CLIO, Inc., 30 minutes.

The Emperor’s Gift: Rome’s Colosseum. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 25 minutes.

Greek and Roman Legends. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 35 minutes.

Imperial Rome: Ostia, and Portus: Ancient Architecture and Technology. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 59 minutes.

Journey Through Ancient Pompeii. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 31 minutes.

Passing Judgments: Spectacle, Law, and Order in Ancient Rome. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 25 minutes.

The Roman Arena. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 50 minutes.

57

5 JUDAISM, EARLY CHRISTIANITY, AND BYZANTINE CIVILIZATION CHAPTER OVERVIEW JUDAISM The Hebraic faith establishes its history and tradition with the Bible EARLY CHRISTIANITY The arts nurture and transmit the beliefs of the Christian faith BYZANTINE CIVILIZATION The schism of the church forges the way for Byzantium in the East LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, the student should be able to . . . . . . define key terms. . . . trace the history and travels of the Hebrew people from 2000 B.C.E. to the first century C.E. . . . discuss the development of the Gospels, along with their specific differences. . . . outline the basic tenets of both Judaism and Christianity as well as the connections between the two. . . . explain the development of Christianity from the life of Christ to the life of St. Augustine. . . . identify the relationship between the Classical tradition and Early Christian thought. . . . identify Early Christian and Byzantine works. . . . trace the development of Byzantium.

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. What were the similarities in Jewish and Christian beliefs? What were the differences?

2. Consider the general religious beliefs of the era, such as the newer imports, as well as what you know of the mystery cults from previous chapters. How would the life of Christ and his message be seen as a revolutionary development?

3. What are the major differences between the Gospels?

58

4. After the idealism of Greek sculpture and the realism of Republican Roman sculpture, why did Early Christian art become flattened and abstract? What was its main purpose?

5. Discuss the development of Byzantium. What major contributions came from that empire?

CHAPTER SUMMARY A tribe known as the “Children of Israel” - the Israelites or Hebrews, later known as Jews -founded the Hebrew tradition, spiritual and mystical, based on faith.

The Hebrew Bible, the Old Testament, describes how the nomadic Hebrews were forced out of their homeland by 2000 B.C.E., and, led by Abraham, settled in Canaan, which they believed was promised to them by their god, Yahweh. They believed in the “covenant” - Yahweh agreed to be their God if the Hebrews agreed to be his people and follow His will. They left Canaan for Egypt about 1600 B.C.E., but after they were enslaved by the Egyptians, Moses led them out of Egypt (the exodus) into the Sinai desert. There, God is said to have given Moses the Ten Commandments, the basis of religious law for the ancient Judeo-Christian world. After Moses' death, the Hebrews wandered for forty years in the wilderness until they arrived in Canaan. By 1000 B.C.E., the kingdom of Israel was established, with Saul its first king, followed by David and Solomon. After Solomon's death the kingdom split in two, Israel and Judah. Israel fell to the Assyrians in 722 B.C.E., Judah to the Babylonians in 587 B.C.E. The Hebrews were in exile until about 539 B.C.E., then returned to the area around Jerusalem. The Romans destroyed Jerusalem in C.E. 70.

The Hebrew Bible consists of three major groupings: the Law, the Prophets, and the Writings. The books of the Hebrew Bible were written over a period of three thousand years, beginning in 3000 B.C.E. The earliest extant texts are from Isaiah, contained in the Dead Sea Scrolls.

Christianity arose during the first century C.E. To Christians, Jesus is their God and Savior who rose from the dead after being crucified by the Romans. Jesus was Jewish, as were the first Christians, who identified him as Christ - the "Messiah". Jesus' teachings fall in two essential commandments: love God above all, and love others as one loves oneself. After his death, Christianity grew slowly until 313 C.E. when the emperor Constantine granted Christianity toleration as a religion.

The New Testament interprets the acts and words of Jesus, and contains the gospels, epistles, the Acts of the Apostles, and the Apocalypse. The single important write of Christian theory was Augustine, C.E. 354-430, from northern Africa. He believed that the Old Testament anticipated the New Testament, that evil was a deficiency in good rather than something that exists on it own, that only God could grant salvation, and that because humans were unable to save themselves, their only hope for salvation was to accept God’s truth as revealed in sacred scripture, including the New Testament.

As Rome declined, Constantinople grew in power, influence, and wealth. In 330 59

C.E., Constantine established Byzantium as his new capital, renaming it Constantinople, and by C.E. 500, Roman power in the West had disappeared. From C.E. 527-565, Justinian and his wife Theodora exerted cultural and political influence. They rebuilt Constantinople, making it the world’s largest and richest market as the city had one of the finest harbors in the world and controlled the land route from Europe to Asia.

There were deeply-rooted differences between the Christian Churches of the West and East. Latin was the language of the Roman Church, Greek that of the Byzantine Church. In Rome the Church was ruled by local bishops; in Constantinople the Church was controlled by a patriarch named by the emperor. In the West, priests were celibate; in the East priests could marry. The final split, or schism, came in 1054.

MyHumanitiesKit RESOURCES, CHAPTER FIVE Objectives Flashcards Study Critical Thinking Multiple Choice Interact – Closer Look: The Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus

Review and Explore Image Links Humanities PPT Glossary Audio Glossary College Art Association Write and Research MySearchLab: www.MySearchLab.com

KEY TERMS evangelists nave catacombs iconophiles pendentives monotheistic aisles frescoes piazza sarcophagi covenant transept

responsorial Greek cross narthex etiological stories apse antiphonal icon schism parables clerestory liturgical linear perspective 60

atrium ambulatory

iconography

SUGGESTED TEACHING OUTLINE I. JUDAISM A. HISTORY AND RELIGION 1. Creation 2. Patriarchs [Fig. 5.1] Menorahs and Art of the Covenant, wall painting in a Jewish catacomb, third century C.E. 3. Prophets 4. Kings 5. Return from exile ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Compare the Hebrew’s monotheistic religion with the polytheistic religions of Greece, Rome, and other Near Eastern peoples. ➢ ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Discuss what we know of early Jewish worship, showing slides of the house-synagogue at DuraEuropos, Syria.

II. THE BIBLE AS LITERATURE A. HISTORY AND FICTION B. BIBLICAL POETRY III. EARLY CHRISTIANITY A. JESUS AND HIS MESSAGE ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Compare various portraits of Jesus from artists of different cultures. How does each artist portray Him? B.

EARLY CHRISTIAN HISTORY

➢ ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Discuss the spread of Christianity due to the efforts of martyrs and missionaries. How did Constantine’s Edict of Milan serve as a turning point for the growth of Christianity? ➢ DISCUSSION: Shortly after the Edict of Milan, Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire. Divide students into small groups,

61

asking them to consider how this changed the faith. What were the pros and cons of acceptance and recognition?

C.

EARLY CHRISTIAN ART 1. Early Christian and Byzantine Art: Clarification of Terms 2. Development of Christian Subject Matter and Symbolism ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Using a variety of early Christian works, demonstrate what symbolism is and how it “works”. Expand this by including the use of symbolism in other contexts. Relate concept to the use of logos in advertising. ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Examine artwork derived from specific biblical passages and evaluate how the work reflects the biblical message.

1. Catacomb Paintings [Fig. 5.9] Dome of Heaven from the Catacomb of SS. Pietro e Marcellino, Rome, 4th century] 2. Architecture a. Basilica Designs (influence of Roman imperial basilicas): [Figs.

5.3 and 5.4] ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Using slides and illustrations from Chapter 4: Roman Civilization, illustrate the origins of early Christian and Byzantine architecture in Roman building styles.

Note the adaptation of the basilica, groin-vaulted baths, circular temples, and other Roman buildings for use as Christian structures. Particularly note how Christians modified the meaning of the earlier structures. (For example, the triumphal arch shape found at the apse end of an early Christian basilica now symbolizes the victory in Christ, not the victory of a Roman army.) Invite students to think of examples in their own experience of buildings adapted to several uses over a span of time. b. Architectural Terms • Nave: the rectangular space of a church where worshipers sit or stand (from Latin for “ship”) • 3 parts of the interior elevation (visible as you stand in the nave): nave arcade: series of arches along the nave. triforium: area above the nave arcade; originally flat and covered with mosaics or paintings, it later became and arcaded wall passage. clerestory: the row of windows long the top of the nave walls of a basilica or 62

• •

church aisles: the portion of a church flanking the nave and separated from it by a row of columns or piers. apse: originally the semicircular niche at the ends of a Roman basilica; in Christian architecture, the niche-like eastern end of a church, usually housing the altar.

➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Give students a copy of these terms for their notes and have them learn them on their own. c. Centrally planned designs [Figs. 5.5 and 5.10] 3. Early Christian Sculpture ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Explore why sculpture was always secondary to painting and mosaic in the Early Christian era.

•

Jesus the Good Shepherd , mid-third century C.E. [Fig. 5.9]

➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Compare this sculpture with Calfbearer [Fig 4.22] (Moschophoros), dedicated by Rhonbos on the Acropolis, ca. 560 B.C.E. •

Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus, 359 C.E., Grottoes of St. Peter, Vatican [Fig. 5.10] Look at MyHumanitiesKit, Chapter Five, Interact, Closer Look: The Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus.

➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: This provides a good summary of many of the themes of the Bible.

D. BYZANTINE ART 1. Hagia Sophia, Constantinople [Figs. 5.13, 5.14, and 5.15]

➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Since Hagia Sophia later became a mosque (and ultimately a museum), this is a good place to introduce the concept that mosques contain no figurative representation. The figurative mosaics from the Christian era were white-washed during Hagia Sophia’s time as a mosque. (note also the minarets) 2. San Vitale, Ravenna a. Exterior [Fig. 5.10]

b. Mosaics • Function: convey ideas, especially doctrine • Characteristics of Byzantine mosaics and paintings: sumptuous grandeur halos for sacred figures

63

shimmering gold background human figures are flat, stiff, and symmetrically arranged no interest in perspective or volume tall, slim, with almond-shaped faces, huge eyes, and solemn expressions gaze straight ahead no suggestion of movement ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Encourage students to see the spiritual abstraction of Byzantine art as a reasonable alternative to naturalism and pictorial realism.

Examples: • Interior looking toward apse, ca. 526-17 C.E. [Fig. 5.11] • Capital • Theodora and Her Attendants, ca. 547 [Fig. 5.12] ➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: There is a companion piece to this work called Justianian and His Attendants. If you show this work, explain the meaning of the Chi-Rho symbol on the shields of Justinian’s soldiers.

➢

ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: The Emperor Justinian and Empress Theodora

➢

DISCUSSION: Have students consider the emperor and empress mosaics and representations of the unification of church and state. What is lost and what is gained in such a political arrangement?

3. St. Mark’s, Venice [Figs. 5.16 through 5.18] ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: If there is time, play some of Giovanni Gabrieli’s music, explaining how the multiple balconies of St. Mark’s made possible the glorious antiphonal effects of this late-Renaissance master.

4. Icons a. Visual Characteristics b. Function and Meaning c. Iconoclastic Controversy (730-843 C.E.) d. Example: [Fig. 5.19] Madonna and Child Enthroned, egg tempera on panel, late thirteenth century ➢ DISCUSSION: “You shall not make for yourself a graven image, or any likeness of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is on the earth 64

beneath, or that is in the water under the earth.” What does mean for art? Daniel Boorstin’s “The Healing Image” chapter in his The Creators provides an excellent discussion of the Iconoclastic Controversy. ➢

TEACHING STRATEGY TO REVIEW EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE ART: Compare early Christian and Byzantine depictions of Christ with the classical Greeks’ and Romans’ portrayals of the gods and heroes. (See, for example, the Greek kouros [Fig. 2.22]; the Parthenon’s pedimental sculptures [Fig. 3.5]; the Laocoön [Fig. 3.25]; or the Augustus of Primaporta [Fig. 4.15]). Have students describe the contrasting styles of classical and early Christian art.

E. MUSIC OF THE EARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCH

1. Theoretical Discussions a. Origins of Christian Music in Jewish Practice b. Views of the Church Fathers (show influence of the Doctrine of Ethos) i. Augustine: Confessions ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Read Augustine’s portion of the Confessions (10:33) in which he discusses his concerns regarding music in the church. Have students create a list of Augustine’s pros and cons on the issue. c. Role of Church Music in Western Culture 2. Gregorian Chant: a. Origin of Name “Gregorian” b. Function of Chant (religious/social/political) c. Musical Characteristics ➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: Play an example of chant, having students list as many characteristics of the music as they can.

(Examples: Latin, flowing, calm, not terribly high or low, absence of catchy rhythm, etc.) Particularly encourage them to relate this music to the music of today. Why do they think the “Chant” album was at the top of the pop charts in the mid-1990s (see Chapter 11, Then and Now, “Chant”)?

3. Liturgical Year ➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: Relate the church calendar to familiar events in our culture, not only Christmas and Easter but also Halloween and Mardi Gras. Discuss how the structure encouraged by the church was no doubt a welcome antidote to an often chaotic world.

65

4. The Mass ➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: Ask Catholic students to describe the Mass as it exists today, and invite Protestant students to compare the Mass with their services of worship, particularly noting similarities. How do these services compare with those of other religions? Particularly stress the meaning of each part of the service.

F.

THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE a. Gospels b. Epistles c. Revelation G. PHILOSOPHY: AUGUSTINE AND THE NEOPLATONIC INHERITANCE ➢

ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Discuss the enormous influence of Augustine’s Confessions. The book’s image of the spiritual journey influenced medieval poems of pilgrimage, such as William Langland’s Piers Ploughman and Dante’s Divine Comedy. The Confessions also paved the way for the Renaissance discovery of the self.

➢

DISCUSSION: IN Augustine’s Confessions, he proposed a process of scriptural interpretation that was to become influential for hundreds of years. According to Augustine, the Old Testament prefigures the New Testament, with Old Testament characters and events serving as prefigurations of those in the New Testament. Have students cite examples of prefigurations. (Examples include: Noah’s ark symbolizing the church, Abraham’s sacrifice of his son Isaac typifying the sacrifice of Christ, Jonah in the whale for three days typifying Christ in the grave, etc.)

ASSESSMENTS Student self-reviews: MyHumanitiesKit, Review and Explore Instructor Test Bank RESOURCES IMAGES: MyHumanitiesKit, Image links BOOKS: Alter, R. The World of Biblical Literature. New York: Basic Books, 1992.

66

Armstrong, K. A History of God. The 4000-Year Quest of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. New York: Knopf, 1993.

Boorstin, Daniel. The Creators: A History of Heroes of the Imagination. Vintage Books, 1992.

Bowerstock, G.W., P. Brown, and O. Grabar, ed. Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1999.

Brown, P. The Rise of Western Christendom: Triumph and Diversity, A.D. 2001000. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1996.

Brown, R. An Introduction to the New Testament. New York: Doubleday-Anchor, 1997.

Cioffarelli, Ada. Guide to the Catacombs of Rome and Its Surroundings. Rome: Bonsignori, 2000.

Crossan, J.D. The Essential Jesus: Original Sayings and Earliest Images. San Francisco: Harper, 1994.

Ferguson, E., ed. Encyclopedia of Early Christianity. New York: Garland, 1990.

Fredriksen, P. From Jesus to Christ: The Origins of the New Testament Images of Jesus. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1988.

Mainstone, R.J. Hagia Sophia: Architecture, Structure and Liturgy of Justinian’s Great Church. London: Thames and Hudson, 1988.

Rutgers, Leonard Victor. Subterranean Rome: In Search of the Roots of Christianity in the Catacombs of the Eternal City. Leuven: Peeters, 2000.

Seltzer, R.M. Jewish People, Jewish Thought: The Jewish Experience in History.

New York: Macmillan, 1980.

Simson, O.G. von. Sacred Fortress: Byzantine Art and Statecraft in Ravenna.

Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1987.

Webb, Matilda. The Churches and Catacombs of Early Christian Rome: A Comprehensive Guide. Brighton: Sussex Academic Press, 2001.

VIDEOS: The Birth of a New Religion: Christianity in the 1st and 2nd Centuries. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 48 minutes.

Byzantium and the Holy Roman Empire: Christianity in the 7th and 8th Centuries. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 48 minutes.

The City of God. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 39 minutes.

From Jesus to Christ: The First Christians. PBS, 4 parts, 50 minutes each.

The Mystery of the Tomb of Jesus: The Quest for the Historical Christ. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 51 minutes.

Trials and Triumphs in Rome: Christianity in the 3rd and 4th Centuries. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 47 minutes.

Who Were the Israelites? Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 28 minutes.

67

6 ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION CHAPTER OVERVIEW ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION A new religion emerges from the Middle East

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, the student should be able to . . . . . . define key terms. . . . trace the development of Islam and explain its connection to Judaism and Christianity. . . . outline the basic tenets of Islam. . . . identify works of Islamic art, architecture, and literature. . . . understand the contributions of Islamic culture.

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. What are the morals of the tales from The Thousand and One Nights?

2. How are the teachings of Islam similar to those of Judaism and Christianity? In what ways is Islam unique?

3. Trace the life and trials of Muhammad. How did his experiences make him who he was?

4. What do you think life would have been like for a citizen of Baghdad at the end of the 800’s?

Why? 5. What are the attitudes expressed towards women in the reading from the Quran? How are women treated in Muslim countries today?

6. Make a list of some of the contributions that came from Islamic culture. Explain how the world would be different if one or more of them had not been shared.

7. How is the Islamic mosque similar and different to the architecture of previous cultures?

CHAPTER SUMMARY Islam, the youngest of the world's major religions, was first proclaimed by Muhammad (ca. 570632) in the town of Mecca. Muslims, followers of Islam, believe their faith is a continuation of Judaism and Christianity, but refer to God as "Allah." Islam spread rapidly throughout the Mediterranean and the East, leaving behind magnificent architecture everywhere it went. Muslims surrender themselves to the prophet Muhammad and through him to Allah, obeying Muhammad's instructions for living. Upon Muhammad's death in 632, a succession of caliphs took his place. Muslims believe the Quran, their holy scripture, is the recitation of God’s words to Muhammad. The Quran is slightly shorter than the New Testament and is divided into 114 Surahs or chapters. Islamic teaching also uses the hadith, Muhammad’s sayings. Islamic scripture teaches that Allah is the one omnipotent god, and that to achieve heaven, Muslims must accept Allah as the supreme being and must also complete the "five pillars" of Islam: repetition of the creed, daily prayer, almsgiving, fasting during Ramadan, and pilgrimage

68

to Mecca. Avicenna (980-1037) and Averroes (1126-1198), two notable Islamic philosophers, tried to bridge Aristotle’s philosophy and Islamic theology. They also preserved the Western tradition of reverence for education, books, and philosophy.

Islamic architecture, poetry, and music fuse the art of many different cultures, including Turkish, Persian, and Arabic. In the late seventh century, Muslim rulers started to build mosques, most of which are rectangular with an open court and fountain. Islamic pictorial arts were curtailed by Muhammad's opposition to idolatry, so Mosques contain no figurative representations. Arabic poetry appeared in written form around 700. One of the oldest forms of Arabic poetry is the qasidah, a highly formalized ode. When Arabs conquered Persia in 637, they brought with them their Arabic script, and an explosion of Persian poetry followed, love its favorite topic, followed by the celebration of spring. Spanish Muslims wrote one of the most famous Arabic works of literature, The Thousand and One Nights. Music was forbidden until after 661 but was then accepted. Persian and Arabic music influenced each other, and music flourished during the Abbasid dynasty, 750-1258. Medieval Arabic music was influenced by ancient Greek music theory.

MyHumanitiesKit RESOURCES, CHAPTER SIX Objectives Flashcards Study Critical Thinking Multiple Choice Review and Explore Image Links Humanities PPT Glossary Audio Glossary College Art Association Write and Research MySearchLab: www.MySearchLab.com

KEY TERMS Surah hadith mosque minaret voussoirs

ayas Sufi mihrab muezzin calligraphy

SUGGESTED TEACHING OUTLINE ➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: Whether or not nonwestern art is your specialty, students would no doubt enjoy meeting a person from the nonwestern culture being studied. If possible, invite a Muslim to class. Suggest they present a brief overview of their background and faith, and then allow time for questions. Another possibility would be to have a religion professor provide an overview of Islam. Finally, consider taking students to visit a mosque.

I. RELIGION

69

A. MUHAMMAD B. THE QURAN C. BASIC TENETS AND THE FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM D. ISLAMIC MYSTICISM: THE SUFIS [Fig. 7.11] Turkish miniature of dervishes dancing, from a copy of the Sessions of the Lovers, sixteenth century, illuminated manuscript ➢

ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Using Then and Now “Jerusalem” as a starting point, prepare a lecture on the significance of Jerusalem for Different Faiths. Consider inviting a Christian, a Jew, and a Muslim to class to discuss the significance of Jerusalem to their respective faiths.

➢ CLASSROOM DISCUSSION AND ACTIVITY: THE WEST BANK The “West Bank” refers to 2280 square miles of disputed lands located west of the Jordan River between Israel and Jordan. The region was part of biblical Samaria and Judea. It includes numerous sites of religious and historic significance to Jews, Christians, and Muslims. Before a breakdown in peace talks in 1997, Israel and its neighbors had been moving slowly towards a peaceful compromise regarding the West Bank. But in 1997 there was a reversal in direction, as Jewish settlement construction in the West Bank and Palestinian suicide bombings moved the parties away from reconciliation.

You should briefly describe the West Bank struggle, and provide some historical context.

Then have the class divide up, with students or groups of students assigned to research a particular key player in the West Bank negotiations: the Israelis, the Palestinians, and the Americans, who have tried to broker a deal all sides can live with.

Convene one or more sessions in which the United States tries to reach a negotiated settlement of the West Bank issues, including the final borders between Israel and the Palestinian self-rule entity, the fate of Jewish settlements in the West Bank, Palestinian Arab refugees abroad, and the status of Jerusalem. ➢ ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: THE EASTERN ORTHODOX CHURCH. The Eastern Orthodox Church came into existence as the result of a lengthy series of theological, political, and cultural differences with the Church of Rome. The Byzantine Church, the branch of the Catholic Church presided over by the Patriarch of Constantinople, disagreed strongly with the popes on the use of icons. Another source of irritation to the Byzantines was the crowning of Charlemagne in 800. The final straw came in 1204, when the Crusaders took Constantinople, sacked the Cathedral of St. Sophia, and tried to convert the Orthodox to the Roman faith. Discuss differences between Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodox beliefs, such as the fact that Eastern Orthodox Churches do not subscribe to the infallibility of the pope or the Immaculate Conception.

And Orthodox doctrines not subscribed by Roman Catholics include that Christ is the sole head of the Church, that the Church’s authority resides within its members, and that heaven and hell are real places. ➢ ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Present a detailed lecture on the contributions of Islamic culture to the west, highlighting particularly contributions in math and science.

II.

PHILOSOPHY: AVICENNA AND AVERROES

III. ISLAMIC ART AND ARCHITECTURE

70

A. THE MOSQUE [Fig. 6.2] Mosque, Cordova, begun 786, plan [Fig. 6.3] Mosque, Cordova, begun 786, interior [Fig. 6.4] Sinan, Mosque of Sultan Sulayman, Istanbul, 1550-57, exterior [Fig. 6.5] Sinan, Mosque of Sultan Sulayman, Istanbul, 1550-57 ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Compare and contrast the Mosque of Sulayman with the Hagia Sophia [Figs. 5.13, 5.14, and 5.15], which was built one thousand years earlier. ➢ ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Expand on the Cultural Impact section of the chapter with a lecture on Moorish architecture around the world. ➢ ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Muslim impact on Spain during the Middle Ages.

Does any influence remain?

B. THE ALHAMBRA PALACE [Fig. 6.7] Court of the Lions, Alhambra Palace, Granada, 1354-91 C. CERAMICS AND MINIATURE PAINTING [Fig. 6.9] Bowl, from Iran, twelfth or thirteenth century, ceramic [Fig. 6.10] A Sheik Meditating in a Pavilion, illustrating the poem Haft Aurang (The Seven Thrones), by Jami, 1556-65 [Fig. 6.11] Page from a manuscript of the Shah-namah (Book of Kings), by Firdawsi, 1562-83 ➢ ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Discuss the significance of the prayer rug as well as the highly respected tradition of Persian rug making and design.

IV. LITERATURE A. ARABIC AND PERSIAN POETRY ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Discuss how the Persian poetry technique of using the language of physical love to describe the love of divinity is analogous to that of certain Western poets, such as John Donne and Emily Dickinson, as well as the Song of Solomon in the Bible. ➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: Omar Khayyam, possibly born in 1048 in Persia, died in 1122. He was a poet, mathematician, and astronomer. Known to English-speaking readers for his ruba’iyat, the English version of which was first published by Edward Fitzgerald in 1859. Some scholars have doubted that he actually wrote any poetry, since his contemporaries took no notice of his verse, and it was not until two centuries later that a few poems appeared under his name. Have students read select portions and critique them.

B. POETRY OF ISLAMIC SPAIN ➢ ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Examine how Islam influenced poetry in southern Spain.

Again, if this is not your area, consider asking a member of the Spanish department for assistance.

71

C. ARABIC PROSE: The Thousand and One Nights ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Provide background to The Thousand and One Nights.

Assign students to read one tale from the work and be prepared to summarize the story in class.

Well-known tales include “The History of Aladdin, or the Wonderful Lamp,” and “The History of Sinbad the Sailor.”

Also play an excerpt from a CD of Rimsky-Korsakov’s Scheherazade . What techniques does the composer use to convey an “exotic” atmosphere? ➢ DISCUSSION: After students have read stories from The Thousand and One Nights, ask them to contrast what they read with images of the Middle East from popular culture, such as the television series “I Dream of Jeannie” or the Disney movie Aladdin.

V. MUSIC [“Music for the Humanities” CD track 1: Traditional Islamic Call to Prayer] ➢

ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Examine the numerous ways that music is used by Muslims for religious purposes.

➢

ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Examine how Persian music had an influence on Arabic music, and vice versa.

➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: Examine how the Cordovan Islamic community supported the development of a new and distinctive musical style in Andalusian Spain.

➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: Examine how medieval Arabic music was influenced to a significant degree by ancient Greek musical theory, which reached Near Eastern scholars in the ninth century when the works of Ptolemy, Pythagoras, and other Greek theorists were translated into Arabic.

➢

ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Was medieval music in the west influenced by the Arabic music the Crusaders heard in the Holy Land?

ASSESSMENTS Student self-reviews: MyHumanitiesKit, Review and Explore Instructor Test Bank

RESOURCES IMAGES:

MyHumanitiesKit, Image links BOOKS: Atil, Esin. The Age of Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent. Washington: National Gallery of Art, 1987.

72

Blair, Sheila S., and Jonathan M. Brown. The Art and Architecture of Islam 1250-1800. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1994.

Brend, Barbara. Islamic Art. Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1991.

Dodds, Jerrilynn D., ed. al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1992.

Frishman, Martin, and Hasan-Uddin Khan. The Mosque: History, Architectural Development and Regional Diversity. London: Thames & Hudson, 1994.

Grabar, Oleg. The Alhambra. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978.

The Meditation of Ornament. A.W. Mellon Lectures in the Fine Arts. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992.

Mostly Miniatures: An Introduction to Persian Painting. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000.

Richard Ettinghausen. The Art and Architecture of Islam, 650-1250. Penguin History of Art. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001.

Irwin, Robert. Islamic Art in Context: Art, Architecture, and the Literary World.Perspectives.

New York: Abrams, 1997.

Koran, The. Rev. ed. Trans. N.J. Dawood. London: Penguin, 1993.

Schimmel, Annemarie. Calligraphy and Islamic Culture. New York: New York University Press, 1983.

VIDEOS: Byzantium: From Splendor to Ruin. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 43 minutes.

The Ottoman Empire. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 47 minutes.

Suleyman the Magnificent. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 51 minutes.

When the World Spoke Arabic: The Golden Age of Arab Civilization. 12- part series, including The Arabs Make Their Entrance: Islam and Empire; The Andalusian Epic: Islamic Spain; The Secrets of the Human Body: Islam’s Contributions to Medicine; and ‘The Thousand and One Nights’: A Historical Perspective. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 26 minutes each.

73

7 INDIAN CIVILIZATION CHAPTER OVERVIEW VEDIC PERIOD Hinduism takes root

MAURYA PERIOD Buddhism rises in political and religious prominence

MAURYAN TO BACTRIAN TO KUSHAN Greco-Roman artistic influences meet Buddhism

GUPTA ERA Flourishing culture and commerce

HINDU DYNASTIES Southern Indian arts prosper despite constant war

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, the student should be able to . . . . . . define key terms. . . . outline the major periods of early Indian history. . . . identify Indian works of visual art, music, architecture, theatre, and literature. . . . recognize the relationships between Indian arts and religion. . . . compare and contrast Hinduism and Buddhism. . . . trace the changes in the arts and society that came with the introduction of Islam. . . . understand the caste system and the roles of different castes.

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. What are some of the significant markers of each of the early Indian periods?

2. What is the relationship between the Hindu religion and the works it has inspired?

3. How was Buddha a revolutionary? Compare his work to the work of Jesus Christ.

4. What was the caste system and how was it tied to religious belief and/or social control? What were some of the roles of specific castes?

5. Compare and contrast a Hindu temple and a Medieval Christian Cathedral. In what ways do they transmit their respective religious messages?

6. How are the ideas of heroism, religious devotion, and romantic love in Indian literature similar to those ideas in works from other cultures you have studied so far?

7. Why is a parable such a powerful way of storytelling?

8. What influences did Islam have on Indian arts and society?

74

CHAPTER SUMMARY India has long been the center of trade between East and West. The Vedic era, 1500-300 B.C.E., began when Aryan tribes settled in northern India, and represents a time of gradual cultural assimilation. The Aryans were more advanced than the native Indian population (the Dasas), and brought with them early forms of a language—Sanskrit--and of a religion—Hinduism—that would become very important to Indian culture. Aryans wrote the earliest Indian literature between 1500 and 1000 B.C.E. in Sanskrit - The Vedas, a set of hymns – and their later epic works derive from these Vedic songs. During this period, various alternative religions emerged, most notably Buddhism, a challenge to the Hindu hereditary class structure.

In Hinduism, the god Braham was central to Hindu religious thought as the indivisible essence of all spiritual reality, representing creation, preservation, and destruction. Brahman's three functions were later divided among three gods: Brahma, the creator; Vishnu, the preserver; and Shiva, the destroyer. Karma, also central to Hindu thought, provides a moral cause-and-effect through reincarnation - people's spirits have many successive existences. These religious beliefs define ancient Indian social structure, which is divided into four distinct classes, or castes: Brahmins, the priests and leaders; Kshatrivas, the upper class; Vaishyas, the entrepreneurs; and the Shudras, the laborers. Those outside the four main castes are considered "untouchable."

The Maurya dynasty was one a federation of regional governments. Ashoka, the most important Maurya emperor, ruled for forty-years, aided the spread of Buddhism as a political force in India. Buddhism began when Siddhartha Gautama Sakya (ca. 563-483 B.C.E.) experienced enlightenment after meditation, and then spent forty-five years teaching others how to achieve it. The Buddha claimed that Hindu religious practices gave too much power to the Brahmins, who were distant from everyday spiritual life. The Buddha offered an alternative religion, one with no god or concept of immortality-the individual found his or her own way to enlightenment. The earliest Indian art dates from the Maurya period, particularly memorial buildings, or stupas, dedicated to Buddha.

During the Gupta Empire, the fourth to sixth century C.E., India flourished culturally and commercially. Gupta art is associated with the deeply spiritual figure of the Buddha. But while Buddhism flourished, the Gupta monarchs themselves were increasingly drawn to Hinduism. Eventually the Gupta Empire fell to invading Huns, and then, from the early eighth century, Islamic influences began to appear in India. In 1192, the Hindus were defeated, and Islam took firm hold and was responsible for the creation of some of the greatest monuments in Indian culture, including the Taj Mahal, as well as religious poetry, and music. Five hundred years later, northern India fell under Turkish Islamic control and Buddhism declined.

MyHumanitiesKit RESOURCES, CHAPTER SEVEN Objectives Flashcards Study Critical Thinking Multiple Choice Review and Explore Image Links

75

Humanities PPT Glossary Audio Glossary College Art Association Write and Research MySearchLab: www.MySearchLab.com

KEY TERMS Intaglio samsara chattras shastras Lakshmi Bodhi Nomad karma yasti sikhara Middle Path Krishna Sanskrit Outcastes yakshis Surasun-daris

mudra Shiva Vedas maya laksana cire perdue rasas Jataka Hindu kanda ushnishna lost-wax alap nirvana Dharma Jainism

urna tambura ghakti tribhanga Brahman ahisma bodhisattvas sitar Avatar stupas Vishnu Buddhism prana ragas Pancatantra

SUGGESTED TEACHING OUTLINE I. THE VEDIC PERIOD A. HINDUSIM 1. Hindu Gods [Fig. 7.1] Ganesha, early twelfth century 2. Samsara 3. Karma 4. Hindu Class Structure B. LITERATURE: THE HINDU CLASSICS 1. The Vedas 2. The Upanishads 3. The Ramayana 4. The Mahahharata II. THE MAURYA PERIOD A. BUDDHISM 1. Buddhism versus Hinduism 2. The Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path ➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: Have students read Hermann Hesse’s Siddhartha (1951).

Then, have students write a literary review of the book incorporating Buddha’s

76

teachings of the Four Noble Truths and the Eight-Fold Path into their analysis of the story of Siddhartha. How does Siddhartha live out these truths? What symbolism is used in Siddhartha, and what is the meaning of these symbols?

B. MAURYA ART 1. The Sarnath Capital [Fig. 7.2] Lion capital of a pillar erected by Ashoka at Sarnath, ca. 250 B.C.E. 2. The Great Stupa at Sanchi [Fig. 7.3] Great Stupa, Sanchi, from the east, third century B.C.E.-early first century C.E. [Fig. 7.4] Gate of the Great Stupa, Sanchi, inner façade of the north gate, third century B.C.E.early first century C.E. III. THE KUSHAN ERA [Fig. 7.5] Seated Buddha, from Gandhara, Peshawar District, Kushan, second-third century C.E. IV. THE GUPTA ERA A. GUPTA ART [Fig. 7.6] Standing Buddha, from Mathura, Gupta, late fourth--early fifth century C.E. [Fig. 7.7] Bodhisattva Padmapani, Ajanta caves, Gupta, late fifth century C.E. ➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: Gupta art is associated with the Buddha. Buddhas sculpted in the Gupta Buddhist style appear calm, with their hands placed in prescribed positions known as mudras. Mudras are highly symbolic. Identify and define various hand mudras, including: Dharmacakra Mudra, Namaskara Mudra, Buddha-Shramana Mudra, Abhaya Mudra, Vitaka Mudra, Tarjani Mudra, Varada Mudra, Samadhi Mudra, and Butadamara Mudra. Study various sculptures of the Buddha and have students identify the mudras and their meanings. Examples include Standing Buddha, from Mathura, Gupta; and Seated Buddha, from Sarnath, Gupta.

B. THE JATAKA AND THE PANCATANTRA ➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: Discuss how the Pancatantra tales are linked together in a continuous chain—and that his structure may have influenced the laterThousand and One Nights.

V. THE HINDU DYNASTIES A. THE HINDU TEMPLE [Fig. 7.8] Kandariya Mahadeo temple, ca. 1025-50 1. Sculpture [Fig. 7.10] Shiva Nataraja (Lord of the Dance), eleventh-twelfth centuries B. HINDU LYRIC POETRY ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Point out that, like the poems of English Renaissance poet John Donne, those of Mahadeviyakka employ images of physical love and experience to convey a sense of spirituality. ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: In Hinduism, bhakti means “devotion to God.” Bhakti poetry was part of a larger movement in which the poets were recognized as saints and celebrated as models of religious devotion. Their poems honored the chief Hindu

77

gods. In class, read the bhakti poetry of the twelfth-century mystic Mahadeviyakka.

What images does the poet use to convey a sense of spirituality? What poems from the West can be compared to Mahadeviyakka’s?

C. MUSIC ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Explain how Indian music frequently evokes religious devotions. ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: In order to help students appreciate Indian classical music, introduce students to Ravi Shankar, who popularized Indian music throughout the world. Explain how Indian classical music is based on melody and rhythm, which contrasts with Western classical music that is based on harmony, counterpoint, and chords. Two features of Indian music are the raga and the tala. Raga is based on melody and tala is based on rhythm. Listen to various pieces of Indian music by Shankar, and identify key concepts of Indian music, including the tambura, sitar, musical compositions based on one of the rasas of Indian aesthetics, etc. You may wish to assign students to work in groups and study one particular raga. Students could research what the assigned raga is associated with (such as a Hindu deity or a particular season of the year) and have each group present their findings to the class; then listen to the raga in class.

VI. MUSLIM INDIA: THE TAJ MAHAL [Fig. 7.9] ➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: Study the relations between Indias’ Hindus and Muslims throughout history.

➢

ADDITONAL LECTURE TOPIC: The Taj Mahal, aesthetics and purpose.

➢

ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Examine the impact of Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy of civil disobedience on political activists throughout the world. Gandhi is considered one of the greatest national leaders of the twentieth century. Who are other leaders who have attempted to bring peace to the world? You may wish to show the Oscar-winning 1982 British-Indian biographical movie Ghandi, directed by Richard Attenborough. Following the viewing of this film discuss various outcomes of those who practiced Ghandian strategies, such as Martin Luther King, Jr.’s bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama.

➢

RELATED ACTIVITY: Listen to Philip Glass’s music for the opera Satyagraha. What image does the music evoke? The work contains stories from the life of Mahatma Gandhi.

Explore these stories in greater detail in class, perhaps assigning students to research these stories from the opera and come prepared to discuss these stories in class.

ASSESSMENTS Student self-reviews: MyHumanitiesKit, Review and Explore Instructor Test Bank

RESOURCES IMAGES:

MyHumanitiesKit, Image links

78

BOOKS: Chandra, Pramod. The Sculpture of India, 3000 B.C.-1300 A.D. Washington: National Gallery of Art, 1985.

Eck, Diana L. Darsen: Seeing the Divine Image in India. 3rd ed. Chambersburg, PA: Anima, 1998.

Harle, James C. The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent. 2nd edition. Pelican History of Art. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1994.

Losty, Jeremiah P. The Art of the Book in India. London: British Library, 1982.

Mitchell, George. The Royal Palaces of India. London: Thames & Hudson, 1994.

Tillotson, G.H.R. The Rajput Palaces: The Development of an Architectural Style, 1450-1750.

New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.

VIDEOS: Ghandi. Directed by Richard Attenborough, 1982.

Indian Classical Music. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 85 minutes.

Rhythms to Nirvana: An Introduction to Indian Classical Music. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 30 minutes.

CDs: Music of the Earth Series: India: Traveling Artists of the Desert. Available from Clearvue.

World Music Series: Sarod: Traditonal Music from India. Available from Clearvue.

79

8 EARLY CHINESE CIVILIZATION CHAPTER OVERVIEW EARLY DYNASTIES LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, the student should be able to . . . . . . define key terms. . . . trace Chinese history from the Shang period to the Song dynasty. . . . outline specific developments in the arts in each period or dynasty. . . . identify early Chinese works of art, literature, and architecture. . . . discuss the major ideas and contributors to Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism. . . . explain the influences of Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism on the arts of early China.

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. What are some of the similarities about where and how Chinese civilization began in comparison to other cultures you have studied?

2. What does the tomb of Shihuangdi tell us about the power of emperors in early China? How does this compare with that of an Egyptian pharaoh or a Mesopotamian king?

3. What were some of the specific developments in the arts from the Shang period to the Song dynasty?

4. Are Taoism and Confucianism religions or philosophies? Use specific examples to support your case.

5. How did Buddhism change when it came into China?

6. How are the Han Dynasty and Rome similar and different?

CHAPTER SUMMARY China is the world's oldest civilization. The earliest Chinese era, dated from about 1760 B.C.E., is the Shang dynasty, which developed the most advanced technology of the Chinese Bronze Age. The Shang were conquered by the Zhou people around 1100 B.C.E. The Zhou dynasty (1100-221 B.C.E.) introduced organized agriculture and established a feudal society. During their reign, the two great philosophical and religious traditions indigenous to China took hold - Confucianism and Taoism.

Confucianism is based on the teachings of Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.), who emphasized traditional values of self-control and propriety. His teachings were designed to help people live a better life in the present rather than an eternal life after death. Taoism is also concerned with making life better in the present world. Its founder was Laozi (born 604 B.C.E.), who believed the Tao was the ultimate reality behind existence, a way of ordering one's life. This period also gave birth to the earliest known Chinese literature, The Book of Songs, about love and war, lamentation and celebration.

80

Invasions from the west in 771 B.C.E. led to Zhou decline, followed by political fragmentation until the Qin dynasty (221-206 B.C.E) unified the country for the first time. The Qin rulers governed efficiently, establishing a central bureaucracy and introducing standardized writing and currency. They also initiated major building projects, including the Great Wall. But uniformity came at a price: they suppressed free speech, supplanted Confucianism, persecuted scholars, and destroyed classical texts. They were overthrown after only fifteen years in power, followed by the rise of the Han Dynasty.

The Han rulers restored Confucianism and reinvigorated classical scholarship. During this time, the Silk Road trade route was established, allowing goods to travel east from China to India, Greece, and Rome. The period of the "Six Dynasties" (C.E. 220-589) followed the Han dynasty. Monumental stone sculptures survive from this time, the largest a forty-five foot high image of the Buddha. They were overthrown by the Tang dynasty, which reestablished China as a world power during nearly three hundred years of prosperity and cultural enrichment (C.E. 618907), but when the Tang Dynasty ended, China was thrown into civil war until the Song rulers united China and introduced a period of great technological advancement. Chinese inventors developed gunpowder, the compass, paper currency, and printing. Some of the most important information about China in this era came from Venetian traveler Marco Pole (ca.1254-1324).

MyHumanitiesKit RESOURCES, CHAPTER EIGHT Objectives Flashcards Study Critical Thinking Multiple Choice Interact – Closer Look: The Tomb of Shihuangdi Guo Xi’s Early Spring Review and Explore Image Links Humanities PPT Glossary Audio Glossary College Art Association Write and Research MySearchLab: www.MySearchLab.com

KEY TERMS Confucianism te p’u Neo-Confucianism li

wen mandarins yin and yang yi Taoism

shih jen wu-wei

SUGGESTED TEACHING OUTLINE ➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: Whether or not nonwestern art is your specialty, students would no doubt enjoy meeting a person from the nonwestern culture being studied. If

81

possible, invite someone of Chinese and/or Japanese descent to class (if no students come from the relevant culture). Suggest they present a brief overview of their culture, and then allow time for questions. Another possibility would be to have professors of Chinese or Japanese religion and/or culture present a lecture to the class.

I.

CHINA ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Since China has such a long and complex history, it may be difficult for students to “wrap their minds” around it. Consider providing a brief overview of the high point of Chinese history, perhaps highlighting: Chinese inventions and other contributions to world knowledge and times of East/West interaction. ➢

ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Consider building on the Then and Now “East/West Trade” section for a lecture on trade relations.

➢

ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: The travels of Marco Polo.

➢ ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Discuss how through the establishment of the Silk Road trade route, missionaries from the West brought Christianity to India and Persia, and Buddhism spread from India into China A. THE SHANG AND ZHOU DYNASTIES 1. Shang and Zhou Bronzes [Fig. 8.1] Fang ding, Tomb 1004, Houjiazhang, Anyang, Henan, Shang dynasty, bronze, twelfth century B.C.E. [Fig. 8.2] Bronze bells, Zhou dynasty, 433 B.C.E. 2. Confucianism 3. Taoism ➢

DISCUSSION: Explore the Taoist ideal. Study various works of Taoist (Daoist) art and architecture. For each work of art, explore the following questions in class: How does it employ the Taoist ideal? How does it express Taoist enlightenment? How does the artwork embody the central tenets of Taoist? Why was the artwork made? What does the work reveal about the artist? What does it reveal about its historical and social context?

What social, cultural, and moral values does the work reflect? Examples of Taoist art to explore include: incense burner, from the tomb of Prince Liu Sheng, Mancheng, Hebei, Han dynasty, 113 B.C.E.; and Shen Zhou’s Landscape Panorama, Ming Dynasty, handscroll.

4. Yin and Yang [Fig. 8.3] 5. Lyric Poetry 6. Music

B. EMPIRE: THE QIN AND HAN DYNASTIES [Fig. 8.5] Tomb figures, from the mausoleum of the first Qin emperor, Lintong, Shaanxi. Qin dynasty, ca. 210 B.C.E. See MyHumanitiesKit, Chapter Eight, Interact, Closer Look: The Tomb of Shihuangdi. ➢

ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: THE GREAT WALL: Trace the history of the Great Wall from its inception to its current status. It was built originally in the third century B.C.E. by linking earlier walls of states and used to prevent invasion.

C. THE SIX DYNASTIES [Fig. 8.6] Colossal Buddha, cave 20, Yungang, Shaanxi, 460-70 C.E.

82

➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: Explain how this Colossal Buddha is carved directly into the rock cave in the manner of Indian monumental sculpture, from which this Buddhist figure clearly derives [see Fig. 7.6] Also, ask students to compare monumental sculptures from ancient Egypt, such as Fig. 1.27.

D. THE TANG DYNASTY: Li Bai and Du Fu [Fig. 8.7] Liang Kai, The Poet Li Bai Walking and Chanting a Poem, Southern Song dynasty, ca. 1200 ➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: Explain how Chinese lyric poetry is written to be set to music.

➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: Point out how Li Bai’s poetry has had a strong impact on modern American poetry through the translations of Ezra Pound and the Sinologist Arthur Waley.

➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: Du Fu was a master of Lu Shi, a type of poetry consisting of regulated verse which requires lines of five or seven words arranged into eight-line stanzas, according to a specified rhyme-scheme. Read the poetry of Du Fu and invite students to write their own lu shi poem. Assign students to write a response to one of Du Fu’s poems. The response may discuss: how Du Fu’s poems emphasize the importance of love of family and harmonious social relationships; Confucian ideals that are embraced in his poetry; and/or Du Fu’s style.

E. THE SONG DYNASTY 1. Painting [Fig. 8.8] Zhu Jan, Seeking the Tao in the Autumn Mountains, ca.970 [Fig. 8.9] Guo Zi, Early Spring, 1072, Northern Song dynasty. Look at MyHumanitiesKit, Chapter Eight, Interact, Closer Look: Guo Xi’s “Early Spring”.

[Fig. 8.10] Li Song, The Red Cliff, Southern Sung Dynasty, ca. 1300 2. Ceramics [Fig. 8.12] Celadon vase, Song dynasty

ASSESSMENTS Student self-reviews: MyHumanitiesKit, Review and Explore Instructor Test Bank

RESOURCES IMAGES:

MyHumanitiesKit, Image links BOOKS: Arts of China. 3 vols. Tokyo: Kodansha International. 1968-70.

83

Barnhart, Richard M. Three Thousand Years of Chinese Painting. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997.

Clunas, Craig. Art in China. Oxford History of Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.

Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.

Fong, Wen, ed. The Great Bronze Age of China: An Exhibition from the People’s Republic of China. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1980.

Sickman, Lawrence, and Alexander Soper. Art and Architecture of China. Pelican History of Art. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, 1971.

Thorp, Robert L., and Richard Ellis Vinograd. Chinese Art and Culture. New York: Abrams, 2001.

Whitfield, Roderick and Anne Farrer. Caves of the Thousand Buddhas: Chinese Art from the Silk Route. London: British Museum, 1990.

VIDEOS: Ancient China. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 50 minutes.

China: Heritage of the Wild Dragon. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 59 minutes.

84

9 EARLY JAPANESE CIVILIZATION CHAPTER OVERVIEW JAPAN BEFORE THE TWELFTH CENTURY JAPAN FROM THE TWELFTH TO THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, the student should be able to . . . . . . define key terms. . . . discuss early Japanese history from the Yamato period to the Ashikaga period. . . . identify works of Japanese art and architecture from the Yamato period to the Ashikaga period. . . . identify specific types of Japanese poetry, literature, and drama. . . . explain the impact of Chinese culture and art upon the Japanese. . . . understand the influence of Japanese art and culture on the rest of the world.

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Trace the history of early Japanese civilization from the Yamato period to the Ashikaga period.

2. In what ways was Japanese art and culture influenced by Chinese art and culture? Give some specific examples. How did Japan develop something unique?

3. What role does gesture and form play in Japanese Nô and Kabuki dramas? Are there other Japanese arts that adhere to a strict form or style?

4. Compare and contrast Sei Shonagon’s Pillow Book or Yoshida Kenko’s Essays in Idleness to Juvenal’s poetry or Marcus Aurelius’ Meditations (both can be found in Readings, Chapter 4).

How are the works similar in their messages? How do they represent the values of their respective cultures?

5. Lady Murasaki Shikibu’s Tale of Genji is referred to by some as “the first modern novel”. What arguments can you find to support this statement? How could it be refuted?

6. What are some of the Japanese contributions to Western culture?

7. How does Japan’s samuri class compare and contrast with the warrior class of a previous culture you have studied? Which do you believe is the most efficient system? Why? 8. How is Zen Buddhism different from Chinese Buddhism? Who benefited from the change?

CHAPTER SUMMARY Until some time during the first century C.E., Japan remained politically fragmented.

Then some regions joined forces, typically under the leadership of aristocratic warrior clans.

Around C.E. 300, the Yamato clan emerged as a dominant force throughout Japan, borrowing heavily from the Chinese models of philosophy, religion, and politics. The strongest religious

85

influence was Buddhism, which China had borrowed from India. Japan did develop its own religious practice, Shinto, which was in some measure a response to Chinese religious and cultural influences, but it later developed into a state religion of patriotic appreciation of the Japanese land. The earliest Japanese sculpture and architecture, closely identified with Buddhism, comes from the Asuka period (C.E. 552-646), and one of the best-preserved and most important Japanese temples is Horyu-ji, the oldest wooden temple in the world (ca. 670).

From the late seventh century on, Japanese rulers were true monarchs, no longer merely aristocratic warlords. The capital was moved to Heian, and this period was a time of rich productivity and peace. During this era of cultural sophistication, the arts moved from religious subjects to a more truly Japanese style. But due to the samuri, who supported the governing nobility, Heine power gradually declined and was followed by the Kamakura period – so called because the capital was moved there. These rulers gave themselves the title of shogan - general-inchief - and this tradition continued until 1868 when imperial rule was restored. The Kamakura period ended in civil war in 1333, and insurrections continued in Japan until 1573, when a central government was formed, known as the Ashikaga period. Japan was ruled by shoguns and their samurai warriors, and as a result, Zen practice dominated Japanese life. One of the major cultural institutions founded on Zen thinking is the cha-no-yu, or the “tea ceremony,” which developed during the Ashikaga period and survives today.

By the ninth century, Buddhism and Shinto had converged, with Buddhism assuming prominence. Then Japan converted from Buddhism into their uniquely Japanese form of Zen Buddhism. Zen now influences every form of Japanese cultural life. Defined as “the art of seeing into the nature of one’s own being,” it is less a religion or a philosophy than a way of life. It has no scripture, no ritual ceremonies, no philosophy, and is not concerned with the afterlife.

MyHumanitiesKit RESOURCES, CHAPTER NINE Objectives Flashcards Study Critical Thinking Multiple Choice Review and Explore Image Links Humanities PPT Glossary Audio Glossary College Art Association Write and Research MySearchLab: www.MySearchLab.com

KEY TERMS Jomon haniwa Shinto Kojiki

kami waka emaki-mano samurai

shogun Pure Land Buddhism Chan Zen Buddhism

86

cha-no-yu wahi wabi

SUGGESTED TEACHING OUTLINE ➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: Whether or not nonwestern art is your specialty, students would no doubt enjoy meeting a person from the nonwestern culture being studied. If possible, invite someone of Chinese and/or Japanese descent to class (if no students come from the relevant culture). Suggest they present a brief overview of their culture, and then allow time for questions. Another possibility would be to have professors of Chinese or Japanese religion and/or culture present a lecture to the class.

I. JAPAN BEFORE THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY A. PREHISTORIC JAPAN [Fig. 9.1] Storage Vessel, Earthenware, ca. 2000 B.C.E. [Fig. 9.2] Smiling Earthenware Haniwa Figure. Fourth-fifth centuries B.C.E. B. RELIGION: Buddhism and Shinto ➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: Discuss how the development of Shinto was a reaction against Chinese religious and cultural influences

C. COURTLY JAPAN: ASUKA AND NARA PERIODS: Art and Architecture [Fig. 9.3] Horyu-ji compound, with pagoda and Golden Hall, Nara, Japan, ca. 670 C.E., aerial view [Fig. 9.4] Tori Busshi, Shaka Triad, Asuka period, 623 D. COURTLY JAPAN: THE HEIAN PERIOD 1. The Tale of Genji ➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: Assign students to read excerpts of this work. What does Genji teach the reader about early Japanese life? Describe the characters. How is Murasaki’s writing similar to Japanese painting?

2. Heian handscrolls [Fig. 9.5] Illustration to the Azumaya chapter of The Tale of Genji, late Heian period, twelfth

century

E. WARRIOR JAPAN: THE KAMAKURA PERIOD: Zen Buddhism ➢

ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Build on Then and Now “Zen” and Cultural Impact to discuss the west’s fascination with Zen. (Several students have probably read Robert Pirsig’s Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance. If so, ask for their input.)

➢

ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Discuss how Teitaro Suzuki’s Essays on Zen Buddhism was especially influential among artists, most notably the Abstract Expressionist painter Willem de Kooning and the composer John Cage.

DISCUSSION: Ask students to share what they know of the warrior Japanese culture from popular films. In what ways do these films seem accurate, and in what ways do they distort our perception of the culture?

➢

F. LATER WARRIOR JAPAN: THE ASHIKAGA PERIOD: Tea Ceremony ➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: Following student research (see below), plan to have a tea ceremony in class. Depending on the size of the class, you may wish to divide students into small groups. Each student should have a role in preparing for the tea ceremony.

Examples include: researching how to prepare the tea, making the tea, researching tea masters, providing the décor of the setting (such as flowers or a simple work of art), using

87

a gong to signal the beginning of the tea ceremony, pouring the tea, studying the rules and procedures of the tea ceremony, etc. You may want to assign students to write a brief response to their experience. In what other ways did students experience wabi? Describe their setting and their companions. How are the five senses sharpened by this experience? What is the attitude of the tea ceremony? What is the purpose of tea ceremonies? How is the tea ceremony similar to other social gatherings? How is it different? What is the spirit of cha-no-yu? How does the tea ceremony represent Zen principles? What similar ceremonies exist in Western culture?

ASSESSMENTS Student self-reviews: MyHumanitiesKit, Review and Explore Instructor Test Bank

RESOURCES IMAGES:

MyHumanitiesKit, Image links BOOKS: Elisseeff, Danielle and Vadime. Art of Japan. Trans. I. Mark Paris. New York: Abrams, 1985.

Kurata, Bunsaku. Horyu-ji, Temple of the Exalted Law: Early Buddhist Art from Japan. New York: Japan Society, 1981.

Lee, Sherman E. A History of Far Eastern Art. 5th ed. New York: Abrams, 1994.

Mason, Penelope. History of Japanese Art. New York: Abrams, 1993.

Paine, Robert Treat, and Alexander Soper. Art and Architecture of Japan. 3rd ed. Pelican History of Art. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, 1981.

Pearson, Richard. Ancient Japan. Washington: Sackler Gallery, 1992.

Stanley-Baker, Joan. Japanese Art. Rev. and exp. ed. World of Art. New York: Thames and Hudson, 2000.

Watanabe, Yasutada. Shinto Art: Ise and Izumo Shrines. Trans. Robert Ricketts. Heibonsha Survey of Japanese Art. Vol. 3. New York: Weatherhill, 1974.

VIDEOS: Samurai Japan. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 48 minutes.

88

10 EARLY CIVILIZATIONS OF THE AMERICANS AND AFRICA CHAPTER OVERVIEW MESOAMERICA “Middle America” establishes itself as a cultural mecca

THE CULTURES OF PERU Geographical constraints fail to hinder civilizations unique to the world

NORTH AMERICA Vast lands and opportunities provide the basis for rich cultural heritages from coast to coast

CIVILIZATION OF EARLY AFRICA Multiple cultures thrive and evolve

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, the student should be able to . . . . . . identify key terms. . . . discuss the relationship between geography and climate in the development of the early native cultures of Mesoamerica, Peru, and North America. . . . trace the history of the various native cultures up to the period of Spanish conquest. . . . identify the chief characteristics of the native cultures of the Americas, including lifestyle and systems of belief. . . . identify major works of art, literature, and architecture from each culture. . . . understand the influence of the physical environment and geography on the diverse African cultures. . . . trace the history of specific African cultures to the period of the slave trade.

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. How were the indigenous cultures of the Americas similar? How were they different?

2. Trace the history of the various native cultures up to the period of Spanish conquest.

3. What was the relationship between geography and climate in the development of each of the early indigenous cultures of the Americas?

4. Pick two of the cultures to compare and contrast. How were they alike? How were they different?

5. Describe some of the regional cultural developments in Africa before 1800.

6. Why did the transatlantic slave trade develop?

89

7. How did the Indian Ocean trade influenced the culture of eastern Africa? How is this similar or different than the influences of international trade on Greece and Rome?

CHAPTER SUMMARY Between 30,000 and 12,000 years ago, tribal hunters began migrating from Asia to the Americas across a path about one thousand miles south of the Bering Straits. By 11,000 B.C.E., they had reached the tip of South America and the Atlantic Coast of North America. At the close of the Ice Age, these tribes were cut off from Asia and Europe until discovered in 1492 by Christopher Columbus, who named them "Indians."

Mesoamerica extends from central Mexico to Honduras. The ancient Mesoamericans spoke many languages, shared hieroglyphic writing, applied knowledge of astronomy, built great cities and monumental architecture, formed monarchical governments, and all shared a patron and protector Jaguar God. The three great cultures of Mesoamerica were the Olmec - beginning around 1300 B.C.E. in the southern coast of the Gulf of Mexico, the Mayan - fr0m 250 B.C.E. - C.E. 1000 in the Yucatan peninsula, and the Aztec-1350 until the Spaniards arrived in 1521.

Two cultures developed in Peru, the Moche and Inca. The Moche, the earliest, controlled the Peruvian north coast from C.E. 200 to 700. They constructed brick pyramids that rose as high as 135 feet high, and they were gifted metalsmiths and the most gifted ceramic artists in the Americas. Then the Inca civilization emerged in the central Andes in about 1300 and became a dominant military force by 1500. They were skilled engineers 19,000 miles of roads through their empire. They also built the fortified city of Machu Picchu, located high in the Andes Mountains. Twelve years after the Spaniards defeated the Aztecs, they destroyed the Inca civilization.

The Native Americans lived nomadic lives until around 1200 B.C.E., when corn production spread from Mexico to what is now the United States. One of the oldest, cultures of the north developed in about 3500 B.C.E. and spanned from Oregon into Alaska. These native peoples were hunter-gatherers, and by 450 B.C.E., they had become expert woodworkers, known for their totem poles. The native populations of the desert southwest region were the Anasazi. Perhaps the most famous Anasazi site is Mesa Verde, a series of cliff dwellings built into cave-like overhangs, in southwestern Colorado. In the Mississippi and Ohio River basins, starting about 1000 B.C.E., small farming villages began building monumental earthworks to bury their dead, the largest of which was the Monk's Mound at Cahokia, in present-day Illinois.

Africa includes a variety of ecological and physical environments, including deserts, savannah grasslands, rain forests, and even glaciers. While some areas have four seasons, others have only two: wet and dry. And although there are areas of fertile soil, much of the soil is difficult to farm because of erosion and with very little geographic activity that would renewal. In addition to the rich culture of Egypt, the rest of Africa early on made impressive cultural developments because the hunter-gathers had free time to pursue crafts such as stone working (for tools) and artwork, the most of which remains as rock paintings. In other areas, people lived a more sedentary lifestyle as a result agriculture. Ancient African communities were mostly organized in “stateless societies” - no one group who told other people what to do. Although religion differed from one region to another, their beliefs were mostly based in pantheism. North and northeastern Africa had extensive interactions with the Mediterranean and Arabia from the earliest times, and later were influenced by Christianity and Islam. In central Africa, fertile land led to the growth of

90

cities and wealth. Eastern Africa was cosmopolitan due interaction with sailors and merchants of the Indian Ocean trade.

MyHumanitiesKit RESOURCES, CHAPTER TEN Objectives Flashcards Study Critical Thinking Multiple Choice Review and Explore Image Links Humanities PPT Glossary Audio Glossary College Art Association Write and Research MySearchLab: www.MySearchLab.com

KEY TERMS Mesoamerica Oludumare rock paintings Punic flower song Teotihuacán El Niño t’eff Didascalia humus Wacah Chan

Tawantinsuyu Bantu Arianism rift valley roof comb Nazca lines Batwa Coptic Nahuatl Bahlum Intertropical Convergence

Cushitic Shi’ites lateritic daykeepers Zone (ITCZ) pantheism Swahili orisa mothers-fathers huacas Ogun

SUGGESTED TEACHING OUTLINE I.

MESOAMERICA

➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: Discuss what cultural aspects from the Mesoamerican civilization continue in present-day Latin America A. THE OLMECS [Fig. 10.1] Colossal Head, from La Venta, Mexico, ca. 900-500 B.C.E. ➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: Relate to the ancestor figures on Easter Island, ca. 1000-150 C.E.

B. TEOTIHUACÁN [Fig. 10.3] Teotihuacán, Mexico, overview of the city, 350-650 C.E.

91

➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: Compare the pyramids of Mexico with those of ancient Egypt. Expand this to discuss the pyramid form throughout history, up to I.M. Pei’s pyramid for the Louvre.

C. MAYAN CULTURE 1. The Mayan Universe 2. Tikal [Fig. 10.4] Tikal, Guatemala, Maya culture, ca. 700 C.E. 3. The Jaguar Kings of Palenque [Fig. 10.5] Temple of Inscriptions, Palenque, Mexico, seventh century C.E. [Fig. 10.6] Sarcophagus lid, tomb of Pacal, Temple of Inscriptions, Palenque, Mexico, Maya culture, ca. 683 B.C.E. D. THE TOLTECS AND AZTECS [Fig. 10. 7] Coatlicue, Aztec, fifteenth century, stone ➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: In order to help students make the connection between how a culture impacts the arts, present a lecture examining artwork, including sculptures, by the Aztecs. By analyzing Aztec art, students will become aware of how Aztec art reflects the fierceness of the culture. Examples of Aztec art include The Mother Goddess, Coatlicue, Aztec, fifteenth century; and The Founding ofTenochtitldn, page from Codex Mendoza, Aztec, sixteenth century.

II. THE CULTURES OF PERU A. THE MOCHE [Fig. 10.9] Huaca del Sol (Pyramid of the Sun), Moche culture, ca. 500 [Fig. 10.10] Moche Lord with a Feline, Moche culture, ca. 100 B.C.E.-500 C.E. ➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: Point out how the Moche used the same lost-wax technique employed by the Romans. Spend time explaining the process.

B. THE INCA [Fig. 10.11] Machu Picchu, Inca culture, Peru, ca. 1450 [Fig. 10.12] Earth drawing of a hummingbird, Nazca Plain, southwest Peru, Nazca culture, ca. 200 B.C.E.-200 C.E. ➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: Point out how the famous Nazca lines underscore the connection between art, archaeology, and science. Expand the discussion by relating the lines to the mysterious crop circles in England.

➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: When it came to transportation systems, only the preindustrial world Romans could rival the ingenius Incas. Expand this in a lecture.

➢

TEACHING STATEGY: In Inca architecture, adapting to the surrounding land forms is common.

For instance, Machu Picchu sits between steep mountain peaks on a high precipice. Because of this, it is considered an architectural wonder. Study how Machu Picchu was carved out of the mountainsides.

Compare this architectural monument with American architect Frank Lloyd Wright's organic architecture and his prairie houses. Discuss how important it was for Wright that the character of a building must be related to its site and blend with the terrain. Wright used shapes related to the natural surroundings. Study how Wright made the house seem part of the surrounding natural environment, as in Fallingwater, in Bear Run, Pennsylvania.

92

➢

TEACHING STRATEGY: In order to help students understand the importance of poetry to people of Mesoamerica, assign students to select and read one poem from a Mesoamerican civilization, such as the Aztec or Mayan civilization. Students should then write a paper discussing how the poem embodies the culture, demonstrating knowledge about the chosen culture. For example, "The Midwife Addresses the Newly Delivered Woman" is an Aztec poem which compares women's endurance of the pains of childbirth to the endurance of male warriors in battle. This poem reflects the central activity of the Aztec state--war.

III. NORTH AMERICA A. THE NORTHWEST COAST [Fig. 10.13] Haida mortuary poles and house frontal poles at Skedans Village, British Columbia, 1878 B. THE SOUTHWEST [Fig. 10.14] Mesa Verde, Spruce Tree House, Anasazi culture, 1200-1300 C.E. C. THE MOUNDBUILDERS [Fig. 10.15] Great Serpent Mound, Adams County, Ohio, Adena culture, 600 B.C.E.-200 C.E. D. THE BUFFALO HUNTERS IV. CIVILIZATION OF EARLY AFRICA A. THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT B. EARLY AFRICAN CULTURES AND INNOVATIONS [Fig. 10.16] A rock painting from Tassili, in the central Sahara, ca. 10,000 B.C.E. C. EARLY AFRICAN POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CULTURE D. REGIONAL DEVELOPMENTS IN AFRICA BEFORE 1800 1. North and Northeastern Africa [Fig. 10.17] A rock-hewn church in Ethiopia, twelfth century 2. Savannahs and Forests of Western and Central Africa [Fig. 10.19] Head of an Oba, Edo, Court of Benin, Nigeria, eighteenth century 3. East and South Africa [Fig. 10.20] View of the inside wall of the stone enclosure at Great Zimbabwe E. AFRICA AND THE TRANSATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE

ASSESSMENTS Student self-reviews: MyHumanitiesKit, Review and Explore Instructor Test Bank

RESOURCES IMAGES:

MyHumanitiesKit, Image links

93

BOOKS: Adler, Peter, and Hicholas Barnard. African Majesty: The Textile Art of the Ashanti and Ewe. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1992.

Bacquart, Jean-Baptiste. The Tribal Arts of Africa. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1998.

Beckwith, Carol and Angela Fisher. African Art: People and Ancient Cultures of Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa. New York: Abrams, 1990.

Ben-Amos, Paula. The Art of Benin. Rev. ed. Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1995.

Benson, Elizabeth P., and Beatriz de la Fuente, eds. Olmec Art of Ancient Mexico. Washington: National Gallery of Art, 1996.

Berlo, Janet Catherine, and Ruth B. Philips. Native North American Art. Oxford History of Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.

Bringhurst, Robert. The Black Canoe: Bill Reid and the Spirit of Haida Gwaii. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1991.

Broder, Patricia Janis. Earth Songs, Moon Dreams: Paintings by American Indian Women. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999.

Coe, Michael D., et al. The Olmec World: Ritual and Rulership. Princeton: Princeton University Press in association with Abrams, 1995.

Mbiti, John S. African Religions and Philosophy. 2nd ed. Oxford: Heinemann, 1990.

McQuinton, Don. Vision of the North: Native Art of the Northwest Coast. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1995.

Meuli, Jonathan. Shadow House: Interpretations of Northwest Coast Art. Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishing, 2001.

Miller, Mary Ellen. The Art of Mesoamerica: from Olmec to Aztec. 3rd ed. World of Art. London: Thames & Hudson, 2001.

Pasztory, Esther. Pre-Columbian Art. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998.

Aztec Art. New York: Abrams, 1983.

Schuster, Carl, and Edmund Carpenter. Patterns That Connect: Social Symbolism in Ancient & Tribal Art. New York: Abrams, 1996.

VIDEOS: Listening to the Silence: African Cross Rhythms. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 33 minutes.

Mbira Music: The Spirit of Zimbabwe. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 52 minutes.

Repercussions: A Celebration of African-Influenced Music. 7-part series. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 60 minutes each.

The Seven Ages of Music. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 52 minutes.

94

11 EARLY MIDDLE AGES AND THE ROMANESQUE CHAPTER OVERVIEW EARLY MEDIEVAL CULTURE Charlemagne and Pope Gregory exert their influence on politics and culture ROMANESQUE CULTURE The rise of England and France along with their church architecture and sculpture LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, the student should be able to . . . . . . define key terms. . . . outline medieval history from the fifth century to the twelfth century. . . . discuss the development of the feudal system and its origins. . . . trace the development of monasticism. . . . identify works of medieval art, architecture, literature, and music. . . . trace the spread of Christianity through Europe between the fifth and twelfth centuries. . . . discuss the influence of the European cultures and Christianity on medieval arts. . . . explain the history of the Crusades and their impact on Europe and the Middle East. . . . outline the contributions of Charlemagne and the Carolingian era to European culture. . . . identify qualities of the “chivalric ideal” as well as those of “courtly love” and their influence on medieval literature.

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Compare and contrast the hierarchy of the feudal system with that of the monastery. Why were each of these structures implemented?

2. How did pilgrimage affect the development of the medieval cathedral?

3. What were the Crusades? What impact did they have on Europe and the Middle East?

95

4. How was Charlemagne a “man of his times”? In what ways was he ahead of his time?

5. What chivalric and feudal ideals can we see embodied in the Song of Roland?

6. What are the principle themes outlined in the lyrics of the musical works at the end of the chapter?

7. What role did women play in early medieval society? Is there a contrast between what they did and how they were viewed? Why or why not?

8. In what ways did the spread of Christianity affect the arts in the medieval world?

9. How is the human figure portrayed in Romanesque sculpture?

CHAPTER SUMMARY The "Dark Ages" stretched from the sixth to the eighth century. In the early fifth century, Anglo-Saxons invaded Britain from Europe, part of the vast migration of Germanic tribes into the former Roman Empire. In Britain they suppressed the indigenous Christian inhabitants, the Celts, and by 550, the culture had become distinctly Germanic and Christianity had all but disappeared from Britain. Within seventy-five years, however, due to missionary efforts, Britain was once again predominantly Christian. Early on, the culture started to blend Christianity with Germanic traditions, such as the “animal style” Sutton Hoo artifiacts and illuminated manuscripts. Charlemagne (742-814) is an example of the convergence of Christian and Germanic cultures. He created an enormous empire, converted the natives to Christianity, structured his government into an early form of feudalism, and encouraged a revival of classical learning and the arts.

Monasticism developed rapidly from its founding by St. Benedict (480-543). His guidelines, the basis of the Benedictine Order, were that monasteries should be selfsufficient: Not only did monks attend to their religious duties, they also worked the grounds, gardens, and kitchens, and revised, copied, and illustrated liturgical books.

Due to the classical influences encouraged by Charlemagne, the human figure once again became important in the visual art. Music was also a passion of Charlemagne's, and the monks he brought from Rome brought with them Gregorian chants.

After Charlemagne's death in 814, the Holy Roman Empire dissolved into political fragmentation. Around 1000, a few powerful feudal families developed into monarchies, and as their secular power grew, the influence of the Church was increasingly threatened. Hugh Capet (ca. 938-996) ascended to the French throne in 987, establishing a dynasty that would rule for nearly 350 years. During this period, Paris became the political and intellectual center of Europe. In 1066, William of Normandy, “the Conqueror”, became the first Norman king of England. But relations between England and France remained difficult. In 1215, the English barons drew up a list of demands, the Magna Carta, and King John was forced to sign. It included concepts such as no taxation without the consent of the realm. These provisions for the first time set a limit on the power of the ruler.

Both the Crusades and pilgrimage had a major impact on western Europe, channeling violence into a religious and political purpose and moving individuals, 96

even peasants, into different, unfamiliar and long distance geographic areas. The purpose of the Crusades was to recover the Holy Land from the Muslims, and during the First Crusade, Jerusalem fell to the crusaders in 1099. However, by the middle of the next century, Muslim authority reasserted itself. In 1189, crusaders never got further than the outskirts of Jerusalem. Politically and religiously the crusades were a failure; however, the Crusades created a greater cultural awareness, expanded knowledge, and stimulated trade between Asia and Europe. Pilgrimage became an important part of the Cult of Relics. Destinations were usually to the Romanesque cathedral, the Church of Santiago de Compostela in northwestern Spain, as well as Rome or Jerusalem, and along the way strangers shared not only their purpose but personal knowledge.

Medieval women promoted a chivalric ideal in which their own position was elevated and the feudal code of stern courage and valiant warfare was displaced in favor of more genteel and refined patterns of behavior. Among the most influential proponents of this new chivalric code were the troubadours, poet-musicians in southern France. In the middle of the twelfth century, their songs celebrated chivalric virtues, especially honor, nobility, and commitment to ideals.

MyHumanitiesKit RESOURCES, CHAPTER ELEVEN Objectives Flashcards Study Critical Thinking Multiple Choice Interact – Closer Look: The Bayeux Tapestry Review and Explore Image Links Humanities PPT Glossary Audio Glossary College Art Association Write and Research MySearchLab: www.MySearchLab.com

KEY TERMS animal style cloister tapestry campanile mystery play

illuminated mss. garth crusades blind arcade neumes parchment 97

refectory pilgrimage tympanum romance vellum

cabochons relics trumeau cross / groin vault Romanesque Mandorla bay repoussé cross / carpet page

plainchant basilica archivolt tropes chanson de geste feudalism monophony façade reliquaries

assonance polyphony cruciform troubadour Gregorian chant guild barrel/tunnel vault lais folio

SUGGESTED TEACHING OUTLINE I. EARLY MEDIEVAL CULTURE A.THE MERGING OF CHRISTIAN AND CELTO-GERMANIC TRADITIONS ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Discuss how Christian and Germanic artistic values merged in Early Medieval culture.

1. The animal style [Fig. 11.1] Purse cover, from the burial ship at Sutton Hoo, England, 62533 ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Read the account of Beowulf’s funeral and relate to the Sutton Hoo burial treasure.

2. Christian gospel books [Fig. 11.2] Cross page from the Lindisfarne Gospels, ca. 700 [Fig. 11.5] St. John, from the Gospel Book of Charlemagne, ca.

800-810 3. The Beowulf epic and the Christian poem ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Compare the Beowulf epic, an AngloSaxon Germanic tale, with epics from other cultures, such as the Hindu Mahabharata, the Spanish epic of El Cid, the German epic Nibelungenlied, and the Finnish Kalevala.

B. CHARLEMAGNE AND THE CAROLINGIAN ERA 1. Feudal society 2. Architecture [Fig. 11.3] Odo of Metz, Palatine Chapel, Aachen, 792-805 ➢ ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Charlemagne

98

➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Compare the Palatine Chapel at Aachen with the work that inspired it, San Vitale at Ravenna. Use this as an opportunity to explain what is meant by “the Carolingian Renaissance.”

3. Literature: The Song of Roland C. MONASTICISM 1. The Rule of St. Benedict and Cluniac Reform 2. The monastery [Fig. 11.4] Plan for a monastery, ca. 817-820 3. Manuscript illumination [Fig. 11. 5] St. John, from the Gospel Book of Charlemagne (Coronation Gospels), ca. 800-810 4. Music: Gregorian Chant ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Examine the importance of music in the religious devotions of monks.

II. ROMANESQUE CULTURE A. BACKGROUND 1. Dates: 1050-1200 2. Capetians 3. Norman Conquest [Fig. 11.6] King Edward Sends Harold of Wessex to Normandy, detail of the Bayeux Tapestry, ca. 1066-82 ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Using slides or illustrations in addition to the figure in the text, or Look at MyHumanitiesKit, Chapter Eleven, Interact, Closer Look: The Bayeux Tapestry in order to discuss the Bayeux Tapestry in light of other works of narrative art. Assign groups of students to compare the tapestry with the Parthenon cella frieze [Fig.3.5] or the Column of Trajan [Figs. 4.175and 4.16]. Assign one group of students to imagine the tapestry as a film, and a second group to describe or sketch scenes missing at the end of the story.

4. Magna Carta ➢ STUDENT RESEARCH PROJECT: Have students read the Magna Carta [see: www.bl.uk/treasures/magnacarta/magna.html], researching how it relates to the American legal system.

5. Crusades and Pilgrimages

99

➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Compare pilgrimages throughout the Middle Ages with those made today. A particularly interesting modern site is that of Medjugorje in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which has been an important place of pilgrimage since six young people claimed to see visions of the Virgin Mary there in 1981. ➢ VIDEO (For the above and the following sections): The first half of the video Art of the Western World: (2)—Romanesque and Gothic: (1) A White Garment of Churches provides an excellent overview of Romanesque architecture and the nature of pilgrimage.

While several churches are discussed, the church at Vézelay receives particular attention.

B. ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECTURAL SCULPTURE 1. Architecture was the dominant form of art during the Romanesque 2. Characteristics • cruciform (addition of a transept to the basilica plan) • more horizontal than Gothic architecture; still rather earthbound • based upon multiple units as construction principle; Gothic will be more continuous, flowing (compare typical Victorian house with Frank Lloyd Wright’s open plan at Fallingwater) • rounded arches (barrel/groin vaults) [not wooden roofs] • thick walls and piers support the roof • darker, heavier atmosphere than Gothic • clear glass, not stained glass • simple, severe exteriors with only portal decorated • regional differences abound (there is not just one Romanesque style) 3. Advantages of the Romanesque Design a. Larger, more spacious interiors than Early Christian churches contain pilgrimage crowds) b. Fire Safety ➢ DISCUSSION: Discuss the Romanesque style as a means of projecting the power and influence of medieval nobles and abbeys.

Compare the monastic Romanesque churches to buildings of similar scale from ancient Greece and Rome, and to prominent church buildings in your local community. Invite students to discuss the ageold conflict in Christianity between the construction of grand and beautiful buildings to honor God, and the moral value of poverty and service to the poor.

4. Examples

100

[Note that Romanesque churches are dedicated to various saints, such as Peter, Paul, Mary Magdalene, or lesser-known saints special to a particular region. In the Gothic era, almost all churches were dedicated to the Virgin Mary, “Our Lady,” (Notre Dame).

Therefore, you have Notre Dame de Paris, Notre Dame de Chartres, etc.] ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Consider focusing on one Romanesque church, such as the church of Sainte-Madeleine, Vézelay. This will allow you to provide an in-depth look at the historical significance of the site, earlier churches located there, the plan, construction principles, portal sculpture, and reliquary. And, in the case of SainteMadeleine, you can also explain how the bulk of the church is in the Romanesque style, while the choir was torn down and rebuilt in the “modern” Gothic style, a common practice during the era.

• • •

Sainte-Madeleine, Vézelay [Fig. 11.10] Nave looking toward altar, 1120-32 [Fig. 11.13] Mission of the Apostles, tympanum, Sainte-Madeleine, Vézelay Function: mostly subordinated to architecture and conceived as architectural decoration, as well as an educational tool 5. Portal, consisting of: • voussoirs • archivolts • tympanum • lintel • door jamb (jamb statues) • trumeau ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: After explaining the parts of the portal and demonstrating how the sculptures in each section are coordinated with the main theme, have students assist you in comparing this portal with the Royal Portal at Chartres. ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Invite students to compare the awkward, unnaturalistic human forms in the Autun tympanum with earlier works from Greece and Rome. Ask students to speculate on the popular appeal to the medieval mind of early medieval sculpture’s sense of plastic and grotesque form. Explain that the emphasis upon fear will be modified during the more genteel Gothic era.

6. Reliquaries

101

•

[Fig. 11.15] Reliquary coffer, French, Limoges, twelfth century, now in Saint-Sernin, Toulouse 7. Enamels • [Fig. 11.16] Nicholas of Verdun, Birth of Jesus, plaque from the Klosterneuburg Abbey Altarpiece, 1181 8. Additional examples of Romanesque Cathedrals [Fig. 11.9] Saint-Sernin, Toulouse, begun ca. 1070 or 1077 [Fig. 11.11] Cathedral group, Pisa: baptistery, begun 1153; cathedral, begun 1063; campanile, begun 1174 ➢ ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: The history of the Leaning Tower of Pisa and recent efforts to stabilize the structure. What other architectural structures are well-known due to errors in architectural design or unusual architectural characteristics?

C. ROMANESQUE MUSIC 1. The development of polyphony [“Music for the Humanities” CD track 4: Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179), “O Viridissima Virga.”] ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Since chant was introduced in Chapter 5 and mentioned again in the section on Charlemagne, this is an excellent place to explain the development of polyphony (organum).

Define polyphony, explaining that it began around 900 as a way to embellish the ever-present chant melody. If possible, demonstrate the interweaving of lines of music on the piano, and play CDs of several examples of early polyphony. Be sure to emphasize the medieval love of elaboration, and develop the analogy between the “layers” of music and the “layers” (nave arcade, triforium, clerestory) in a Romanesque church. Also show illustrations of early notation, emphasizing the significance of the development of notation for the sophistication of the music that will follow.

2. The Chivalric Tradition in Literature and Music ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Ask students what they think of when they hear the word “chivalry.” Explain court life and the chivalric tradition as thoroughly as possible, using Bernart de Ventadorn’s “Quan vei la lauzeta mover” [“Music for the Humanities” CD track 5] as an example of the poetry and music of the troubadours and Chrétien de Troyes’ Chevalier de la Charette as an example of the romance. ➢ ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Eleanor of Aquitaine,The Art of Courtly Love

102

ASSESSMENTS Student self-reviews: MyHumanitiesKit, Review and Explore Instructor Test Bank

RESOURCES IMAGES: MyHumanitiesKit, Image links BOOKS: Agius, D.A., and R. Hitchcock, ed. The Arab Influence in Medieval Europe.

Reading: Ithaca Press, 1994.

Anderson, Bonnie S., and Judith P. Zinsser. A History of Their Own: Women in Europe from Prehistory to the Present. Vol. 1. New York: Harper and Row, 1988.

Bloch, Marc. Feudal Society. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1961.

Chamberlin, Russell. The Emperor: Charlemagne. New York: Franklin Watts, 1986.

Diebold, William J. Word and Image: An Introduction to Early Medieval Art. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 2000.

Evans, Angela Care. The Sutton Hoo Ship Burial. Rev. ed. London: British Museum, 1994.

Flanagan, Sabina. Hildegard of Bingen: A Visionary Life. 1998.

Gies, F. and Joseph. Life in a Medieval Castle. New York: Crowell, 1974.

Grape, Wolfgang. The Bayeux Tapestry: Monument to a Norman Triumph. New York: Prestel, 1994.

Hoppin, Richard. Medieval Music. Norton Introduction to Music History. New York: Norton, 1978.

Keen, Maurice. Chivalry. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984.

Kirshner, J., and Wemple, S. Women of the Medieval World. Oxford: Blackwell, 1985.

103

Laing, Lloyd. Art of the Celts. World of Art. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1992.

Macaulay, David. Castle. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977.

Singman, J. Daily Life in Medieval Europe. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1999.

Stalley, R. Early Medieval Architecture. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.

Zarnecki, George. The Art of the Medieval World: Architecture, Sculpture, Painting, the Sacred Arts. New York: Abrams, 1975.

VIDEOS: Art of the Western World (2)—Romanesque and Gothic: (1) A White Garment of Churches. ABC-CLIO, Inc., 60 minutes.

Castle. PBS, 33 minutes.

Charlemagne and the Holy Roman Empire. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 31 minutes.

Cluny: A Light in the Night. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 53 minutes.

The Feudal System. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 36 minutes.

Light on the Stones: The Medieval Church of Vezelay. Video Monuments, 24 minutes.

Music of Man: The Flowering of Harmony. Home Vision, 60 minutes.

Vikings and Normans. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 37 minutes.

The World’s Most Mysterious Places: Aachen: Charlemagne’s City; Chartres Cathedral; Santiago and the Shrine of St. James. Goldhill Video, 60 minutes.

104

12 GOTHIC AND LATE MIDDLE AGES CHAPTER OVERVIEW THE GOTHIC ERA The age of the great cathedrals of western Europe, richly embellished TOWARD THE RENAISSANCE The trends toward naturalism and realism in painting and sculpture LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, the student should be able to . . . . . . define key terms. . . . trace the history of the Late Middle Ages from 1100 to 1500. . . . discuss the developments in Gothic architecture, including specific elements. . . . identify specific works of art, architecture, literature, and music from the Late Medieval period. . . . outline the intellectual developments of the era, including scholasticism and the development of the universities. . . . discuss the synthesis of Classical thought and Christian ideas in the Late Middle Ages and explain how this synthesis affected the arts. . . . discuss the development of Late Medieval literature and music.

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. What were the differences between the Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals?

Who built them and how were they used?

2. Outline the intellectual developments of the era, including scholasticism and the development of the universities.

3. How did Classical thought influence Giotto’s work in the Arena Chapel? What did he do that was revolutionary?

4. In what ways was Dante a medieval writer? How did he create a more “modern” work?

5. How does Aquinas resolve the conflict between faith and reason?

6. What were the developments in music during the Late Middle Ages?

7. In what ways did events like the Black Death, the Babylonian Captivity, and the Hundred Years’ War change medieval society? What were the results of these events?

105

CHAPTER SUMMARY Paris dominated the later Middle Ages and was the seat of the French government, overseen by King Louis IX (r. 1226-1270), associated with fairness and justice. He continued a remarkable building program in Paris, but the relative stability and productivity of his reign could not be sustained. One factor was the citizens’ rebellion again the high rate of taxation for the Hundred Years' War. Charles V (r.

1364-1380), the first to use the Louvre as a royal residence, started what would eventually become France's great national library, and erected the Bastille and new walls around the city.

The term Gothic refers to the style of visual arts and culture that first developed about 1140 and peaked in the thirteenth century. This was the age of great cathedrals of northern Europe. The Gothic style developed out of the Romanesque, but Gothic buildings soar to the heavens, seem airy and delicate, and their height reflected their religious ideals. Gothic innovations include: pointed arches and vaults, ribs, and flying buttresses. Gothic architecture often featured stained glass, which had special religious importance during the Middle Ages. Also characteristic of the Gothic era, tapestries were a form of insulation as well as decoration. This French Gothic style spread rapidly outside France. Gothic architectural sculpture perpetuates that of the Romanesque, but without the frantic animation, and the rigid stance gives way to interaction. Manuscript illumination reached its peak in the Gothic era. Popular throughout Europe around 1400, the “International Style” was known for bright, contrasting colors, elongated figures, and opulent elegance.

As the Roman Catholic Church’s opposition to pagan works lessened, secular learning was seen as necessary for the more advanced states of religious contemplation. St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) effected a synthesis of Aristotelian philosophy and Catholic religious thought. Universities evolved into major centers of learning - approximately eighty existed by the end of the Middle Ages. Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) wrote The Divine Comedy, the greatest epic poem of the Middle Ages, which has as one of its most notable features the idea that the punishment should match the sin. During the crises of the Black Plague and the Hundred Years’ War, there was a growing interest in nature and naturalism in literature, and also moving away from the use of Latin and toward the vernacular. This is evident in the Decameron by Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375) and in the Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer (ca.1342-1400). One of the outstanding woman writers of the later Middle Ages was Christine de Pizan (1364-ca. 1431). In her numerous works of prose and poetry, she consistently argued for the wider recognition of women’s status and abilities intellectual, social, and spiritual.

In the fourteenth century, medieval music underwent significant changes, including the displacement of church music by secular music. Drinking songs and the music that drew on the everyday began to be composed and performed as often as

106

devotional music inspired by religious faith.

MyHumanitiesKit RESOURCES, CHAPTER TWELVE Objectives Flashcards Study Critical Thinking Multiple Choice Interact – Closer Look: Giotto’s Arena Chapel Review and Explore Image Links Humanities PPT Glossary Audio Glossary College Art Association Write and Research MySearchLab: www.MySearchLab.com KEY TERMS Gothic Flamboyant Gothic Cartoon vernacular jamb cathedral

Rayonnant organum novella International Style flying buttress fan vaulting cantus firmus

ars nova naturalism rose window High Gothic tenor

SUGGESTED TEACHING OUTLINE I. THE GOTHIC ERA A. BACKGROUND 1. 1200-1400 2. Age of: • The Crusades • The Decline of Feudalism • The Rise of Towns and Cities • The Growth of the University • Courtly Life and Love [continues; see chapter 11] • Francis of Assisi • Dante’s Divine Comedy [Fig. 12.21]

107

➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Hopefully, students will have time to read some Dante. At the very least, summarize his key ideas, emphasizing the enormous influence it has been in western culture. It was first mentioned in English by Chaucer in the fourteenth century, and in the twentieth it continued to influence poets such as T.S. Eliot. ➢ ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Students appreciate when literary works are put into a larger context. Explain the outside forces that may have influenced Dante. Present a lecture on the art and architecture of Dante’s world, focusing on Florence, and Italy in general, from 1267-1321, to provide a context for his writing.

•

Scholasticism

➢ ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Scholasticism and Gothic architecture. See the Connections section on the topic and Otto von Simson’s The Gothic Cathedral: Origins of Gothic Architecture and the Medieval Concept of Order. ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Take time to provide a thorough background to the religious, cultural, economic, and political developments of the era, providing these ideas as a “lens” through which students will see Gothic art. ➢ ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: St. Francis of Assisi (include slides of Giotto’s frescoes of the Life of St. Francis from the Upper Basilica of the Basilica of St. Francis in Assisi). ➢ ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: The Seven Liberal Arts B. GOTHIC ART 1. Abbot Suger and the “Invention” of Gothic Architecture [Fig. 12.2] Royal Abbey, Saint-Denis, Ambulatory, 1140-44 2. Romanesque and Gothic Architecture Compared [Fig. 12.1] Diagram of a Gothic Church 3. Chartres Cathedral [Fig. 12.5] Façade, 1145-1220 ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: As with the Romanesque chapter, I prefer to focus on one great work of architecture, “filling in” with the other works as additional examples or for points of comparison. This is a particularly useful approach if time is a concern. The Art of the Western World series (The Age of Gothic, 30 minutes) is very useful as an overview of the Gothic cathedral, with Chartres as the focus.

108

➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Rather than teach the architecture at one point and later coming to the cathedral sculpture and stained glass, teach the work as a unified whole. a. History of the site and building [Fig. 12.5] Façade, 1145-1220 b. Architectural plan and terms: • cruciform • nave • aisles • transept • crossing • apse • chapels • ambulatory c. Interior and terms: [Fig. 12.7] Interior, rebuilding begun 1145, vault finished by 1220, nave looking toward altar • nave arcade • triforium gallery • clerestory • ribbed vaults d. Additional French Cathedrals [to Compare Designs]: • Notre-Dame, Paris [Figs. 12.3 and 12.4] • Notre-Dame, Chartres [Figs. 12.6 and 12.7] • Sainte-Chapelle, Paris [Fig. 12.8] • Saint-Maclou, Rouen [Fig. 12.9] e. Stained Glass [Fig. 12.18] Life of Jesus, ca. 1150, stained glass, central lancet window, west façade, Chartres i. functions ii. method of construction iii. shapes: rose and lancet iv. additional French cathedral for stained glass • Saint-Chapelle, Paris [Fig. 12.8] f. Exterior [Fig. 12.5] i. West Façade ii. Flying Buttresses [Fig. 12.1] g. Sculpture at Chartres [Fig. 12.13] i. relationship to the architecture ii. Subjects (sources and types) iii. Treatment of the human form iv. Changes in the treatment of human form at Chartres (compare Royal Portal jamb statues with those on the North and South porches) v. Additional French Cathedrals for Sculpture: 109

• • •

Notre-Dame, Reims [Fig. 12.14] Notre-Dame, Paris [Fig. 12.15] Gargoyles

➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Have students compare the rigid jamb statues of the kings and queens from Chartres with the much more naturalistic human figures at Reims and Paris. ➢ ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Gargoyles. Present the function and meaning of gargoyles. Ask if any students have visited the National Cathedral in Washington, whose sculptors have taken gargoyles to an entirely new level.

Students will particularly enjoy hearing about the National Cathedral’s “harried businessman” gargoyle, complete with briefcase, and the Darth Vader gargoyle. h. Gothic architecture outside France ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: While each of these cathedrals is marvelous in its own right, they may be omitted if time is a concern. The primary goal of an introductory course is to present the basic idea; these works represent quite notable variations upon the idea.

• • •

Salisbury Cathedral [Fig. 12.10] Westminster Abbey, London [Fig. 12.11] Florence Cathedral [Fig. 12.12]

4. Painting and the Decorative Arts a. Manuscript Illumination [Fig. 12.16] Joshua Bidding the Sun to Stand Still, from the Psalter of St. Louis, ca. 1260 [Fig. 12.17] Limbourg Brothers, January, from Les Très Riches Heures of the Duke of Berry, 1413-16 ➢ ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: The artistic patronage of the Dukes of Burgundy. b. Tapestry [Fig. 12.19] The Unicorn in Captivity, from the Unicorn Tapestries, Franco-Flemish, made in Brussels, ca. 1500 C. GOTHIC MUSIC

1. Sacred Music: The School of Notre Dame

110

➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Play examples of the music of Leonin and Perotin from the School of Notre Dame and review examples of Gregorian chant and organum. Ask students to describe the differences they observe. Explain that the more complex music of Notre Dame was made possible by a development in the notation of rhythm. Particularly highlight that Notre Dame rhythm was inspired by the university skill of scanning poetry into its long and short syllables. Also remind students that the fundamental chant has not been eliminated, but just elaborated upon. Liken the music, with its chant foundation and elaboration, to the Gothic cathedral, which was still built upon the cruciform shape, but highly ornamented.

III. TOWARD THE RENAISSANCE A. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 1. The Black Death 2. The Hundred Years’ War 3. The Babylonian Captivity ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Highlight these developments as factors leading people towards more interest in the things of this world.

B. NATURALISM IN ART 1. The Pisanos [Figs. 12.22 and 12.23] ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Have students compare the works of father and son.

2. Duccio and Giotto [Figs. 12.24 and 12.25] ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: James Burke’s film Masters of Illusion (National Gallery, 30 minutes) provides an excellent introduction to the Renaissance development of perspective, including discussion of Giotto’s use of approximate perspective. ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Students find it enjoyable and instructive to compare two versions of the same subject. Giotto and his foster son Taddeo Gaddi both painted Madonna and Child Enthroned [Giotto, Fig. 12.25, or look for both online]. Tell students what the work is about, point out the key elements in both (The Virgin Mary, Baby Jesus, angels, background, etc.), and then have students tell why they think Giotto is a famous artist and Gaddi is not. In other words, what are the strengths and weaknesses of both? If you would like to pursue the question of artistic mastery, consult Kenneth Clark’s What is a Masterpiece?

111

➢ DISCUSSION: Look at MyHumanitiesKit, Chapter Twelve, Interact, Closer Look: Giotto’s Arena Chapel for an overview of this artistic program. Discuss how it carried on the medieval artistic traditions and how it presaged works such as Michelangelo’s Sistine Chapel Ceiling. Focus on Giotto’s Lamentation [Fig. 12.26], Giotto invites the viewer to join in the grieving. How is the viewer drawn into the grief? How does Giotto convey human suffering? How do those in the painting react to Jesus’ death? What does the single barren tree in the painting represent? Whose art would you compare Giotto’s work to? How are you as a viewer, invited into other paintings? Have students provide examples (for example, Cassatt’s The Boating Party). ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: You may also want to explain fresco technique.

C. REALISM IN LITERATURE 1. Boccaccio’s Decameron 2. Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales 3. Christine de Pizan D. SECULAR SONG 1. Guillaume de Machaut ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Play an example of a secular (preferably love) song by Machaut, having students relate it to the love songs of today. Emphasize that Machaut was accomplished in both sacred and secular music. (If there is time, play an excerpt of his Messe de Notre Dame.)

2. English song ➢ TEACHING STRATEGY: Play “Sumer Is Icumen,” emphasizing its unique features. If possible, show students a copy of the original manuscript, which is in the British Library and can be viewed online.

ASSESSMENTS Student self-reviews: MyHumanitiesKit, Review and Explore Instructor Test Bank

112

RESOURCES IMAGES: MyHumanitiesKit, Image links BOOKS: Bony, J. French Gothic Architecture of the 12th and 13th Centuries. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1983.

Cantor, N.F. The Civilization of the Middle Ages. New York: HarperCollins, 1993.

Carroll, M.P. The Cult of the Virgin Mary: Psychological Origins. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1986.

Clark, Kenneth. What is a Masterpiece? New York: Thames and Hudson, 1979.

Cohen, M. Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages. 1994.

Favier, J. The World of Chartres. New York: Abrams, 1990.

Gallagher, J. To Hell and Back With Dante: A Modern Reader’s Guide to the ‘Divine Comedy.’ 1996.

Harrison, Frank L. Music in Medieval Britain. 2nd ed. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1963.

Hoppin, R.H. Medieval Music. New York: Norton, 1978.

Knowles, D. The Evolution of Medieval Thought. London: Longman, 1988.

Owen, D.D.R. Eleanor of Aquitaine: Queen and Legend. Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1993.

Piltz, A. The World of Medieval Learning. Rev. ed. Totowa, NJ: Barnes & Noble, 1981.

Reaney, Gilbert. Guillaume de Machaut. London: Oxford University Press, 1971.

Simson, Otto von. The Gothic Cathedral: Origins of Gothic Architecture and the Medieval Concept of Order. 3rd ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988.

Stoddard, W.S. Sculptors of the West Portals of Chartres Cathedral. New York: Norton, 1992.

Wilson, K. Medieval Women Writers. Athens, GA: Univ. of Georgia Press, 1984.

113

VIDEOS: Acts of Faith: Jewish Civilization in Spain. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 50 minutes.

Art of the Western World (2)—Romanesque and Gothic: (II) The Age of Gothic.

ABC-CLIO, Inc., 30 minutes.

Crusades. 4 parts. Pilgrims in Arms. Jerusalem, Jihad. Destruction. A&E, 50 minutes each.

Madonna and Child: Development of Christian Symbolism. Insight Media, 50 minutes.

Masters of Illusion. National Gallery, 30 minutes.

114

Instructor’s Manual for

Arts & Culture: An Introduction to the Humanities By

Janetta Rebold Benton and Robert DiYanni

Fourth Edition Volume 2

by

Helen Barnes and Jan Gaug Butler Community College

1

Table of Contents Introduction

4

Chapter 13

5

Chapter 14

14

Chapter 15

21

Chapter 16

30

Chapter 17

38

Chapter 18

47

Chapter 19

54

Chapter 20

59

Chapter 21

65

Chapter 22

72

Chapter 23

82

Chapter 24

91

3

Introduction Given the breadth of the humanities, sometimes it is difficult for instructors to know what to focus on within an era. It is also a struggle to provide students with a curriculum that is interesting to them as well as appropriately expressive of the age. In light of the former, this Instructor’s Manual accompanying Arts and Culture has been designed to offer a variety of teaching strategies with both the students’ and instructors’ needs in mind. Each chapter of this manual includes the following parts: • • • • • • • • • •

Learning Objectives to help the student and instructor work towards specific outcomes.

Critical Thinking Questions for engaging students with the material.

A Summary of the thematic focus of the chapter in the text.

The resources available online in MyHumanitiesKit and integrated throughout the Outline.

An Outline for preparing lectures, for an overview of important ideas, or for use as a check sheet.

Teaching Strategies for presenting key points.

Discussion points to engage students in the classroom.

Additional Lecture Topics that may go beyond the scope of the text, but are of interest to students.

Assessments to provide options for checking student progress against the Learning Objectives.

And Resources for further information.

The teaching strategies and discussion ideas provide both specific and general methods for the instructor.

Students need examples of similarities and differences between fields of interest and eras to understand cultural borrowing, a social movement, the impact of a historical event, or the development of new philosophies as evidenced in the arts. Because instructors need a variety of sources to easily find those examples and ways of presenting them, each chapter in this Instructor’s Manual is designed to provide a variety of choices. However, we hope instructors will use an idea that will lead them to discover something innovative on their own.

Our goal has been to create an Instructor’s Manual that is easy to use and provides inspiration for the instructor in the classroom.

Helen Barnes Lead Instructor, Fine Arts and Humanities Butler Community College Jan Gaug Instructor English and Humanities Butler Community College Friends University

4

13 RENAISSANCE AND MANNERISM IN ITALY CHAPTER OVERVIEW THE EARLY RENAISSANCE Rebirth of interest in antiquity, the individual, and nature THE HIGH RENAISSANCE Maturation of the arts MANNERISM Moving away from the classical ideal

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, the student should be able to . . . . . . define key terms. . . . identify visual arts, music, and literature, from the Renaissance. . . . identify Mannerist visual arts. . . . trace the development of the arts from the Early Renaissance through the Mannerist era. . . . explain the relationship between the classical arts and those of the Renaissance. . . . discuss the changing role of the artist in the Renaissance. . . . explain the connection between the arts and patronage. . . . outline the socio-political ideas that existed during the Renaissance.

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Compare and contrast the role of the artist in the Medieval era to the role of the artist in the Renaissance.

2. What was the relationship between patronage and the arts?

3. What specific interests in the arts were “revived” from Classical Greece and Rome? How did we see these interests show up in specific works?

4. Why did the Renaissance start in Florence? What factors coalesced in the 1300’s that contributed to the beginnings of the Renaissance?

5. During this era, there were those who felt that harmonious architecture would create harmonious individuals. Defend this statement, using examples from your text.

6. Examine the use of mathematics and measurement in art, music, or literature, using an example from the text.

7. Some say that da Vinci was an “idea guy” and Michelangelo was a technician. Would you agree or disagree with this statement? Why? 8. Discuss how Classical Humanism dovetailed with Christianity in the Renaissance to become Christian Humanism. What were its attributes? In what ways did it manifest?

9. How does Castiglione’s ideas of the qualities of a well-rounded person compare with yours? Which ones do you think still apply today?

10. The term “Machiavellian” did not exist before he wrote The Prince. Define “Machiavellian” and discuss how and why the author’s name is a euphemism for a specific kind of political behavior.

5

CHAPTER SUMMARY The Early Renaissance, which occurred during the fifteenth century, was a time when old ideas were challenged and new ideas began to take hold. One reason for this upheaval was the spread of the bubonic plague, which undermined traditional belief systems and spawned widespread social unrest and turmoil.

The Medici family, led by Giovanni de’ Medici and his son Cosimo, along with Cosimo’s grandson, Lorenzo, made Florence the cultural center of Renaissance Europe through their financial support of the arts. The Medici’s were humanists, believing in the worth and dignity of the individual, and valuing the cultures of ancient Greece and Rome, and especially the works of Plato. Individual genius, which was viewed as the worldly manifestation of divine truth, was allowed to flourish during Renaissance Italy as never before in Western culture. Sculptors such as Alberti and Donatello used linear perspective in organizing their compositions. Renaissance architects such as Brunelleschi and Alberti demonstrated a renewed interest in ancient Roman models, with their mathematically determined proportions and emphasis on orderliness, clarity, and logic of construction. Renaissance artists such as Masaccio and Piero emphasized the art of perspective, the principles of which had been little used since ancient Roman times.

The greatest influence on early Renaissance music was Guillaume Dufay, who wrote many motets, compositions that set a sacred text to polyphonic choral music. One factor that led to the popularity of music during this period was the rise of music printing. The most famous writer of this period was Petrarch. His sonnets introduced one of the predominant themes of the Renaissance lyric poetry: the expression of the speaker’s love for a woman, and the complexity of love. Florence’s domination of Italian culture ended in 1494 when Dominican friar Girolamo Savonarola took control of the city.

One famous artist of the High Renaissance was Leonardo da Vinci, painter of The Last Supper and Mona Lisa. He did not share the Florentine taste for classical humanist scholarship. Pope Nicholas V helped a reborn Rome replace Florence as the cultural center of the Renaissance, Raphael, considered the epitome of High Renaissance painters, became particularly famous for his paintings of the Madonna. Although Michelangelo considered himself a sculptor, he was compelled by Pope Julius II to paint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. The musical composer most closely identified with the High Renaissance is Josquin Des Pres, composer and director of the Sistine Choir. Two famous writers of the period were Castiglione, who supported the tenets of Renaissance humanism, and Machiavelli, who challenged those tenets.

Mannerism was a stylistic trend which began to develop in Italian art as early as 1520. It reflects an age of anxiety and crisis and was inspired by the great masters of the High Renaissance. Mannerism is marked by its rejection of many of the principles of the High Renaissance, such as use of primary colors, scientific spatial construction, and natural body proportions. The Mannerist mode emphasizes extravagance and exaggeration. Two of the most characteristic painters of the Mannerist style are Parmigianino and Bronzino.

A Florentine Mannerist sculptor who worked in France was Benvenuto Cellini. Mannerist architecture is extremely unorthodox, often contradicting the classical rules of architecture.

MyHumanitiesKit RESOURCES, CHAPTER THIRTEEN Objectives Flashcards Study Critical Thinking Multiple Choice Interact – Closer Look: Brunelleschi’s Dome Bronzino’s Allegory with Venus and Cupid Review and Explore Image Links Humanities PPT Glossary Audio Glossary College Art Association 6

Write and Research MySearchLab: www.MySearchLab.com

KEY TERMS Renaissance orthogonals sonnet oil painting antiquity humanist lantern ballad mass

word painting Neoplatonism sestina chanson motet baptistery canzoni a cappella sfumato

modeled foreshortening chiaroscuro Mannerism allegory vanishing point atmospheric / aerial perspective

SUGGESTED TEACHING OUTLINES I. THE EARLY RENAISSANCE A. BACKGROUND

1.

2.

Meaning of “Renaissance” Dat es: 1400 -1600

B. PEOPLE AND IDEAS

1.

The Medici’s Florence [Map 13.1] Italian city-states at the end of the fifteenth century, [Fig. 13.1] Vasari’s Posthumous Portrait of Lorenzo the Magnificent

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Introduce the students to the contributions of the Medici family during the Renaissance.

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Discuss the importance of place. Why did the Renaissance begin in Florence and not somewhere else? (Relate this to the importance of place throughout the course; Athens, Paris, Florence, Vienna, New York, etc.)

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Vasari’s Lives of the Most Eminent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects.

2.

3.

The Humanist Spirit (consider discussing humanism along with Botticelli’s art [Fig. 13.13] The Platonic Academy of Philosophy

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Let your students read the list of Florentine innovations and the quote from McCarthy’s The Stones of Florence. Do your students feel it is accurate to say that “the Florentines invented the Renaissance, which is the same as saying that they invented the modern world”? Why or why not?

In The Stones of Florence, Mary McCarthy observes that “Florentine history, in its great period, is a history of innovations.” Some of the innovations she notes are: • Florentines wrote the first important work in the vernacular (Dante’s Divine Comedy) • Raised the first massive dome since antiquity • Discovered perspective • Made the first nude of the Renaissance • Composed the first opera • Either they or the Venetians were the first to collect statistics • Petrarch, the first humanist, was the son of exiled Florentines • Boccaccio inaugurated literary criticism.

• Boccaccio’s clinical account of plague symptoms in the Decameron was a pioneer contribution to descriptive medicine 7

•

Machiavelli is generally called the father of political science, and he was the first to study the mechanism of power in politics and government First chair of Greek set up in Florence (14th century) First public library founded by Cosimo il Vecchio

• •

C. EARLY RENAISSANCE ITALIAN ARCHITECTURE 1. Competition for the Baptistery Doors of Florence Cathedral

> TEACHING STRATEGY: It works well to begin consideration of Renaissance art with a competition, which in and of itself represents the Renaissance spirit. Tell students about the competition for the doors to the Baptistery of Florence Cathedral, including the topic and shape assigned for the entry panels. Show slides of the entries of Ghiberti and Brunelleschi, pointing out the similar objects (Abraham, Isaac, servants, angel, etc.) After telling the students that Ghiberti won, have them list as many reasons as possible why he was chosen. (See The Feud That Sparked the Renaissance by Walker.)

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Provide more recent examples of competition among artists, such as Maya Lin’s design for the Vietnam Veteran’s Memorial.

2. Ghiberti (1378-1455): Doors to the Florence Baptistery [Fig. 13.6] The Creation of Adam and Eve, Baptistery East Doors, Florence, 1425-52 3. Brunelleschi (ca. 1377-1446): Florence Cathedral Dome [Fig. 13.3]

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Explain that all was not lost for Brunelleschi, since he became the

greatest architect of the early Renaissance. Look at MyHumanitiesKit, Chapter 13, Interact, Closer Look: Brunelleschi’s Dome. Also, see Brunelleschi’s Dome by King.

> VIDEO: Consider using a documentary to introduce Brunelleschi’s dome.

4. Pazzi Chapel 5. Church of San Lorenzo

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Emphasize the difference in feeling (and philosophy) between the Gothic and Renaissance interiors. Gothic religious architecture was meant to emphasize the smallness of humanity in the presence of an awesome God. Renaissance religious architecture, on the other hand, emphasizes more self-satisfaction and an orientation to this world.

6. Other early Renaissance architects

> TEACHING STRATEGY: If time doesn’t permit, focus on Brunelleschi and omit Alberti and Michelozzo. a.

Le on Bat tist a Al bert i [Fig. 13.4] Sant’ Andrea, Mantua, façade, designed 1470

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Alberti’s writings on perspective and architecture b.

Michelozzo di Bartolommeo [Fig. 13.5] Palazzo Medici-Riccardi, Florence, exterior, begun 1445

D. EARLY RENAISSANCE ART 1. Donatello (1386-1466) a. David [Fig. 13.7]

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Compare this work with the Greek Doryphorus [Fig. 3.9], Augustus of Primaporta [Fig. 4.13], and sculpture from Gothic cathedrals [Figs. 12.13 to 12.15] i. Terms to Know: patina, choice of moment b. Saint Mary Magdalene [Fig. 13.8] 8

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Emphasize Donatello’s versatility in the use of different media and styles.

2. Masaccio (1401-1428) a.

The Holy Trinity [Fig. 13.9] b.

The Tribute Money c. Charact eristics: i. linear perspective ii. atmospheric perspective iii. chiaroscuro iv. contrapposto v. continuous narrative

> TEACHING STRATEGY: These two works by Masaccio provide an excellent introduction to many of the characteristics of Early Renaissance art.

3. Botticelli (1444-1510) a. The Birth of Venus [Fig. 13.13] b. La Primavera, (Birth of Spring), ca. 1482 (?)

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Consider placing your discussion of Neoplatonism here, rather than at the beginning of the chapter. These two paintings provide an excellent introduction to the subject.

4. Piero della Francesca [Fig. 13.10] Battista Sforza, 1472-73 [Fig. 13.11] Federico da Montefeltro, 1472-73

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: The Renaissance portrait as an expression of humanism 5. Fra Angelico [Fig. 13.12] Annunciation, 1438-45 D. EARLY RENAISSANCE MUSIC AND LITERATURE 1. Dufay a. Characteristics of early Renaissance music i. pleasing sound (English influence) ii. sensitivity to the words (word painting) iii. increased secularization of even sacred music iv. importance of music as a skill during the era v. increasing use of instruments as well as the voice vi. development of printing from movable type (Venice, 1501; 50 years after Gutenberg’s Bible)

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Find examples of Dufay’s music and provide students with a copy of the words, discussing in detail Dufay’s use of word painting.

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Compare the use of mathematics in both architecture and music.

Use Connections, Mathematical Proportions: Brunelleschi and Dufay as a basis for this comparison. b. Secular song 2. Petrarch

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Assign a Petrarchan sonnet, asking students to look for reasons why the author is often called “the father of humanism.”

II. THE HIGH RENAISSANCE (ca. 1495-1520) A. VISUAL ARTISTS 1. Background: The Reinvention of Rome 9

2. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) a. Background b. “Renaissance Man” c. Most Famous Works: i.

Mona Lisa [Fig. 13.15]

> DISCUSSION: Have students speculate as to why this work is so famous. (See Donald Sassoon’s Becoming Mona Lisa.) ii.

The Last Supper [Fig. 13.14]

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Compare Leonardo’s version of this subject to those of other artists, including Bouts, Tintoretto, and Dali.

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Discuss the reasons for the splotchy appearance of the work and the restoration done in the 1980s.

> DISCUSSION: Students who have read The Da Vinci Code may want to discuss Dan Brown’s theories. iii.

Madonna of the Rocks

3. Michelangelo (1475-1564) a. Background b. Versatility i. 1st love: sculpture ii. Theory that sculpture is releasing an imprisoned figure c. Works: i. Sculpture: • Pieta • David [Fig. 13.18] (compare Greek and Early Renaissance examples, such as the Doryphorus [Fig. 3.9] and Donatello’s David [Fig. 13.7])

> DISCUSSION: What does the contrapposto pose reveal about David’s state of mind?

•

Tomb of Pope Julius II

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Treat Michelangelo’s major sculptures as an evolving self-portrait of the artist. From the Pietà to the David to the Moses, speculate on the artist’s changing sense of his creative self. Punctuate the discussion by looking at the Rondanini Pietà, the sculpture that occupied Michelangelo in his last days. ii. Painting: •

Sistine Chapel Ceiling [Fig. 13.19]

> VIDEO: Consider using Nova’s documentary of the restoration of the Sistine Chapel ceiling. It thoroughly covers the controversy regarding the restoration, and includes a useful demonstration of the fresco technique.

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Illustrate the humanist synthesis of pagan and Christian ideas in the Sistine Chapel Ceiling. Assign groups of students to identify both pagan and Christian elements in their assigned portion of the work. Record on the chalkboard a catalogue of these two categories of ideas.

4. Raphael (1483-1520) a. Background b. W o r k s • Madonna of the Meadows [Fig. 13.16] 10

• School of Athens [Fig. 13.17]

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Present a thorough discussion of how The School of Athens exemplifies the High Renaissance, both in subject and artistic technique. Also, look at MyHumanitiesKit, Chapter 13, Interact, Closer Look: Raphael’s “School of Athens”.

5. The New St. Peter’s Basilica a. Br a m a nt e [Fig. 13.22] Tempietto, San Pietro in Montorio, Rome, 1502-after 1511 b. Michelangelo’s St. Peter’s 6. Venetian Painting a. Characteristics of Venetian oil painting b. Giorgione and Titian [Fig. 13.24] Titian, Bacchanal, ca. 1518

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Mention that this work influenced Manet’s Luncheon on the Grass B. RENAISSANCE MUSIC 1. General Characteristics 2. Josquin Desprez (ca. 1440-1521)

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Provide students with the words to a Desprez or Palestrina work, “walking them through” it before listening. Point out the Renaissance love of beauty and calm, as well as the sensitivity to the words. Build on the authors’ observations in the text that sensitivity to the words in music is comparable to Renaissance artists’ attention to the drama of the stories they chose.

3. P a l e s t r i n a [“Music for the Humanities” CD track 7: “Kyrie” from Pope Marcellus Mass] C. RENAISSANCE LITERATURE 1. Baldassare Castiglione 2. Niccolo Machiavelli III. MANNERISM A. BACKGROUND

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Examine how various artistic styles coincide with a period of political upheaval, such as the rise of Mannerism during a period of political and social unrest or the emergence of the Dada Movement following World War I. B. PAINTING 1.

Cha r act e rist ic s 2.

Michelangelo’s Last Judgment [Fig. 13.20] 3.

Parmigianino [Fig. 13.26]

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Students always have a lot of fun discussing what is “wrong” with Madonna with the Long Neck, and it makes a great introduction to Mannerism. Also have them compare it with a Raphael Madonna [Fig. 13.16] For another look at a Manneristic work, go to MyHumanitiesKit, Chapter 13, Interact, Closer Look: Bronzino’s “Allegory with Venus and Cupid”.

4.

5.

6.

Bronzino [Fig. 13.27] Tintoretto Fig. 13.28] El Greco [Fig. 13.29]

C. CELLINI’S SCULPTURE 11

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Examine how Cellini’s Autobiography is akin to his sculpture Perseus [Fig. 13.33]

D. ARCHITECTURE 1. Michelangelo: vestibule of Laurentian Library [Fig. 13.34] 2. Palladio: Villa Rotonda [Fig.13.35]

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Show works influenced by Palladio, such as Chiswick House ASSESSMENTS Student self-reviews: MyHumanitiesKit, Review and Explore Instructor Test Bank

RESOURCES IMAGES: MyHumanitiesKit, Image links

BOOKS: Bramly, S. Leonardo: Discovering the Life of Leonardo da Vinci. New York: Harper-Collins, 1991. Burke, P. Italian Renaissance: Culture and Society in Italy. 2nd ed. 1986.

De Grazia, Sebastian. Machiavelli in Hell. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989. Fenlon, Ian. The Renaissance Man and Music. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1989.

Gill, Anton. Il Gigante: Michelangelo, Florence, and the David. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2002. Hay, D. Italy in the Age of the Renaissance. New York: Longman, 1989.

Johnson, Paul. The Renaissance: A Short History. New York: Modern Library, 2000.

King, Ross. Brunelleschi’s Dome: How a Renaissance Genius Reinvented Architecture. New York: Walker and Company, 2000. _______ . Michelangelo and the Pope’s Ceiling. New York: Walker and Company, 2003.

12

Sassoon, Donald. Becoming Mona Lisa: From Fine Art to Universal Icon—The Incredible Story of the World’s Most Famous Painting. San Diego: Harcourt, 2001.

Walker, Paul Robert. The Feud that Sparked the Renaissance: How Brunelleschi and Ghiberti Changed the Art World. New York: Perennial, 2002.

VIDEOS: Art of the Western World (3)—The Early Renaissance: (I) The Early Renaissance and (II) The Early Renaissance in Northern Europe. ABC-CLIO, Inc., 30 minutes each.

Art of the Western World (4)—The High Renaissance: (I) Rome and Florence—The Artist as Genius. ABC-CLIO, Inc., 30 minutes.

Day the Universe Changed (3)—Scientific Imagination in the Renaissance. Churchill Films, 56 minutes. Introduction to the Italian Renaissance. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 29 minutes.

Leonardo da Vinci: Renaissance Master. A&E, 50 minutes.

Leonardo: The Visionary Intellect. Academic and Entertainment Video, 26 minutes.

Michelangelo: Artist and Man. A&E, 50 minutes.

Music in Time (3)—The Renaissance. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 60 minutes. The Power of the Past: Florence. PBS Home Video, 90 minutes.

Saving the Sistine Chapel. Nova, 60 minutes.

Treasures of the World: Theft of the’ Mona Lisa.’ PBS Home Video, 30 minutes.

14 RENAISSANCE IN NORTHERN EUROPE CHAPTER OVERVIEW EARLY RENAISSANCE IN NORTHERN EUROPE The Low Countries establish high standards in the visual arts HIGH RENAISSANCE IN NORTHERN EUROPE The age of discovery, political and religious conflict, Shakespeare, and the portrait

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, the student should be able to . . . . . . define key terms. . . . identify key works of Northern Renaissance visual art, music, literature and theatre. . . . trace the development of the arts during the Northern Renaissance. . . . explain the relationship between the arts of the Northern Renaissance and those of the Italian Renaissance. . . . discuss the contributions of key Northern Renaissance artists, composers, and writers. . . . define the relationship between the ideas behind the Protestant Reformation and the arts. . . . understand the contributions of the printing press to the spread of the arts and ideas. . . . outline the results of the Protestant Reformation as manifested in Northern European society. . . . discuss how scientific and geographic discoveries affected the arts.

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Pick an artist, composer or writer from this era and outline their contributions.

2. Why was the printing press so important? Who were some of the artists, etc. that benefitted from its existence?

3. Compare and contrast the artistic interests of the Northern Renaissance with those of the Italian Renaissance.

4. What were the causes and results of the Protestant Reformation? Who were some of the major participants?

5. How did the ideas of the Protestant Reformation affect the arts?

6. Outline some of the scientific discoveries of the age.

14

7. Compare and contrast the styles of Francis I’s Château de Chambord and Henry VIII’s Hampton Court Palace. In what ways do the styles differ from the Middle Ages?

CHAPTER SUMMARY The Early Renaissance emerged more slowly in Northern Europe than in Italy. This is at least partially due to the fact that the Renaissance was a rebirth of Roman values that had been brought to the North a thousand years before by conquering Romans. But trade and commerce inevitably brought Italian ideas northward. In Northern Europe the vast majority of cities were smaller than those in Italy. It was in these smaller cities that the literate, educated classes embraced new ideas.

One of the first artists to use oil paint was Robert Campin. In Mérode Altarpiece, painted in 1426, the Flemish artist was able to use illusions of texture and atmosphere that would not have been possible with egg tempera, the medium favored during the Middle Ages. Jan van Eyck is considered the founder of the Flemish school, a tradition in which artists such as Van Eyck and Campin recorded the real world in minute detail as a way toward the truth. Because of the enormous ambition and the extraordinary realism portrayed, Van Eyck’s Ghent Altarpiece is one of the most famous paintings of the Renaissance. One theme in these Northern Renaissance works is that the artists found signs of God’s presence on Earth in everyday reality.

Hieronymous Bosch was a Flemish painter of extraordinary imagination, best known for his blatantly bizarre and menacing half-man, half-animal creatures. Bosch’s style was unlike his contemporaries, in that he painted without any preliminary drawing and disregarded light and shadow. Bosch’s paintings presented a critical vision of the Catholic Church. Attacks such as his eventually led the papacy to reinvent Rome as a center of classical learning.

The High Renaissance in Northern Europe was marked by a growing iconoclasm. Iconoclasm is the systemic destruction of religious icons because of their accepted religious connotations.

The most systemic iconoclasm occurred in England, beginning with King Henry VIII’s ordering of the destruction of the monasteries. Northern humanist scholar and priest Desiderius Erasmus wrote a popular book attacking abuses in the Catholic Church. Fellow humanist scholar Martin Luther attacked the practice of papal indulgences and was ordered to report to Rome. French humanist John Calvin sought to strip away things he considered external and distracting to true Christian piety. This was a period of intense religious inquiry, with the humanists arguing that authority resided in the independent heart of each Christian. It was during this period that Copernicus argued that the earth and other planets orbit the sun, rather than the sun and the planets revolving around the earth. Artist Albrecht Dürer is one example of the spirit of discovery that defined the Renaissance in the north. Dürer was a painter, printer, draftsman, writer and publisher—the very image of a multi-talented Renaissance man.

During the Renaissance, a number of castles were built in northern Europe as an effective means of showing one’s importance. In keeping with the new emphasis on humankind during the Renaissance, secular music, including madrigals, became increasingly popular. Madrigals are vocal pieces composed for a small group of singers, usually with no accompaniment. Michel de Montaigne coined the term “essay” to describe his writings, which are examples of Renaissance individualism grounded in humanitarianism. William Shakespeare is one of the greatest writers in the English language based on his revelation of the human character.

MyHumanitiesKit RESOURCES, CHAPTER FOURTEEN Objectives Flashcards Study Critical Thinking

15

Multiple Choice Interact – Closer Look: Bosch’s Garden of Earthly Delights Dürer’s Adam and Eve Review and Explore Image Links Humanities PPT Glossary Audio Glossary College Art Association Write and Research MySearchLab: www.MySearchLab.com

KEY TERMS

egg tempera triptych polyptych disguised symbolism burin soliloquy

disputation iconoclasm woodcut engraving homophonic texture

Chateau long gallery secular music madrigal Reformation

blank verse iambic pentameter dues ex machina alla prima genre painting

SUGGESTED TEACHING OUTLINE I. THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN NORTHERN EUROPE A.

GHENT AND BRUGES

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Amplify the text’s discussion of the economic situation of Ghent and the role of the Dukes of Burgundy in artistic patronage. Consider expanding the topic to discuss the historical role of wealth in the creation (and appreciation!) of art.

B.

1.

FLEMISH OIL PAINTING R o b e r t Ca m p i n [Fig. 14.1] Mérode Altarpiece, ca. 1426

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: The northern Renaissance use of disguised symbolism and how it is used by Campin.

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: The artistic and religious significance of altarpieces. (Where are they placed? How are they used? etc.)

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Have students compare this Annunciation to other medieval and Renaissance examples in relief sculpture and painting.

2.

Jan van Eyck [Fig. 14.2] Ghent Altarpiece, ca. 1425-32 [Fig. 14.3] Giovanni Arnolfini and His Wife Giovanna Cenami, 1434

> DISCUSSION: Many of Van Eyck’s works were painted for the Dukes of Burgundy, major patrons of the arts during the fifteenth century. Have a class debate regarding funding of the arts. Legislative battles regarding the government’s role in artistic patronage continues. The question is: who will sponsor the arts if the government doesn’t? Many of the country’s great dance companies, symphony orchestras, theater companies, artists, and writers depend on government funds to complete their projects.

16

> DISCUSSION: Invite students to evaluate van Eyck’s portraits of Adam and Eve [Fig. 14.3] as representations of northern Renaissance humanism. What do the paintings imply about the nature of humanity, and the artist’s attitude toward the human form?

Compare to comparable nudes (Donatello, Botticelli, Michelangelo) from the Italian Renaissance.

3.

Hieronymus Bosch [Fig. 14.4] Hay Wain, ca. 1495-1500 (?)

Garden of Earthly Delights, ca. 1505-10

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Examine how Bosch’s triptych Garden of Earthly

Delights foreshadows Salvador Dali and twentieth-century Surrealism. Look at MyHumanitiesKit, Chapter 14, Interact, Closer Look: Bosch’s “Garden of Earthly Delights”.

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Discuss some of the proverbs Bosch’s art illustrates.

II. THE HIGH RENAISSANCE IN NORTHERN EUROPE A. THE HABSBURG PATRONAGE B. ERASMUS AND NORTHERN HUMANISM [Portrait, Fig. 14.9] C. MARTIN LUTHER AND THE REFORMATION [Portrait, Fig. 14.5]

> DISCUSSION: Divide the class according to their religious education—however brief or meager—as Catholic, Protestant, or other (including none). Ask each group to compile a list of their religious beliefs, while specifically directing the Catholic- and Protestant-educated groups to focus on their shared beliefs. After allowing several minutes’ discussion, record on the chalkboard in three columns the beliefs of Catholic, Protestant, and other. Ask students to note the doctrinal differences of Catholic and Protestant, and to relate these differences to the Reformation (authority of the Pope, scriptural basis for belief, etc.). Note the variety of beliefs in the “other” category and compare this variety to the doctrinal uniformity (or lack of it) among Catholics and Protestants. Emphasize that religious belief in contemporary Western societies is still rooted in Reformation disputes.

D. JOHN CALVIN AND THE INSTITUTES OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION

> DISCUSSION: For a discussion of the Protestant ethic, write the following statement on the chalkboard:

If young adults will work hard and save their money now, they can expect to be rewarded with material success in the future.

Instruct students to move to the left side of the classroom if they agree strongly with this statement, to the center if they agree mildly, and to the right if they disagree.

Invite students from each sector to explain the reasons for their agreement or disagreement, recording their reasons on the chalkboard. Compare their beliefs to the “Protestant ethic” of virtuous labor and self-denial. Ask students if they agree that wealth is a reward for labor and sacrifice, and what personal choices they are making now based on their beliefs about labor and wealth.

17

E. ICONOCLASM

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Examine how artists, writers, and composers in the north

turned more and more to secular subjects as the Reformation and iconoclasm took hold.

> DISCUSSION: Iconoclasm came out of the Protestant Reformation during the 16 t

h

century; some Protestant groups still oppose religious images. Ask students if they know anyone whose faith objects to religious images. Discuss some of the possible reasons for such a belief.

> DISCUSSION: Expand on Then and Now, “Iconoclasm and the Attack on the Arts.”

F. THE AGE OF DISCOVERY 1.

Renaissance Explorers 2.

Nicolas Copernicus 3.

The New Scientists

> TEACHING STRATEGY: See Daniel Boorstin’s The Discovers for additional lecture material.

G. PAINTING AND PRINTMAKING

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Introduce northern Renaissance art by having students compare work from the Italian Renaissance with a northern Renaissance work. Chapter One of Joshua Taylor’s Learning to Look: A Handbook for the Visual Arts provides a detailed comparison of Perugino’s The Crucifixion with Saints (central panel) and Crivelli’s The Crucifixion.

1 . A l b r e c ht D ü r e r [Fig. 14.7] Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, 1497-98 [Fig. 14.8] Adam and Eve, 1504

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Examine D ü r e r ’ s w o r k f o r i c o n o g r a p h y , pr i n t i n g

t e c h n i q u e s , e t c . L o o k a t M yH u m an it ies K it , C h a pt e r 1 4 , I n t e r a c t , Cl o s e r L o o k : D ü r e r ’s “ A d a m a n d Ev e ” .

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Compare self-portraits of artists from different cultures, such as those of Dürer and Frida Kahlo.

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: The technique of printmaking.

2 . Hans Holbein the Younger [Fig. 14.6] Henry VIII, ca. 1540 3 . Pieter Bruegel the Elder [Fig. 14.11] Harvesters, 1565 [Fig. 14.12] Peasant Wedding, ca. 1566-67 H. ARCHITECTURE 1.

Château of Chambord [Fig. 14.13] 2.

Hampton Court Palace [14.14] I. SECULAR MUSIC

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Show Giorgione/Titian’s Fête champêtre as documentation of the importance of secular music during the Renaissance. Bring in other pictures of Renaissance music-making.

1. Madrigal s

18

2. T h o m a s W e e l k e s [“Music for the Humanities” CD 6: As Vesta Was From Latmos Hill Descending]

> TEACHING STRATEGY: “Walk students through” the words to As Vesta was from Latmos Hill Descending before listening to it. Emphasize the role of the work to honor Queen Elizabeth I and the significant use of word painting. Explain that the madrigal originated in Italy. Have students list as many ways as they can in which this is a humanist work.

3. Thomas Morley J. LITERATURE 1.

Michel de Montaigne

> DISCUSSION: Ask students to discuss to things: 1) how Montaigne’s essays “exemplify Renaissance individualism”; and 2) the significance of his approach for the future. Is it always good to “speak one’s mind”? Why or why not?

2.

William Shakespeare

ASSESSMENTS Student self-reviews: MyHumanitiesKit, Review and Explore Instructor Test Bank

RESOURCES IMAGES: MyHumanitiesKit, Image links

BOOKS: Aikema, Bernard, ed. Renaissance Venice and the North: Crosscurrents in the Time of Bellini, Dürer, and Titian. New York: Rizzoli, 2000.

Bradley, A.C. Shakespearean Tragedy. Greenwich, CT: 1965.

Brown, H.M. Music in the Renaissance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1976. Cameron, Euan. The European Reformation. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.

Eisenstein, E.L. The Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.

Greenblatt, S. Shakespearean Negotiations: The Circulation of Social Energy in Renaissance England. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.

19

Harbison, Craig. The Mirror of the Artist: Northern Renaissance Art in Its Historical Context. Perspectives. New York: Abrams, 1995.

Landau, David, and Peter Parshall. The Renaissance Print: 1470-1550. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994.

McGrath, A. Reformation Thought: An Introduction. London: Blackwell, 1988. Ozment, S. Protestants: The Birth of a Revolution. 1992.

Tavernor, R. Palladio and Palladianism. World of Art. London: Thames & Hudson, 1991.

Taylor, Joshua C. Learning to Look: A Handbook for the Visual Arts. 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981.

Weber, Max. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. New York: Scribner, 1958.

VIDEOS: Bosch: Dutch Masters. Teacher’s Video Company, 50 minutes.

Bruegel: Dutch Masters. Teacher’s Video Company, 50 minutes.

Day the Universe Changed (4)—Printing Transforms Knowledge. Churchill Films, 56 minutes.

Music in Time (4)—The Golden Age. The age of Elizabeth I and the emergence of opera. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 60 minutes.

Music in Time (5)—Luther and the Reformation. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 60 minutes.

20

15 BAROQUE AGE CHAPTER OVERVIEW BAROQUE IN ITALY Drama and illusion dominate the arts BAROQUE OUTSIDE ITALY Diversity rules the arts and sciences

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, the student should be able to . . . . . . define key terms. . . . define the markers of the Baroque style. . . . discuss the relationship between the Catholic Counter-Reformation and the art of the Baroque. . . . discuss the relationship between Protestantism and the art of the Baroque. . . . identify key works of Baroque art, including visual art, architecture, music, literature, and theatre. . . . explain the relationship between discoveries in science and geography and the arts. . . . outline the important philosophical developments of the age and their influence. . . . discuss the relationship between the Italian Baroque and the development of Baroque art, architecture, music, and literature throughout Europe.

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Compare and contrast the oratorio and opera. Discuss the development of each.

2. Pick a work from the text and explain how it exhibits at least three of the markers of the Baroque style.

3. Discuss the relationship between the Catholic Counter-Reformation and the arts.

4. How were some of the major scientific and geographic discoveries manifested in the arts? Use specific examples.

5. How were John Locke’s ideas revolutionary? In what ways did his ideas differ from those of Thomas Hobbes?

6. Violence is a focus for a lot of Baroque art. What kind of violence is demonstrated, what were some of the reasons for depicting violence, and how does this compare with our own age?

7. How are Protestant ideas exhibited in the arts of this era? Who, in your opinion, presented the most devout view of Protestant ideals? What evidence supports your choice?

8. Note the variations in the architectural designs of Moderno, Bernini, and Borromini. Which architect adheres most to Classical design and which most to Baroque? Which do you find the most interesting? Why? 9. Marital love became a theme of poetry during the Baroque. Which poet - Donne, Bradstreet, or Milton – most interests you? In what ways do they differ? Which is the most expressive of marital love? Why?

21

CHAPTER SUMMARY Generally the term “Baroque” refers to art intended to involve the audience emotionally. The Catholic Church supported baroque style art during the Counter-Reformation. The Council of Trent decided to use Baroque art to counter the Protestant threat. Baroque art was designed to counter the ultra-refined and highly stylized paintings of the Mannerist period. Work continued on St. Peter’s Basilica, with Carlos Maderno heading the project. When Gianlorenzo Bernini took over, he added a colonnade to the design. Caravaggio was a great religious painter whose work established one of the two major directions of painting in the Baroque age. His works represent the emotional and dramatic side of Baroque. The other approach, typified by Annibale Carracci, was more academic and intellectual rather than emotional, with action carefully controlled. The Baroque era produced a new musical form known as opera, which is essentially a stage work sung to the accompaniment of an orchestra. One of the most prolific Baroque composers was Antonio Vivaldi, whose most popular work is The Four Seasons.

Despite its dependency on Rome, Baroque art thrived outside Italy. In Holland, merchants and tradespeople collected art by Baroque Dutch painters such as Pieter De Hooch, Frans Hals, Judith Leyster, and Rembrandt van Rijn. All of these painters were notable for their distinct use of lighting to create atmosphere. Jan Vermeer used light to inform the observer that every object of vision has been observed and recorded. Peter Paul Rubens, born in Germany, established himself as an artist in Antwerp. Known for his rich, lush style, he earned an international reputation through commissioned works he did for the royal courts of Europe.

Rubens’ assistant, Anthony Van Dyck, was the greatest portrait painter of the age. Diego Velazquez, royal painter for Philip IV of Spain, was linked to the Baroque artists by his feelings for space and light. The reign of King Louis XIV saw Paris become increasingly the center of the Western art world. Using his Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture, Louis defined absolute standards by which to judge the art of the period. The Academy was divided by a debate about whether line or color is superior in art. Louis XIV approved a facade for the new east wing of the Louvre which banished all vestiges of Baroque sensuality in favor of a strict and linear classical line. He then turned his attention to the Palace of Versailles, the seat of government in France.

In England, Sir Christopher Wren rebuilt St. Paul’s cathedral in 1675-1710. Late in the Baroque age, Italian opera began to go out of style. German composer George Frederick Handel turned from operas to oratorios, sacred operas sung without costume or acting. Handel’s most famous oratorio is his Messiah. The other great Baroque composer was Johann Sebastian Bach, the grand master of the Baroque style and composer of many complicated fugues. The almost mathematical precision of Bach’s fugues and the keen observation demonstrated in Vermeer’s paintings reflect the scientific spirit of the Baroque Age. Francis Bacon’s development of the principles of the scientific method, with its emphasis on careful observation, was echoed throughout the Baroque. In Holland, Anton Van Leeuwenhoek developed a powerful microscope, while Galileo Galilei was the first to develop the telescope and use it to observe the heavens. René Descartes did for modern philosophy what Bacon had done for science. Thomas Hobbes developed the notion of the social contract as an alternative to anarchy, while John Locke had more faith in people’s ability to govern themselves. Baroque writers displayed an uncommon interest in exploring the mysteries of love and exploring their relationship to God. John Donne is considered among the finest poets of any age, while John Milton’s poems reflected his own blend of Puritan theology and classical humanism. Miguel de Cervantes wrote the greatest of all picaresque novels, Don Quixote, which, for the first time in Western literature, explored the conflict between reality and the imagination.

MyHumanitiesKit RESOURCES, CHAPTER FIFTEEN Objectives Flashcards Study

22

Critical Thinking Multiple Choice Interact – Closer Look: Velásquez: Las Meninas Christopher Wren, Saint Paul’s Cathedral Review and Explore Image Links Humanities PPT Glossary Audio Glossary College Art Association Write and Research MySearchLab: www.MySearchLab.com

KEY TERMS Baroque Opera poussinistes/rubénistes social contract Counter Reformation recitative oratorio proscenium arch

oratories concerto grosso aria unities portico ritornello fugue picaresque

obelisk etching counterpoint picaresque tenebrism camera obscura cantata

SUGGESTED TEACHING OUTLINE

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Since the Baroque was such an important age for the arts, there is an embarrassment of riches. If time is a concern, note that I have indicated what I feel are the most significant works with an asterisk.

> TEACHING STRATEGY: I have followed the text’s suggestion of treating the material in terms of “Italy” and “Outside Italy.” An alternative, and equally useful, approach is to divide the material into “Art for the Church,” “Art for the Aristocracy,” and “Art for the Middle Class.”

I. BACKGROUND

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Since I like to emphasize the arts as an expression of ideas, I provide religious, economic, political, scientific, and philosophical information first, so students can interpret the art through the lens of the culture.

A.

DATES: 1600-1750

B.

POLITICS

C.

ECONOMICS

D. 1.

2.

3.

SCIENCE Anton van Leeuwenhoek Jo ha n n e s K e pl e r G al il eo Gal il ei

23

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Assign students to compose an example in response to the questions below:

What is a problem or question that you believe science can solve eventually? What is a question that can never be solved by scientific inquiry or discovery?

Divide the class into groups and instruct them, first, to compile a composite list, and, second, to discuss the reasons that science can and cannot solve their questions. Record a sampling of both kinds of questions on the chalkboard. Focus students’ discussion on the characteristics of problems that are or are not susceptible to scientific solution.

Compare these characteristics to the problems solved by modern science in the Scientific Revolution. Emphasize the roots of contemporary science in the attitude and method of Newton, Galileo, and other originators of modern science.

E. PHILOSOPHY

1 . R e n é D es ca rt es 2. T h o m a s H o b b e s

> DISCUSSION: Taking the government of the U.S. as a model, ask students to enumerate the actions that a president should be empowered to take without consulting the legislature. Encourage them to imagine emergencies during which the latitude for unilateral action might increase. Ask students to rationalize these powers of executive authority and compare their rationales to the principles of absolutism in the seventeenth century. Punctuate the discussion by reading a pertinent excerpt from Thomas Hobbes’ Leviathan.

3. John Locke F. RELIGION

1. Reformation 2. Counter-Reformation a.

Council of Trent

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Point out the affirmations made by the Council of Trent that affected the arts: importance of the arts in worship, the role of the Virgin Mary, the efficacy of saints and their relics. You might also mention that the Council’s recommendations for religious art to be directed toward clarity, realism, and emotion were designed to counter the ultra-refined and highly stylized paintings of the Mannerist period. b.

Orat orios

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Examine the importance of music in the religious devotions of the Oratorians, especially vocal music. The composer who was most important for them was Palestrina, whose Laudes were easy to sing. It would be interesting to discuss how their music dramas were the forerunners of the oratorios written by Handel. c.

The Jesuits

3. Geographic distribution of Catholics and Protestants

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Examine the numerous works in painting, music, sculpture, architecture, and literature that honored Philip Neri, Teresa of Avila, and Ignatius of Loyola following their canonization as Catholic saints in 1622. What was depicted in the works? What does the art convey?

24

> DISCUSSION: In light of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation’s attempts to censor art, invite students to draw up a set of rules for deciding which baroque works should be accessible to young children. Focus discussion on people’s justifiable fears that art can confuse and influence young people.

II. THE BAROQUE IN ITALY A. ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE IN ROME 1. St. Peter’s Basilica

[Fig. 15.1]

> LECTURE TOPIC: How the design of St. Peter’s was modified, and the reasons for such revisions as different architects (Michelangelo, Maderno, and Bernini) were commissioned by different popes.

1. Gianlorenzo Bernini [Fig. 15.3] Plan of St. Peter’s, Rome [Fig. 15.4] David, 1623 [Fig. 15.5] Ecstacy of St. Theresa, 1645-52 2. Francesco Borromini [Fig. 15.6] San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, 1638-67 B. PAINTING IN ITALY 1.

Caravaggio [Fig. 15.7] Calling of St. Matthew, ca. 159-1602 Entombment, 1603 2.

Artemisia Gentileschi [Fig. 15.8] Judith Slaying Holofernes, ca. 1620 3.

Fra A ndrea Pozzo [Fig. 15.11] Triumph of St. Ignatius of Loyola, 1691-94

> DISCUSSION: Choose several examples of Spanish and Italian Baroque art, and discuss their attempts to appeal to religious emotions. Have students analyze and compare these works in terms of subject, medium, and technique. Compare these works to modern means of arousing fervor, such as television evangelism and forms of religious worship.

C. MUSIC IN ITALY 1. Claudio Monteverdi and Early Opera

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Present the goals of the Florentine Camerata that led to the development of opera. (It is interesting to note that Galileo’s father was an active member of the group.) Explain the influence of ancient Greek theater on the development of opera, and consider showing a video of an excerpt of Orfeo.

2. Antonio Vivaldi and the Concerto Grosso

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Play the first movement of “Spring” from The Four Seasons, after explaining what a concerto grosso is, reading the accompanying sonnet, and defining program music.

III. THE BAROQUE OUTSIDE ITALY A. PAINTING IN HOLLAND 1.

Frans Hals [Fig. 15.12] Jolly Toper, ca. 1628-30 2.

Judith Leyster [Fig. 15.13] Boy Playing a Flute, 1630-35

25

3.

Rembrandt van Rijn [Fig. 15.14] The Night Watch (Captain Frans Banning Cocq Mustering His Company), 1642 [Fig. 15.15] Self-Portrait, 1669

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Show several of Rembrandt’s self-portraits (in chronological order) as you give an overview of his life.

4.

5.

Jan Vermeer [Fig. 15.16] Young Woman with a Water Pitcher, ca. 1664-65 Rachel Ruysch [Fig.15.17] Roses, Convolulus, Poppies, and Other Flowers in an Urn on a Stone Lodge, ca. 1745

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Compare Rembrandt’s psychological use of light with Vermeer’s more literal use of light.

> DISCUSSION: If students have read or seen The Girl with the Pearl Earring, lead a discussion regarding what we know of Vermeer’s life and Dutch culture at the time, as well as considering the sometimes fine line between historical fact and Hollywood fiction.

(Amadeus could be discussed in the same way with regards to Mozart.)

B. PAINTING IN THE ROYAL COLLECTIONS 1. Peter Paul Rubens [Fig. 15.18] Marie de’ Medici, Queen of France, Landing in Marseilles, 1622-25 [Fig. 15.19] The Garden of Love, ca. 1638

> TEACHING STRATEGY: There is an excellent, in-depth discussion of this work in Rose-Marie and Rainer Hagen’s What Great Paintings Say. 2. A nt hony van Dyck [Fig. 15.20] Portrait of Charles I at the Hunt, 1635 3. Di e g o Vel áz qu e z [Fig. 15.23] Maids of Honor (Las Meninas), 1656

> TEACHING STRATEGY: In addition to giving us an excellent examplar of Baroque court life, this work provides different types of portraiture (self-portrait, double portrait, group portrait, individual portrait), an innovative treatment of space (for the use of a mirror, relate to van Eyck’s Arnolfini Portrait), and a statement regarding the increased status of the artist. See MyHumanitiesKit, Chapter 15, Interact, Closer Look: Velásquez: “Las Meninas”.

4. N i c o l a s P o u s s i n [Fig. 15.24] Rape of the Sabine Women, ca. 1636-37

> DISCUSSION: Discuss the images of violence in baroque art, especially works by Gentileschi, Rubens, and Poussin. Ask students to analyze the evidence that these images provide about the roles of men and women, and the attitudes of artists and their patrons.

5. The French Academy

> TEACHING STRATEGY: With slides by Rubens and Poussin, illustrate the two directions of the baroque in France: the dynamic and exuberant baroque style of Rubens and the neoclassical baroque style of Poussin. Have students describe the pictorial examples, while you record their analysis on the chalkboard.

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Mention the hold the Academy gained over the arts, and foreshadow artists’ break from the Academy in the nineteenth century.

C. ARCHITECTURE

26

1. The Louvre [Fig. 15.26] 2.

The Palace of Versailles [Fig. 15.27] Hall of Mirrors, ca. 1680

> DISCUSSION: Have students identify the two trends of the Baroque (as noted in the “Teaching Strategy” above) as they are synthesized at Versailles. What might have been the purpose of this synthesis?

3.

Facade, St. Paul’s Cathedral [Fig. 15.28], Sir Christopher Wren, 1675-1710.

Look at MyHumanitiesKit, Chapter 15, Interact, Closer Look: Christopher Wren, “Saint Paul’s Cathedral”.

D. BAROQUE MUSIC OUTSIDE ITALY

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Explain that it was during the Baroque that composers began to consciously write using the major-minor key system instead of the modes.

(Demonstrate both at the piano.) Make an analogy between the major-minor key system of Western music and Renaissance linear perspective. Demonstrate to students that both are conventions so ingrained that any other system seems unnatural. Play recordings and show slides of paintings and drawings from artistic traditions that are not governed by these systems: Indian ragas, for example, or Chinese landscapes.

Invite student comments on their responses to these works from the global culture.

1.

Handel and the Oratorio

2.

Johann Sebastian Bach

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Consider showing a documentary on the life of either Handel or Bach.

E. LITERATURE

1.

Molière and the Baroque Stage

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Molière’s plays are enriching in and of themselves, but they also provide an opportunity for interdisciplinary study. Link his theatrical works to the milieu and architecture of Versailles, as well as the music of Lully.

2.

3.

4.

5.

John Donne A n n e Br ad st r eet John Milton Miguel de Cervantes

ASSESSMENTS Student self-reviews: MyHumanitiesKit, Review and Explore Instructor Test Bank

RESOURCES

27

IMAGES: MyHumanitiesKit, Image links

BOOKS: Alpers, Svetlana. The Making of Rubens. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998. Bazin, G. The Baroque: Principles, Styles, Themes. New York: Norton, 1978.

Biagioli, Mario. Galileo, Courtier: The Practice of Science in the Culture of Absolutism.

Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993.

Boucher, Bruce. Italian Baroque Sculpture. World of Art. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1998.

Boyd, Malcolm. Bach. London: J.M. Dent, 1983.

Brown, J. The Golden Age of Painting in Spain. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991.

Garrard, M.D. Artemisia Gentileschi: The Image of the Female Hero in Italian Baroque Art. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991.

Hagen, Rose-Marie and Rainer. Trans. Iain Galbraith. What Great Paintings Say: Old Masters in Detail. Volume I. Cologne: Taschen, 1995.

Landon, H.C. Robbbins. Handel and His World. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1984. Minor, Vernon Hyde. Baroque and Rococo: Art and Culture. New York: Abrams, 1999.

Montclos, J-M. Versailles. New York: Abbeville, 1991.

Montias, J.M., Vermeer and his Milieu. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989.

Munck, T. Seventeenth Century Europe: State, Conflict, and the Social Order in Europe, 15981700. New York: St. Martin’s, 1990.

Olson, Todd. Poussin and France: Painting, Humanism, and the Politics of Style. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002.

Slive, Seymour. Dutch Painting 1600-1800. Pelican History of Art. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995.

Welu, James A., and Pieter Biesboer, ed. Judith Leyster: A Dutch Master and Her World. New York: Yale University Press, 1993.

Westerman, Mariët. Art and Home: Dutch Interiors in the Age of Rembrandt. Denver: Denver Art Museum; Netherlands, Waanders, 2001.

VIDEOS: Art of the Western World (5)—Realms of Light—The Baroque: (I) The Baroque in Italy and Austria and (II) The Baroque in Spain and the Netherlands. ABC-CLIO, Inc., 30 minutes each.

The Birth and Life of Opera. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 52 minutes. Caravaggio.

Academic and Entertainment Video, 28 minutes.

28

A Change of Key. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 25 minutes.

Monteverdi’s ‘Orfeo.’ Monteverdi Ensemble of the Zurich Opera House, conducted by Nikolaus Harnoncourt. PolyGram Video, 101 minutes.

Music in Time (6): The Advent of Fashion. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 60 minutes.

Rembrandt’s Self-Portraits. Palettes Series. Britannica College Video, 30 minutes.

Reputation: The Rape of Artemisia Gentileschi. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 30 minutes.

29

16 EIGHTEENTH CENTURY CHAPTER OVERVIEW ENLIGHTENMENT The philosophers enlighten the world REVOLUTION Politics, philosophy, industry, and science change the world ROCOCO Romance and luxury permeate the arts LITERATURE OF RATIONALISM VOLTAIRE’S PHILOSOPHY OF CYNICISM NEOCLASSICISM Clarity, balance, and antiquity dictate the arts TOWARD ROMANTICISM Restraint of expression begins to crumble

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, the student should be able to . . . . . . define key terms. . . . identify works in the visual arts, music, literature, and theatre. . . . discuss the relationship of the arts to the interests of the aristocracy and to the themes of classical revival and philosophical ideals. . . . explain the influence of the Enlightenment philosophers on the American and French Revolutions. . . . describe the relationship between the arts in Europe and in America.

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Compare and contrast the revival of classicism in the Renaissance to the revival of classicism in the Neoclassical Era. 2. What were the causes and results of the French Revolution? What were its stages?

3. How were arts used to further the interests of the aristocracy during the Rococo? How were the arts used to promote the interests of the Enlightenment?

4. Discuss the influence of John Locke’s and Montesquieu’s ideas on Thomas Jefferson.

5. How did specific artists and authors use irony and sarcasm in reference to various subjects?

30

6. Outline the development of Classical music. What were some of the major changes as compared to previous eras?

7. Discuss the increased influence of the arts and literature on society in general. What developments occur?

CHAPTER SUMMARY At the beginning of the eighteenth century, Louis XIV had firm control of France. By the end of the century, the French monarchy had fallen from its lofty place. The eighteenth century has been called the “Age of Reason” because of the dominance of the intellectual revolution called the Enlightenment, which emphasized the power of reason instead of religious faith. Enlightenment thinkers believed that through reason, humankind could achieve a perfect society. Rational humanists believed that progress is possible only through individual freedom. In 1759, Josiah Wedgwood opened his own pottery manufacturing plant, mass manufacturing started, and the “Industrial Revolution” began. In 1776, Adam Smith’s writings provided validation for the free market system. Isaac Newton’s discovery of gravity prompted a scientific revolution, with scientists exploring the natural world as never before.

Uncaring self-aggrandizement marked the Rococo period in eighteenth century France.

Associated with the reign of Louis XV, Rococo artists favored abundant extravagance. Rococo was seen as the embodiment of the decadence of the aristocracy. In Paris townhouses, hostesses oversaw weekly salons, social gatherings of notable people. The great painters of the Parisian Rococo were Watteau, Boucher, and Fragonard. The French Rococo influenced English painters such as William Hogarth. Thomas Gainsborough became the most fashionable portraitist in Britain, displaying a technical virtuosity typical of the Rococo style. During the eighteenth century, European authors reflected the rationalism of the Enlightenment, and the emphasis on reason occurred across the genres. Famous authors included Jonathan Swift, who wrote the satirical prose work Gulliver’s Travels, and Voltaire, whose best-known work, Candide, is a scathing indictment of the notion of a benevolent God. The executions of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette represented the death of the monarchy and the century’s growing belief in the equality of all. The American Declaration of Independence, authored by Thomas Jefferson, was watched closely by the French. On July 14, 1789, a volunteer militia went to the Bastille prison in Paris in search of arms. Guards fired on the militia, killing almost one hundred men. An angry mob formed and stormed the Bastille. One month later, the National Assembly ratified its Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, and a constitutional monarchy was established. But there was no peace. In 1792, the monarchy was abolished and Louis XVI was executed shortly thereafter, only to be replaced by Maximilian de Robespierre, who led the Reign of Terror. In 1799 Napoleon Bonaparte came to power and effectively restored the monarchy. His system of laws, the Napoleonic Code, is one of the great monuments to Enlightenment thought.

In the 1740s, Neoclassicism, which marked a return to ancient classical ideals, replaced the Rococo style almost overnight. One Neoclassical painter who gained fame many years later was Jacques-Louis David, whose art quickly became associated with the Revolution. In contrast to Rococo frivolity, Neoclassical art was intended to serve a public role in encouraging virtue.

One of France’s greatest sculptors of the period was Jean-Antoine Houdon, who spent four years sculpting a statue of George Washington. Neoclassical architecture emphasizes strength and symmetry, while Baroque architecture stresses emotion and drama. One of the most famous American Neoclassical homes is Thomas Jefferson’s Monticello. The contemporary novel was born in the eighteenth century, brought to life by people such as Jane Austen and Daniel Defoe. The Classical style of music was exemplified by Franz Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.

Beethoven and his music represent a tension between the Classical style and the Romantic tendencies. Beethoven’s music can be divided into three periods, each representing

31

differences in stylistic development. By the late eighteenth century, many people, including Thomas Jefferson, had come to believe that landscape gardening was one of the highest arts.

MyHumanitiesKit RESOURCES, CHAPTER SIXTEEN Objectives Flashcards Study

Critical Thinking Multiple Choice Review and Explore Image Links Humanities PPT Glossary Audio Glossary College Art Association Write and Research MySearchLab: www.MySearchLab.com

KEY TERMS Enlightenment Rococo Napoleonic Code Rondo Philosophes fêtes galantes Neoclassicism minuet and trio

rational humanism hôtels novel requiem revolution salons s ymphony Romantic

Industrial Revolution Mock epic still life theme and variations sonata Encyclopedie

SUGGESTED TEACHING OUTLINE

> TEACHING STRATEGY: If time is a concern, note that I have indicated the most significant visual works with an asterisk.

I. ENLIGHTENMENT AND REVOLUTION A. THE ENLIGHTENMENT 1.

The phil os o phe s 2.

Rational humanism B. THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Wedgwood pottery > ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Josiah Wedgwood’s Fight Against Slavery 1. Adam Smith C. THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION 1.

Isaac Newton

32

2.

Denis Diderot and Carolus Linnaeus

II. THE ROCOCO

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Explain the circumstances through which the Baroque style evolved into the Rococo (death of Louis XIV, nobility returned to Paris, etc.). List the characteristics of Rococo art, highlighting its relationship to the Baroque.

A. THE FRENCH ROCOCO 1. Interior Design [Fig. 16.6] Salon de la Princesse, Hôtel de Soubise, Paris, ca. 1737-8

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Have students compare the artistic characteristics of the Salon de la Princesse with those of the Hall of Mirrors [Fig. 15.29].

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Witty conversation during the Rococo. > ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Women as hostesses and often sources of power during the Rococo.

2. Painting a. Jean-Antoine Watteau [Fig. 16.1] Pilgrimage to Cythera, 1717 b. Fr a nc ois Bo uc he r [Fig. 16.2] Bath of Diana, 1742 c. Jean-Honore Fragonard [Fig. 16.3] The Meeting, 1771-73 d. Marie-Louise-Elisabeth Vigée Lebrun [Fig. 16.4] The Artist and Her Daughter, ca. 1785

> DISCUSSION: Discuss the role of women in eighteenth-century art, comparing such erotic frivolities and Boucher’s Bath of Diana with Vigee-Lebrun’s more chaste selfportrait with her daughter. Read passages from Richardson’s Pamela. Compare the erotic rococo style to the sexually explicit works of popular culture current today, especially television and films.

> DISCUSSION: Invite students to analyze the messages regarding women and sexuality provided by such works.

3. Music (Couperin and Rameau) B. ENGLISH PAINTING 1.

W il l ia m H o g art h [Fig. 16.7] The Marriage Contract, scene I from Marriage à la Mode, 744

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Discuss the influence of the French Rococo on English painting as evidenced in the work of William Hogarth.

2.

3.

Sir Joshua Reynolds [Fig. 16.9] Lady Elizabeth Delmé and Her Children, 1777-80 Thomas Gainsborough [Fig. 16.10] Mary, Countess Howe, 1765

C. LITERATURE 1. Samuel Johnson’s “Club” 2. A l ex a n d er P o pe

33

3. J o n a t h a n S w i f t

> STUDENT ASSIGNMENT FOR DISCUSSION: To help students understand the emphasis on reason in literature across the genres, assign students to read one literary work (essay, fiction, poetry, drama) that reflects the rationalism of the Enlightenment.

Then in class, compare how various writers employed irony and sarcasm with regard to various subjects. Possible works to read include the prose of Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Paine, novels by Daniel Defoe and Jonathan Swift, and the poetry of Alexander Pope.

D. VOLTAIRE’S PHILOSOPHY OF CYNICISM III. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Compare the great political revolutions in America and France, including comparison of the political documents of each (Declaration of Independence, Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen). How did the American Revolution influence the French?

A.

THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY

B.

THE DEMISE OF THE MONARCHY

C.

NAPOLEON BONAPARTE

IV. NEOCLASSICISM A. PAINTING 1. Jacques-Louis David [Fig. 16.11] Oath of the Horatii, 1785 2. Angelica Kauffmann [Fig. 16.12] Cornelia Pointing to Her Children as Her Treasures, 1785 3. John Singleton Copley [Fig. 16.13] Watson and the Shark, 1778

> TEACHING STRATEGY TO SUMMARIZE STYLES: Choose an example of painting in the rococo, bourgeois (such as Chardin), and neoclassical styles. Have students analyze or speculate on the audience to which each style would have appealed. For comparison, select three different examples of popular music, films, or television programs. Again, have students analyze the audience to whom these works of popular culture appeal. Invite a discussion of the interaction between artistic style and appeal to specific audiences.

B. SCULPTURE [Fig. 16.14] Houdon, George Washington, 1788-92 C. ARCHITECTURE 1 . C h i s w i c k H o u s e [Fig. 16.15] 2 . La Madeleine [Fig. 16.16] 3 . Monticello [Fig. 16.17]

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Have students compare the English country garden with the French Baroque garden.

D. LITERATURE 1 . The n o v el 2.

Jane Austen

34

> TEACHING STRATEGY: The BBC production of Pride and Prejudice (available from A&E Home Video) is excellent.

E. CLASSICAL MUSIC 1. The symphony 2. Franz Joseph Haydn 3. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

> TEACHING STRATEGY: The first movement of Symphony No. 40 is excellent for teaching sonata form. Introduce students to the musical themes by playing them on the piano, and then “walk them through” the sonata form before listening. Point out (or label on PowerPoint) the portions of the form as they are heard. It helps to liken sonata form to a drama, in which the characters are introduced, things happen to them, and the situation is resolved.

> VIDEO: The A&E documentary of Mozart provides an excellent introduction to the composer’s life and works.

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Summarize the plot of Mozart’s Marriage of Figaro or Don Giovanni and show a video excerpt. Invite students to speculate on the feelings the characters might be having in these dramatic situations. Based on students’ responses, point out the musical features that reflect these psychological meanings. Ask students to consider what kinds of stories from today’s popular culture employ these themes— sexual jealousy and infidelity, the compulsion for sexual conquest, the arrogance of the wealthy, casual cruelty and righteous revenge.

> TEACHING STRATEGY: If possible, play on the piano (or have a student or faculty member play) the first page of a Mozart rondo (such as K. 485) and the first page of a rondo by a lesser-known composer, such as Dussek (such as his Op. 20, No. 1). Before playing, simply tell the students that one is by Mozart and the other is by a composer whose name they have probably never heard. After they have listened to the excerpts, ask them to indicate by a show of hands which of the works is by Mozart. You will probably be amazed that almost everyone gets the correct answer. Then discuss what influenced their choice.

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Show a relevant clip from the BBC production of Pride and Prejudice to illustrate the importance of music as a skill for women during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, as well as to highlight the role of home music-making during the era.

V. TOWARD ROMANTICISM A. BEETHOVEN: FROM CLASSIC TO ROMANTIC 1. The three periods of Beethoven’s music 2. Symphony No. 5 in c minor

> VIDEO: A&E’s Beethoven: The Sound and the Fury provides an excellent introduction to the composer’s life and music.

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: At the end of the A&E video on Beethoven, the book Beethoven’s Hair is mentioned as forthcoming. It is now available, and provides not only a quite readable overview of Beethoven’s life but also traces a lock of Beethoven’s hair from his deathbed to Denmark during Nazi Germany, and ultimately to the United States for DNA testing. The results shed insight into what might have caused Beethoven’s death.

35

ASSESSMENTS Student self-reviews: MyHumanitiesKit, Review and Explore Instructor Test Bank

RESOURCES IMAGES: MyHumanitiesKit, Image links

BOOKS: Anderson, M.S. Europe in the Eighteenth Century, 1713-1789. 3rd ed. New York: Longman, 2000.

Ayer, A.J. Voltaire. New York Random House, 1986.

Brookner, A. Jacques-Louis David. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1980.

Crow, Thomas. Painter and Public Life in Eighteenth-Century Paris. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985. Downs, P. Classical Music: The Era of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. New York: Norton, 1992.

Gay, P. The Enlightenment: An Interpretation. 2 vols. New York: Knopf, 1966, 1969. ________ . Voltaire’s Politics: The Poet as Realist. 2nd ed. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988.

Heartz, D. Mozart’s Operas. Ed. T. Baumann. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.

Honour, H. Neo-Classicism. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977.

Jarrett, D. England in the Age of Hogarth. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986.

Jones, S. The Eighteenth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985.

Levey, Michael. Painting and Sculpture in France, 1700-1789. 1993.

Martin, Russell. Beethoven’s Hair: An Extraordinary Historical Odyssey and a Scientific Mystery Solved. New York: Broadway Books, 2000.

Spencer, Samia. French Women and the Age of Enlightenment. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984. Yolton, J., and others. The Blackwell Companion to the Enlightenment. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1992.

VIDEOS: Amadeus. HBO Home Video, 3 hours.

36

Art of the Western World (6)—An Age of Reason, An Age of Passion: (I) An Age of Reason and (II) An Age of Passion. ABC-CLIO, Inc., 30 minutes each.

Beethoven: The Sound and the Fury. A&E, 50 minutes.

Moliere’s ‘Tartuffe.’ Films for the Humanities and Sciences, two hours. Mozart. A&E, 50 minutes.

Pride and Prejudice. BBC (distributed by A&E Home Video), six hours.

37

17 ROMANTICISM AND REALISM CHAPTER OVERVIEW ROMANTICISM The imagination runs wild REALISM The European sociopolitical scene turns the arts to everyday life

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, the student should be able to . . . . . . define key terms. . . . outline the stylistic markers of Romanticism and Realism. . . . identify Romantic and Realistic works of visual art, music, literature, and theatre. . . . trace the changing role of the artist in society. . . . outline the effects of changes in patronage on the arts. . . . explain the influence of politics and philosophy on the arts. . . . discuss the effects of political and societal upheavals on the arts. . . . trace the development of photography and explain its influence on the arts.

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Compare and contrast the stylistic markers of Romanticism and Realism. Choose one marker from one of the styles and demonstrate how it appears across the board in the visual arts, literature, music, and theatre.

2. How does the role of the artist/composer change during this time? How does patronage affect the artist and the arts?

3. How did visual artists feel about photography? Why? 4. How was society changing during this era? How did these events affect the arts?

5. Discuss the idea that the Romantic era was the time of the “Cult of Genius”. What figures exemplified this cult? What contemporary concepts sprung from their ideas?

6. The view of the mind, perception, and cognition changes during this time. Who were some of the thinkers who brought forth these changes and what were their ideas? Trace these ideas back to earlier philosophers and intellectuals.

7. Discuss the idea of the “Romantic Hero”. In your opinion, which artist, writer, or composer from the Romantic era best fits that description and why?

8. What were some of the changing ideas about society that developed in the Realist period?

9. Define nationalism. Why did it become a focus for artists, writers, and composers in the Realist era? Who do you think best exemplifies these values in their works?

10. How did Wagner change opera?

CHAPTER SUMMARY By 1800, Neoclassicism was the dominant style in European art and architecture, but Romanticism was beginning to emerge. While classicism was based on logic, rigor, clarity, and

38

exactitude, romanticism stressed inexactitude and indeterminacy. One notable Romantic painter was Francisco Goya, who was the most important chronicler of France’s war with Spain. French painting would oscillate for four decades between the classical and intellectual paintings of artists such as Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres and the romantic and emotional paintings of Delacroix. In the Romantic era, sculpture fell out of favor. Romantics embraced Gothic architecture. JeanJacques Rousseau’s autobiographical Confessions was a celebration of the self and a powerful example of reflective self-analysis. The unity of humanity with nature was a special theme of Ralph Waldo Emerson. Living close to nature was, for Henry David Thoreau, the very source of humankind’s strength. Much nineteenth century literature focused on human ignorance and the search for truth. Examples include Herman Melville’s Moby Dick, in which Captain Ahab is seeking a final truth in the form of a great white whale, and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s Sherlock Holmes, who is always trying to figure out “who done it.” William Blake’s poetry showed him to be a man with a profound interest in human emotions. Probably the most important literary event in the Romantic era was the publication in 1798 of the Lyrical Ballads, co-authored by William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, which rejected the sophisticated syntax and vocabulary of Neoclassical writing. One of the great English Romantic poets was Lord Byron, a free spirit who was known for his unconventional behavior. Emily Bronte’s Wuthering Heights is a fully Romantic work that breaks new ground in the violence of its scenes and the extravagance of its style. Perhaps the most influential writer of the Romantic era was Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe, who witnessed the shift from the Enlightenment emphasis on reason, objectivity, and scientific fact to the Romantic concern for emotion, subjectivity, and imaginative truth. His play Faust has been described as a defining work of European Romanticism. The two outstanding American poets of the nineteenth century were Walt Whitman and Emily Dickinson. Whitman experimented with language and form, while Dickinson’s poems are partly rooted in the metaphysical poetry of John Donne. While innovative Romantic composer Hector Berlioz wrote mostly in large forms, Frederic Chopin wrote in small ones. Where Berlioz wrote for orchestra, Chopin wrote mostly for the piano.

Italy’s greatest Romantic composer was Giuseppe Verdi, composer of Rigoletto. As Beethoven dominated the musical world for the first half of the nineteenth century, Richard Wagner dominated the second half.

In Realist art and literature, the aim was to tell the truth about the realities of modern life, especially the lives of the working class. According to Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, the working class had no effective political voice other than revolution and were alienated from their labor by an increasingly mechanized industrial system. In 1848, as they were writing The Communist Manifesto, Europe was undergoing an unprecedented economic decline.

Revolution quickly followed in France, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Poland and Italy. One of the first truly successful painters of the working class was Rosa Bonheur, who celebrated the French peasant. The other great Realist of the day was Gustave Courbet, who refused to idealize working life. Photography was invented in 1839 and literally changed the way we see the world. The American Civil War was the first war to be documented by photography. Mathew Brady was the best-known war photographer. While France and the rest of Europe were locked in class struggle, Americans were immersed in the Civil War. It was the Civil War that gave the impetus to American realism. By 1850, new technological achievements offered architects and sculptors new possibilities. The Crystal Palace in London, which extended the idea of a glassframed greenhouse, was built for the Great Exhibition of 1851. The Statue of Liberty was designed in 1875 by Frederic-Auguste Bartholdi and given to the United States by France.

Realist writers such as Honoré de Balzac aimed to represent contemporary life with precision and objectivity. The Realist novel that represented the most thorough attack on the Romantic sensibility was Madame Bovary by Gustave Flaubert. Important Realist novelists of the time included Charles Dickens, Anthony Trollope, and George Eliot. The interest in precision was shared by the Realist scientists such as Louis Pasteur and Charles Darwin, the latter famous for his theory of evolution.

MyHumanitiesKit RESOURCES, CHAPTER SEVENTEEN 39

Objectives Flashcards Study Critical Thinking Multiple Choice Interact – Closer Look: William Blake, “The Chimney Sweeper” and “The Little Black Boy” Gustave Courbet: A Burial at Ornans Review and Explore Image Links Humanities PPT Glossary Audio Glossary College Art Association Write and Research MySearchLab: www.MySearchLab.com

KEY TERMS Romanticism Absolute music waltz daguerreotype Atelier etudes program music polonaise

pasteurizaton prelude originality Idée fixe mazurka evolution Lied odalisque song cycles

leitmotif natural selection nocturnes piano phenomena/noumena anti-Classical Realism Sturm und Drang

SUGGESTED TEACHING OUTLINE I. ROMANTICISM A. BACKGROUND 1 . Li st e n i n g

> TEACHING STRATEGY: I find it very useful to introduce the Romantic era with Schubert’s Lied “The Erlking” [“Music for the Humanities” CD track 17 is a Liszt transcription; find a vocal version]. Read Goethe’s poem (see Connections, “Goethe and Schubert: Poetry and Song”), explaining the role of the narrator, father, son, and Erlking. After playing it, explain to students that this work contains many of the features of Romanticism: emotion, death, violence, wildness of nature, bizarre/macabre, supernatural, ability to “pull in” the audience, and the interdisciplinary spirit (both in combining literature and music and in its ability to encourage the listener to “see” the Erlking, wind in the trees, etc.).

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Consider also using Friedrich’s The Wanderer Above the Mists [Fig. 17.1] as part of your introduction to the era. Invite students to brainstorm a list of things they observe about this work, particularly how it makes them feel.

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Review the structure of sonata form and play the first movement of Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony [CD track 14], contrasting it with Mozart’s Symphony No. 40 in G Minor, movement one. [CD track 13]. Ask students in what ways Beethoven’s

40

pieces might be judged as “heroic.” Use the two pieces to compare the sensibilities of eighteenth-century and romantic music.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Religion Politics Economics Science (note: Pasteur and Darwin are included later in the chapter) Philosophy a. Jean-Jacques Rousseau and the Concept of Self b. Hegel and Historical Change c. Ralph Waldo Emerson and Transcendentalism d. Henry David Thoreau

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Before proceeding, summarize the characteristics of romanticism, particularly stressing the role of emotion.

> DISCUSSION: The Romantic Era is often referred to as the time of the “Cult of Genius,” as exemplified by figures such as Napoleon, Beethoven, and Goethe. Divide the students into two groups according to whether or not they agree or disagree with this statement: Individual genius must receive special attention for society to thrive.

Ask each group to brainstorm the public or educational policies that follow from their opinion (special classes for gifted students, genius grants sponsored by the government, tax credits for entrepreneurial geniuses, etc.). Apply the groups’ insights to the geniuses of the nineteenth century.

B. PAINTING 1. Francisco Goya [Fig. 17.1] The Third of May, 1808 (1814-15) 2 . Théodore Géricault [Fig. 17.2] Raft of the Medusa, 1818-19 3 . Eugène Del acroix [Fig. 17.3] Liberty Leading the People, 1830 [Fig. 17.5] Odalisque, 1845-50 4 . Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres [Fig. 17.4] La Grande Odalisque, 1814

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Highlight the classic as well as the romantic elements in this work.

5. John Constable [Fig. 17.6] The Haywain, 1821 6 . J.M.W. Turner [Fig. 17.7] The Slave Ship, 1840 7. Thomas Moran [Fig. 17.8] Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone, 1821

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Explain how the sentiments about nature expressed by the Romantic painters in Europe were quickly adopted in the United States, where people lived in closer communion with nature than in Europe.

> DISCUSSION: Discuss the romantic view of nature. Invite students to discuss the ways in which romantics’ view of nature is “romanticized.” Make analogies to contemporary views of nature and the environmental movement.

C. SCULPTURE

41

[Fig. 17.9] Rude: La Marseillaise, 1833-36 D. GOTHIC REVIVAL ARCHITECTURE 1. Houses of Parliament [Fig. 17.10], 1836-60 2. Paris Opera [Fig. 17.11]

> TEACHING STRATEGY: The Gothic Revival style follows on the heels of the Greek Revival. What are the pros and cons of such borrowing? Ask students to find examples of Gothic or Greek revival architecture on your campus or in the community. Ask them to explain the reasons that architects and their patrons seek to recreate or to fantasize about the medieval or antique past.E. E. LITERATURE 1 . W i l l i a m Bl a k e [Fig. 17.13] Frontispiece to Europe: A Prophecy

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Look at MyHumanitiesKit, Chapter 17, Interact, Closer Look: William Blake, “The Chimney Sweeper” and “The Little Black Boy”.

2 . William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge 3 . John K eats 4 . Lord Byron [Fig. 17.14] Lord Byron in Albanian Costume, 1814 5 . Emily Brontë 6 . Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 7 . Walt Whitman

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Discuss how Whitman greatly influenced later American poets, such as William Carlos Williams and Wallace Stevens. Later, Allen Ginsberg exhibited something of Whitman’s outrageousness.

8 . Em il y Dic ki ns o n

> STUDENT ASSIGNMENT: Assign students to read a Romantic novel, such as Wuthering Heights, and—if possible—view a film of it. In class discussion, have students list as many characteristics of Romanticism as they can find in the work.

F. MUSIC 1. General Characteristics (program music) 2. H e c t o r Be r l i o z [“Music for the Humanities” CD track 15] Symphonie fantastique, Mvt. V: “Witches’ Sabbath.”

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Read selections from the program of Berlioz’ Symphonie fantastique and play a recording of parts of the symphony, particularly the last movement.

Discuss the romantic principle that music should create pictures or follow a narrative or descriptive program. Encourage students to find analogies between these principles and the kinds of music they listen to.

3. Franz Schubert and Johannes Brahms 4. Chopin and the Piano

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: The evolution of musical instruments into the modern era. (For example, by 1830, the piano had attained much the same form as it has today, and other instruments were being improved or invented.)

42

5. Giuseppe Verdi and Grand Opera 6. R i c ha r d W a g n e r

> TEACHING STRATEGY: If possible, show a video of all or part of a Verdi or Wagner opera.

7. Russian Music a. Modeste Mussorgsky

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Nationalism in music. b.

Pet er Tchaikovsky

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Tchaikovsky and the ballet.

III. REALISM A. IDEAS 1. Positivism 2. Socialism (Marx and Engels) B. HONORE DAUMIER [Fig. 17.15] Rue Transonain, April 15, 1834 (1834)

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Discuss the examples of political art illustrated in this and the preceding chapter. Compare the artistic styles of such works as David’s Oath of the Horatii and Goya’s Third of May. Ask students to analyze these works’ political messages, referring to the artist’s choice of styles and subject and to the political values of the period. Invite them to address the question of whether the same artistic style can be used to express different political messages, such as republican values of the American Revolution and Napoleon’s imperial authority.

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Extend the discussion of political art by showing students examples of political art from other historical periods and from the contemporary scene.

Compare the styles and political messages of these examples and invite students to make generalizing or synthesizing statements about the nature of political art in the Western tradition.

C. THE PAINTERS OF MODERN LIFE 1. Rosa Bonheur [Fig. 17.16] Plowing in the Nivernais: The Dressing of the Vines, 1849 2. G ust a v e Co ur b et [Fig. 17.17] A Burial at Ornans, 1849

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Examine MyHumanitiesKit, Chapter 17, Interact, Closer Look: Gustave Courbet: “A Burial at Ornans”.

3. Edouard Manet [Fig. 17.18] Luncheon on the Grass, 1863

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Manet as a transitional figure between Realism and Impressionism.

D. AMERICAN PAINTING 1 . W i n s l o w H o m e r [Fig. 17.19] Prisoners from the Front, 1866 2 . T h o m a s E a ki n s [Fig. 17.20] The Swimming Hole, ca. 1883-85

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Discuss how Eakins used Muybridge’s photographs of horses in order to portray a carriage moving through the Philadelphia Streets as well as

43

in The Swimming Hole, painted between 1883 and 1885. After Muybridge came to Philadelphia in 1883, Eakins worked with him on his studies.

E. THE RISE OF PHOTOGRAPHY 1. The Daguerreotype [Fig. 17.22] 2. Eadweard Muybridge [Fig. 17.23]

> DISCUSSION: The American Civil War was the first war ever to be documented in the new medium of photography. The photographs did not capture the action, however; the time required to expose film was still too long to permit that. Instead, it was the aftermath of the war that they recorded, and it was a gruesome sight. Discuss how photographs of the American Civil War shaped Americans’ views on war, and compare this to CNN’s view of the Persian Gulf War. CNN brought viewers live coverage of the precision bombing, and CNN reporters telecast their reports to television viewers, who could hear the bombing in the background. This live coverage of war was unprecedented.

Discuss students’ perceptions of the reality of war as it had never before been seen. Ask students to share how such live coverage affects their views on war. Explore the impact of the portrayal in terms of people’s perceptions about war in general.

F. ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE

1.

2.

C r y s t a l P a l a c e [Fig. 17.12], 1851 Stat ue of Liberty [Fig. 17.26], 1875-84

G. LITERATURE

1. Honore de Balzac 2. Gustave Flaubert 3. Emile Zola 4. Realist Writing a. Dickens b. Trollope c. E l i o t d . Poe e . H awt horne f. Melville 5. Russian Literature a. Fyodor Dostoyevsky b. Leo Tol st oy

H. THE NEW SCIENCES

1.

2.

Pasteur Darwin

ASSESSMENTS Student self-reviews: MyHumanitiesKit, Review and Explore Instructor Test Bank

RESOURCES IMAGES:

MyHumanitiesKit, Image links

44

BOOKS: Barger, M. Susan, and William B. White. The Daguerreotype: Nineteenth-Century Technology and Modern Science. Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1991.

Berger, Martin A. A Man Made: Thomas Eakins and the Construction of Gilded Age Manhood.

Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000.

Boime, Albert. Magisterial Gaze: Manifest Destiny and American Landscape Painting.

Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1991.

Clark, T.J. The Absolute Bourgeois: Artists and Politics in France, 1848-1851. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999. ________ . Image of the People: Gustave Courbet and the 1848 Revolution. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999.

Conrads, Margaret C. Winslow Homer and the Critics: Forging a National Art in the 1870s.

Princeton: Princeton University Press in association with the Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, 2001.

Eisenman, Stephen. Nineteenth-Century Art: A Critical History. London: Thames and Hudson, 1994. Lucie-Smith, Edward. American Realism. New York: Abrams, 1994.

Malpas, James. Realism. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1997.

Newhall, Beaumont. The History of Photography: From 1839 to the Present. 5th ed. Rev. New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1997.

Plantinga, Leon. Romantic Music. New York: Norton, 1984.

Ribeiro, Aileen. Ingres in Fashion: Representations of Dress and Appearance in Ingres’s Images of Women. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999.

Rosenblum, Robert, and H.W. Janson. 19th-Century Art. New York: Abrams, 1984.

Schonberg, Harold. Lives of the Great Composers. 3rd ed. New York: Norton, 1997.

Sunstein, Emily W. Mary Shelley: Romance and Reality. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.

Vaughan, William. Romanticism and Art. World of Art. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1994.

VIDEOS: Art of the Western World (6)—An Age of Reason, An Age of Passion: (II) An Age of Passion.

ABC-CLIO, Inc., 30 minutes.

Constable. Teacher’s Video Company, 25 minutes.

45

Music in Time: The Romantics. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 60 minutes. Romanticism.

Teacher’s Video Company, 50 minutes.

Turner: Making and Meaning. Teacher’s Video Company, 25 minutes.

Winslow Homer. Teacher’s Video Company, 29 minutes.

46

18 IMPRESSIONISM AND POST-IMPRESSIONISM CHAPTER OVERVIEW IMPRESSIONISM Art and science converge POST-IMPRESSIONISM Technology and nature influence the arts LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, the student should be able to . . . . . . define key terms. . . . explain the origins of the styles of Impressionism and Post-Impressionism. . . . identify key Impressionistic and Post-Impressionistic works of visual art, literature, and theatre. . . . discuss the developments in philosophy and psychology. . . . describe the relationship between new ideas and fin-de-siècle arts and culture.

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Compare and contrast the visual interests of the Impressionists and the Post-Impressionists.

2. How was Debussy an “Impressionist” composer?

3. Was Rodin an Impressionist or a Post-Impressionist? What evidence supports your decision?

4. How did Freud’s view of the mind influence modernist trends in culture?

5. The Post-Impressionists were interested in using color in a variety of ways: to express emotion, build the structure of a work, or imitate the way the eye works. Match the artists in your text with their particular interests on this list, using examples of their work to demonstrate.

6. The material, social, and intellectual innovations in the late 1800’s changed society and the arts. How does this compare and contrast with the Renaissance? Do you see any similarities with the innovations and technological revolutions of today?

7. Which female artist do you find the most interesting? Why? How influential was her work?

CHAPTER SUMMARY “Impressionism” was originally a term of condescension, as critics thought the style of painting was casual and careless. Between 1848 and 1870, Georges Eugene Haussmann rebuilt Paris, adding trees, parks, and wide streets, evicting the working-class poor. Edouard Manet painted

47

the new Paris, and his paintings anticipated Impressionism. The name “Impressionism” was derived from a painting by Claude Monet shown in the first exhibition of Impressionist art. The way Impressionists worked was as important to them as the subjects they painted.

Impressionists tried to convey a sense of natural light and painted in the open air. PierreAuguste Renoir, like most Impressionist painters, depicted pleasant places where people congregated, with attractive women, handsome men, and good weather. One of the first female Impressionists was Berthe Morisot, considered the most daring of all the Impressionists.

French aristocrat Edgar Degas is considered an Impressionist because of the sense of spontaneity visible in his work. Because of his approach he has been called a “linear Impressionist.”

Foremost among the American impressionists was Mary Cassatt, who was influenced by her close friend Degas. The Symbolist poets attempted to convey reality by impression and sensation, like the Impressionists. Leading Symbolist poets included Charles Baudelaire and Stephane Mallarmé. The composer Claude Debussy was to nineteenth century French music what Claude Monet was to nineteenth century French painting, revolutionizing the medium of music.

France in the 1880s and 1890s was a time of extraordinary material innovation: the era saw the invention of the telegraph and telephone, the bicycle and the automobile, the typewriter and the phonograph. The period also witnessed a challenge on the part of European intellectuals to accepted codes of moral behavior. Homosexuality, crime, drug use, and women’s rights all challenged conventional standards of behavior. New intellectual developments included the invention of psychoanalysis, the detection of electrons, and the promulgation of the theory of relativity. Friedrich Nietzsche influenced twentieth-century philosophical thought.

Sigmund Freud’s analysis of unconscious motives further influenced modernist trends in culture. The next group of artists to challenge the mainstream was called the PostImpressionists. The movement was an attempt to improve upon Impressionism, which they considered too objective, too impersonal, and too limiting. Paul Cezanne has been called the “Father of Abstract Art.” Georges Seurat used pointillism, the almost mathematical application of paint to the canvas, involving small dots of uniform size. Vincent van Gogh used bright colors and vivid contrasts to convey his own emotional fluctuations rather than the moods of nature. Fellow Post-Impressionist Paul Gauguin left a career as a successful banker to become a full-time artist in Tahiti. Auguste Rodin became the most influential sculptor in Europe, reviving an art form that had become stagnant. Toward the end of the nineteenth century, a new style of architecture developed. Through their use of iron, steel, concrete, and large sheets of glass, architects such as Louis Sullivan moved in the direction of the skyscraper and radically changed the nature of building.

Artists such as Manet, Monet, Van Gogh, and Cezanne were considered “avant-garde,” originally a military term referring to the foremost unit or the vanguard. Fauvism was launched in 1905 by artists such as Henri Matisse, who knew color could be an expressive force. Cubism was the invention of Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque. Picasso, often considered the most important painter of the twentieth century, painted in a style that was deliberately primitive. One offshoot of Cubism was Futurism, which used Cubist forms in a dynamic way. Cubism was created by Filippo Marinetti. The last of the great prewar avant-garde movements was German Expressionism, which was divided into The Bridge and The Blue Rider. Both branches believed in the liberation of color and the celebration of pagan sexuality. Igor Stravinsky is considered the most important composer of the modern era. His works revolutionized twentieth-century musical styles and affected painters such as Picasso and writers such as T.S. Eliot.

MyHumanitiesKit RESOURCES, CHAPTER EIGHTEEN Objectives Flashcards Study Critical Thinking Multiple Choice

48

Review and Explore Image Links Humanities PPT Glossary Audio Glossary College Art Association Write and Research MySearchLab: www.MySearchLab.com

KEY TERMS Impressionism superman ego Pointillism belle époque

Dionysian id Symbolism Symbolists Apollonian

superego Art Nouveau Atom Psychoanalysis Post-Impressionism

SUGGESTED TEACHING OUTLINE I. IMPRESSIONISM A. HAUSSMANN’S PARIS

> TEACHING STRATEGY: As you tell the students about Haussmann’s radical reworking of the city of Paris, show slides of paintings of the city from the era. (Examples

by Pissarro, Monet, and Caillebotte should get you started.)

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Compare Haussmann’s efforts to urban renewal projects in the United States.

B. PAINTING

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Spend some time explaining to the students some of the factors “in the air” that no doubt influenced the development of Impressionism: a) love of nature inherited from the Romantics; b) the desire for escapism, brought on by France’s defeat in the Franco-Prussian War and the increasing problems brought about by the Industrial Revolution; c) the continued love of freedom and individuality started by the Romantics; d) the availability of portable art materials, making it possible to paint out-of-doors; e) color theories which both helped artists better understand how color “works” and just put color in the forefront of their thinking; f) the development of photography, which both made it necessary to paint in a new style [the camera could now “paint” Auntie’s picture!] and encouraged artists to look at the world in new ways, such as different angles of vision, cropping, and capturing a moment (a snapshot); g) Japanese influence (See Cross Currents, “Japanese Prints and Western Painters” ).

> DISCUSSION: Suggest to students that several of the most important stylistic innovations of late nineteenth-century painting were imitated from Japanese painting.

Ask them how it changes their evaluation of European artists to learn that they were not original, but imitative.

1. Claude Monet [Fig. 18.1] Impressionion, Sunrise, 1872 [Fig. 18.2] Haystacks at Giverny, 1891

49

2. Pierre-Auguste-Renoir [Fig. 18.3] Dance at the Moulin de la Galette, 1876 3 . B e r t he M o r i s o t [Fig. 18.4] Summer’s Day, 1879 4. Edgar Degas [Fig. 18.5] The Dancing Class, ca. 1874 5. Mary Cassatt [Fig. 18.6] The Boating Party, 1893-94

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Review the role of female artists throughout history,

noting that Cassatt’s favorite subject, mothers and children, was no doubt dictated by the restrictions of society.

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Have students discuss how the artist’s compositional technique serves to draw the viewer into the work. Invite them to think of other works that make the viewer feel a part of the scene. (Examples might include Giotto’s Lamentation, Van Eyck’s Arnolfini Marriage Portrait, and Velazquez’s Las Meninas.)

6. James Abbott McNeill Whistler [Fig. 18.7] Arrangement in Black and Gray: The Artist’s Mother, 1871 B. LITERATURE 1 . The S y m bol ist s 2. Naturalism C. MUSIC: DEBUSSY’S MUSICAL IMPRESSIONISM

> TEACHING STRATEGY: The Symbolist poets attempted to convey reality by impression and sensation. In symbolism, the poets were liberated from the necessity of rendering the “facts” of external experience. Language could capture not only our perception of external reality, but our internal lives, too. For the symbolists, an image suggested a cluster of ideas and feelings rather than representing something. Mallarmé felt that the power of poetry was in the suggestiveness of images, rather than in clarification of images. The symbolists rejected didacticism, political reference, sentimentality, and external representation. In class, read and analyze Mallarme’s poem “The Afternoon of a Faun,” and then listen to Debussy’s Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun.

> DISCUSSION: Invite students to describe the mood of the opening theme of Debussy’s Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun. Ask them to note how that theme “develops,” especially as compared with the thematic development of a classical symphony. Encourage the students to compare Debussy with Beethoven, musically and emotionally, and record their observations on the chalkboard. In particular, ask how each composer might be considered a romantic.

II. THE FIN DE SIÈCLE

> DISCUSSION: “Fin de siècle” refers to the French culture at the century’s end. After discussing fin de siècle culture as thoroughly as possible, ass students to compare and contrast American culture as they saw it at the end of the twentieth century.

A. NEW SCIENCE AND NEW TECHNOLOGIES 1. The theory of relativity 2. The at o m B. PHILOSOPHY AT THE TURN OF THE CENTURY

50

1. Friedrich Nietzsche 2. Sigmund Freud C. POST-IMPRESSIONIST PAINTING

> TEACHING STRATEGY: It helps to group the four major Post-Impressionist artists into two camps: 1) Seurat and Cezanne as the more analytical, pseudo-scientific artists; and 2) Van Gogh and Gauguin as those who used color and distortion to express emotion.

These groupings not only help students keep track of the four but also aid them in making sense of the dizzying array of movements in modern art, since they too cam be generally grouped in this way. (Picasso and Mondrian are of the more analytical camp; Kandinsky and Nolde follow Van Gogh and Gauguin.)

1.

P a u l C é z a n n e [Fig. 18.8] Mount Saint-Victoire from the Large Pine Tree, 1885-87 [Fig. 18.9] Still Life with Peppermint Bottle, ca. 1894 2 . G e o r g e s S e u r a t [Fig. 18.10] Sunday Afternoon on La Grande Jatte, 1884-86 3 . Vincent van Gogh [Fig. 18.12] Japonaiserie: The Tree, 1887 [Fig. 18.11] Starry Night, 1889 4 . P a u l G a u g u i n [Fig. 18.13] Spirit of the Dead Watching, 1892 D. NEW DIRECTIONS IN SCULPTURE AND ARCHITECTURE 1. Auguste Rodin [Fig. 18.14] The Thinker, 1879-89 [Fig. 18.15] The Kiss, 1886-98

> TEACHING STRATEGY: In The Informed Eye: Understanding Masterpieces of Western Art, Bruce Cole provides an excellent discussion of Rodin’s The Burghers of Calais. His comparison of Rodin’s public monument with Rude’s La Marseillaise [Fig. 17.15] is particularly interesting.

2 . American Architecture [Fig. 18.18] Louis Sullivan, Wainwright Building, St. Louis, 1890-91 3 . Art Nouveau [Fig. 18.19] Victor Horta, Staircase, Dr. Tassel’s house, Brussels, 1893 [Fig. 18.20] Antoni Gaudi, Casa Mila Apartment Building, Barcelona, 1905-17

ASSESSMENTS Student self-reviews: MyHumanitiesKit, Review and Explore Instructor Test Bank

RESOURCES IMAGES: MyHumanitiesKit, Image links

51

BOOKS: Adams, Steven. The Barbizon School and the Origins of Impressionism. London: Phaidon, 1994. Adler, Kathleen. Impressionism. New York: Yale University Press, 1999.

Baudelaire, Charles. The Painter of Modern Life, and Other Essays. 2nd ed. Trans. and ed.

Jonathan Mayne. London: Phaidon, 1995.

Berger, Klaus. Japonisme in Western Painting from Whistler to Matisse. Trans. David Brit.

Cambridge Studies in the History of Art. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1992.

Boime, Albert. The Academy and French Painting in the Nineteenth Century. London: Phaidon, 1971.

Callen, Anthea. The Art of Impressionism: Painting Technique and the Making of Modernity. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000.

Clark, T.J. The Painting of Modern Life: Paris in the Time of Manet and His Followers. Rev. ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999.

Cole, Bruce. The Informed Eye: Understanding Masterpieces of Western Art. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1999. Duncan, Alastair. Art Nouveau. World of Art. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1994.

Elger, Dietmar. Expressionism: A Revolution in German Art. Cologne: Taschen, 1998.

Gibson, Michael. Symbolism. Cologne: Taschen, 1995.

Herbert, James D. Fauve Painting: The Making of Cultural Politics. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992. Kelder, Diane. The Great Book of French Impressionism. 2nd ed. New York: Artabras, 1997.

Machotka, Pavel. Cezanne: Landscape into Art. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996. Nochlin, Linda. Representing Women. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1999.

Rubin, James Henry. Impressionism. London: Phaidon, 1999.

52

Rubin, William. Picasso and Braque: Pioneering Cubism. New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1989. Schapiro, Meyer. Impressionism: Reflections and Perceptions. New York: George Braziller, 1997. Schonberg, Harold. The Lives of the Great Composers. New York: Norton, 1997.

Wenk, Arthur B. Debussy and the Poets. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1976.

White, Eric. Stravinsky: The Composer and His Works. rev. ed. London: Faber, and Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979.

VIDEOS: Art of the Western World (7)—A Fresh View: (I) Realism and Impressionism and (II) Post-Impressionism. ABC-CLIO, Inc., 30 minutes each.

Art of the Western World (8)—A Fresh View: (II) Into the 20th Century ABC-CLIO, 30 minutes. Claude Monet: Legacy of Light. Home Vision Cinema, 28 minutes.

Degas: Beyond Impressionism. Teacher’s Video Company, 30 minutes.

Edouard Manet: Painter of Modern Life. Metropolitan Museum of Art Home Video, 27 minutes. The Eiffel Tower. A&E Home Video, 50 minutes.

Impressionism and Post-Impressionism. Teacher’s Video Company, 50 minutes. Kandinsky. Home Vision Cinema, 60 minutes.

Manet: Painter of Modern Life. Public Media, Inc., 28 minutes.

Music in Time: The Turn of the Century. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 60 minutes.

The Shock of the Nude: Manet’ s ‘Olympia.’ PBS Video, 60 minutes.

Sunday in the Park with George. Teacher’s Video Company, 146 minutes.

53

19 LATER CHINESE CIVILIZATION CHAPTER OVERVIEW LATER CHINESE CULTURE An isolated China gradually absorbs Western ideas

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, the student should be able to . . . . . . define key terms. . . . identify key works of Chinese visual, written, and performing arts. . . . trace the developments of the arts of China from the Yuan to the present day. . . . describe the developments in Chinese painting. . . . discuss the relationship between philosophy, politics and the arts.

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Compare the layout of the Forbidden City to Versailles. How does the Forbidden City demonstrate the ideas of absolutism from an Asian perspective?

2. What developments occur in painting during this time?

3. Discuss why you think that China has been a subject of fascination for the West.

4. In what ways does The Dream of the Red Chamber by Cao Xuequin reflect life for the elite in the middle of the Qing dynasty?

5. The Chinese have had a long history of bringing intellectuals into public service positions and very much revered the idea of the “scholar-leader”. Do you think of our political leaders as scholars as well as rulers? Why or why not? Would the American public value leaders who were more academically oriented? Why or why not?

6. The orchid and bamboo were powerful symbols in China. What symbols have had this kind of cultural power in other eras you’ve studied? What symbols do we use today?

7. Mao Zedong decreed the return to folk tradition with political ideals and content in music. In the U.S. during the 1960’s, folk music accompanied social and political change. How are these similar and different? How could folk traditions and music have this type of power?

8. Compare and contrast landscape painting in China and any other era you’ve studied. Do they differ in purpose? In content? In what ways are they similar?

CHAPTER SUMMARY The last of the great medieval Chinese dynasties was the Yuan, which was actually run by Mongolian leader Kublai Khan, beginning in 1279. It was a time of foreign occupation, and this influenced every aspect of Chinese life, including its painting. Bamboo came to symbolize Chinese survival under foreign rule, as did orchids. In 1368, Chinese forces defeated the Mongol invaders and the Ming Dynasty began. Chinese once again ruled China. The Ming and Qing were China’s last two dynasties, and they were remarkably alike in their high level of social stability and cultural achievement. The overthrow of the Qing dynasty in 1911 led to a period of

54

instability that lasted until the establishment of the Communist state in 1949. Communism remains the dominant political system in contemporary China. Among the most important paintings of the Ming dynasty were landscapes. Shen Zhou was an amateur painter who did not attempt to portray nature in an especially beautiful fashion, focusing instead on nature’s serene grandeur. Qiu Ying was another painter who expressed nature’s magnificence, though with greater detail and refinement than Shen Zhou. Under the rule of the Yongle Emperor, presentday Beijing was reconstructed as the imperial capital, with principal buildings facing south and a series of interlocking gates and courtyards. Much of the poetry written during the Ming Dynasty was used in other art forms, such as drama and fiction. The most important work of Chinese literature written in the eighteenth century was The Dream of the Red Chamber by Cao Xuequin. The book can be seen as a reflection of mid-Qing elite life. From the fourteenth through the seventeenth century, Chinese music was largely associated with drama. Beijing opera, with its distinctive liveliness, has become one of the most popular musical forms of the twentieth century. With the founding of the Communist People’s Republic of China in 1949, Mao Zedong introduced two influential artistic directives: a return to folk tradition and an emphasis on political ideals and content in music.

MyHumanitiesKit RESOURCES, CHAPTER NINETEEN Objectives Flashcards Study Critical Thinking Multiple Choice Interact – Closer Look: The Forbidden City Europe’s Chinoiserie Craze Review and Explore Image Links Humanities PPT Glossary Audio Glossary College Art Association Write and Research MySearchLab: www.MySearchLab.com

KEY TERMS literati wet-brush Hsi-wen

‘ei-chu technique Ching-hsi

sheng ti ching

ch’ou tan

SUGGESTED TEACHING OUTLINE

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Whether or not nonwestern art is your specialty, students would no doubt enjoy meeting a person from the nonwestern culture being studied. If possible, invite a person of Chinese descent to class (or ask a Chinese student).

Suggest they present a brief overview of their background and beliefs, and then allow time for questions.

I. BACKGROUND A. MONGOL RULE: THE YUAN DYNASTY

[Fig. 19.1] Wu Zhen, Bamboo, China, Yuan dynasty, 1350

55

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Ask students if they can think of any objects in western culture that have had comparable symbolic power to the bamboo and orchid in China.

B. MING AND QING DYNASTIES 1. Qing Furniture [Fig. 19.2]

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: The unique city of Hong Kong (see Then and Now “Hong Kong” )

> DISCUSSION: Build on Connections “Kangxi and Qianlong: Chinese Rulers, Writers, and Scholars,”. Ask students if they think of our political leaders as scholars as well as rulers. Why or why not? Would the American public value leaders who were more academically oriented? Why or why not?

II. LITERATI PAINTING A . S H E N Z H O U [Fig. 19.3] Shen Zhou, Poet on a Mountaintop, China, Ming dynasty, ca. 1500 B . S H I T A O [Fig. 19.5] Daoiji, Reminiscences of the Qin-Huai, 1641-1707 C . Z H U D A [Fig. 19.6] Zhu Da. Fish and Rocks, China, Qing Dynasty, late seventeenth Century

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Examine how landscape painting of the Ming dynasty had a close affinity with Chinese lyric poetry in its directness and expressive spontaneity.

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Point out that the calligraphy at the upper left of Shen Zhou’s painting is a poem.

III. CALLIGRAPHY [Fig. 19.7] Zheng Xie, A Country Temple, China, Qing Dynasty, ca. 1740

> DISCUSSION: Ask students what items or techniques they use to help them focus when studying. Do they create a sense of internal quiet and calm, or do they create background noise? Do they study alone or with a friend? What differences are there between the lifestyles of Chinese scholars then and students today?

IV. ARCHITECTURE: CITY PLANNING [Fig. 19.10] The Forbidden City, Beijing. For more on this, see MyHumanities Kit, Chapter 19, Interact, Closer Look: The Forbidden City.

[Fig. 19.11] Plan of the Imperial Palace, Beijing

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: City planning in the West.

V. LITERATURE A. TRADITIONAL POETRY 1. Yuan Hong-dau

56

2 . Cao Xuequin’s Dream of the Red Chamber B. MODERN CHINESE POETRY 1. “I’m Forever a Stranger”

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Examine how the Tiananmen Square massacre of 1989 has given urgency to the sentiments expressed in the poems of contemporary Chinese poets.

> BACKGROUND: Following the death of former Communist party leader Hu Yaobang on April 15, 1989, Chinese students and workers demonstrated as a display of mourning. For six weeks, pro-democracy demonstrations were held in Tiananmen Square. By May, more than 1 million people were in Tiananmen Square daily, demanding dialogue with the government and political reform. The “Goddess of Democracy” statue symbolized the movement. On May 20, martial law was declared.

The People’s Liberation Army was charged with clearing the capital. On June 3, PLA units cleared Tiananmen Square, killing around 1000 civilians. Following this horrendous event, the government imposed a crackdown on the pro-democracy movement. Thousands were arrested and some were executed.

The 1991 collapse of the USSR left China as the world’s only remaining Communist superpower. Compare the pro-democracy efforts in China with those in the USSR. Ask students what they think it will take for democracy to occur in China. What role, if any, should the United States have in helping to bring about democracy?

VI. MUSIC A. CHINESE THEATER MUSIC B. B E I J I N G O P E R A [Fig. 19.13] An actor from the Beijing opera

> TEACHING STRATEGY: If possible, watch a video excerpt of Beijing opera. Invite students to compare the music and staging to Western operas and musicals.

ASSESSMENTS Student self-reviews: MyHumanitiesKit, Review and Explore Instructor Test Bank

RESOURCES IMAGES: MyHumanitiesKit, Image links

BOOKS:

57

Andrews, Julia Frances. Painters and Politics in the People’s Republic of China, 1949-79.

Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1994.

Billeter, Jean Francois. The Chinese Art of Writing. New York: Skira/Rizzoli, 1990.

Clunas, Craig. Pictures and Visualities in Early Modern China. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997.

Fang, Jing Pei. Treasures of the Chinese Scholar: Form, Function, and Symbolism. Ed. J. May Lee Barrett. New York: Weatherhill, 1997.

Liu, Laurence G. Chinese Architecture. New York: Rizzoli, 1989.

Ng, So Kam. Brushstrokes: Styles and Techniques of Chinese Painting. San Francisco: Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, 1993.

Sullivan, Michael. Art and Artists of Twentieth-Century China. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996.

Yu, Zhuoyun, comp. Palaces of the Forbidden City. Trans. Ng Mau-Sang, Chan Sinwai, and Puwen Lee. New York: Viking, 1984.

VIDEOS: Chinese Art and Architecture. Available from Universal Color Slide Company, 99 minutes.

Chinese Cracker: The Making of ‘The Peony Pavilion.’ Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 52 minutes.

Meishu: Travels in Chinese Art. 3-part series. Available from Universal Color Slides.

58

20 LATER JAPANESE CIVILIZATION CHAPTER OVERVIEW LATER JAPANESE CULTURE Japan carefully gleans from the West what will make it an international power while maintaining its own cultural identity

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, the student should be able to . . . . . . define key terms. . . . identify specific works of Japanese visual arts, music, literature, and theatre. . . . compare and contrast Japanese art forms to Western ones as well as those of other cultures. . . . trace the development of Japanese arts from the fifteenth century to today. . . . discuss the relationship between the arts of Japan and philosophical and political ideas. . . . discuss the relationship between political events in Japanese history and the arts.

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. What was the relationship of religion to the attitudes of the Samurai warrior class?

2. In what ways did Japan seek to become an international power and at the same time maintain its own cultural identity?

3. What themes and motifs appear in Japanese arts of this time? Focus on the visual arts, music, literature, or theatre.

4. Trace the development of woodblock prints. What purposes did they initially serve and how did this change?

5. How were Japanese gardens and painting reflective of each other? How is Zen Buddhism embodied in them both?

CHAPTER SUMMARY The Tokugawa family ruled Japan from 1600 to 1868. The family unified the country and preserved its distinctive natural culture. In 1868, Japan returned to rule by emperor. Through victory in war with China, Japan acquired the island of Formosa. During the rise of the Tokugawa dynasty, Shinto was resurrected as a state religion. Shinto, in its most general sense, is a belief in Japanese patriotism, distinguished by respect for the land. One of the most interesting buildings constructed during the Muromachi period was Kinkakuji, which was originally a private chapel and later converted into a Buddhist temple. The Japanese garden is essentially landscape architecture. Prior to 1600, literature in Japan was aristocratic in focus.

After 1600, literature, especially fiction, contained more popular subject matter. Novelist Saikaku Ihara wrote novels that contained inventive technical experiments in style and point of view.

Haiku are three-line poems consisting of a total of seventeen syllables in a pattern of 5, 7, and 5 syllables per line. Basho Matuo was considered an accomplished haiku artist. Modern Japanese literature is traditionally dated from the beginning of the reign of the Meiji emperor in 1868.

59

During that time, a number of Westernizing reforms were introduced into Japanese life. There are two primary types of Japanese music for theater. The Noh is distinguished by its solemnity.

Kabuki were originally short, dramatic dances accompanied by song and percussion that celebrated the exploits of heroes. During the eighteenth century, Kabuki developed a repertoire based on the daily lives of peasants and merchants.

MyHumanitiesKit RESOURCES, CHAPTER TWENTY Objectives Flashcards Study Critical Thinking Multiple Choice Review and Explore Image Links Humanities PPT Glossary Audio Glossary College Art Association Write and Research MySearchLab: www.MySearchLab.com

KEY TERMS shogun koan samisem taiko samari ukiyo-e o-tsuzumi Noh Kabuki Shoganate

daimyoji anime Shinto biwa hayashi maika kami shakuhachi nokan

geisha Bunraku ink-style painting ko-tsuzumi haiku o-tsuzumi zazen

SUGGESTED TEACHING OUTLINE I. BACKGROUND A. THE TOKUGAWA SHOGANATE, 1600-1868 1 . To ka g a w a I ey as u 2. Social Stratification 3. Cultural Isolation 4. Commodore Perry: Japan’s Turn to the West B. THE MEIJI ERA, 1868-1912 1. Economic Development 2. Constitutional Development 3. Rising National Power 3. Industrialization and Universal Education 4. Military Power and Wars

> TEACHING STRATEGY: If possible, invite someone of Japanese descent to visit the class. Ask that they provide a brief overview of their background, and then allow time for questions.

60

II. THE SHINTO REVIVAL A. SHINTO – THE RELIGION B. THE NATIVE HEROES: RISE OF SAMURAI POWER C.

JAPANESE ETHNOCENTRISM

III. PAINTING A. KANO EITOKU B . HAKUIN EKAKU AND ZEN [Fig. 20.2] Meditating Daruma , Japan, Tokugawa Period, ca. 1760 IV. WOODBLOCK PRINTS A . U T A M U R O K I T A G A W A [Fig. 20.3] Painting the Lips, Japan, Tokugawa period, 1796-97 B . H OKUS AI KAT S USH IKA [Fig. 20.4] The Great Wave of Kanagawa, Japan, Tokugawa period, ca. 1831 C . A N D O H I R O S H I G E [Fig. 20.5] Sudden Shower Over Atake, Number 58, 1857

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Discuss Commodore Perry’s opening of Japan to the West, and the resultant phenomenon of japonisme, which was particularly strong in France, as the name suggests. (As an aside, you might mention how the rediscovery of Pompeii in the 1700s was similarly a great impetus for the Neoclassical movement.)

Explain that in France everything Japanese was “hot,” from lacquered boxes, fans, and kimonos, to woodblock prints. Particularly emphasize the latter’s impact on the Impressionists, such as Monet (who had a large collection of prints on display at his home at Giverny) and Degas. Show examples of Impressionist art, highlighting the Japanese influence.

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Show how woodblock prints were closely linked with the world of the Kabuki theater.

V. LACQUERWARE AND CERAMICS VI. ARCHITECTURE A. H I M E J I C A S T L E [Fig. 20.8] Himeji Castle, Hyogo (near Osaka), Japan, Momoyama period, 1581-1609 B. G R E A T B U D D H A H A L L [ F i g . 2 0 . 9 ] , T o d a i - j i T e m p l e , Nara

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Demonstrate the influence of Japanese

architecture on the work of Frank Lloyd Wright, and show slides of work he did in Japan.

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Discuss the currently popular design phenomenon of fengshui. What is it, and why has it become so popular?

61

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Study how and why architectural styles in Japan from the Muromachi to the Tokugawa periods differed from those of previous eras and from one another, as well.

VII. THE JAPANESE GARDEN [Fig. 20.10] Attributed to Kagaku Soku, Garden of the Daisen-in monastery, Daitokuji temple, Kyoto, Japan, sixteenth century.

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: The Japanese garden as landscape architecture.

How does it relate to Japanese painting?

> BACKGROUND: Japanese gardens are influenced by Zen Buddhism. The gardens are designed to express the religious belief that the whole universe is in the smallest thing. The Japanese garden re-creates nature in the miniature. The pavilion, bridge, gates, and islands are integrated into the garden setting.

There are two basic styles of Japanese gardens: the Tsukuyama style and the Karesansui style. In a Tsukiyama garden, one aspect of nature represents a different element. For instance, a rock represents a mountain and a pond symbolizes the ocean. The Karesansui garden is dry landscaping. White sand represents the ocean and stones represent the hills. The historical gardens of Japan were reflections of their society.

> APPLICATION: Keeping in mind the principles of the Japanese garden, have students work in pairs to design a garden representing their culture.

> TEACHING STRATEGY: If possible, invite a landscape architect to give a presentation on the general principles of landscape architecture. Has the concept of the Japanese garden contributed anything to the profession of landscape designer in the West?

> DISCUSSION: Have students compare the Japanese garden with the English garden and the gardens of the Palace of Versailles. Also, consider the garden Monet designed for his home at Giverny, complete with Japanese bridge. Is the overall design in keeping with Japanese principles?

VIII. LITERAT URE A. SAIKAKU IHARA B. H AI K U

> ASSIGNMENT: Haiku is a short poetic form that developed during the sixteenth century in Japan. The haiku expresses a single emotion or idea. Read aloud classic works of haiku by Haiku masters, such as Basho, Buson, or Issa. Assign students to write a haiku poem, following the rules of the form: the haiku must have three short lines, consisting of a total of 17 syllables, arranged in lines of 5, 7, and 5 syllables each. The haiku must include imagery from nature, a reference to a season, and must avoid rhyme.

Invite students to read their haikus aloud in class.

C.

BASHO MATSUO

D. YOSU BUSON AND KOBAYASHI ISSA IX. MODERN FICTION

62

X. THEATER

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Examine how, like their ancient Greek counterparts, the early Bunraku plays celebrated ancient tales of Japanese culture. (See Connections, “Bunraku: Japanese Puppet Theater”) If there is time, present a brief historical sketch of the puppet theater phenomenon throughout the world. (You might include the European “Punch and Judy” shows and even the Salzburg marionettes.)

You might also research the history of the techniques used in the stage production of The Lion King.

A.

NOH

B. KABUKI C.

CINEMA/ANIME

D. THE WORLD OF THE GEISHA XI. CONTEMPORARY MUSIC A. OE HIKARI B. KOTO MUSIC

ASSESSMENTS Student self-reviews: MyHumanitiesKit, Review and Explore Instructor Test Bank

RESOURCES IMAGES: MyHumanitiesKit, Image links

BOOKS: Addis, Stephen. The Art of Zen: Painting and Calligraphy by Japanese Monks, 1600-1925. New York: Abrams, 1989.

Forrer, Matthi, Hokusai. New York: Rizzoli, 1988.

Guth, Christine. Art of Edo Japan: The Artist and the City, 1615-1868. Perspectives. New York: Abrams, 1996.

63

Hayashiya, Tatsusaburo, Masao Nakamura, and Seizo Hayashiya. Japanese Arts and the Tea Ceremony. Trans. and adapted by Joseph P. Macadam. Heibonsha Survey of Japanese Art, vol. 15. New York: Weatherhill, 1974.

Hickman, Money L. Japan’s Golden Age: Momoyama. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996.

Merritt, Helen and Nanako Yamada. Guide to Modern Japanese Woodblock Prints, 1900-1975.

Honolulu: University of Honolulu Press, 1995.

Munroe, Alexandra. Japanese Art after 1945: Scream Against the Sky. New York: Abrams, 1994.

Seo, Audrey Yoshiko. The Art of Twentieth-Century Zen: Paintings and Calligraphy of Japanese Masters. Boston: Shambala, 1998.

Thompson, Sarah E., and H.D. Harootunian. Undercurrents in the Floating World: Censorship and Japanese Prints. New York: Asia Society Gallery, 1992.

Till, Barry. The Arts of Meiji Japan, 1868-1912: Changing Aesthetics. Victoria, B.C.: Art Gallery of Victoria, 1995.

VIDEOS: Japanese Art and Architecture. Available from Universal Color Slide Company, 140 minutes.

Koto: Praise on Strings. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 48 minutes.

Mythical Tunes of Biwa: Yoshiko Sakata. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 48 minutes.

64

21 LATER AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA CHAPTER OVERVIEW MODERN AFRICA The “Dark Continent” moves into the light of modern culture despite European attempts at colonialism MODERN LATIN AMERICA Central American culture is enriched through a multiracial society composed of indigenous and colonial peoples

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, the student should be able to . . . . . . define key terms. . . . identify key modern African and Latin American works of visual art, music, and literature. . . . trace the development of African and Latin American art from the pre-colonial period to the post-colonial era. . . . discuss the relationship between colonialism and the arts and culkture of modern Africa and Latin America. . . . explain the relationship between the Catholic Church and Latin American art and culture. . . . discuss the relationship between the indigenous cultures of modern Africa and Latin America and its effect on the arts. . . . describe the influence that African art had on the early modern era.

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Both Gabriel Garcia Marquez and Isabel Allende use the magic realist technique in their novels.

Compare and contrast how each of them use this technique.

2. Trace the development of either modern African art or Latin American visual art, music, or literature from the pre-colonial era to the post-colonial era.

3. What effects did colonialism have on the arts and cultures of modern Africa and Latin America?

4. What effect did the Catholic Church have on the arts and culture of Latin America?

5. Discuss the fact that in many African cultures, art is not something that is hung up on the wall, but it has a “function”.

6. How does Frida Kahlo’s art include traditional forms of Mexican art, yet how does she create something new?

65

7. What kinds of themes begin to appear in modern African literature? How are African writers viewed by their own people as well as the outside world?

8. How is the use of music in sub-Saharan Africa different from other cultures? Are there similarities as well?

9. In what ways did the innovations of this era impact Africa and Latin America? How does this compare and contrast to past cultures you’ve studied? Does it change the arts in any way?

CHAPTER SUMMARY Up until the early 1800s, the exchange between Africa and the rest of the world was mostly in the form of the slave trade. By the early nineteenth century, however, changing economies and the growing abolitionist movement encouraged a shift from an economy of slaves to one of commodities such as palm oil, latex, and gum arabic. European explorers were at first prohibited from penetrating the African continent due to the threat of disease and the ability of Africans to fight on relatively equal footing. Eventually, three technological innovations made entry into Africa a possibility: the discovery of quinine to fight malaria, the development of breech-loading cartridge-firing rifles, and finally the development of steam power and metal-hulled boats that allowed the rapid transport of European troops. By 1914, Africa’s vast natural resources resulted in European colonial rule of almost the entire African continent. The catalyst for African independence was World War II. Following the war, European countries began relinquishing their colonial empires in Africa. By 1980, all but two African nations were sovereign states. Following the release of Nelson Mandela from prison in 1990, apartheid was abolished in South Africa and a coalition government established. Few artifacts survive from pre-colonial Africa because they were made of wood. In sub-Saharan Africa, objects were created from iron and clay beginning in the sixth century B.C.E. The sculpture of Benin reveals that in pre-colonial African cultures, art was an integral part of social and political organization. During the nineteenth century, as collectors sent African sculpture back to Europe, the Africans created more. Over half of the African art in the West today was made during that period. All forms of contemporary African art are seen as functional, or as serving some common good. It has a higher purpose than pleasure or decoration alone. Music pervades the life of the sub-Saharan Africans. As with sculpture, music plays a functional role by expressing their belief system. Perhaps the most distinctive feature of African music is the intricacy of its rhythms and its formal repetitive patterns.

Music in Africa is for the most part popular; there is little distinction between traditional and popular music. Western jazz and rock-and-roll have their origins in African music. In the postcolonial period, many writers of contemporary African fiction have become engaged in the political and cultural struggles for African independence. Writers such as Nigerians Chinua Achebe, who uses folklore to convey the spirit of his themes, and Wole Soyinka, whose plays and poetry are deeply political, are well known.

Latin America had long been under the rule of colonial Europeans. Then, early in the nineteenth century, wars of independence throughout the region inspired the Latin American social elite to break from their colonial rulers while maintaining the existing social structure.

The joining of Native American and European traditions is evident in much of the art produced during the colonial period. In painting, native artists combined their own traditions with those of the Catholic Church. When revolutionary leader Alvaro Obregon became president of Mexico in 1920, he began a vast mural project designed to cover the walls of public spaces across the country with images celebrating Mexico’s past and future. One painter involved was Diego Rivera. Rivera was married to another prominent Mexican painter, Frida Kahlo, who is best known for her highly distinctive self-portraits. Cuban painter Wilfredo Lam, the son of a Chinese immigrant and an Afro-Cuban mother, adopted Picasso’s style in an attempt to explore his own

66

origins. Columbian artist Fernando Botero is known for his “swollen” figures that satirize the Latin American ruling elite. Latin music has a rich musical heritage, much of it associated with dance. The tango came from Argentina and the samba from Brazil. One of the most popular instruments used in Latin American music is the guitar. The literature of Latin America is often an exploration of the imagination. Jorge Luis Borges is best known for his short, enigmatic, fictional works that invite philosophical reflection. Gabriel García Márquez is the master of the novel, and he is well known for his blending of the real with the imaginary in a style known as magic realism. Isabel Allende’s novel The House of Spirits, creates a fictional world that reconstructs the history of modern Chile.

MyHumanitiesKit RESOURCES, CHAPTER TWENTY ONE Objectives Flashcards Study Critical Thinking Review and Explore Image Links Humanities PPT Glossary Audio Glossary College Art Association Write and Research MySearchLab: www.MySearchLab.com

KEY TERMS creole talking drum Afrobeat Santeria hip life amba emirs

Negritude Polyrhythms Eurocentric calypso apartheid backbeat al fresco

magic realism gelede Soukous pyroxylin call-and-response format

SUGGESTED TEACHING OUTLINE I. MODERN AFRICA A. SLAVERY B. THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA AND COLONIAL RULE C. VARIETIES OF COLONIAL RULE D. COLONIALISM AND CULTURE 1. Religion 2 . Nationalism E. INDEPENDENT AFRICA

67

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Compare the former South African policy of apartheid with Jim Crow laws that existed in the United States until the Supreme Court struck down the laws in the 1950s.

F. SCULPTURE [Fig. 21.1] Mask, Yoruba, Republic of Benin, paint on wood [Fig. 21.2] Kane Kwei, Cocoa-Pod-Shaped Coffin, early 1970s [Fig. 21.3] Helmet mask, Baule, Ivory Coast, 19th-20th century [Fig. 21.5) Dolls used as ere ibeji, mid-20th century

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: The nature of art: aesthetic object or functional object? Discuss the western proclivity for “using” art as an object, as demonstrated by our placement of objects for viewing and contemplation in museums. Contrast this with the African stress upon art as something functional. Invite students to consider some ways in which westerners do in fact allow art to perform a function (music for weddings and funerals, for example; quilts to keep us warm), but stress that this is the exception in our culture. What does this say about the two cultures? What are the ramifications for the art works themselves?

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Masks are a traditional art form in Africa, and are generally functional throughout the continent. However, the forms and functions of the African mask are diverse in different regions. For instance, carved wood masks are the main art form in the West Guinea Coast Region. Study the meanings of masks in various regions of Africa. Have students work in small groups. Each group should select a particular region and research the regional use of masks, the features of the masks, and the purpose of such masks. Have each group present their findings to the class.

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: The influence of African art on western artists in the early twentieth century. Explain how the colonization of Africa in the nineteenth century led to increased awareness of Africa and its art; mention the opening of an ethnographic museum in Paris, and the resultant inclusion of African influences by western artists. Focus: Picasso’s Les Demoiselles d’Avignon.

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: The masking tradition and the staging of The Lion King.

G. MUS IC

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Sonny Okosun’s work is based on a brand of African music known as highlife, a fusion of indigenous dance rhythms and melodies with Western regimental sea marches, sea chanteys, and church hymns that emerged in the coastal towns of Ghana in the early twentieth century. Listen to the sounds of contemporary musician Sonny Okosun. His Fire in Soweto was quite popular in 1978. Have students try to identify the various sounds that Okosun blends. Compare this to the work of American composer Charles Ives.

> DISCUSSION: What gives the soundtrack to The Lion King (or other similar movies based on African themes) an African “feel”?

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: African influence on jazz and rock H . LITERATURE 1 . C h i n u a A c he b e 2 . Wole Soyinka 3 . John Maxwell Coetzee

68

II. MODERN LATIN AMERICA A. PAINTING 1. Colonial Art [Fig. 21.6] Virgin of the Rosary of Guápulo, ca. 1680 2. The Mexican mural movement [Fig. 21.7] David Alfaro Sigueiros, Cuauhtémoc Against the Myth, 1944

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Compare the Mexican mural movement with Chicana artist Judith F. Baca’s revitalization of the Mexican mural tradition of “Los Tres Grandes” in her Great Wall of Los Angeles project begun in 1976. Consider expanding this discussion to consider the history of murals in the west, from Greek (non-extant) and Roman examples (such as the Villa of the Mysteries, Pompeii) to Giotto, Masaccio, Raphael and beyond. Discuss the fact that—while murals have historically been very stable and permanent—the fate of the wall becomes the fate of the work. Consider Michelangelo’s Sistine Chapel Ceiling and Leonardo’s Last Supper in this regard. (You might want to include a summary of the process of art restoration.)

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Examine how the influence of the Mexican mural movement has carried over into new schools of mural painting, such as those of ghetto wall painters of the 1960s and 1970s and graffiti artists of the 1970s.

3. F r i d a K a h l o [Fig. 21.8] The Two Fridas, 1939

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Mexican artist Frida Kahlo began to paint after a serious bus accident left her with serious injuries. Its effect on her, as well as her troubled marriage to Mexican muralist Diego Rivera, was the source of the subject matter for her paintings. She produced around 200 works, with the majority being self-portraits in various settings and circumstances.

Ask students to consider the meaning of her paintings. What does her work convey? What does it reveal about Kahlo? What do the paintings reveal about the historical and social context? How does her work speak about feminism? Can they think of other artists whose work is so personal? Contrast this to earlier art, such as the works of the Middle Ages, in which the artists treated subjects external to themselves.

4. Wilfredo Lam [Fig. 21.9] The Jungle, 1943 5. F er n a n do Bot er o [Fig. 21.10] Mona Lisa at the Age of Twelve, 1959 B. MUS IC C. LITERATURE 1. Jorge Luis Borges 2. Gabriel García Márquez 3. I s a b e l A l l e n d e

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Magic realism is a Latin American literary style that weaves together realistic events with incredible and fantastic ones to convey the often mysterious truths of life. The realistic and the fantastic are both described with the same intensity.

Magic realists see their work as conveying both the truths of the imagination and those of

69

“reality.” Both Gabriel Garcia Marquez and Isabel Allende use this technique in their novels.

Study excerpts of their novels (Márquez ‘s One Hundred Years of Solitude, 1967; Eng. trans., 1970; Allende’s The House of the Spirits, 1982; Eng. trans., 1985) , or consider using the works of other magic realists such as Italo Calvino, Salman Rushdie, and Angela Carter.

Assign students to write a short story using this technique.

ASSESSMENTS Student self-reviews: MyHumanitiesKit, Review and Explore Instructor Test Bank

RESOURCES IMAGES: MyHumanitiesKit, Image links

BOOKS: Adler, Peter, and Nicholas Barnard. African Majesty: The Textile Art of the Ashanti and Ewe. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1992.

Astonishment and Power. Washington: National Museum of African Art: Smithsonian Institution, 1993. Bacquart, Jean-Baptiste. The Tribal Arts of Africa. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1998.

Ben-Amos, Paula. The Art of Benin. Rev. ed. Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1995. Blauer, Ettagale. African Elegance. New York: Rizzoli, 1999.

Cole, Herbert M. Icons: Ideals and Power in the Art of Africa. Washington: National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution, 1989.

Drewal, Henry, and John Pemberton III. Yoruba: Nine Centuries of African Art and Thought. New York: Center for African Art, 1989.

Harris, Michael D. Transatlantic Dialogue; Contemporary Art In and Out of Africa. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1999.

Mark John, ed. Africa, Arts and Cultures. London: British Museum, 2000.

Meyer, Laure. Art and Craft in Africa: Everyday Life, Ritual, and Court Art. Paris: Terrail, 1995.

70

Roy, Christopher D. Art and Life in Africa: Selections from the Stanley Collection. Iowa City: University of Iowa Museum of Art; Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1992.

Schuster, Carl. Patterns that Connect: Social Symbolism in Ancient & Tribal Art. New York: Abrams, 1996.

Visona, Monica Blackmun, et al. A History of Art in Africa. New York: Abrams, 2000.

Willett, Frank. African Art: An Introduction. Rev. ed. World of Art. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1993.

VIDEOS: Listening to the Silence: African Cross Rhythms. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 33 minutes. Mbira Music: The Spirit of Zimbabwe. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 52 minutes.

Repercussions: A Celebration of African-Influenced Music. 7-part series. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 60 minutes each.

The Seven Ages of Music. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 52 minutes.

71

22 EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY CHAPTER OVERVIEW NEW DIRECTIONS IN THE ARTS Picasso and Cubism impact the arts THE GREAT WAR AND AFTER Changes in a civilization altered by war REPRESSION AND DEPRESSION: THE THIRTIES Global instability infuses the arts

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, the student should be able to . . . . . . define key terms. . . . trace the development of European and American art from 1900 to the end of the 1930’s. . . . identify key works of European and American visual art, literature, music, and theatre from 1900 to the end of the 1930’s. . . . discuss the relationship between European and American arts during this era. . . . describe the effects that Fascism and WWI had on European arts and culture. . . . describe the effects that the Great Depression had on American arts and culture. . . . explain the changing roles of the artist, writer, and composer, during this era.

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. To what extent did writers, artists, and composers, from the early twentieth century deliberately break with tradition? What examples of their work support this break?

2. In the early twentieth century, we see both visual and performing artists “shatter form”. Give an example in support of this assertion.

3. How do we see the idea of the “Age of Uncertainty” reflected in the arts of this era?

4. Describe the influence that European visual and performing artists had on American Artists.

How do we see this work in reverse?

5. In what ways did photography change during the Great Depression? Contrast its new role with its place in the previous century.

6. Discuss how the reader is affected differently by James Joyce’s and Virginia Woolf’s different way of using the stream of consciousness narrative. What do Joyce and Woolf achieve with this technique?

7. Trace the changing role of film during this era.

8. Trace the change in music for the last few decades. What were the most important innovations and influences? Which do think is the most powerful, long-lasting? Why?

72

CHAPTER SUMMARY The early part of the twentieth century was a time of change and instability, leading some to call it an “Age of Uncertainty.” World War I began in 1914, and it is hard to overstate its impact on the arts. After the war, which took the lives of more than eight million soldiers, the whole world mourned. One response to the war was the creation of the Dada movement, which rejected tradition and thrived on childlike, sometimes imbecilic behavior. Marcel Duchamp claimed Dada was a kind of “anti-art” that opposed all recognized values in art and literature. Dada’s negative reaction to World War I was in contrast to the De Stijl movement which represented a universal, hopeful response. Piet Mondrian was the leading painter of the De Stijl school. Both Dada and De Stijl demonstrate the spirit of the avant-garde in the arts which thrived after the war.

Another response was Surrealism, which was dedicated to the realm of dreams. The most famous of the Surrealist artists was Salvador Dali, who depicted illogically juxtaposed objects and impossibly distorted forms. A number of sculptors began to work with abstract forms, including Constantin Brancusi and Henry Moore. Alexander Calder’s mobiles were sculptural forms suspended from the ceiling. Alfred Stieglitz was the leading photographer of his day, and his art gallery helped introduce avant-garde art to America. Stieglitz’s wife, Georgia O’ Keefe, was primarily known for her expressive organic abstractions of nature. Post-war Paris was the scene of the most adventurous new writing by authors such as James Joyce. Ezra Pound and T.S. Eliot are considered the two most influential American modernist poets. James Joyce introduced startling technical innovations to modern fiction, including intricate mythic and literary references and a stream of consciousness narrative technique. Virginia Woolf used her novels to reveal her characters’ inner thoughts and feelings, rather than dwelling on what the character said or did. Ernest Hemingway, one of the most influential writers of the period, had a style which relied on simple plots and laconic and spare language. Before World War I, Stravinsky’s The Rite of Spring created quite a stir in the world of music, as did Viennese composer Arnold Schoenberg’s atonal music.

In the U. S., the stock market crash of 1929 exposed a deep social imbalance between the haves and the have-nots. Franklin Delano Roosevelt wanted to give the have-nots what he called a “New Deal.” A program inaugurated by the Farm Security Administration included talented photographers Dorothea Lange and Walker Evans. After the Depression, many American artists turned to a more naturalistic representation of the world’s experiences through regional scenes.

Edward Hopper attempted through his art to show the lives of the middle class. Thomas Hart Benton painted murals across the country, representing American themes and experiences. The inspiration for American regionalist painting was the Southern regional fiction that emerged between the wars. William Faulkner chose to be a chronicler of the American South, experimenting widely with narrative and even using a stream of consciousness technique.

Flannery O’Connor was a social satirist who set her fiction in the South and often challenged American attitudes towards issues such as race relations. Aaron Copland was one of the most highly esteemed composers. His music often imitates American fiddle tunes and hymns.

George Gershwin blended classical and jazz elements in music that was also inspired by African American blues. Scott Joplin made famous ragtime, a type of jazz piano. Louis Armstrong was a vocalist and premier jazz trumpeter. Duke Ellington was one of the greatest jazz pianists and arrangers.

Fascism was first established in Italy under dictator Benito Mussolini. The movement spread to Germany, where Adolf Hitler took advantage of public despair over the state of Germany’s economy following World War I. In 1934, Hitler became president of Germany, leading to World War II and the Holocaust. Francisco Franco led Spain’s right wing against the new Republican government. He ruled Spain as a Fascist dictator from 1939 until he died in 1975.

MyHumanitiesKit RESOURCES, CHAPTER TWENTY TWO

73

Objectives Flashcards Study Critical Thinking Multiple Choice Interact – Closer Look: Picasso’s Collages Sergei Eisenstein: The Battleship Potemkin Picasso: The History of Guernica Review and Explore Image Links Humanities PPT Glossary Audio Glossary College Art Association Write and Research MySearchLab: www.MySearchLab.com

KEY TERMS Avant garde Dada reinforced concrete Depression Fauvism anti-art stream of consciousness jazz Cubism Surrealism

montage riff collage automatism atonality ragtime Futurism De Stijl (Neo Plasticism) Nazi

syncopation Simultaneisme International style Lebensraum scat German Expressionism Bauhaus Dust Bowl swing

SUGGESTED TEACHING OUTLINE I. THE AVANT-GARDE: NEW DIRECTIONS IN THE ARTS

> TEACHING STRATEGY: [TOPIC: THE AMBIVALENCE OF MODERNITY] Ask each student to reflect on the signs of progress around them, and to identify a sign of progress that they find welcome and one that they find unwelcome. Have a student record on the chalkboard a list of welcome and unwelcome signs of progress. Invite students to identify patterns in the class’s attitude toward progress. Compare their attitudes to those of artists and thinkers in the later nineteenth century, such as Baudelaire, Baron Haussmann, and Dostoyevsky.

A. FAUVISM 1. Henri Matisse [Fig. 22.1] Woman with a Hat, 1905 B. CUBISM 1. Pablo Picasso [Fig. 22.2] Les Demoiselles d’Avignon, 1907 [Fig. 22.4] Still Life with Chair Caning, 1912

74

> TEACHING STRATEGY: If time is limited for your presentation of modern art, select only a few examples, and give them extended time. The Women of Avignon should certainly be one of them. Prepare a detailed lecture in which you: a) analyze the work; b) consider the influences upon Picasso from nonwestern and earlier western art; c) consider the influence of this work upon both the development of Cubism and later styles.

> DISCUSSION: Divide the students into groups, having them consider the meaning of this work. What is Picasso saying?

> TEACHING STRATEGY: In teaching Cubism, I find it useful to show slides of two

versions of Monsieur Vollard by Picasso, his “realistic, normal” version, and the cubist version. Students find the comparison striking. See MyHumanitiesKit, Chapter 22, Interact, Closer Look: Picasso’s Collages.

2. Georges Braque [Fig. 22.3] The Portuguese, 1911

C. FUTURISM 1. Filippo Marinetti

> TEACHING STRATEGY: If there is time, read an excerpt from Marinetti’s Futurist Manifesto. This should certainly spark discussion!

2. G i n o S e v e r i n i [Fig. 22.6] Suburban Train Arriving at Paris, 1915 D. GERMAN EXPRESSIONISM 1. The Bridge: Emil Nolde [Fig. 22.7] Dancing Around the Golden Calf 2. The Blue Rider: Vassily Kandinsky [Fig. 22.8] Improvisation No. 30 (Warlike Theme), 1913 E. THE MUSIC OF IGOR STRAVINSKY

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Tell students about the riot this work prompted at its Paris premiere in 1913. Can they imagine a work of “art” music prompting such a reaction today?

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Have students listen to the Stravinsky excerpt, followed by the first movement of Mozart’s Eine Kleine Nachtmusik. In what ways is Stravinsky changing the definition of music? What does each work suggest about the culture of which it was a part?

II. THE GREAT WAR AND AFTER A. WORLD WAR I

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Compare art and literature that followed World War I with art and literature that followed the Vietnam War.

B. THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION AND AFTER C. THE DADA MOVEMENT 1 . M a rc el D uc ha m p [Fig. 22.10] Fountain, exhibited 1917

75

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: The New York Armory Show of 1913 D. THE SURREALISTS 1. Joan Miro [Fig. 22.11] Painting, 1933

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Have students try their hand at an “automatic” painting.

2. S a l v a d o r D a l i [Fig. 22.12] The Persistence of Memory, 1931

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Compare this work with the works of Hieronymus Bosch. How are the technique and goal similar, and how are they different?

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Ask students what questions Dali’s work seems to pose. Ask for student input on the following: What does the work convey? What is the significance of the melting watches? What is the background landscape from? Why do melting watches appear often through Dali’s works? What surrealistic skills are demonstrated in this painting? Consider asking these questions first, without providing the students with any concrete facts. Then give them some information about Dali’s life and works. Use this technique to make the point that works often become more meaningful when we have supplemental information.

3. Meret Oppenheim [Fig. 22.13] Object (Les Dejeuner en Fourrure), 1936 D. THE De STIJL MOVEMENT: PIET MONDRIAN [Fig. 22.14] Composition in Red, Yellow, and Blue, 1920

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Scholars often link Mondrian’s work with that of another Dutchman, Jan Vermeer. Ask students why this might be so.

E. ABSTRACTION IN SCULPTURE 1 . I s a m u N o g u c hi [Fig. 22.23] Martha Graham in Frontier, set by Noguchi 2 . Constantin Brancusi [Fig. 22.15] Bird in Space, 1928

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Brancusi vs. the U.S. Customs Office. The question posed by the 1927 inquiry: Is Bird in Space a work of art, and therefore exempt from customs, or is it a hunk of metal? The conclusion that it was a work of art was based on the fact that Brancusi called himself an artist and made his living “doing” art. This case should prompt some interesting discussion.

3 . Barbara H epwort h [Fig. 22.16] Three Forms, 1935 4 . Henry Moore [Fig. 22.17] Recumbent Figure, 1939 F. ARCHITECTURE 1 . W al t e r G ro pi us [Fig. 22.18] Bauhaus, Dessau, Germany, 1925-26 2. Le Courbusier [Fig. 22.19] Savoy House, Poissy-sur-Seine, France, 1929-30 3. Frank Lloyd Wright [22.20] Falling Water, Bear Run, PA, 1936

76

F. AMERICAN MODERNISM 1 . G eo r gi a O ’ K e ef e [Fig. 22.21] Yellow Calla, 1929 2. C h a r l e s D e m u t h [Fig. 22.22] Aucassin and Nicolette, 1921 G. MODERNIST LITERATURE 1. Ezra Pound and T.S. Eliot 2. James Joyce 3. Virginia Woolf

> TEACHING STRATEGY: James Joyce and Virginia Woolf both use the narrative technique of stream of consciousness so that their narrative is completely within the mental impressions of the characters. Joyce and Woolf use this technique differently: whereas Joyce keeps his narrative almost completely within the thoughts of one character, Woolf tend to move quickly from one character to another. Examine excerpts from Joyce’s Ulysses (1922) and Woolf’s To the Lighthouse (1927) to study the narrative technique of stream of consciousness and to compare their use of this technique. Ask students to discuss how the reader is affected differently by Joyce’s and Woolf’s different way of using the stream of consciousness narrative. What do Joyce and Woolf achieve with this technique?

4. Ernest H emingway 5. Franz Kafka H. RUSSIAN FILM 1. Sergei Eisenstein [Fig. 22.24] film stills from Battleship Potemkin, 1924. For more on this, see MyHumanitiesKit, Chapter 22, Interact, Closer Look: Sergei Eisenstein: “The Battleship Potemkin”.

I. M O D E R N M U S I C 1.

Arnold Schoenberg and Atonality

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Play a recording of a song from Schoenberg’s Pierrot Lunaire or another atonal piece. Invite students to describe the mood of the composition. Review Schoenberg’s technical innovations in tonality and discuss their effect on the emotions of the listener. Refer students to the discussion of ethos in ancient Greek music, and ask them to apply this concept to twentieth-century avantgarde music. Also, in the Baroque chapter, a Teaching Strategy suggested that you ask students to liken the major-minor tonal system to linear perspective. If, in a tonal work everything fits neatly into its place just like a painting using linear perspective, what happens in an atonal work?

II. REPRESSION AND DEPRESSION: THE THIRTIES A. FASCISM IN EUROPE 1. Benit o Mussolini 2. Adolf Hitler 3. Francisco Franco

> DISCUSSION: Discuss the aversion to modernism common to Nazi, Stalinist, and traditionalist critics of the early twentieth century. Ask students to speculate on the reasons that people might find modernist art offensive or disturbing. Invite a discussion of the reasons that a government-sponsored agency (museum, gallery, or university) might legitimately decline to sanction such works. Compare students’ responses to the rationales used by government censors in the 1930s to suppress or exclude modernism.

77

> VIDEO: Hitler’s Degenerate Art is an excellent introduction to the struggles of modernist artists in Nazi Germany.

[Fig. 22.25] Guernica, 1937. For more on this, see MyHumanitiesKit, Chapter 22, Interact, Closer Look: Picasso: The History of “Guernica”.

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Compare modernism’s treatment of the human figure to the classical styles of ancient Greece, Renaissance Italy, and eighteenth-century neoclassicism. What attitude do modernist artists such as Picasso, Dali, or even Moore seem to be expressing about the nature of the human form?

B. FRANKLIN DELANO ROOSEVELT & THE NEW DEAL C. PHOTOGRAPHY AND THE FSA (Farm Security Administration) 1 . D o r o t h e a L a n g e [Fig. 22.26] Migrant Mother; Nipomo, California, 1936 2 . Walker Evans [Fig. 22.27] Washroom and Dining Area of Floyd Burrough’s Home, Hale County, Alabama, 1936 3 . Mar garet Bour ke - W hi t e [Fig. 22.28] At the Time of the Louisville Flood, 1937 4 . Louise Dahl -Wolfe [Fig. 22.29] Colette, 1951 5 . L o l a A l v a r e z Br a v o [Fig.22.30] From Generation to Generation, ca. 1950

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Present a lecture on the photographers who were employed by the Federal Security Administration to photograph the plight of rural America. Discuss how the power of photography as a tool for social reform was recognized. Cite other photographers who strove to fight social injustices by treating it in their photographs, such as W. Eugene Smith.

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Examine how the work At the Time of the Louisville Flood by Margaret Bourke White contains visual echoes of Mondrian’s De Stijl abstractions.

D. REGIONALISM IN AMERICAN PAINTING

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Explain how regionalism in American painting developed

from the regionalist emphasis identifiable in American fiction between the two world wars.

1. Edward H o p p e r [Fig. 22.31] Nighthawks, 1942

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: Artists, including Hopper, who focus upon the loneliness of urban life.

2 . Thomas Hart Benton [Fig. 22.32] Missouri Mural (section), 1936 3 . Jacob Lawrence [Fig. 22.33] They Also Found Discrimination, from the series The Migration of the Negro, 1940-41

78

> STUDENT ASSIGNMENT: This work, part of a series of 60 paintings, captured the migration of African Americans to the North seeking employment following World War I. Assign students to choose one painting from the Migration Series and explore the painting as an art form as well as the painting as a chronicle of the history and social progress of African Americans. Have students present their evaluation to the class. You may also want to discuss African American contemporaries of Lawrence as well as introduce African-American artists who were influenced by Lawrence’s work.

E. SOUTHERN REGIONALIST WRITING 1. William Faul kner 2. Fl annery O’ Connor F. THE AMERICAN SOUND

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Explore how a number of composers and musicians sought to convey their own distinctive American “sound,” just as American painters and writers evoked the distinct character of America’s regions. Bring in CDs and have students listen to banjo and fiddle music that was popular in the Appalachian mountains; cowboy songs on the American prairie; gospel music in African-American communities in the South; and jazz, which developed in New Orleans and spread to big cities around the country.

1.

2.

3.

Charles Ives Aaron Copland George Gershwin

G. THE JAZZ AGE

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Point out how the origins of American jazz go back to African rhythms and organizational principles.

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Bring in CDs of Scott Joplin, Louis Armstrong, and Duke Ellington to teach students about the jazz riff, ragtime, syncopation, scat singing, and swing music. As you introduce each concept, play a song that demonstrates the musical term. Following the lecture, you may want to play a sampling of songs and quiz the students on the musicians and terminology.

1.

Scott Joplin

2.

3.

Louis Armstrong Duke Ellington [Fig. 22.36] Duke Ellington Orchestra

ASSESSMENTS Student self-reviews: MyHumanitiesKit, Review and Explore Instructor Test Bank

RESOURCES IMAGES:

79

MyHumanitiesKit, Image links

BOOKS: Arnason, H.H., and Marla Prather. A History of Modern Art. 4th ed. New York: Abrams, 1998. Ashton, D., ed. Twentieth-Century Artists on Art. New York: Pantheon, 1985.

Brown, Milton W. The Story of the Armory Show: The 1913 Exhibition That Changed American Art. 2nd ed. New York: Abbeville, 1988.

Cantor, N. Twentieth-Century Culture: Modernism to Deconstructionism. New York: Peter Lang, 1988. Caws, Mary Ann, ed. Surrealist Painters and Poets: An Anthology. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2001.

Coke, C., and others. The Russian and Soviet Avant-Garde, 1915-1932: Art, Architecture, and Design. New York: Rizzoli, 1992.

Collier, J.L. The Making of Jazz. New York: Delta, 1978.

Freedman, Russell. Martha Graham: A Dancer’s Life. New York: Clarion, 1998. Gordon, D.E. Expressionism: Art and Idea. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987. Griffiths, P. Modern Music: A Concise History. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1985. Hughes, R. The Shock of the New. Rev. ed. New York: Knopf, 1991.

Ogren, K.J. The Jazz Revolution: Twenties America and the Meaning of Jazz. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.

Oppler, E., ed. Picasso’s Guernica. New York: Norton, 1988.

Varnedoe, K. A Fine Disregard: What Makes Modern Art Modern. New York: Abrams, 1990.

Weiss, Jeffrey S. The Popular Culture of Modern Art: Picasso, Duchamp, and AvantGardism. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994.

VIDEOS: Arnold Schoenberg: My Evolution. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 50 minutes.

Art of the Western World (8)—Into the Twentieth Century: (I) Into the Twentieth Century and (II) Between the Wars. ABC-CLIO, Inc., 30 minutes each.

Degenerate Art. PBS Home Video, 60 minutes.

80

Harmonics Series: Arnold Schoenberg. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 28 minutes. Martha Graham in Performance. Kultur, 93 minutes.

Music in Time Series: War and Peace. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 60 minutes.

Music of the 20t Century: Leaving Home. Seven-part series. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 52 minutes each. h

Picasso: A Primitive Soul. A&E Biography, 60 minutes.

Treasures of the World: Guernica: Testimony of War. PBS Home Video, 30 minutes. (Video also includes Theft of the Mona Lisa.)

81

23 MID-TWENTIETH CENTURY AND LATER CHAPTER OVERVIEW MID-TWENTIETH CENTURY AND LATER The existential and the abstract change the face of the humanities POP CULTURE Modern society and art exchange ideas and influences

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, the student should be able to . . . . . . identify key terms. . . . recognize key works of visual art, music, drama, and literature from the mid-twentieth century on. . . . trace the developments in the arts from the end of WWII. . . . outline the effects of WWII on the arts in America. . . . discuss the effects of pop culture on the arts. . . . explain the influences on music from the 1950’s to the 1990’s.

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Explain the different interests of the Abstract Expressionists, Conceptual artists, Minimalists, and Pop artists.

2. Define “Existentialism” and explain how it appears in the works of Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir.

3. How did major historical events, such as the atom bomb, affect the arts (pick one: visual arts, music, theatre, or literature)?

4. What qualities of Frank Lloyd Wright’s work make it timeless?

5. Compare and contrast “realism” in dramatic works to the “theatre of the absurd”?

6. Why would an artist choose to create a work with no subject matter?

7. What events occur that helped give rise to the “beat” poets?

8. What reasons does Simone de Beauvoir give for women’s traditional subordination to men?

9. How did consumerism change society and the arts? Is this a positive or negative force?

10. Trace the changes, ideas, and purpose in architecture of the post -war period.

Which is the most important or influential? Why? 11. In what ways did music change during this era? What were the greatest innovations? How does this compare and contrast with musical innovation in the past?

82

CHAPTER SUMMARY The modern world came into being after World War II. At least seventeen million soldiers had died fighting, and the economies of Europe and Asia had been destroyed. In 1940, German troops invaded France, and the French eventually turned over two-thirds of France to the Germans. Britain fought back under new Prime Minister Winston Churchill. In the Pacific, Japanese Emperor Hirohito joined forces with Adolph Hitler; in December 1941, Japan attacked the American naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, bringing America into the war. Slowly the Allies gained the upper hand in both Europe and the Pacific. In May of 1945, U.S. President Harry Truman declared the war in Europe over. Three months later, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, forcing Japan to surrender. The rebuilding of Europe and Japan required a huge investment. U.S. Secretary of State George Marshall developed a plan to provide economic aid to European countries on the condition that they work together for their mutual benefit. Japan’s new constitution prohibited it from developing an army or air force, freeing up money for other purposes. The struggle for world power between the United States and the Soviet Union was called the “Cold War.” The period after World War II witnessed a steady movement from destruction to affluence. Existentialist philosopher Søren Kierkegaard emphasized the essentially ethical nature of human life, with each individual responsible for making choices and commitments. French philosopher JeanPaul Sartre thought that human beings are defined by the choices they make, and that it is not the situations people find themselves in that fix their identities, but the choices they make in response to those situations. Simone de Beauvoir emphasized the need for women to make their own decisions and claim their independent existence. The arts also began to emphasize the value of individual expression, focusing on a style of highly personal and subjective abstract painting called “abstract expressionism.” Several Abstract Expressionist artists, supported by the WPA in the 1930s, went on to lead America to prominence in the international art scene in the 1940s. One such artist was Jackson Pollock, whose body of work is referred to as the “drip” paintings. Like Pollock, Willem de Kooning was interested more in the act of creating the painting than in the finished product. Mark Rothko, who worked in a style known as “color field painting,” produced a series of works consisting of soft-edged rectangles in various colors. A second generation Abstract Expressionist, Helen Frankenthaler worked on huge, raw canvases laid out on the floor, pouring paint onto the canvas. Most of the great postwar architects developed a single international style, based primarily on the nature of modern materials and structure, using slender steel posts and beams, and concrete reinforced by steel. Walter Gropius was one of the leading architects in Germany, and director of the Bauhaus art school there. The main principle of the Bauhaus was to closely connect art, science, and technology.

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe was a colleague of Gropius’s at the Bauhaus; he moved from Germany to the United States, where he created the modern skyscraper. Another leader of the International Style was Le Corbusier. He called the functional homes he designed machines à habiter— “machines to live in.” The most influential architect of the age was American Frank Lloyd Wright, who believed that the character of a building must be related to its site and blend with the terrain. Modern drama begins in the nineteenth century with the plays of Henrik Ibsen.

The existentialist sense of the absurd dominated post-war theater. Absurdist dramatists rejected the idea that plot should be structured. One of the most important of absurdist dramatists was Irish-born playwright Samuel Beckett, whose best-known work is Waiting for Godot.

Beckett mixed humor with pathos to portray a bleakly pessimistic view of life.

The 1950s and 1960s saw an explosion of the consumer culture in America. It was during this time that shopping malls, fast food restaurants, and television all arrived on the scene. Many artists and intellectuals realized that art might be made out of almost anything. Composer John Cage demonstrated this with his piece 4’33”, which consisted of nothing but four minutes and thirty-three seconds of silence. One of Cage’s students, Robert Rauschenberg, began taking junk and trash and combining them to create “art.” Louise Nevelson used small compositional units

83

made of pieces of wood furniture to create wall-size assemblages, which she unified by painting a single color. Andy Warhol’s work embodied the world of mass production and image creation.

His style, including his famous portrayals of Campbell’s soup cans and Marilyn Monroe, was labeled “Pop Art.” One of Warhol’s contemporaries, Roy Lichtenstein, painted large-scale comics, often depicting the lives of young women. Claes Oldenburg’s giant versions of the most banal things, such as clothespins, transform the everyday into the monumental. Cage’s minimalist tendencies were attractive to a number of sculptors as well, including Donald Judd, who created a series of what he called “Specific Objects” which were uniform, modular boxes made of iron. Sol LeWitt also worked in modular units, creating frameworks of white, baked enamel arranged as an open cube and repeated according to various mathematical formulas. Christo and Jeanne-Claude create site-specific sculpture which is usually outdoors, public, large-scale and temporary. The artists’ “environmental art,” which has included wrapping large structures such as the Reichstag in Berlin, is intentionally transitory. No architect’s work epitomizes pop culture’s collision of styles more than that of Frank Gehry. His Santa Monica house represents the consciously assembled style of past and present elements present in “postmodern” architecture. The “Beat” generation of writers saw American prosperity as a negative. Perhaps the leading voice of the generation was Jack Kerouac, who wrote in what he called “spontaneous prose.” This is essentially the same style used by poet Alien Ginsberg. One of the era’s most highly regarded musical talents was composer, conductor, and pianist Leonard Bernstein, who is perhaps best known for West Side Story, a contemporary version of Romeo and Juliet.

MyHumanitiesKit RESOURCES, CHAPTER TWENTY THREE Objectives Flashcards Study Critical Thinking Review and Explore Image Links Humanities PPT Glossary Audio Glossary College Art Association Write and Research MySearchLab: www.MySearchLab.com

KEY TERMS Existentialism color field assemblage Minimalism

Abstract Expressionism Pop Art Op Art action painting

SUGGESTED TEACHING OUTLINE I. MID-TWENTIETH CENTURY AND LATER [Fig. 23.1] Allied troops landing in Normandy.

A.

COLD WAR AND ECONOMIC RECOVERY

B.

THE VIETNAM WARS

C.

THE PHILOSOPHY OF EXISTENTIALISM

84

mobiles Happening Beat

1.

2.

Jean-Paul Sartre Simone de Beauvoir

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Compare de Beauvoir’s The Second Sex with Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique. Beauvoir studied the secondary role of women in society and is credited with inspiring the women’s movements both in Europe and in the United States.

Friedan’s label, “the feminine mystique,” referred to the label for the silent suffering that millions of women were experiencing. This mystique told women they should be satisfied sacrificing their own aspirations for their families. Friedan proposed a life plan that allows women to have both a family and a career. Thus, the movement for equal rights for women began. Friedan is credited with revitalizing feminism in America and helped found the National Organization for Women.

D. ABSTRACTION IN AMERICAN ART

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Point out that many artists in America worked for the WPA during the 1930s. Is there still need to support artists? Discuss the controversy that continues regarding the National Endowment for the Art’s support of works that are considered by many to be obscene or offensive. Consider dividing the class in half, staging a debate on the issue.

> ASSIGNMENT: Assign to individual students or small groups a work of art discussed in this chapter. Instruct them to find a work of art from an earlier chapter and relate it to their assigned work. The relation may be one of imitation, mockery, allusion, or outright negation. As the class views slides of their works, have students explain each contemporary work’s relation to a tradition.

> DISCUSSION: Tom Wolfe’s The Painted Word presents his thoroughly amusing and highly thought-provoking interpretation of modern art. Reading excerpts in class, or assigning the book, should get students talking.

1. Jackson Pollock [Fig. 23.2] Autumn Rhythm: Number 30, 1950

> TEACHING STRATEGY: If space and time permit, have students create their own “drip” paintings. Have students throw, drip, and splatter painting onto a canvas as they move over and around it. As in Pollock’s method, encourage students to spread the paint over the entire surface with swirls racing out toward the edge only to turn back into the center. Encourage students to swing their arms and move their entire body when making the drip painting. Afterward, explore the following issues in class: How does Pollock’s style convey the sense of the artist’s physical activity, animation, and vitality? How is the actual process of getting paint onto the canvas the most important part of the work? How is the “work” not so much the finished product as the action of making it? Have students share their experience of the process and discuss how critics said anyone could throw paint across plain canvas. Discuss Pollock’s unsurpassed skill in handling the composition.

1.

Lee Krasner [Fig. 23.3] Flowering Limb, 1963 2. Willem de Kooning [Fig. 23.4] Excavation, 1950 3. Mark Rothko

85

[Fig. 23.5] Red, Brown, and Black, 1958 4. Helen Frankenthaler [Fig. 23.6] Mauve District, 1966 5. Lois Mailou Jones [Fig. 23.7] Ode the Kinshasa, 1972 E. ARCHITECTURE

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Explore the modern urban environment by organizing a field trip to a city or showing slides. Invite students to recognize examples of International Style and postmodern (Chapter 24) styles in architecture. Note the functions of major buildings and also their owners (the architect’s patrons, as it were). Provoke a discussion of the livability of modern cities and architecture’s role in creating the modern urban environment.

1. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe [Fig. 23.8] Lake Shore Drive Apartment Houses, Chicago, 1950-52 2. Le Corbusier [Fig. 23.9] Notre-Dame-du-Haut, Ronchamp, France, 1950-55 3. Frank Lloyd Wright [Fig. 23.10] Guggenheim Museum, New York, designed 19942-43, built 1957-60

> TEACHING STRATEGY: In Bauhaus to Our House, Tom Wolfe presents and scathing (and highly entertaining!) look at International Style architecture. Assign students to read the short book, or read portions aloud in class to spark discussion regarding the desirability of this style for living and working.

> VIDEO: The House on the Waterfall is an excellent introduction to Fallingwater and Wright’s work in general.

> ADDITIONAL LECTURE TOPIC: The antipathy between Frank Lloyd Wright and Le Corbusier.

> DISCUSSION: Using examples from your campus or community, discuss the influence of modernism on local architecture. Invite students to identify the formal qualities shared among these modernist buildings (for example, glass walls, an unbroken surface, interior structure expressed on the exterior, rectangular shapes, etc.). Discuss the advantages and disadvantages, both functional and aesthetic, of such modernist buildings in local settings.

F. MODERN DRAMA 1. Realism and Henrik Ibsen (see Chapter 17) 2. Theater of the Absurd 3. S a m u e l B e c ke t t

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Take students to see a modern drama, or show a video.

G. SCULPTURE 1. Alexander Calder [Fig. 23.11] Red Gongs, 1950 2. I s a m u N o g u c hi [Fig.23.12] Kouros, 1944-45 II. POP CULTURE

86

A. ARTISTS OF THE EVERYDAY

> DISCUSSION: WHAT IS ART, ANYWAY?

Instruct students to respond to the following instruction:

• • •

List three objects or events that are art. Be prepared to explain what makes these things art.

List three objects or events that are not art. Be prepared to explain what makes these things non-art.

List at least one object or event about which you have reason to be unsure.

In class, group students in three or four and ask them to share their initial responses.

Emphasize that their reasons are most important to the discussion and that the most important examples will be the most controversial. After a few minutes in small groups, have each group report the most interesting claims or issues in their discussion. Record their ideas on the chalkboard.

Review the results of the initial discussion. Then ask students to write a sentence or two in their notes or journals that defines what is and is not art, as they see it. Instruct them to choose one example from this chapter that clearly meets their definition, and one example that raises doubt. Invite a discussion of student choices, eliciting their reasoning as fully as possible.

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Bring to class the comics section of a Sunday newspaper, a box of Brillo pads, a fashion magazine photograph of a film star, and other “pop” objects. Show slides of works of pop art and ask students to explain why the same objects or images are considered art in one context and not art in another context.

> DISCUSSION: How does the thinking of Pop artists regarding what art is and where the materials should come from relate to the thinking of Dada artists?

1.

Robert Rauschenberg [Fig. 23.13] Odalisk, 1955-58 2. L o u i s e N e v e l s o n [Fig. 23.14] Sky Cathedral, 1958 3. Andy Warhol [Fig. 23.15] Vegetarian Vegetable from Campbell Soup II, 1969 4. R o y L i c h t e n s t e i n [Fig. 23.16] Drowning Girl, 1963 5. C l a e s O l d e n b u r g [Fig. 23.17] Two Cheeseburgers, with Everything, 1961 6. M a r i s o l E s c o b a r [Fig. 23.18] Women and Dog, 1964 7. T h e H a p p e n i n g [See “Connections, Rauschenberg, Cage, and Cunningham]

> ACTIVITY: Happenings were popular between 1959 and the mid-1960s. To demonstrate this spontaneous form of improvisation, have students work together in class to create a happening, and encourage each student to invite a friend to participate in the event. Discuss how happenings contain improvisation but are still orchestrated performances. Encourage students to blend painting, sculpture, film, text, sounds, and

87

audience participation. You may wish to study other artists who have experimented with happenings, including Claes Oldenburg, Jim Dine, and Robert Whitman.

B. MINIMAL AND CONCEPTUAL ART 1.

Sol Le Witt [Fig. 23.20] Open Modular Cube, 1966 2. Bridget Riley [Fig. 23.21] Hesitate, 1964

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Relate these works to a minimalist work of music, such as Steve Reich’s Violin Phase (1979).

C. ARCHITECTURE 1. Richard Rogers and Renzo Piano [Fig. 23.24] Pompidou Center, Paris, 1971-77 2. Frank Gehry [Fig. 23.25] Gehry house, Santa Monica, 1977-78 [Fig. 23.26] Gehry house, plan, 1977-78 D. LITERATURE: THE BEATS 1. Jack Kerouac

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Examine how Kerouac’s “spontaneous prose” has roots in the automatic writing of Surrealism and the expressive gesture of the Abstract Expressionist painters. You may wish to read excerpts of Kerouac’s novel On the Road (1957), which is considered a major document of the Beat generation.

2. A l l e n G i n s b e r g E. THE POPULARIZATION OF CLASSICAL MUSIC 1 . The Bo st o n P o ps 2. M u sic al Theat er 3. Leonard Bernst ein

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Point out to students how Bernstein’s West Side Story (1957) is an updated version of Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, in an urban setting with intercultural tensions. Discuss how Bernstein transforms Shakespeare’s warring Capulet and Montague families into two rival gangs from New York City, the Jets and Sharks.

4.

Andrew Lloyd Weber

F. LATE MODERN MUSIC

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Invite a small panel of local musicians to visit your class. If you are able, invite musicians of different kinds: classical, jazz, rock-and-roll. Ask the musicians to describe their vocation and their views about their own style of music and other styles.

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Stage of “performance” of John Cage’s 4’33”. Take your seat at the piano, raise the lid cover, set some music in front of you, set up an alarm clock or stop watch, and proceed to sit there (if you can!) for the allotted time. Use this to lead into discussion of what music is, comparable to the earlier discussion topic of what art is.

Summarize the three distinctive features of the work: 1) it is composed of the most

88

minimal of elements; 2) it consists of everyday sounds that occur by chance; and 3) no two performances of this piece are alike.

G. ROCK AND ROLL

ASSESSMENTS Student self-reviews: MyHumanitiesKit, Review and Explore Instructor Test Bank

RESOURCES IMAGES: MyHumanitiesKit, Image links

BOOKS: Anfam, David. Abstract Expressionism. World of Art. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1990.

Archer, Michael. Art Since 1960. 2nd ed. New York: Thames & Hudson, 2002.

Batchelor, David. Minimalism. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1997.

Bolton, Richard, ed. Culture Wars: Documents from the Recent Controversies in the Arts.

New York: New Press, 1992.

Brindle, Reginald S. The New Music: The Avant-Garde Since 1945. London: Oxford University Press, 1975; reprint 1987.

Castleman, Riva, ed. Art of the Forties. New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1991.

Chipp, Herschel B. Theories of Modern Art: A Source Book by Artists and Critics. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968.

Cope, David. New Directions in Music. 4th ed. Dubuque: William C. Brown, 1984. Droste, Magdalena. Bauhaus, 1919-1939. Cologne: Taschen, 1990.

Freedburg, David. The Power of Images: Studies in the History and Theory of Response.

Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989.

89

Giedion, Sigfried. Walter Gropius: Work and Teamwork. New York: Dover, 1992. Griffiths, Paul. Cage. London: Oxford University Press, 1981 . Modern Music: The Avant Garde Since 1945. New York: Braziller, 1981.

Harrison, Charles, and Paul Wood, eds. Art in Theory: 1900-1990: An Anthology of Changing Ideas. Oxford: Blackwell, 1992.

Livingstone, Marco. Pop Art: A Continuing History. New York: Abrams, 1990.

Martin, William R., and Julius Drossin. Music of the Twentieth Century. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1980.

Reich, Steve. Writings about Music. Halifax: Press of Nova Scotia Art and Design, 1974.

Salzman, Eric. Twentieth-Century Music: An Introduction. 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1988.

Schwarz, Daniel R. Reconfiguring Modernism: Explorations in the Relationship Between Modern Art and Modern Literature. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997.

Wolfe, Tom. From Bauhaus to Our House. New York: Washington Square Press, 1981. . The Painted Word. New York: Bantam, 1975.

VIDEOS: Andy Warhol: Life on the Edge. A&E Biography, 50 minutes.

From Zero: John Cage. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 50 minutes.

The House on the Waterfall. WQED Communications, 30 minutes.

Louis Nevelson. Available from Teacher’s Video Company, 30 minutes.

Music in Time Series: Today and Tomorrow. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 60 minutes.

The Music of the 20th Century: Leaving Home. 7-part series. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 52 minutes each.

Robert Rauschenberg: Inventive Genius. Available from Teacher’s Video Company, 60 minutes.

90

24 DIVERSITY IN CONTEMPORARY LIFE CHAPTER OVERVIEW DIVERSITY IN THE UNITED STATES Women artists rise to prominence The Internet connects the world

THE GLOBAL VILLAGE

Technology reaches out to all the ends of the earth, bringing humanity together

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, the student should be able to . . . . . . define key terms. . . . identify works of visual and performing art from the contemporary era. . . . trace the developments in the arts from the 1970’s to the present. . . . explain the relationship between the arts and political and social movements in the late twentieth century. . . . discuss the increasing diversity of artists over the past thirty years. . . . discuss the new developments in media. . . . trace the relationship between structuralism and deconstruction in the arts.

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. What artist (writer, etc.) do you consider to be a structuralist? Which one do you consider a deconstructionist? Why? 2. Compare Basquiat’s work with an acknowledged masterpiece, such as Leonardo’s Last Supper or Mona Lisa. First, what are your criteria for judging a work of art? Next, discuss how both works “stack up” against the criteria. Finally, does Basquiat’s work deserve a place in the canon of great works? Why or why not?

3. Define “globalization”. How do we see it manifested in the arts?

4. Why was the Vietnam Veteran’s Memorial by Maya Ying Lin so controversial?

5. How did the Civil Rights Movement, the Vietnam War, and the women’s movement contribute to an increased awareness on the part of many Americans of the value and power of diversity? What works of art were directly influenced by these events/movements? What was the impetus behind the work of art?

6. “Voice” and “identity” have become increasingly important for artists of this era. How do we see these ideas come forth in their work?

7. How has technological innovation impacted society and the arts in general? What changes are yet to come?

91

8. If folk music is the music of the common people, and perhaps specific groups, what people or groups are recognized in music today? Are there “new” styles that define specific groups?

How influential are they? Do they merge with mainstream music?

CHAPTER SUMMARY Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Americans questioned their long-held beliefs because of the Civil Rights Movement, the Vietnam War, and the Women’s Movement. “Deconstruction” consists of taking apart philosophical traditions on the assumption that there are, in all philosophies, leaps in logic and inconsistencies, and that the revelation of these tells us more about the philosophy than does the philosophy itself. The single most important development in the art world in the last three decades has been the rise to prominence of visions outside the mainstream. Women have contributed significantly to the contemporary visions, thereby gaining attention in the art world. Probably no single woman artist has had a greater impact on the public’s opinion of women artists than Judy Chicago. Her work The Dinner Party consists of a giant triangular table with individual place settings for thirty-nine women, a monument to women’s accomplishments throughout history. One of the innovators of the performance art movement is Eleanor Antin, an artist noted for developing a series of personae that allow her to explore hidden aspects of her own situation in life. Photographer Cindy Sherman photographs herself in a variety of “self-portraits,” changing identities as easily as changing clothes. Susan Rothenberg, best known for her images of horses, has also achieved a major place in American painting. Young African-American painter Jean-Michel Basquiat, who tragically died of an overdose at age 27, gained notoriety as a graffiti artist before turning to work on canvas. Much of his work was a protest against the exploitation of black heroes. The mural painting of Chicana artist Judith F. Baca revitalizes the Mexican mural tradition of Rivera.

Among Native American painter Lisa Fitfield’s most important works are a series of paintings based on the slaughter of Native Americans at Wounded Knee. Jaune Quick-to-See Smith forcefully displays a sense of social injustice in her works, which protest the colonization of Native Americans. The Vietnam Veterans’ Memorial in Washington, D.C., was designed by Maya Ying Lin, at the time a twenty-one year old graduate architectural student. Adrienne Rich has, through her prose and poetry, become an important spokeswoman for feminists. In her autobiographical novel, Chinese-American writer Maxine Hong Kingston combines family history with fictional invention. A Nobel Prize winner, African-American writer Toni Morrison uses her novels to reveal the complexities of African-American communities. Poet and fiction writer Sandra Cisneros focuses on Hispanic female characters living amidst an alien culture.

Judith Ortiz Cofer has published poetry and prose concerning the struggles of immigrants in mainland America. The fiction of Oscar Hijuelos captures the pre-Castro immigrant experience in New York. The writings of N. Scott Momaday were among the first by Native Americans to garner attention from a wide audience, while Leslie Marmon Silko’s works emphasize the cultural values of her Pueblo ancestors.

No event symbolizes awakening tolerance in the contemporary world between diverse cultures more than the opening of the Berlin Wall in November, 1989. Also in 1989, an exhibition in Paris was announced as the first worldwide exhibition of contemporary art. It consisted of works by one hundred artists, fifty from Europe and America, and fifty from Asia, South America, Australia, and Africa, as well as Native American art.

MyHumanitiesKit RESOURCES, CHAPTER TWENTY FOUR Objectives Flashcards Study Critical Thinking Multiple Choice

92

Review and Explore Image Links Humanities PPT Glossary Audio Glossary College Art Association Write and Research MySearchLab: www.MySearchLab.com

KEY TERMS Postmodernism Structuralism Internet

Semiotics Deconstruction Globalization

SUGGESTED TEACHING OUTLINE I. DIVERSITY IN THE UNITED STATES A . P OS T M O D E RN IS M B . PAINTING AND SCULPTURE 1.

2.

3.

C i n d y S h e r m a n [Fig. 24.1] Untitled Film Still #35, 1979 J u d y C h i c a g o [Fig. 24.2] The Dinner Party, 1974-79 G u e r i l l a G i r l s [Fig. 24.3] “Do Woman Have to Be Naked to Get into the Met. Museum?” 1989

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Discuss the beginning of the women’s movement, the founding of the National Organization for Women in 1966, and the women’s movement today.

What are the goals of NOW? What key issues does the organization address? Has it been successful? What controversies has it sparked?

4.

E l e a n o r A n t i n [Fig. 24.4] Drawing from Being Antinova, 1983

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Examine how Antin was influenced by the performance art movement and developed the character, Eleanora Antinova, a fictional black ballerina in Diaghilev’s Ballets Russes as a means of expressing herself in an innovative way.

5.

Jean-Michel Basquiat [Fig. 24.5] Charles the First, 1982

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Examine how Basquiat’s art is a protest against the exploitation of Black heroes, such as Sugar Ray Robinson, Hank Aaron, Cassius Clay, Dizzy Gillespie, and Louis Armstrong.

93

> DISCUSSION: Ask students to compare Basquiat’s work with an acknowledged masterpiece, such as Leonardo’s Last Supper or Mona Lisa. First, ask them to list their criteria for judging a work of art. Next, discuss how both works “stack up” against the criteria. Finally, Does Basquiat’s work deserve a place in the canon of great works? Why or why not?

6 . J u d i t h F . B a c a [Fig. 24.6] Great Wall of Los Angeles, 1976-continuing 7. Lisa Fitfield [Fig. 24.7] Ghost Dancers Ascending, 1995 8. Maya Lin and the Vietnam Veterans’ Memorial [Fig. 24.8] 9. Mariko Mori [Fig. 24.9] Dream Temple, 1999

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Examine other war memorials that precede and follow the Vietnam Veteran’s Memorial. Compare these memorials to the Wall. Were any other memorials controversial? In what way? Explain how a sculpture of three servicemen and a flag were placed off to the side of the memorial stemming from opposition to the nontraditional memorial.

> BACKGROUND: Lin created the winning design for the 1981 National Vietnam Veterans’ Memorial Design Competition. Even though some dissenting voices protested the nontraditional memorial, Lin kept her original design and the Wall’s dedication happened in November 1982. It is located between the Washington Monument and the Lincoln Memorial on the Mall in Washington, D.C.

> VIDEO: An excellent documentary, Maya Lin: A Strong Clear Vision, by filmmaker Frieda Lee Mock, chronicles a decade in the artist’s life. The 90-minutes film won the 1995 Academy Award for best documentary.

> DISCUSSION: Explore how the Civil Rights Movement, the Vietnam War, and the women’s movement contributed to an increased awareness on the part of many Americans of the value and power of diversity. Have students identify various works of art that were directly influenced by such movements. What was the impetus behind the work of art?

Example 1: Judy Chicago’s Dinner Party. What do students think the dinner party symbolized? Why were women (who traditionally prepare meals and set the table) the guests? How is the dinner party a reinterpretation of the Last Supper?

Why is each guest represented by a place setting? What does each place setting refer to?

Example 2: Maya Lin’s Vietnam Veteran’s Memorial. How is the Wall a moving composition? How does the fact that the viewer walks to the site of the Wall, located between the Washington Monument and the Lincoln Memorial, and sees the names of those who died in the war listed in chronological order on the wall, a part of the composition itself? What does this passage refer to?

C. STRUCTURALISM AND DECONSTRUCTION D. THE DIVERSITY OF AMERICAN VOICES 1.

Adrienne Rich

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Compare Judy Chicago’s The Dinner Party with Adrienne Rich’s “XIII (Dedications).” How do both address the viewer/reader, reassuring them of the value and importance of what they are doing as they go about their lives?

94

2. Maxine Hong Kingston 3. Toni Morrison

> TEACHING STRATEGY: Explore the issue of identity by comparing Morrison’s voice in Sula (1973), in which she portrays the family consequences of a woman achieving her own independence and freedom, with Judy Chicago, who changed her name, as she explained in her memoir, Through the Flower, “from Judy Gerowitz to Judy Chicago as an act of identifying myself as an independent woman.” Can the students cite literary works that explore women’s search for identity and independence?

4.

5.

6.

7.

Judith Ortiz Cofer Oscar Hijuelos N. Scott Momaday Leslie Marmon Silko

II. THE GLOBAL VILLAGE

> TEACHING STRATEGY: We now live in a pluralistic, global community. To make this meaningful to students, cite examples of tolerance in the contemporary world between diverse cultures, and have students provide their own examples. Possible topics for further discussion could focus on: the opening of the Berlin Wall in November 1989, the collapse of the Communist regime in the Soviet Union in 1991, the ending of apartheid in South Africa, Camp David accords between Israel and Egypt, and capitalism moving into China. What are some examples of situations in which there is room for improvement in terms of tolerance of diverse cultures?

A . GL O BA L I ZA T I O N B . RECENT TRENDS IN ARCHITECTURE 1. Philippe Starck [Fig. 24.15] Asahi Beer Hall , 1989 2. Frank Gehry [Fig. 24.16] Guggenheim Museum Bilboa, 1997 3. Herzog & de Meuron [Fig. 24.17] National Stadium , 2003-08 4. Paul Andreau [Fig. 24.18] National Grand Theatre , 2001-07 5. Tom Shannon [Fig. 24.19] Drop, 2009

ASSESSMENTS Student self-reviews: MyHumanitiesKit, Review and Explore Instructor Test Bank

RESOURCES

95

IMAGES: MyHumanitiesKit, Image links

BOOKS: Atkins, Robert. Artspeak: A Guide to Contemporary Ideas, Movements, and Buzzwords. New York: Abbeville, 1990.

Archer, Michael. Art Since 1960. 2nd ed. New York: Thames & Hudson, 2002.

Bolton, Richard, ed. Culture Wars: Documents from the Recent Controversies in the Arts.

New York: New Press, 1992.

Broude, Norma, and Mary D. Garrard. The Power of Feminist Art: The American Movement of the 1970s, History and Impact. New York: Abrams, 1994.

Lucie-Smith, Edward. Art in the Eighties. Oxford: Phaidon, 1990.

Phillips, Lisa. The American Century: Art and Culture, 1950-2000. New York: Whitney Museum of American Art, 2000.

Rosen, Randy, and Catherine C. Brawer. Making Their Mark: Women Artists Move into the Mainstream, 1970-85. New York: Abbeville, 1989.

Rush, Michael. New Media in Late 20t -Century Art. World of Art. New York: Thames & h

Hudson, 1999.

Rushing, Jackson W. III. Native American Art in the Twentieth Century: Makers, Meanings, and Histories. London: Routledge, 1999.

Smith, Jaune Quick-to-See, and Harmony Hammond. Women of Sweetgrass: Cedar and Sage. New York: American Indian Center, 1984.

Word as Image: American Art, 1960-1990. Milwaukee: Milwaukee Art Museum, 1990.

VIDEOS: Maya Lin: A Clear Strong Vision. By filmmaker Freida Lee Mock, 1995.

96