Anthropology, 8E Raymond Scupin Christopher R DeCorse Solution Manual

INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCE MANUAL

ANTHROPOLOGY A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE EIGHTH EDITION

Raymond Scupin Lindenwood University

Christopher R. DeCorse Syracuse University

CONTENTS

Chapter 1 Introduction to Anthropology

1

Chapter 2 The Record of the Past

4

Chapter 3 Evolution

8

Chapter 4 The Primates

12

Chapter 5 Hominin Evolution

15

Chapter 6 Human Variation

20

Chapter 7 The Paleolithic

24

Chapter 8 The Origins of Domestication and Settled Life

28

Chapter 9 The Rise of the State and Complex Society

32

Chapter 10 Culture

36

Chapter 11 The Process of Enculturation: Psychological and Cognitive Anthropology

39

Chapter 12 Language

43

Chapter 13 Anthropological Explanations

47

Chapter 14 Analyzing Sociocultural Systems

51

Chapter 15 Environment, Subsistence, and Demography

55

Chapter 16 Technology and Economies

59

Chapter 17 Social Structure, the Family, Gender, and Age

64

Chapter 18 Politics, Warfare, and Law

71

Chapter 19 Religion and Aesthetics

76

Chapter 20 Globalization, Culture, and Indigenous Societies

81

Chapter 21 Globalization in Latin America, Africa, and the Caribbean

85

Chapter 22 Globalization in the Middle East and Asia

89

Chapter 23 Ethnicity

94

Chapter 24 Contemporary Global Trends

98

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Chapter 25 Applied Anthropology

102

iv .

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO ANTHROPOLOGY LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1.1 Compare and contrast the four major subfields of anthropology.

1.2 Describe how the field of anthropology is holistic, interdisciplinary, and global.

1.3 Explain how the scientific method is used in anthropological explanations.

1.4 Discuss how the field of anthropology bridges both the sciences and the humanities.

1.5 Describe why any student should study anthropology.

CHAPTER OUTLINE ANTHROPOLOGY: THE FOUR SUBFIELDS Biological Anthropology Anthropologists at Work: John Hawks, Biological Anthropologist Archaeology Linguistic Anthropology Anthropologists at Work: Kelley Hays-Gilpin, Archaeologist Cultural Anthropology Anthropologists at Work: Bonnie Urciuoli, Linguistic Anthropologist Applied Anthropology Anthropologists at Work: Scott Atran, Cultural Anthropologist Anthropologists at Work: A. Peter Castro, Applied Anthropologist HOLISTIC ANTHROPOLOGY, INTERDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH, AND THE GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE ANTHROPOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS The Scientific Method HUMANISTIC INTERPRETIVE APPROACHES IN ANTHROPOLOGY WHY STUDY ANTHROPOLOGY? Critical Thinking and Global Awareness SUMMARY AND REVIEW OF LEARNING OBJECTIVES

LECTURE AND DISCUSSION TOPICS Each of these topics is intended to generate ideas for either a lecture/recitation format or discussion in the classroom. For most topics, students should be able to respond and participate in discussions based solely on reading the text. For others, you may need to provide further reading or other forms of information so that students can develop some personal perspective and become equipped to make independent decisions about the topics.

1 .

1.

Investigate the goals of anthropology as Scupin defines them; explain how you agree or disagree with them. How has your work as an anthropologist fit into these goals? How might these goals conflict in certain instances?

2.

Delineate the major fields of anthropology and their subfields. Illustrate the four fields with applications to modern life, and emphasize how students might use anthropology in a number of careers. Also discuss applied anthropology, which some anthropologists consider a fifth subfield.

3.

Describe fieldwork and research methods for each of the major subfields of anthropology.

4.

Compare and contrast the scientific method and the humanistic-interpretive approach. Show the strengths, weaknesses, and limitations of each. Explore how these approaches are used in various forms of anthropological research.

5.

Lecture on first contact and culture shock. Challenge students to imagine or recall the effects of entrance into a new cultural setting.

6.

Describe, or have students generate, the ways in which anthropology relates to and differs from other disciplines, particularly the physical sciences.

7.

Explain the relationships of anthropology with the life sciences, the physical sciences, the humanities, and the other social and behavioral sciences. Guest lectures or a panel discussion by faculty in these areas can bring the information to students in a meaningful way.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES 1.

Have the class describe the images that the photos in the text provide. What ideas do they create or reinforce about the work of anthropologists? How does the work of an archaeologist, a paleoanthropologist, an ethnographer, or a linguist differ? What do their work sites look like? This could also be a research and writing topic. Each chapter’s first page provides visual examples that can be provocative for class discussion and/or ideas for writing.

2.

In class discussion, describe Scupin’s major goals of anthropology. Have your students list fundamental similarities and differences among humans, human societies, and human behavior in the world. A chart, overhead transparency, or chalkboard list created by groups of students may provide the basis for a rich discussion on this topic.

3.

To explore the idea of first contact, show a film (e.g., a science fiction film such as Close Encounters of the Third Kind) or discuss an actual “first contact” situation. If there are any international students in your class, ask them to describe their first direct contact with American culture. American-born students who have had international experiences may describe their “first contact” with a foreign culture.

4.

Take your class to an ethnic neighborhood or ethnic restaurant, or have them investigate independently. Have students describe their feelings and what they learned by using field notes they took during the trip.

5.

Have students interview each other in pairs for 20 or 30 minutes. After the interview, students should submit a written summary of what they learned using only their notes taken during the interview process. The person being interviewed should read the interviewer’s write-up to comment on accuracy.

2 .

6.

Take or assign students to view an art gallery, or show slides of artworks. Have students record what they see, and then break into small groups to compare their perceptions with each other. Begin with familiar Western art, and then include non-Western examples. The same exercise could be done listening to music or poetry or playing a foreign film without subtitles. Ask the students to discuss what the music/poetry/film was about. To debrief, describe the connection between these different perceptions and the areas of the humanities they represent. Draw comparisons to anthropological concerns with the humanities.

RESEARCH AND WRITING TOPICS 1.

Research a first contact situation, such as the coming of Europeans to the New World or to the African continent, or the Chinese invasion of Southeast Asia. What were the perceptions of the various peoples in contact? What happened to these peoples following this first contact?

2.

Explore the importance of any one of the following topics, explain its function and relationship to the larger goals of anthropology, and provide examples of: paleoanthropology, primatology, forensic anthropology, urban anthropology, prehistoric archaeology, classical archaeology, historical archaeology, biblical archaeology, historical linguistics, structural linguistics, and sociolinguistics.

3.

Explain the following terms and techniques: participant observation, ethnography, holistic approach, scientific method, inductive and deductive methods, hypothesis, theory, ethnopoetics, and ethnomusicology.

4.

Gather primary data about some cultural reality using any media such as video or audiotape. You could videotape an interview, a party, children at play, or any other sociocultural interaction. Always get the explicit permission of people to record them before you do so; you are violating professional ethics if you do not receive prior permission.

5.

Research and write a short report on a cross-cultural topic. You might gain information about your own or other groups. Does your prior knowledge match what you find in the ethnographic sources?

What might account for the differences in perception that you find?

3 .

CHAPTER 2 THE RECORD OF THE PAST LEARNING OBJECTIVES 2.1 Define paleoanthropology and discuss what we can learn about the past from fossil evidence.

2.2 Discuss what the archaeological record can tell us about past societies.

2.3 Discuss the basic techniques used to locate archaeological sites and fossil localities.

2.4 Discuss the basic techniques of archaeological excavation.

2.5 Compare and contrast how archaeologists and paleoanthropologists date their discoveries.

2.6 Discuss the challenges of interpreting the past and how these are overcome.

CHAPTER OUTLINE ANSWERING QUESTIONS Critical Perspectives: Engendering Archaeology: The Role of Women in Aztec Mexico PALEOANTHROPOLOGICAL STUDY Fossils and Fossil Localities ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH Critical Perspectives: Historical Archaeology Anthropologists at Work: George Fletcher Bass: Underwater Archaeologist The Archaeological Record Critical Perspectives: Underwater Archaeology LOCATING SITES AND FOSSIL LOCALITIES Subsurface Archaeological Testing and Survey Remote Sensing Anthropologists at Work: Scott Madry: Google Earth and Armchair Archaeology ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATION DATING METHODS Relative Dating Faunal Succession Palynology Relative Dating Methods of Bones Obsidian Hydration Seriation Numerical or Absolute Dating Radiocarbon Dating Potassium-Argon and Fission-Track Dating Thermoluminescence Dating Dendochronology INTERPRETATIONS ABOUT THE PAST 4 .

SUMMARY AND REVIEW OF LEARNING OBJECTIVES

LECTURE AND DISCUSSION TOPICS Each of these topics is intended to generate ideas for either a lecture/recitation format or discussion in the classroom. For most topics, students should be able to respond and participate in discussions based solely on reading the text. For others, you may need to provide further reading or other forms of information so that students can develop some personal perspective and become equipped to make independent decisions about the topics.

1.

Explore the distinctions between the roles and activities of paleoanthropologists and archaeologists, emphasizing the different methods, materials, and results in each area of study.

2.

Lecture on the importance of the fossil record, how fossils form, the information that they yield, and the difficulties inherent in the interpretation of the fossil record. Explain the concepts of fossil localities and the processes of fossil collection.

3.

Explain the basic concepts of archaeology. Discuss the relationships among sites, artifacts, features, context, and preservation. Include in your discussion an explanation of previous attempts at studying the past, such as antiquaries’ collections, with contemporary research designs, or archaeological methods.

4.

Lecture on the comparative contributions of different methodological approaches to studying the past, including historical archaeology, ethnoarchaeology, and underwater archaeology.

5.

Detail the various processes of locating archaeological sites. Include in your discussion an explanation of survey methods and systematic and unsystematic approaches to archaeological surveys. Discuss the benefits and limitations of the methods for subsurface testing, including the proton magnetometer and electrical resistivity. Explain the process of remote sensing using aerial photography and satellites.

6.

Lecture on the process of archaeological excavation, distinguishing the types of information that excavation yields, and the expectations for the use of such information (for instance, the results of an excavation of a midden or tell).

7.

Describe the applications of various archaeological dating methods. Use examples to illustrate the distinction between relative dating and absolute dating using relevant terms, such as stratigraphic dating, Steno’s law of supraposition, faunal succession, faunal correlation, palynology, the FUN trio, obsidian hydration, seriation, radiocarbon dating, potassium-argon dating, fission-track dating, thermoluminescence dating, and dendrochronology.

8.

Lecture on the mechanics of radiocarbon dating and its value to anthropology and archaeology. You could also discuss other forms of radioactive dating, such as the potassium-argon method. Consider showing the film The Tree That Put the Clock Back, which describes the relationship between radiocarbon dating, dendrochronology, and the collapse of diffusionism. It cites Colin Renfrew as a primary source.

9.

Explain the implications of biased versus balanced interpretations of the archaeological record. Use historical examples with which students may be familiar.

5 .

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES 1.

One very vivid way to illustrate the processes of archaeological methods is to have students participate in a mock dig. Construct a “site” with various levels and artifacts, which may be used to simulate the process of archaeological discovery of artifacts.

2.

Invite professionals from other disciplines to guest lecture: a geologist to discuss stratigraphy, a biologist on faunal succession/faunal correlation and palynology, a chemist on the FUN trio, and a physicist on radioactive decay dating (e.g., carbon-14 dating, potassium-argon dating, fission-track dating, and thermoluminescence dating).

3.

Students can debate the methods and merits of artifact and site preservation, based on outside reading of news articles and current research. Also have students explore relevant Web sites.

4.

As an application activity, have students assume the role of a historical archaeologist, an ethnoarchaeologist, or an underwater archaeologist. Ask them to explain the relative merits of each of their methods to others in the group in order to compare the difficulties and reliability of each of their approaches to studying the past. Create scenarios or problems that require their unique skills, or that require a combination of these methods, to find a solution. Encourage students to find out what archaeological experiences may be available in their community.

5.

Simulate or use actual site maps to give students experience in the techniques involved in locating archaeological sites. By visiting Google Earth and viewing slides, aerial photographs, or diagrams of artifact scatters, students could define where a site might be and indicate what methods might be used to test the site.

6.

One way to encourage reflection on the implications of biased versus balanced interpretations of the archaeological record is to have students investigate some of the frauds that have been perpetrated throughout history using archaeological “facts.” Students might read about social, political, and economic conditions that affected the interpretation of archaeological investigations. Have them explain what the current perspective is on the interpretation of such finds.

RESEARCH AND WRITING TOPICS 1.

Research the roles of the paleoanthropologist and the archaeologist; report on the similarities and differences of these two fields using actual practitioners as examples.

2.

Based on a mock excavation, write a report that includes the need for site preservation, modeled after actual site preservation documents.

3.

Research eighteenth- and nineteenth-century accounts and records of antiquities collectors. Compare the collections and the intent of the collectors with those of researchers today. Discuss the current threat of damage to archaeological sites by pot hunters.

4.

Research and write a comparative paper on the methods and contributions of each of the following approaches to studying the past: historical archaeology, ethnoarchaeology, and underwater archaeology.

5.

Write a descriptive paper on the processes of locating archaeological sites, including an evaluation of current practices in one or more of the following: survey methods, systematic and unsystematic approaches, subsurface testing, proton magnetometer, electrical resistivity, remote sensing, aerial photography, and satellite imaging (e.g., using Google Earth).

6 .

6.

Write an evaluative paper on one or more of the applications of various archaeological dating methods, such as stratigraphic dating, faunal succession, faunal correlation, palynology, the FUN trio, seriation, radiocarbon dating, potassium-argon dating, fission-track dating, thermoluminescence dating, and dendrochronology. Compare their benefits and drawbacks and their usefulness to archaeology and the study of human development.

7.

Investigate specific examples of research findings that have been found to be biased and what the current findings indicate. How did researchers prove that the original findings were biased? What circumstances encouraged the bias in the first place?

8.

Detail a Web site that operates like a time capsule. What sort of information would you include in it so that people of the future could understand our generation, its problems, and its successes?

9.

Evaluate some of the popular fictional literature that makes use of archaeology, such as Tony Hillerman’s Westerns (Dance Hall of the Dead). Select one author and demonstrate how he or she uses concepts of archaeology correctly or incorrectly.

10. Investigate what students and faculty do as participants in “garbology” studies at the University of Arizona’s School of Anthropology. Why would they do this? Investigate your own garbage output for a day or two. What do the things you throw away reveal about your lifestyle? Did anything surprise you?

7 .

CHAPTER 3 EVOLUTION LEARNING OBJECTIVES 3.1 Explain how cosmologies regarding human origins differ from scientific views of evolution.

3.2 Discuss how the scientific revolution provided the context for the theory of evolution.

3.3 Explain how Darwin’s view of natural selection and evolution differed from earlier scientific views.

3.4 Discuss Gregor Johann Mendel’s principles of inheritance.

3.5 Discuss how Mendel’s principles of inheritance have changed in light of a better understanding of molecular genetics.

3.6 Define and discuss how evolution takes place.

3.7 Discuss how and why new species arise.

3.8 Briefly outline the evidence for the evolution of life on Earth and how evolutionary relationships are evaluated.

CHAPTER OUTLINE COSMOLOGIES AND HUMAN ORIGINS Western Traditions of Origins THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION Catastrophism versus Uniformitarianism THEORY OF EVOLUTION Darwin, Wallace, and Natural Selection Examples of Natural Selection PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE Mendel and Modern Genetics Mendel’s Principle of Segregation Dominant and Recessive Traits Principle of Independent Assortment INHERITANCE AND MOLECULAR GENETICS Cells and Genes The Role of DNA Mitosis and Meiosis Polygenic Inheritance Epigenetic Factors POPULATION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION Mutations Gene Flow Genetic Drift Natural Selection 8 .

Cultural, Behavioral and Epigenetic Factors Epigenetic Factors and Evolution HOW DO NEW SPECIES ORIGINATE? Measuring Evolutionary Change Speciation Phyletic Gradualism Punctuated Equilibrium Adaptive Radiation Critical Perspectives: Planetary-Level Extinctions THE EVOLUTION OF LIFE Analogy and Homology Blood Chemistry and DNA Plate Tectonics and Continental Drift The Paleontological Record The Precambrian and Paleozoic Eras The Mesozoic Era The Cenozoic Era Critical Perspectives: Creationism, Intelligent Design, and Evolution SUMMARY AND REVIEW OF LEARNING OBJECTIVES

LECTURE AND DISCUSSION TOPICS Each of these topics is intended to generate ideas for either a lecture/recitation format or discussion in the classroom. For most topics, students should be able to respond and participate in discussions based solely on reading the text. For others, you may need to provide further reading or other forms of information so that students can develop some personal perspective and become equipped to make independent decisions about the topics.

1.

Discuss origin myths that you are familiar with; explain their internal logic and how they fit within a particular cultural context.

2.

Lecture on evolution, expanding on the text by discussing the special theory of evolution (individual variation and microevolution) and the general theory of evolution (macroevolution).

3.

Emphasize the different methods of arriving at knowledge that distinguish religion from science.

Discuss the concepts of belief, faith, transcendental experience, and consensus. Then review the scientific method (discussed in Chapter 1). Its steps are: (1) observation; (2) question or problem; (3) hypothesis/null hypothesis; (4) gathering data/methodology; and (5) formation of a conclusion.

Reinforce how the scientific method focuses on questions that are potentially or actually repeatable.

Describe the process of theory formation that occurs when a hypothesis is supported by a large body of observations confirmed by many independent investigators. Theory becomes a scientific law if it possesses a high degree of certainty and is widely accepted within the scientific community. Stress to students that the scientific process is ongoing and that scientific fact is an accurate description of an object or event based on what we know and what we know how to do at a certain point in time.

4.

Natural selection provides direction to evolutionary change, yet students often have trouble grasping the concept. Discuss examples of natural selection in detail and explore what “fitness” means in 9 .

evolutionary terms. You may be able to incorporate a discussion of some of the recent findings about cloning and what this contributes to our understanding of evolutionary processes. Students will likely be interested in the ethical issues involved in the manipulating of evolutionary processes.

5.

Discuss the continued relevance of Mendel’s models of inheritance and how molecular genetics has improved our understanding of his findings. The following are concepts from the text that may benefit from additional explanation in lecture: dominant and recessive traits, alleles, homozygous, heterozygous, genotypes, phenotypes, the principle of independent assortment, and the principle of segregation. Illustrate the processes of mitosis, meiosis, and mutation.

6.

Discuss the material on population genetics and evolution using Paleolithic human ancestors as an example. Emphasize the small population size and group size during that time period. Have students consider how population dynamics may have affected human variation during this period.

7.

Discuss geological time and the species associated with different paleontological eras. Create a timeline to illustrate the immense temporal spans covered by these eras in comparison to temporal landmarks with which students may be familiar, such as the construction of the Egyptian pyramids, the span of the Roman Empire, Columbus’s voyage, World War I, the first moon landing, etc.

8.

Expand on the discussion of creationism that appears in the text. Most anthropologists use the terms scientific creationism and creationism interchangeably. However, in the Religious Studies discipline those two terms mean different things. Creation science can refer to the school of thought known as theistic evolutionism. Scientists in this school believe in both God and evolution. God is accepted as the ultimate origin of all life, and evolution is seen as the “footprints” of the creative process.

Theistic evolutionists would say that God provides the “why” and evolution the “how” of life.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES 1.

Discuss the students’ various religious and nonreligious beliefs about the origins of life. Have students share their cosmologies and origin myths. Talk about similarities and differences in the ones expressed. As always with such discussions, it is necessary to establish a neutral atmosphere, with acceptance and patience for hearing others’ ideas.

2.

Invite a biologist into class to lecture about a biological understanding of evolution. Check your library or rental catalogs for films on evolution and natural selection, DNA, molecular genetics, population genetics, and punctuated equilibrium versus the gradualist theory of speciation. Such films can often provide visual explanations that are clearer and more complete than simple lecture or text information.

3.

Invite a philosopher to discuss the philosophy of science, with emphasis on the discussion of the scientific revolution brought about by Darwin and Mendel.

4.

Invite proponents of biological evolutionism, scientific creationism, and theistic evolutionism/creationism into your class. After each gives a short presentation of his or her views, they could engage in a debate in which students could participate.

5.

View the film Quest for Fire and use it as a basis for discussion about population genetics and evolution. After correcting its obvious inaccuracies, you can continue to use the visual images from the film for discussion on other anthropological topics.

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6.

Distribute playing cards or some other token to the class and then separate them into gene pools. By maneuvering the students based on their card classification, you could illustrate the effects of gene flow, gene drift, founder effect, and other concepts from this chapter. By designating some cards as dominant and others as recessive, you could show the changes in both genotype and phenotype.

7.

Divide the class into two parts and have half of the students research punctuated equilibrium, and the other half gradualist theories of speciation. Have each group present its theoretical model, and then debate the issue with the other group.

8.

Invite a geographer or geologist to guest lecture about plate tectonics and continental drift.

RESEARCH AND WRITING TOPICS 1.

Research an origin myth that is not of your own culture, using library sources and/or interviewing techniques. Compare and contrast this myth with one from your own culture and explain how they reconcile competing claims of truth.

2.

Complete a biographical report on one of the following men and how his scientific ideas contributed to Western thought: Georges Cuvier, Georges Buffon, James Hutton, Charles Lyell, Charles Darwin, Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck, Gregor Mendel, or Alfred Wallace.

3.

Conduct research on the role of epigenetic factors on genetic expression. How has the concept of epigenetic factors influenced scientific understandings of genetic inheritance and expression? What new research is being undertaken on this front, and what are its theoretical and practical applications?

4.

Revisit Darwin’s studies of the Galapagos Islands. How did his research help shape the concepts of natural selection and adaptive radiation? Choose examples that illustrate each of these concepts and update the information based on more recent research.

5.

Compare and contrast two or three of the following: progressive creationism, scientific creationism, theistic evolution, intelligent design creationism, materialist evolutionism (or philosophical materialism), or methodological naturalism.

6.

Choose a work of fiction that centers on the end of the world or life as we know it. Write a description of how the author uses the concept of planetary-level extinctions. Assess how the author’s fictional end-of-the-world scenario compares to scientific understandings of planetary-level extinctions that are believed to have taken place.

11 .

CHAPTER 4 THE PRIMATES LEARNING OBJECTIVES 4.1 Discuss characteristics shared by all primates.

4.2 Explain the basis for primate taxonomy.

4.3 Discuss what fossil evidence reveals about primate evolution.

4.4 Describe the importance of social organization among the primates.

4.5 Discuss human origins in light of primate evolution, and describe how humans are both similar to and different from other primate species.

CHAPTER OUTLINE PRIMATE CHARACTERISTICS Movement and Locomotion Dentition, Eyesight, and Brain Size Vision Complexity of the Brain Reproduction and Maturation CLASSIFICATION OF PRIMATES Critical Perspectives: What’s in a Name? Primate Classification and Taxonomy Primate Subdivisions Classification of Fossil Primates EVOLUTION OF THE PRIMATE ORDER Prosimians Modern Prosimians Evolution of the Anthropoids Evolution of the Platyrrhines Modern Monkeys of the Americas Evolution of the Catarrhines Parapithecids Cercopithecoids Modern Monkeys of Europe, Asia, and Africa Emergence of the Hominoids Hominoid Evolution Ancestors of Modern Hominoids African Hominoids Asian Hominoids Gigantopithecus European Hominoids The Extinction of Most Miocene Apes Modern Apes The Gibbon and Siamang The Orangutan 12 .

The Gorilla The Chimpanzee PRIMATE BEHAVIOR Social Groups Anthropologists at Work: Jane Goodall and Dian Fossey: Primatologists in the Field Dominance Hierarchy Affiliative Behavior Primate Sexual Behavior Communication THE HUMAN PRIMATE SUMMARY AND REVIEW OF LEARNING OBJECTIVES

LECTURE AND DISCUSSION TOPICS Each of these topics is intended to generate ideas either for lectures or for discussion in the classroom. For most topics, students should be able to respond and participate in discussions based solely on reading the text. For others, you may need to provide further reading or other forms of information so that students can develop some personal perspective and become equipped to make independent decisions about the topics.

1.

Discuss the primates, including their physical characteristics, the similarities and differences among human and nonhuman primates, and behavioral characteristics.

2.

Lecture on the following in regard to primates: arboreal conditions, the anatomy mentioned in the text, increased dexterity, dentition, omnivorous diet, eyesight, simple neural anatomy, reproduction, and maturation.

3.

Explain the taxonomic system and our place in it. Pay particular attention to the following categories: primate, prosimian, anthropoid, hominoid, hominid, and hominin.

4.

Lecture on different ways of examining and classifying organisms based on physical similarities and genetics. Discuss the advantages and limitations of each.

5.

Discuss the problems of classifying fossil primates and some of the current controversies in the field.

6.

Detail the origins and development of prosimians. Try to show slides of modern and fossil prosimians.

7.

Examine fossil and modern anthropoids. Show the interrelationships of anthropoids, hominoids, pongids, hominids, and hominins. Discuss the changes in taxonomy that have occurred in light of emerging genetic information.

8.

Trace the emergence of the hominoids. Using illustrations, discuss specific fossil forms.

9.

Lecture on the modern great apes: gibbons and siamangs, orangutans, gorillas, and chimpanzees.

13 .

10. Review some of the work that has been done with great apes and language. For example, the National Zoo in Washington, D.C., has ongoing experiments related to training gorillas to “speak.”

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES 1.

Members of the order Primates exhibit a great deal of variation, but they share certain basic characteristics, including a generalized skeleton and a high degree of manual dexterity. Have students look at a picture of primates, either in the text or provided by you. Have students describe the animal they see, its posture, the configuration of arms and legs. Provide the context for the picture and explain what the students missed. Discuss primate brachiation, brachiating and nonbrachiating posture, and relative arm and leg lengths. This could also be a research paper topic.

2.

Show a film on primates and have students take objective notes describing the behaviors that were demonstrated on film. Facilitate a group discussion of their observations.

3.

Provide illustrations of sexual dimorphism. Have the class suggest areas of human sexual dimorphism. Compare and contrast human and nonhuman examples.

4.

View a film on the work of Jane Goodall and/or Dian Fossey, such as Gorillas in the Mist, Miss Jane Goodall and the Wild Chimpanzees, or Monkeys, Apes, and Men, and discuss the implications of their work. Research what is happening to the great apes in Africa today.

RESEARCH AND WRITING TOPICS 1.

Compare and contrast the characteristics of ancient and contemporary members of the primate order.

Choose two or three specific fossils or living primate species to explore in detail.

2.

Choose one primate feature, such as vision, dentition, brain structure, movement, or reproduction and maturation, and describe it more fully using library research. How is the chosen feature specialized in primates compared to other mammals?

3.

Research the process by which scientists decided to reclassify apes and humans. Who initially proposed this reclassification? Were there any researchers who disagreed? Where does the debate stand now?

4.

Briefly describe the primate evolutionary pattern of one or more of the following geological time periods: Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene, or Holocene.

5.

Visit a local zoo and observe one primate’s behavior for 15 minutes or longer, taking field notes.

Write a description of what you saw and draw conclusions based on your observations.

6.

Explain why anthropologists look to primates for insights into human behavior. Discuss recent research undertaken by primatologists and the implications of their findings for understanding human behavior.

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CHAPTER 5 HOMININ EVOLUTION LEARNING OBJECTIVES 5.1 Explain the principal trends in hominin evolution and within genus Homo.

5.2 Describe the fossil evidence for early hominin evolution.

5.3 Discuss the challenges paleoanthropologists face in interpreting the fossil record and explain why their interpretations sometimes change.

5.4 Describe and discuss the different models for the emergence of anatomically modern humans.

5.5 Describe how new genomic research and molecular dating have helped anthropologists interpret human evolution.

5.6 Discuss the different theories regarding the relationship of Homo sapiens neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens.

CHAPTER OUTLINE TRENDS IN HOMININ EVOLUTION Bipedalism Why Bipedalism?

Tool Use Transport of Food and Offspring Provisioning and More Thermoregulation Models Reduction of the Face, Teeth, and Jaws Increase in Cranial Capacity FOSSIL EVIDENCE FOR HOMININ EVOLUTION The Oldest Hominins Sahelanthropus tchadensis Orrorin tugenensis Ardipithecus ramidus Australopithecus anamensis: Early Hominins from Lake Turkana Australopithecus afarensis Lucy The Dikika Baby Anthropologists at Work: Donald Johanson: Paleoanthropologist The Laetoli Footprints Australopithecus africanus Taung child Other A. africanus Finds The Robust Australopithecines: Branches on the Family Tree Robust Australopithecines from South Africa Australopithecus boisei: The “Nutcracker Man” Australopithecus aethiopicus: The “Black Skull” Critical Perspectives: The Piltdown Fraud The Origins of Genus Homo 15 .

Homo habilis: “The Handyman” Homo rudolfensis: KNM-ER 1470 Homo erectus Turkana Boy Finds from Indonesia: Java Man Discoveries in China: Peking Man Other Homo erectus Finds INTERPRETING THE FOSSIL RECORD Changing Views A. africanus as Ancestor The Discovery of Australopithecus afarensis Revised Interpretations Current Perspectives Missing Pieces in the Fossil Record Genetic Differences and Hominin Evolution FROM HOMO ERECTUS TO HOMO SAPIENS Transitional Forms The Evolution of Homo sapiens Multiregional Evolutionary Model Replacement Model Hybridization and Assimilation Models GENETIC DATA AND MODERN HUMAN ORIGINS Mitochondrial Eve Paternal Genetic Ancestry ARCHAIC AND ANATOMICALLY MODERN HOMO SAPIENS Homo sapiens neanderthalensis Neandertals and Modern Humans Denisovans or the Denisova hominins SUMMARY AND REVIEW OF LEARNING OBJECTIVES

LECTURE AND DISCUSSION TOPICS Each of these topics is intended to generate ideas for either a lecture/recitation format or discussion in the classroom. For most topics, students should be able to respond and participate in discussions based solely on reading the text. For others, you may need to provide further reading or other forms of information so that students can develop some personal perspective and become equipped to make independent decisions about the topics.

1.

Lecture on phylogeny, and place the hominins within a phylogenetic tree to provide an overview for the material in this chapter. Briefly address the various opinions on phylogeny (e.g., the place of different australopithecine species, the relationship of Neandertals to anatomically modern humans) and emphasize that researchers continue to update the human phylogenetic tree based on new fossil finds. Refer back to this tree as you cover specific fossils and their features. Roger Lewin’s Bones of Contention is a good resource.

16 .

2.

Discuss the definition of hominins and each of the trends in hominin evolution.

3.

Discuss the earliest known hominin ancestors: Sahelanthropus tchadensis, Orrorin tugenensis, and Ardipithecus ramidus. Describe the features of the fossil remains.

4.

Lecture on the gracile australopithecines, including Australopithecus anamensis, Australopithecus afarensis, and Australopithecus africanus. Explain the features that distinguish them from the robust australopithecines: Australopithecus robustus, Australopithecus boisei, and Australopithecus aethiopicus.

5.

Explore the details of the Piltdown fraud. Show how it was perpetrated and its effects on the scientific community at the time.

6.

Cover the earliest forms of genus Homo: Homo habilis and Homo rudolfensis. Describe their features and how they were different from and similar to the australopithecines and Homo erectus.

Describe the features and fossil finds associated with Homo erectus, their dates, and where they were found.

7.

Detail the process by which we interpret the fossil record. Stress how tentative it is, being based only on what has been found and on what we know. Emphasize that we do our work based on assumptions that might not always be made explicit. Identify some of your own assumptions, such as whether you are a lumper or a splitter.

8.

Describe the transition from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens. Discuss the concept of transitional forms and how they may fit into several taxa. You could discuss the idea that small breeding populations, such as those observed by Mendel, serve as a model for early human populations. You might want to review the Hardy-Weinberg theory of genetic equilibrium, genetic drift, gene recombination, mutation, and natural selection.

9.

Lecture on the multiregional evolutionary, replacement, and hybridization and assimilation models of the emergence of anatomically modern humans. Discuss the pros and cons of each model and compare and contrast them. Review the evidence that has emerged from mitochondrial DNA and Y chromosome studies.

10. Expound on molecular-dating techniques, the underlying assumptions of each, and the information they yield about hominin evolution.

11. Address the topic of Homo sapiens neanderthalensis. Discuss popular misconceptions of Neandertals as brutish creatures, and consider the possible relationships of Homo sapiens neanderthalensis to Homo heidelbergensis and Homo sapiens. Review the evidence that has emerged from mitochondrial DNA studies.

12. Talk about the Denisovans. Explain why they are important to contemporary perspectives on human evolution.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES 1.

Display fossil skull casts for the class to examine. Put them in chronological order, or have students try to arrange them in order: australopithecines, Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, and modern Homo sapiens. Ask the students to describe what they see. What are the differences and similarities among the skulls? What developmental changes do they see as they 17 .

look from the earliest skulls to more recent ones? Direct their attention to the foramen magnum, brow ridges, cranial capacity, prognathism, and other features you believe to be significant. Use slides or transparencies if skulls or casts are unavailable.

2.

Ask students to search the library and Internet for artist renderings of early hominins and archaic Homo sapiens to bring to class. Have students assemble the collection in evolutionary order. Discuss the choices the artists made in terms of posture, skin color, body hair, clothing, and environment or setting. What do these choices convey about the species they depict? Determine whether or not these assumptions are supported by the archaeological record.

3.

Have students create a world map illustrating the multiregional evolutionary, replacement, and hybridization and assimilation models of the emergence of anatomically modern humans.

4.

Invite a biologist, physical anthropologist, geneticist, or zoologist to discuss and evaluate the mitochondrial Eve and Y-chromosomal Adam hypotheses.

5.

Ask students to volunteer information about which regions of the world their ancestors are from and determine who is likely to have remnants of Neandertal or Denisovan DNA.

RESEARCH AND WRITING TOPICS 1.

Outline the trends in the field of hominin evolution. Describe in detail one of the controversies that has emerged in the field. Where does it stand today?

2.

Write a short biography on a significant researcher in the field of human evolution, such as Louis Leakey, Mary Leakey, Donald Johanson, or Raymond Dart. Describe their contributions to the field.

3.

Do research on one of the following fossils: Java Man, Peking Man, Taung child, or Lucy. Describe how, where, and when it was found and its significance to human evolution.

4.

Do research on the Piltdown fraud. What impact did it have at the time? Have there been other frauds of a similar nature? If so, compare and contrast them to Piltdown. Would such a hoax be possible today? Why or why not?

5.

Do research on the reconstruction of skulls. How has this information become especially useful for paleoanthropologists?

6.

Write a research paper on the transition from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens, including a general overview that addresses specific fossil forms.

7.

Delve deeper into molecular dating and the evidence it provides for hominin evolution. Discuss recent research using molecular dating and genetic analysis and how it may impact our understanding of the hominin fossil record and human evolution.

8.

Compare and contrast the multiregional evolutionary, replacement, and hybridization and assimilation models. Discuss the evidence that supports each one and their relative strengths and weaknesses.

9.

There have been a number of articles on the Eve hypothesis in a wide range of publications, from scholarly journals to popular news magazines. Write a critical analysis comparing and contrasting the content of at least two of these reports. Why is the Eve hypothesis not only scientifically 18 .

controversial but also politically controversial? Has Y-chromosomal Adam met with the same sort of controversy? Why or why not?

10. Write a fictional short story based on the fossil evidence for Neandertals, Denisovans, and anatomically modern humans. Imagine the period of time during which these beings would have overlapped. Would they have been in contact with one another? What would that contact have looked like? Be creative, but stay grounded in the fossil and archaeological evidence.

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CHAPTER 6 HUMAN VARIATION LEARNING OBJECTIVES 6.1 Identify the different sources of human variation.

6.2 Provide examples of how physical characteristics in human populations may represent adaptations arising from natural selection.

6.3 Discuss how environmental factors may be sources of evolutionary change.

6.4 Discuss how cultural factors may be sources of evolutionary change.

6.5 Explain the challenges faced in dividing human populations into different races and why modern anthropologists avoid these classifications.

6.6 Discuss how contemporary anthropologists assess the relationship between intelligence and race.

6.7 Discuss current approaches to human variation.

CHAPTER OUTLINE SOURCES OF HUMAN VARIATION Genetics and Evolution The Physical Environment Culture Evaluating Reasons for Variation ADAPTIVE ASPECTS OF HUMAN VARIATION Body Hair and Sweat Glands Skin Color Differences in Skin Color Adaptive Aspects of Skin Color Body Build Cranial and Facial Features Biochemical Characteristics Blood Types Sickle-Cell Anemia Balanced Polymorphism Lactase Deficiency EFFECTS OF THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT High-Altitude Adaptations CULTURAL FACTORS IN HUMAN EVOLUTION The Impact of Modern Urban Life THE CONCEPT OF RACE Ancient Classification Systems Critical Perspectives: Race and Genetics: The Human Genome Project Early “Scientific” Studies of Race Limitations of Early Classification Systems 20 .

Continuous Variation and Classification Geographical Races HEREDITY AND INTELLIGENCE Problems in Measuring Intelligence Critical Perspectives: Joseph Arthur de Gobineau and the Aryan Master Race CURRENT APPROACHES TO HUMAN VARIATION Clinal Distribution Multivariate Analysis Current Perspectives SUMMARY AND REVIEW OF LEARNING OBJECTIVES

LECTURE AND DISCUSSION TOPICS Each of these topics is intended to generate ideas for either a lecture/recitation format or discussion in the classroom. For most topics, students should be able to respond and participate in discussions based solely on reading the text. For others, you may need to provide further reading or other forms of information so that students can develop some personal perspective and become equipped to make independent decisions about the topics.

1.

Lecture on the sources of human variation: genetic variation, environmental variation, and cultural variation.

2.

Discuss the connection between skin color and climate. Differentiate tanning (a form of acclimatization) from skin pigmentation (a type of adaptation). Explain the benefits and drawbacks of different levels of melanin in different environmental conditions, including the effects of ultraviolet radiation on folate, Vitamin D, and cancerous cell mutation.

3.

Explain Allen’s rule, Bergmann’s rule, and how climate also affects facial features and cranial features. Discuss climate change and the ways in which modern technologies and migrations may be altering the effect of climate on humans.

4.

Discuss the variation among human groups in the areas of biochemical characteristics such as blood groups, sickle-cell anemia, and lactase deficiency.

5.

Explain polymorphism and balanced polymorphism. Discuss sickle-cell anemia as well as other examples of polymorphism in human populations.

6.

Lecture on the effects of the physical environment on us. Begin with the example from the text: high-altitude adaptations. Ask students to describe their experiences at high altitudes and in extreme heat and aridity, extreme heat and humidity, or extreme cold.

7.

Discuss cultural factors affecting variation. Explain how certain variations are related to culture, such as the connection between lactase deficiency and pastoralism.

8.

Lecture on race and racism. Discuss the various schemes of racial classification, explaining what they really measure. Talk about racism from different areas of the world so that students do not just get examples of white racism. Examine the racism of majority and minority groups. Try to stress that 21 .

most groups in the world have had their times of racism, slavery, and being oppressive when in power.

9.

Have students bring their books to class and discuss Table 6.1, “How Many Races Are There?”

Expand on the material that is presented there. Lecture on folk taxonomies, early “scientific” studies, and modern studies of race.

10. Explain the distinctions between intelligence, knowledge, and wisdom. Discuss the basis of various types of intelligence testing and their correlates. Emphasize the connection between knowledge and culture.

11. Lecture about clines, clinal distribution, univariate analysis, and multivariate analysis.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES 1.

Have students describe what they see in the chapter-opening photo. They should describe such categories as race, ethnic identity, sex/gender, status differential, physical location, etc. After reviewing the chapter, ask students to revisit the photo and describe what they see in terms of concepts presented in the chapter, such as continuous variation and multivariate analysis.

2.

Launch a discussion about the influence of environmental conditions on human variation. What effect is culture having on the environment? How far should we go in order to help create a better environment? Ask students to consider aspects such as cost and legislation that places restrictions on technology and development.

3.

Show slides of healthy red blood cells and sickle cells to begin a discussion of polymorphism, balanced polymorphism, and sickle-cell anemia. Explain the connection between agricultural practices, mosquito populations, malaria, and the distributional pattern of sickle-cell trait.

4.

Ask students to define intelligence, knowledge, and wisdom. Compare and contrast the definitions they suggest. Analyze questions from standard IQ tests in terms of cultural content.

5.

Invite a psychologist or a testing specialist to guest lecture about the origin and types of intelligence tests. Ask him or her to define IQ, explain what it stands for, and explain the limitations of measurements of intelligence.

6.

Discuss how the Human Genome Project has influenced scientific understandings of racial classification. If racial categories cannot be determined genetically, then how are they determined?

Ask students to split into groups to develop a novel racial classification system based on physical features. Compare and contrast these to the racial classification systems included in Table 6.1.

7.

Discuss the Critical Perspectives box on “Joseph Arthur de Gobineau and the Aryan Master Race.”

How do concepts of master races illustrate the difference between racial classification and racism?

Ask students to debate whether it is possible to have race without racism.

8.

Invite a biologist, botanist, or zoologist to talk about clines, clinal distribution, acclimatization, and multivariate analysis. Discuss how these concepts are related to that of race.

22 .

RESEARCH AND WRITING TOPICS 1.

Research the following terms and describe the relationship of these concepts to race: acclimatization, clinal distribution, and multivariate analysis.

2.

Search news articles for one week, collecting every article that uses the concept of race or racism.

Analyze the articles for trends or patterns. Is any particular racial group being singled out in either a positive or negative way? Postulate why this is so.

3.

Research polymorphism and balanced polymorphism. Compare and contrast two examples of polymorphism found in human populations. Discuss any relation these have to environment or cultural practices.

4.

Research the history of intelligence testing. How have IQ tests changed over the years? Describe the relationship among intelligence, wisdom, knowledge, and race, and how these have affected intelligence testing.

5.

Do research on past and present systems of racial classification. How does each system define and measure race? Analyze the systems for validity. Use Table 6.1 from the text as a starting point.

6.

Research how medical interventions that treat illness and extend life expectancy can affect the gene pool. Consider these questions in light of recent developments in genetic research. What are the potential benefits and drawbacks of genetic modification? Should there be limits on how far medical technology can go in terms of altering the gene pool?

23 .

CHAPTER 7 THE PALEOLITHIC LEARNING OBJECTIVES 7.1 Discuss the sources of information on early hominin behavior and the challenges archaeologists face when interpreting the behaviors and lifestyles of the oldest hominins.

7.2 Describe how the behavior of Homo erectus and the earliest representatives of genus Homo differed from that of earlier hominins.

7.3 Describe the changes in the tool traditions that distinguish the Middle Paleolithic period and discuss the hominin species that may have produced them.

7.4 Describe the changes in the archaeological record that distinguish the Upper Paleolithic period and discuss what these technological changes may imply about the lives of early humans.

7.5 Discuss the contrasting theories regarding the initial human settlement of the Americas and the archaeological evidence that supports or refutes each perspective.

CHAPTER OUTLINE LIFESTYLES OF THE EARLIEST HOMININS Primate Models of Early Hominin Behavior The Archaeological Record The First Tools How Were Tools Used?

Oldowan Sites and Early Hominin Behavior Man the Hunter or Woman the Gatherer?

Current Perspectives Diet and Subsistence THE LIFE AND TIMES OF GENUS HOMO Critical Perspectives: Could Early Hominins Speak? The Evolution of Language The Archaeological Record and the Acheulean Industry Hand Axes and Other Tools Living Sites Fire Diet and Subsistence THE MIDDLE PALEOLITHIC Changes in Technology and Subsistence Diet and Subsistence The Neandertals Neandertal Ritual Beliefs MODERN HOMO SAPIENS AND THEIR CULTURES The Material Record of Homo sapiens Diet and Subsistence Shelters Ethnicity and Social Organization 24 .

Upper Paleolithic Art THE MIGRATION OF UPPER PALEOLITHIC HUMANS Upper Paleolithic Hunters in the Americas Clovis or Pre-Clovis Occupation?

Homo sapiens in Asia, Australia, and Oceania The Initial Settlement of New Guinea and Australia Pacific Frontiers SUMMARY AND REVIEW OF LEARNING OBJECTIVES

LECTURE AND DISCUSSION TOPICS Each of these topics is intended to generate ideas for either a lecture/recitation format or discussion in the classroom. For most topics, students should be able to respond and participate in discussions based solely on reading the text. For others, you may need to provide further reading or other forms of information so that students can develop some personal perspective and become equipped to make independent decisions about the topics.

1.

Because this chapter discusses hominin lifestyles, you might want to introduce some of the basic questions of ethnography and archaeology to get students thinking about translating the data in the text into a picture of a people’s lifestyle.

Three basic questions of ethnography are: (a) What do these people do? (b) How do they do it? (c) Why do they do it that way?

Some basic goals of archaeology are: (a) Study of cultural history. (b) Reconstruction of ancient lifestyles. (c) Investigation of the ways in which human cultures changed in prehistory and history.

In archaeology we ask: (a) Who produced these remains? (b) Where and when did the producers live? (c) What were they like (e.g., culture, society, values)? (d) How and why did they become that way?

Be sure to emphasize the importance of sociocultural and archaeological patterns, and question whether that pattern is due to choice or chance.

2.

Explain how we discern a people’s lifestyle from the paleoanthropological and archaeological records.

3.

Discuss use-wear studies and experimental studies in archaeology and how they shed light on early hominins. An introduction of home bases (maintenance tools) and work camps (extraction tools) would be appropriate at this point.

4.

Examine the pros and cons of the “Man the Hunter” viewpoint. Explain the feminist reaction to this hypothesis.

25 .

5.

Lecture on how we use primate models of early hominin behavior to understand the past. Expound on the behavior of modern primates and show the analogies. Present the benefits and drawbacks of using primate behavior as a model for ancient hominin behavior.

6.

Describe the lifestyles of Homo habilis and Homo erectus. Compare and contrast the archaeological record for each species.

7.

Lecture on the cultural adaptations to the environment, such as shelter and controlled use of fire, that appear in conjunction with Homo erectus. Discuss how these adaptations develop with later Neandertal and Homo sapiens populations.

8.

Discuss some of the hypotheses concerning the evolutionary and cultural relationships between Homo sapiens neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens, emphasizing the Neandertal as a complex human being rather than the popularized image of a brute.

9.

Lecture on the general tool kit, social organization, and lifestyle of the Upper Paleolithic and also discuss specific assemblages from a variety of geographical locations (e.g., Europe, Africa, and the Americas). Explore why Upper Paleolithic tool traditions might have differed. Introduce the diverse processes of tool making and how each allowed for a more efficient use of resources. For example, talk about how much material could be chipped from a core if you were making a pebble tool, a hand axe, or a blade.

10. Explore the concept of human language and how it differs from other forms of animal communication. Discuss the connection between language and human cultural developments.

Review the physical anatomy that comprises the human speech apparatus and the evidence for language in the fossil and genetic record.

11. Lecture on the art of the Upper Paleolithic, using slides if possible, to illustrate cave paintings, figurines, engravings, and other forms. Be sure to mention the development of art styles throughout the Upper Paleolithic and the spatial distribution of art subjects within the cave systems of France and Spain.

12. Lecture on the peopling of the Americas, emphasizing the differing points of view on the topic.

There are a variety of films that you may choose to illustrate this subject.

13. Outline the Clovis-first and pre-Clovis hypotheses; explain your support for one of the views.

14. Track the migration of humans through Southeast Asia to Australia and throughout Oceania (Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia).

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES 1.

Show the film Quest for Fire and point out the varying levels of sociocultural complexity as well as the errors in the film. It will provide vivid visual images that will embellish the text material.

2.

Develop worksheets on the Middle Paleolithic and Upper Paleolithic that describe the animal bones, tools, and other archaeological data. Have the students use that information to construct a general overview of the Middle Paleolithic or Upper Paleolithic lifestyle.

3.

If you have access to tool casts, slides, and transparencies, ask your students to describe their style and function based on a visual inspection. If you are able to get the proper materials, introduce your 26 .

students to the process of making stone tools. You might also demonstrate tool making or give them the materials (along with a safety lecture) and let them try to make one.

4.

Show an archaeological map of a Paleolithic site and have the students analyze it. Describe what they have missed. Make and display a site map of your own home and yard, or of an area of the building grounds you teach in. Have the students draw a site map of their school or home.

5.

Have students describe what they see in a picture of a burial. For example, is it a skeleton, a burial, a destruction layer, or something else? What is visible near the skeleton? What is on the skeleton? Do any bones show evidence of artificial changes? Discuss the variety of information we can learn from burials (e.g., demographics, disease and health information, material culture, status/role/rank markers). This could also be a research paper topic.

RESEARCH AND WRITING TOPICS 1.

Research the behavior of bonobos or chimpanzees. Explain what such a study can tell us about human behavior, both now and in the past.

2.

Do research on the lifestyles of Homo habilis and Homo erectus. Compare and contrast how these hominins lived.

3.

Research how archaeologists conduct use-wear studies and various experimental studies.

4.

Research the lifestyles of the Middle and Upper Paleolithic. Use specific archaeological and physical data to support your generalizations about these periods. Compare and contrast their technology, focusing on general trends, specific tool types, and the manufacture of tools.

5.

Compare and contrast Upper Paleolithic art in Europe and Africa. What materials were used? What forms were created? What did people in different regions choose to depict? Include illustrations of specific sites or artifacts.

6.

Report on the peopling of the Americas, providing a discussion of the varying points of view and support for one hypothesis over the others.

27 .

CHAPTER 8 THE ORIGINS OF DOMESTICATION AND SETTLED LIFE LEARNING OBJECTIVES 8.1 Discuss the changes that characterize the Epipaleolithic, Mesolithic and Archaic and how these periods can be seen as laying the foundation for domestication.

8.2 Explain what transformations in human subsistence and culture are implied by the term “Neolithic.”

8.3 Compare and contrast the theories of agricultural origins.

8.4 Review domestication in various world areas, and discuss how these transformations were different.

8.5 List and discuss the major consequences of domestication for prehistoric peoples.

CHAPTER OUTLINE THE END OF THE PALEOLITHIC: CHANGES IN CLIMATE AND CULTURE Epipaleolithic, Mesolithic, and Archaic Technology The Epipaleolithic in Southwest Asia The European Mesolithic The Archaic in the Americas Anthropologists at Work: Grahame Clark and the Mesolithic THE NEOLITHIC: ORIGINS OF FOOD PRODUCTION Evidence for Domestication Other Archaeological Evidence Distribution of Wild Species Molecular Genetics Ethnographic Studies WHY DID DOMESTICATION OCCUR? The Oasis Theory The Readiness Hypothesis A Push Toward Domestication? The Environment, Population Growth, and Demographic Stress Coevolution Agricultural Origins in Perspective DOMESTICATION IN DIFFERENT REGIONS OF THE WORLD Southwest Asia The Eastern Fertile Crescent Europe Megaliths East Asia China Southeast Asia and Japan Vegiculture in Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia South Asia Africa Pastoralism in the Sahara 28 .

Domestication in Sub-Saharan West Africa Northeast Africa The Origins of Domestication in the Americas South America Critical Perspectives: The Origins of Maize North America CONSEQUENCES OF DOMESTICATION Human Settlement and Population Growth Health and Nutrition Critical Perspectives: War before Civilization?

Increasing Material Complexity Sociopolitical Organization SUMMARY AND REVIEW OF LEARNING OBJECTIVES

LECTURE AND DISCUSSION TOPICS Each of these topics is intended to generate ideas for either a lecture/recitation format or discussion in the classroom. For most topics, students should be able to respond and participate in discussions based solely on reading the text. For others, you may need to provide further reading or other forms of information so that students can develop some personal perspective and become equipped to make independent decisions about the topics.

1.

Lecture on the Late Pleistocene changes in climate and culture, emphasizing the significant changes in occupational patterns and tool types. Use visuals if you can. Show how changes in tool technology distinguish the Upper Paleolithic era, the Mesolithic era, and the Neolithic era. Discuss the significance of all these changes.

2.

Lecture on the Neolithic era. Describe it in both the Old World and the New World. Spend some time on the various domesticates and tool kits in both areas. Present dates of the first appearance of various domesticates.

3.

Explore the origins of food production in both the Old World and the New World. Talk about the types of experimentation that led to both plant and animal domesticates. Include broad-spectrum collecting and the process of domestication. Discuss the statement, “The domestication of plants and animals to a large extent may have been accidental.” The film titled The Ascent of Man: The Harvest of the Seasons is an effective one for this topic. It covers some of the experimentation in the ancient Near East and the comparison of cultivation and pastoralism.

4.

Discuss the differences between wild and domesticated versions of plants and animals. Detail some of the things we would breed for in domesticated varieties of plants and animals (e.g., disease resistance, tough rachis, animal plumpness). Explain how both ethnographic studies and the distribution of wild plants and animals help us understand the process of domestication. Discuss the following paradigms of domestication: oasis theory, readiness hypothesis, population models (i.e., demographic stress and population growth), ecology and human selection, and coevolution. Explain why you think domestication occurred.

5.

Lecture on domestication and the Neolithic era in various parts of the world. Mention the areas that the text discusses and any others with which you are familiar. Emphasize lifeways as well as physical artifacts.

29 .

6.

Expound on the consequences of domestication mentioned in the text: population growth, health and nutrition, and increasing material complexity. Show how these phenomena also contributed to increasing sociocultural complexity and that these consequences are still with us. You could use modern statistics to show current conditions.

7.

Discuss megaliths and megalithic culture. Show a film about megaliths, such as The Mystery of Stonehenge.

8.

Lecture on broad-spectrum collecting, cultivation, pastoralism, horticulture, agriculture, and vegiculture. The Ascent of Man: The Harvest of the Seasons (tape number 2 in the video series) talks about cultivation, domestication, and pastoralism.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES 1.

View and discuss the film The Mystery of Stonehenge. In it, Gerald Hawkins and other principal figures discuss their various points of view on Stonehenge. Have students analyze the size and social complexity of a society that would be necessary to build such a structure.

2.

Domestication dramatically transformed human life yet few students appreciate the diversity represented or the many world areas involved. Make up a quiz asking students to match plants with the world area where they originated. Use this to explore the worldwide nature of domestication.

3.

Show the film The Ascent of Man: The Harvest of the Seasons and talk about the process of domestication and the relationship between cultivators and pastoralists.

4.

Invite a botanist to guest lecture on plant domestication and a zoologist to discuss animal domestication. Provide visuals of wild and domesticated varieties of the same species of plants and animals.

5.

Invite a cultural anthropologist to discuss how particular modern cultures make varying use of wild and domesticated plants and animals. You could also show films such as The Hunters, Bushmen of the Kalahari, and The Nuer, which give such information.

6.

Stage a debate of domestication theories.

RESEARCH AND WRITING TOPICS 1.

Research and write a paper on the transition from the Upper Paleolithic to the Mesolithic, or the Mesolithic to the Neolithic. Include topics such as tool kits, subsistence patterns, lifestyles, migration patterns, and environments.

2.

Research the differences between wild and domesticated varieties of plants and animals as well as the evidence for the process of domestication.

3.

Explain why domestication occurred, focusing on the testing and evaluation of a particular theoretical perspective.

4.

Present a paper on domestication in an area of the world such as the Near East, Europe, Asia, Africa, North America, Mesoamerica, or South America. Describe ways in which the domesticates contributed to changes in the people’s way of life.

30 .

5.

Research and write a paper on the following consequences of domestication: population growth, affects on health, material complexity, and changes in sociopolitical organization.

6.

Research and present or write a paper on one or more of the following concepts: cultivation, horticulture, agriculture, vegiculture, and pastoralism.

31 .

CHAPTER 9 THE RISE OF THE STATE AND COMPLEX SOCIETY LEARNING OBJECTIVES 9.1 Discuss the different characteristics that have been used to define civilizations and the limitations of these definitions.

9.2 Discuss the different sources of information that archaeologists draw on to study early states.

9.3 Discuss some of the challenges and limitations of the different theories of state formation.

9.4 Discuss where some of the first agricultural states were located and their characteristics.

9.5 Discuss different theories of why states collapse.

CHAPTER OUTLINE THE STATE AND CIVILIZATION Types of Political Systems Agricultural States Primary and Secondary States STUDYING COMPLEX SOCIETIES Settlement Patterns and Organization Evidence for Administration Monumental Architecture Specialization Status and Social Ranking Trade and Exchange The Archaeology of Religion Written Language Writing Systems THEORIES ABOUT STATE FORMATION Integrationist or Voluntaristic Perspectives Trade and Exchange Conflict or Coercive Theories Warfare and Circumscription Criticisms of Conflict Approaches Multicausal (or Multivariant) Theories of State Formation Conclusions about Early State Formation Hierarchy or Heterarchy?

Critical Perspectives: Contacts between Worlds?

STATES IN DIFFERENT WORLD AREAS Civilizations in Southwest Asia Early Asian Civilizations China Southeast Asia South Asia: The Indus valley 32 .

Agricultural Civilizations in Africa The Nile Valley Nubia Great Zimbabwe The East African Coast West Africa Empires of the Americas Teotihuacán The Classic Maya Andean Civilizations Critical Perspectives: The Downfall of the Moche THE COLLAPSE OF STATE SOCIETIES Reasons for Collapse SUMMARY AND REVIEW OF LEARNING OBJECTIVES

LECTURE AND DISCUSSION TOPICS Each of these topics is intended to generate ideas for either a lecture/recitation format or discussion in the classroom. For most topics, students should be able to respond and participate in discussions based solely on reading the text. For others, you may need to provide further reading or other forms of information so that students can develop some personal perspective and become equipped to make independent decisions about the topics.

1.

Discuss the formation of the state, especially agricultural states, and civilization, contrasting V. Gordon Childe’s theory with those features currently used by anthropologists to define states.

2.

Lecture on the variety of sources of information used to reconstruct the nature of early agricultural states. (a) Introduce the unique contribution of written sources to the study of state formation. Illustrate and compare pictographs, ideographic writing systems, hieroglyphic writing, syllabic writing, and alphabetic writing. (b) Explain central place theory and the evidence for administration and authority that provide information leading to locating and defining agricultural states. (c) Ask for students’ perceptions about the purpose of monumental architecture to illustrate universals and variation in such building in agricultural states. Introduce the variety and contrasts in monumental architecture provided by examples in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Americas. Provide some insights by relating the religious practices and government of states to their monumental architecture. (d) Describe task specialization, status, and social ranking that distinguished state societies. Make connections to the ways in which peoples lived, ate, and worshipped. (e) Discuss trade networks and how the expansion of trade and the analysis of trade materials provide information about state formation. Include a review of how the origins of trade materials can be recognized through trace element analysis.

3.

Lecture on the major research theories of state formation, comparing and contrasting the integrationist theories and conflict theories. Explore how individual theories often incorporate aspects of both perspectives.

33 .

4.

Examine the variety of claims and accounts about contact between the Old World and the Americas.

Use this as an opportunity to reintroduce hypothesis evaluation and the scientific method in searching for answers about the past.

5.

Explore theories on why states collapse. Compare and contrast the collapse of states in the ancient world to circumstances today.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES 1.

Students can debate the features that distinguish the state according to the theories of V. Gordon Childe versus contemporary anthropologists.

2.

In slides or text pictures, have students view the distinctions between pictographs, ideographic writing systems, hieroglyphic writing, syllabic writing, and alphabetic writing. Students might investigate the current developments in hieroglyphic deciphering. A good topic to investigate in this context is the Rosetta Stone and its contribution to understanding ancient texts.

3.

Using topographic and population maps, students can use the central place theory to locate and define agricultural states.

4.

In discussion, have students compare the monumental architecture in a variety of agricultural states, especially Egypt and the Americas.

5.

Invite a sociologist, historian, and/or religious studies lecturer to analyze the effect that religious practices, specialization of tasks, social ranking, and status had on the development of state societies.

6.

Using maps, students could be asked to diagram the expansion of trade networks. As a key to the map, students could provide examples of the most common trade materials found in each area that have been analyzed to provide information about state formation.

7.

Students are generally very interested in the accounts of contact between the Old World and the Americas. Use this interest to generate debates, to provide term paper topics, and to review and emphasize the role of research and theory in what we understand about the past.

8.

Have students discuss different integrationist and conflict theories. Challenge them to evaluate each and decide whether the distinctions between integrationist and conflict theories are useful.

9.

Have students create a timeline depicting the rise and fall of states in the ancient world.

RESEARCH AND WRITING TOPICS 1.

Research and write a paper about state formation, indicating how different writers describe the characteristics that distinguish the state, and how they differentiate civilization, states, and agricultural states.

2.

Write a paper on the importance of written language to the interpretation of the nature of early agricultural states. Distinguish between pictographs, ideographic writing systems, hieroglyphic writing, syllabic writing, and alphabetic writing.

34 .

3.

Research and write a thesis comparing monumental architecture in various agricultural states throughout the world. Comparisons could include the monuments’ architectural structure, decoration, religious or administrative purpose, etc.

4.

Generate a descriptive paper about the social structure of a state society. Based on the specialization of tasks and the resulting status system, describe the social and occupational ranking that distinguished state societies.

5.

Write a paper describing the expansion of trade networks and connecting the technological advances in the analysis of trade materials with the increasing specificity of information about state formation.

6.

Research the religious practices of states, especially those with monumental architecture that have religious purposes; analyze the connection between religion and governmental control in agricultural states.

7.

Write a paper comparing and contrasting the integrationist theories and conflict theories of state formation.

8.

Write a paper comparing ancient empires/states in two geographical areas. What conditions might have led to the differences in development? What circumstances led to the collapse of these states?

9.

Read some of the sensationalized accounts of contact between the Old World and the Americas.

Analyze the foundation for such reports in a paper; indicate the degree to which the connections between civilizations are verifiable, and the methods used in such verification.

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CHAPTER 10 CULTURE LEARNING OBJECTIVES 10.1 Discuss the basic characteristics and components of culture as understood by anthropologists.

10.2 Discuss how humans acquire their culture.

10.3 Discuss how anthropologists understand the sharing of culture.

10.4 Discuss the components of nonmaterial culture studied by anthropologists.

10.5 Describe how culture results in differences among people in various societies.

10.6 Describe how culture leads to universal similarities among people in widely separated societies.

CHAPTER OUTLINE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE CULTURE IS LEARNED Symbols and Symbolic Learning Symbols and Signs Symbols and Culture CULTURE IS SHARED ASPECTS OF CULTURE Values Critical Perspectives: Key National Symbols Beliefs Norms Folkways Mores Ideal versus Real Culture CULTURAL DIVERSITY Food and Diversity Anthropologists at Work: Nancy Rosenberger: Gender, Food, Globalization, and Culture Dress Codes and Symbolism Ethnicity CULTURAL UNIVERSALS SUMMARY AND REVIEW OF LEARNING OBJECTIVES

LECTURE AND DISCUSSION TOPICS Each of these topics is intended to generate ideas for either a lecture/recitation format or discussion in the classroom. For most topics, students should be able to respond and participate in discussions based solely on reading the text. For others, you may need to provide further reading or other forms of information so

36 .

that students can develop some personal perspective and become equipped to make independent decisions about the topics.

1.

Students are often confused about culture and society, anthropology and sociology. It may be helpful to delineate the differences between sociology and sociocultural anthropology and explore the overlap between these two fields. You could do this by comparing and contrasting methodologies and emphases.

2.

Lecture on the differences between society and culture and how anthropologists have merged these in the term “sociocultural system.” The authors explain that many nonhuman animals live in societies but only humans have culture. You might define a society as a “group of interacting organisms.” A society consists of two or more living beings that interact. In smaller societies, the area of cultural practice tends to coincide with the boundary of the population. In larger, multicultural societies, areas of cultural practice do not neatly coincide with the boundaries of the society. People live in societies whose principal mode of interaction is cultural. We participate or share in a culture. We are members of a society.

3.

Describe how people learn culture. Stress that the learned aspect of culture negates any idea that there is a biological basis for culture. List examples of social, symbolic, and situational learning.

4.

Lecture about symbols and signs. Illustrate the arbitrary nature of symbols through examples from the English language. Point out that every word is a symbol; most words do not inherently sound like the object or idea they represent. The assignation of sound to objects and ideas is arbitrary, yielding symbols. Then move beyond words to other types of symbols. Discuss the power of symbols and the value we place on them. Have students discuss symbols that are important to them.

Expand the discussion to symbolic behavior and the power of symbols to affect us deeply.

5.

Discuss the idea that culture is shared, but not uniformly. Even in small-scale societies individuals have some degree of specialized knowledge or cultural differentiation based on age and gender.

Provide a few cross-cultural examples.

6.

Develop the idea of material and nonmaterial culture that is presented in the text. You could define culture as a total lifeway that includes the material, social, and mental aspects of life. Material aspects would be physical expressions of culture, such as artifacts. The social aspect would be human interaction. The mental aspect would be the ideas that are expressed physically and socially.

7.

Lecture on the nature of norms, folkways, and mores. Discuss different forms of social control ranging from informal sanctions, such as gossip and ridicule, to formal laws and punishments.

8.

Explore the ideas of cultural diversity and cultural universals. You could discuss how specific behaviors may differ substantially (e.g., compare your local hospital’s procedures for a patient to a Navajo singer’s procedures), yet accomplish the same function (moving a person from illness to health).

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES 1.

Invite a sociologist to discuss his or her profession with your class. You could engage in a dialogue about the differences and similarities between sociology and anthropology.

2.

Illustrate the way culture is shared in a society. Split the class into small groups and tell them they have been stranded in the wilderness and need to figure out a way to survive. Who has the knowledge and skill to build a shelter, fabricate clothing, and find and prepare food? Convene at the 37 .

end of the exercise to see which groups would be able to survive. Discuss whether it would be better for everyone in a group to be able to fulfill each need or if specialization would work better.

3.

Show an ethnographic film without any sound or pre-showing preparation. Have the students discuss their perceptions, focusing on three aspects: (1) a description of the information in the film (a reality-and-attention check), (2) an explanation of how the cultural systems shown in the film differ from their own, and (3) their personal reaction to the customs of the people in the film.

Show the film a second time with the sound and some preparation (talk about the people shown).

Afterward, discuss the film using the same three aspects. If time is short, skip the non-sound showing; by providing context, you provide understanding and illustrate the importance of cultural relativism.

4.

Determine the level of cultural diversity in your classroom. Have students interview one another about their cultural backgrounds. Discuss their findings as a class.

5.

Discuss the material in the text on food, clothing, and hairstyles. Ask students to consider what we eat and don’t eat. You could also ask them to consider what different dress styles and hairstyles may mean in terms of values and behavior. Have the class discuss appropriate clothing and hairstyles for different social situations.

6.

After discussing culture in class, have each student work individually with this question: Is there any part of you that your culture does not influence? Then have them form larger groups to discuss this question.

RESEARCH AND WRITING TOPICS 1.

How are nonmaterial aspects of culture expressed and conveyed? Begin with either a belief or value and analyze how it is expressed materially in your culture, or find a material item and analyze the beliefs and values that can be read from it. Advertisements can be good source materials.

2.

Research a national symbol from your country or another. Discover the history behind the symbol.

Analyze the meaning that it conveys. How has it come to represent a nation’s people or ideology?

3.

Delve deeper into Amish culture. How do they differentiate themselves from the people around them? How has their way of life changed in recent years?

4.

Research the cultural importance of food. Compare and contrast how food choices are made in your own culture with that of another. What are the religious, economic, political, or ethnic aspects of food?

5.

Research a dress style that is not your own (e.g., Middle Eastern veil, Japanese kimono). What does it mean to those people? Has its meaning changed over time? If so, explain how and why.

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CHAPTER 11 THE PROCESS OF ENCULTURATION: PSYCHOLOGICAL AND COGNITIVE ANTHROPOLOGY LEARNING OBJECTIVES 11.1 Discuss the relationship between biology and culture and how anthropologists regard the nature/nurture questions of humanity.

11.2 Explain the difference between nonhuman animal behavior and human behavior.

11.3 Discuss how anthropologists study enculturation and its relationship to personality formation.

11.4 How have anthropologists used the psychoanalytic approach to study personality and culture?

11.5 Explain how anthropologists understand incest avoidance and the incest taboo.

11.6 What have anthropologists learned about enculturation and sexuality?

11.7 Discuss the relationship between enculturation and cognition.

11.8 Discuss what cognitive anthropologists have learned about universals and human thought processes.

11.9 How does evolutionary psychology contribute to an understanding of human universals?

11.10 Discuss what anthropologists have discovered about human emotions.

11.11 Discuss the new field of neuroanthropology.

11.12 Discuss the limitations of enculturation in examining human behavior.

CHAPTER OUTLINE BIOLOGY VERSUS CULTURE INSTINCTS AND HUMAN NATURE Human Beings as Animals Instincts in Animals Instincts and Learned Behaviors Do Humans Possess Instincts?

Drives Culture versus Instinct ENCULTURATION: CULTURE AND PERSONALITY Early Studies of Enculturation Benedict and Culture Types Mead in Samoa The Culture-and-Personality School: An Evaluation The Freeman–Mead Controversy Childhood Acquisition of Cultural Knowledge Japanese Childhood Enculturation PSYCHOANALYTIC APPROACHES IN ANTHROPOLOGY Sigmund Freud’s Influence UNDERSTANDING INCEST AVOIDANCE AND THE INCEST TABOO Biological Explanations of Incest Avoidance Marital Alliance and the Incest Taboo Childhood Familiarity Hypothesis 39 .

Incest Avoidance: Biocultural or Interactionist Perspectives Critical Perspectives: The Anthropology of the “Self” ENCULTURATION AND THE SEX DRIVE Codes of Sexual Behavior Sexuality and Culture ENCULTURATION AND COGNITION Structuralism Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky COGNITIVE ANTHROPOLOGY EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY ENCULTURATION AND EMOTIONS NEUROANTHROPOLOGY THE LIMITS OF ENCULTURATION Unique Biological Tendencies Individual Variation and Agency SUMMARY AND REVIEW OF LEARNING OBJECTIVES

LECTURE AND DISCUSSION TOPICS Each of these topics is intended to generate ideas for either a lecture/recitation format or discussion in the classroom. For most topics, students should be able to respond and participate in discussions based solely on reading the text. For others, you may need to provide further reading or other forms of information so that students can develop some personal perspective and become equipped to make independent decisions about the topics.

1.

Lecture on the concept of enculturation and the unique perspective of psychological anthropology.

Explicate the nature/nurture controversy, its historical roots, and the current interactionist perspective on understanding the topic.

2.

Explore the unique and common aspects of animal behavior. Discuss the ways in which humans display reflexes and drives, and how culture tempers these characteristics. Use this discussion as an illustration of enculturation, and a lead-in to the culture-and-personality topic.

3.

Lecture on the culture-and-personality school and show how it comes out of historical particularism and leads into psychological anthropology. Discuss the work of Ruth Benedict and Margaret Mead.

Include in your discussion the Freeman–Mead controversy and the nature/nurture controversy.

Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the culture-and-personality approach.

4.

Discuss the models of enculturation and provide cross-cultural evidence supporting the theories of Sigmund Freud. You may want to address the ways in which the discipline of psychology has developed over the past century and the ways in which it has come to contribute to anthropological

40 .

study. Use Freud as an example of how a “giant” can revolutionize a discipline. While contemporary research criticizes his ideas, it also uses them as a baseline of information.

5.

Introduce the concepts of incest, incest avoidance, and incest taboo. Show that incest avoidance is almost universal. Discuss and evaluate each of the views surrounding the concept of incest: biological explanation, childhood-familiarity hypothesis, functionalist explanation (building marital alliances and sustaining the family as an institution), and biocultural or interactionist perspective.

Explain which one fits the data best from your perspective.

6.

Interpret human sexuality from an enculturation viewpoint. Compare and contrast the concepts of “normal,” “abnormal,” and “deviant” patterns of sexuality, using sexual practices and norms from different societies as examples. You might also focus on the contemporary treatment of homosexuality in our society.

7.

Discuss the concept of a “third gender” and how this manifests in different cultures. We are so used to thinking in gender dualities that this can be a difficult concept for students to grasp. Emphasize that cultures that exhibit gender pluralism have multiple symbolic, functional, religious, and economic levels that support additional gender roles. It is not simply a case of men being women or women being men.

8.

Lecture on the field of structuralism and explain the relationship between enculturation and cognition made by the studies of Claude Lévi-Strauss and Jean Piaget. Compare and contrast their suppositions about cognition and the contributions they have made to psychological anthropology.

9.

Explore the field of cognitive anthropology. Discuss the work of Brent Berlin and Paul Kay on basic color terms. Review the concepts of prototypes, schemas, and narratives.

10. Go over the basic ideas of evolutionary psychology. Discuss the relationship between the evolution of the brain and adaptation and how this may contribute to the human universals we see today.

Compare this work to research in the emerging field of neuroanthropology.

11. Describe the cultural variations that occur in emotional development. Illustrate with cross-cultural examples. Discuss how this might affect how ethnographers interpret behavior in the field.

12. Explain the limitations to enculturation and summarize the chapter information by returning to the interactionist perspective. Explore the ideas of individual variation and agency. Discuss how the concept of agency has impacted our understanding of culture.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES 1.

Invite a biologist to lecture on instinct, and follow the lecture with a discussion of whether humans have instincts. Have students develop a list of our reflexes and drives.

2.

Have students prepare arguments to support the views of Margaret Mead and/or Derek Freeman; have them debate the Freeman–Mead/nature–nurture controversy.

3.

Invite a psychologist or educational psychologist to address the contributions of Sigmund Freud and Jean Piaget to their disciplines. Encourage student discussion of some of the more difficult concepts of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory and Piaget’s stage theory of development. A joint discussion with you about the relationship between psychology and psychological anthropology would also be relevant.

41 .

4.

Students could discuss the issue of contemporary norms and beliefs about sexuality. They could collect newspaper or newsmagazine articles regarding issues of sexuality, then discuss why these are considered news and the implications regarding social norms.

5.

Conduct an informal exercise in cognitive anthropology. Have students break into small groups and generate a list of prototypes for various categories (e.g., fish, fruit, pet, mammal, vegetable, geological feature). Compare the lists and discuss the similarities and differences that emerge.

6.

A number of good films are available to illustrate the topics in this chapter: animal and human behavior, sexuality, the nature/nurture controversy, etc. Encourage students to actively watch and criticize films, noting the perspective of the authors and implications of the research reported.

RESEARCH AND WRITING TOPICS 1.

Research and write a critical analysis of one or more of the following topics: the nature/nurture controversy as represented by Derek Freeman and Margaret Mead; the culture-and-personality studies by Ruth Benedict; the enculturation research of Joy Hendry; or the anthropology of self writings of Francis Hsu.

2.

Research and write a paper on the various anthropological perspectives on incest.

3.

Complete a cross-cultural comparison of codes of sexual behavior. Analyze the characteristics of particular cultures that are reflected in their sexual behavior. You could focus on a specific topic such as homosexuality, premarital sex, “sex education” (passing on knowledge about sexual practices), or sexual “deviancy.”

4.

Research third-gender roles cross-culturally. Compare and contrast the third genders of two different societies. How are they similar or different in terms of their foundation in the culture’s belief system, their economic roles, their dress and hairstyles, and their sexual and marital behaviors?

5.

Research the influence of psychology and cognition on anthropology. Compare and contrast the influence of Sigmund Freud, Jean Piaget, and/or Lev Vygotsky on the topics of enculturation, development, and cognition in anthropology.

6.

Write a paper outlining the latest research in the fields of evolutionary psychology and neuroanthropology.

7.

Read an ethnography that focuses on the role of individual agency. Discuss how the concept of agency is used by the ethnographer and reflect on how this concept has influenced understandings of culture.

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CHAPTER 12 LANGUAGE LEARNING OBJECTIVES 12.1 Compare and contrast how the laboratory studies of nonhuman animal communication differs from what is found in the studies of nonhuman animals in the wild.

12.2 Discuss what makes human languages unique in comparison with nonhuman animal communication.

12.3 Describe what anthropologists conclude about the evolution of language.

12.4 Discuss how linguistic anthropologists study language.

12.5 Explain how children acquire their languages.

12.6 Discuss the relationship between language and culture.

12.7 Describe how anthropologists study the history of languages.

12.8 Describe what the field of sociolinguistics tells us about language use.

12.9 Discuss other forms of communication humans use besides language.

CHAPTER OUTLINE NONHUMAN COMMUNICATION Teaching Apes to Sign Ape Sign Language Reexamined Ethological Research on Ape Communication Chimpanzee Communication: Jane Goodall ANIMAL COMMUNICATION AND HUMAN LANGUAGE Productivity Displacement Arbitrariness Combining Sounds to Produce Meanings THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE THE STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Kinship Terms LANGUAGE ACQUISITION Chomsky on Language Acquisition Creole and Pidgin Languages Sign Language in Nicaragua: A Case for the Innateness of Language LANGUAGE, THOUGHT, AND CULTURE Anthropologists at Work: Russell Bernard: Saving Languages The Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis A Case Study: The Hopi Language 43 .

Universals of Time Expression Weak Linguistic Relativity HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS The Family-Tree Model Assessing Language Change SOCIOLINGUISTICS Dialectal Differences in Spoken Language African-American Vernacular English (AAVE) Honorifics in Language Greeting Behaviors NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION Kinesics Proxemics SUMMARY AND REVIEW OF LEARNING OBJECTIVES

LECTURE AND DISCUSSION TOPICS Each of these topics is intended to generate ideas for either a lecture/recitation format or discussion in the classroom. For most topics, students should be able to respond and participate in discussions based solely on reading the text. For others, you may need to provide further reading or other forms of information so that students can develop some personal perspective and become equipped to make independent decisions about the topics.

1.

Using the material on culture in Chapter 10, lecture on the cultural aspects of language and symbols.

Define for your students: language, communication, signs, and symbols.

2.

Lecture on nonhuman communication. Use the material from Jane Goodall, Allen and Beatrice Gardner, David and Ann Premack, Roger Fouts, Francine Patterson, the Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center, and Herbert Terrace. Discuss the criticisms of these studies on language use by primates. Bring in current research in ethology and language studies with nonhuman primates.

Discuss the differences between animal communication and human language, especially in terms of displacement, arbitrariness, and combining sounds to produce meanings.

3.

Trace the evolution of language. Be sure to discuss the text’s points about the human brain and speech, human anatomy and speech, and the question about the speaking abilities of early hominins.

4.

Lecture on the structure of language. In your discussion of phonology, introduce students to the phonetic alphabet and phonic transcription. Morphology can be difficult, so spend some extra time on morphemes. Talk about syntax, using examples from English and any other languages you are familiar with. This would be a good time to introduce the philosophy of, and problems with, translation. Discuss literal translation, dynamic equivalent translations, and those that fall in between.

5.

Review ethnosemantics and cognitive anthropology. Start with the classification of kinship terms and classifying colors. Introduce additional examples such as how we classify disease, plants, or foods. For example, ask students what happens to the food on their plates when they push it away.

Does it become “garbage” or “leftovers”? Does it have a change of state or a change of definition?

44 .

What has changed, the food or our perception of it? You could also talk about foods we do not eat— foods that are perfectly good and eaten by others but that would probably make many Americans ill to consider eating, such as horse, guinea pig, dog, and snake.

6.

Lecture on language acquisition. Explain how we learn language. Discuss the work of Noam Chomsky. Show how creole and pidgin languages relate to Chomsky’s idea of an innate universal grammar. Explain the critiques of Chomsky in the text. Show how Ann Senghas’s research on sign language in Nicaragua lends support to theories about the innateness of language.

7.

Discuss language change and the extinction of indigenous languages. Review the work of Russell Bernard as well as the Rosetta Project.

8.

Lecture on the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis and the evidence that both supports and refutes it. Use studies on linguistic relativity to evaluate controversies in language use, such as whether or not gendered nouns perpetuate sexism.

9.

Examine historical linguistics. Discuss the family-tree model, core vocabularies, and glottochronology.

10. Lecture on sociolinguistics. Define what is meant by a “speech community.” Review examples of pragmatics, dialects, greeting behavior, and honorifics in language.

11. Discuss the origins of and controversy surrounding African-American Vernacular English.

12. Address nonverbal communication. Be sure to deal with kinesics and proxemics.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES 1.

Show a film such as The First Signs of Washoe, and lead a discussion on nonhuman communication.

2.

Ask students to list the languages they can read or understand. Now list the number of ways we can communicate. Have them define both communication and language. Have students say and write things in other languages for the class. You could introduce the idea of phonemes here and perhaps write out what they say phonetically.

3.

Ask international students and other bilingual students to talk about the phonology, morphology, and syntax of their non-English language.

4.

Create minimal pair and bound and free morpheme worksheets for students to complete in small groups. It will be easiest to complete this exercise using a common language, such as English, but you could also introduce a language that many of the students would not be familiar with to further illustrate the process.

5.

In class, divide your students into small groups to discuss the two following statements by Edward Sapir. Ask them if they agree or disagree with Sapir, and why. “Language is a guide to social reality.” “The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same world with different labels attached.”

6.

Using the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis and the studies that support and modify it, have students debate the strengths and weaknesses of linguistic relativity.

45 .

7.

Role play situations involving dialects, greeting behaviors, and language honorifics. Set up situations of different degrees of formality, rank of speakers, different cultures, and other appropriate variables. Use your own background and that of your students to get data for the role-playing. After students role-play these situations, have them explain why they behaved as they did and how they felt about these situations.

8.

Have your students pair off and say to each other, “I am sorry.” Tell them to do it several times, but vary the emotional content each time (i.e., angry, sarcastic, sorrowful, happy). Have them discuss how they felt about the same words being repeated with different emotional verbal tones. Now have them do the same thing, but include appropriate posture, gestures, and facial signals. Many studies indicate that the total message of oral communication is about 7 percent word content, 35 percent voice tone, and 58 percent posture-gesture-facial signals.

RESEARCH AND WRITING TOPICS 1.

Research and write a paper on the primate research of Jane Goodall, Allen and Beatrice Gardner, David and Ann Premack, Roger Fouts, or Francine Patterson. Evaluate their research design, assumptions, and conclusions.

2.

Research and write a paper on the work of Herbert Terrace. Do you agree with him? Why or why not?

3.

Research and write a paper on the evolution of language or on the following question: “Could early hominins speak?”

4.

Choose a passage from a book in English or another language and transcribe it phonetically. Then analyze it in terms of phonemes and morphemes.

5.

Research ethnosemantics or cognitive anthropology as it relates to kinship terms and classifying reality (e.g., classifying color and/or disease categories).

6.

Research language acquisition hypotheses. What alternatives have been proposed to Noam Chomsky’s theory of universal grammar?

7.

Critically evaluate the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis.

8.

Write a paper on the history of a spoken language. Discuss the techniques used in historical linguistics, such as family-tree models and glottochronology.

9.

Research a speech community. Discuss whether there are certain dialects, greeting behaviors, and/or honorifics associated with this speech community. Assess the relationship between spoken language and social position.

10. Record, transcribe, and analyze a short conversation in terms of the relationships among the speakers and the forms of language they use. Take additional notes on kinesic behaviors that add meaning to the spoken words and include them in the written report. (Be sure to obtain permission from the parties involved before you record them.)

46 .

CHAPTER 13 ANTHROPOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS LEARNING OBJECTIVES 13.1 Explain the basic differences between the nineteenth-century and twentieth-century evolutionary approaches in anthropology.

13.2 Describe the basic strengths and weaknesses of the diffusionist approach in understanding different cultures.

13.3 Discuss historical particularism developed by Franz Boas.

13.4 Explain the differences between structural functionalism and psychological functionalism.

13.5 Discuss the twentieth-century neoevolutionary approaches, including cultural materialism.

13.6 Describe the Marxist approach that emerged in anthropology in the 1970s.

13.7 Discuss the symbolic anthropology approach as a humanist method.

13.8 Discuss the approach of feminist anthropologists.

13.9 Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the postmodern approach in anthropology.

CHAPTER OUTLINE NINETEENTH-CENTURY EVOLUTIONISM Unilineal Evolution: Tylor Unilineal Evolution: Morgan Morgan and Kinship Theories Unilineal Evolution: A Critique DIFFUSIONISM British Diffusionism German Diffusionism The Limitations and Strengths of Diffusionism HISTORICAL PARTICULARISM Boas versus the Unilineal Evolutionists FUNCTIONALISM Structural Functionalism: Radcliffe-Brown Psychological Functionalism: Malinowski The Limitations of Functionalism TWENTIETH-CENTURY EVOLUTIONISM Steward and Cultural Ecology A Case Study: The Shoshone The Strengths of Neoevolutionism Criticisms of Cultural Ecology Cultural Materialism Criticisms of Cultural Materialism MARXIST ANTHROPOLOGY

47 .

Evaluation of Marxist Anthropology SYMBOLIC ANTHROPOLOGY: A HUMANISTIC METHOD OF INQUIRY Criticisms of Symbolic Anthropology Materialism versus Culturalism FEMINIST ANTHROPOLOGY Criticisms of Feminist Anthropology POSTMODERNISM AND ANTHROPOLOGY Postmodernists and Contemporary Research Shifts in Anthropological Explanations SUMMARY AND REVIEW OF LEARNING OBJECTIVES

LECTURE AND DISCUSSION TOPICS Each of these topics is intended to generate ideas for either a lecture/recitation format or discussion in the classroom. For most topics, students should be able to respond and participate in discussions based solely on reading the text. For others, you may need to provide further reading or other forms of information so that students can develop some personal perspective and become equipped to make independent decisions about the topics.

1.

Discuss the theoretical stance of nineteenth-century evolutionism in terms of the question, “Why are societies at similar or different levels of evolution and development?” Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the work of Morgan on kinship and Tylor on societal evolution.

2.

Explain the basic tenets of diffusionism, and compare and contrast British and German diffusionism.

Relate how diffusionism has remained very strong in some quarters in explaining the archaeological record. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of diffusionism.

3.

Lecture on the impact of Franz Boas and historical particularism. Emphasize the impact of actually going into the field and getting empirical data through participant observation and other methods.

Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of historical particularism.

4.

Lecture on functionalism. Compare and contrast the structural functionalism of A. R. RadcliffeBrown with the psychological functionalism of Bronislaw Malinowski. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of functionalism.

5.

Explore the general idea of theory and how theory influences research. You could discuss the role of a theoretical orientation in deriving theories and the relationship between a theory and a hypothesis.

6.

Discuss twentieth-century evolutionism. Compare and contrast the neoevolutionism of Leslie White with the cultural ecology of Julian Steward. Show how the Shoshone case study supports Steward’s ideas. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of neoevolutionism and cultural ecology.

7.

Examine the cultural materialism of Marvin Harris. Talk about infrastructure, structure, and superstructure. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of cultural materialism.

8.

Describe Marxist anthropology. Explain Karl Marx’s form of materialism. Discuss his ideas associated with the industrial mode of production. Show how Marxism is applied to anthropology.

48 .

9.

Describe symbolic anthropology and its methodology. Explain the concept of “thick description.”

Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of symbolic anthropology.

10. Discuss the division between materialism and culturalism and why this division occurs. Within the context of this discussion, explain your own theoretical orientation and why you hold it.

11. Lecture on feminist anthropology. Describe the emergence of the feminist orientation and how important this is to a proper understanding of societies by anthropologists. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of feminist anthropology.

12. Discuss the theoretical orientation of postmodern anthropology. Explain how postmodernist thinking has influenced how ethnographers conduct fieldwork and how they write about culture.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES 1.

Choose short passages from ethnographies that describe the same society from two different theoretical perspectives (e.g., Bronislaw Malinowski’s and Annette Weiner’s studies of Trobriand Islanders) and ask students to compare and contrast them in class.

2.

After discussing the chapter, have each student prepare to defend the theoretical school that she or he believes gives the most complete explanation of sociocultural phenomena. Divide the class into groups on this basis, and have them debate their favorite theories among groups.

3.

Engage students in some hypothetical problems that might be considered by anthropologists. Taking different positions based on one theorist (or school), have students explain their position and ideas about the topic.

RESEARCH AND WRITING TOPICS 1.

Research one of the theoretical schools of anthropological thought discussed in the text and how it interprets cultural phenomena. Discuss the historical context in which the school of thought developed, how it reacted to anthropological thinking that preceded it, and what its lasting influence has been.

2.

Research and write comparative essays on the work of two of the following influential figures in anthropology: (a) Edward B. Tylor (b) Lewis Henry Morgan (c) Franz Boas (d) A. R. Radcliffe-Brown (e) Bronislaw Malinowski (f) Julian Steward (g) Leslie White (h) Marvin Harris (i) Mary Douglas (j) Ruth Benedict (k) Margaret Mead (l) Eleanor Leacock (m) Sherry Ortner (n) James Clifford (o) Marjorie Shostak 49 .

3.

Research and write a position paper on the materialism versus culturalism debate.

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CHAPTER 14 ANALYZING SOCIOCULTURAL SYSTEMS LEARNING OBJECTIVES 14.1 Discuss how cultural anthropologists prepare to study society and culture.

14.2 Describe the actual research methods used for ethnographic studies.

14.3 Discuss some of the ethical dilemmas of ethnographic research.

14.4 How do cultural anthropologists analyze their ethnographic data?

14.5 Discuss the contemporary view of sociocultural evolution used by anthropologists.

14.6 Describe the types of sociocultural systems studied by anthropologists.

14.7 Describe the strengths and limitations of the cross-cultural approach.

CHAPTER OUTLINE ETHNOGRAPHIC FIELDWORK ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH AND STRATEGIES Key Informants Interviews Quantitative and Qualitative Data Culture Shock ETHICS IN ANTHROPOLOGICAL RESEARCH ANALYSIS OF ETHNOGRAPHIC DATA Universals, Independent Variables, and Dependent Variables Universals and Variables Studied by Cultural Anthropologists SOCIOCULTURAL EVOLUTION: A CONTEMPORARY MODEL TYPES OF SOCIOCULTURAL SYSTEMS Foragers, Band, or Hunter-Gatherer Societies The Concept of Tribe in Anthropology The Concept of the Chiefdom Agricultural States Industrial and Postindustrial States CROSS-CULTURAL RESEARCH SUMMARY AND REVIEW OF LEARNING OBJECTIVES

LECTURE AND DISCUSSION TOPICS Each of these topics is intended to generate ideas for either a lecture/recitation format or discussion in the classroom. For most topics, students should be able to respond and participate in discussions based solely on reading the text. For others, you may need to provide further reading or other forms of information so

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that students can develop some personal perspective and become equipped to make independent decisions about the topics.

1.

Discuss the goals and strategies of ethnographic research. Explain the nature of ethnographic research, its unique qualities, and those it shares with other research fields.

2.

Present the concept of culture shock and the psychological effects of spending an extended period of time in a different cultural setting. Explain how culture shock ebbs and flows and discuss how it might affect an ethnographer in the field.

3.

Lecture on the ways anthropologists collect their data. Include explanations and examples of quantitative and qualitative data.

4.

Explain the difference between structured and unstructured interviews. Give an overview of the ways anthropologists identify informants, generate samples, and develop interview questions.

5.

Discuss how different research tools yield different forms of information and make more sense in some societies than others. For example, compare life histories to interviews and surveys, or working in a small village to working in an urban environment.

6.

Give an overview of the ethical considerations and practices relevant to ethnographic fieldwork.

Discuss the importance of protecting the identities of informants and being open about your research with the subject population.

7.

Lecture on how we analyze variables and conduct multivariate or multidimensional analysis. Define and use with examples: independent variable, dependent variable, and correlation. Bring in specific examples to illustrate these concepts.

8.

Present the categories of sociocultural systems included in the text: bands, tribes, chiefdoms, agricultural states, and industrial and postindustrial states. Illustrate with an example of each.

Emphasize that using these categories no longer implies unilineal evolution. In addition, reiterate that all cultures change over time.

9.

Define the term egalitarian. Discuss how it is used in reference to foragers and band societies. You may want to offer examples of political egalitarianism and gender egalitarianism as well as economic egalitarianism. Stress that egalitarian does not mean absolutely equal.

10. Lecture on the concept of a tribe. Tell why some anthropologists object to the use of this term.

Summarize and evaluate Morton Fried’s argument against using the term “tribe.” Explain when you think it is appropriate and inappropriate to use this term.

11. Compare how the terms chief and chiefdom are used in popular culture with how they are used in anthropology. Explain why there is disagreement among anthropologists on how these terms should be defined.

12. Discuss what a state is as understood by anthropologists. Explain the major structural differences between state and prestate societies in terms of bureaucracy and centralization. Explain how largescale state formation emerged in relationship to intensive agricultural production.

13. Outline the general characteristics of industrial and postindustrial states. Offer examples to illustrate the concept of the nation-state.

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14. Give a brief history of the Industrial Revolution and its lasting economic and cultural impact.

Explain the terms mercantilism, industrialization, and modernization.

15. Lecture on the strengths and weaknesses of cross-cultural research. Discuss how ethnography intersects with ethnology. Without ethnography, we would be unable to conduct ethnology. Without ethnology, we would not be able to generate theories about universals of human behavior. Ethnology is also helpful in providing an ethnographer with information about a community or similar communities before going into the field.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES 1.

Ask students to select a geographical region and an aspect of society and culture (e.g., technology, social structure, religion, subsistence, art, etc.) in which they are interested. If class size permits, have students form groups by geographical region and compare their areas of cultural interest. Then have students split into groups based on cultural aspect and discuss what types of research questions they think would be relevant to the aspect they selected.

2.

Divide your class into groups. Have each group design a research project about campus culture.

(Students can collect data if time permits. If not, thinking about how to design the project should elicit interesting discussion and student engagement.) Each group might study one of the following variables: religion, politics, social structure, economics, technology, demography, or physical environment. This can be as elaborate or simple as you want it to be. You could narrow the field of research down from your entire campus to a smaller unit of it. Students could give oral or written reports. One of the values of this exercise is that they begin to look at the campus culture as an anthropologist might. You will need to teach them simple participant-observation techniques, interviewing strategies, and any other appropriate field techniques. A very useful book for this is Julia G. Crane and Michael V. Angrosino, Field Projects in Anthropology: A Student Handbook, 3rd ed. (Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 1992). It has chapters on how to conduct field projects involving mapmaking, charting kinship, interviewing informants, participant observation, collecting life histories, using personal documentation, digging into cultural history, analyzing folklore, conducting ethnosemantic research, designing a survey, studying formal organization, taking photographs, and planning a community study. This becomes an excellent way to make anthropology come alive, teach students field skills, show them how anthropologists look at things, help them see their campus in a new way, and teach them some skills that could be applied in a number of career fields. Be sure to follow any guidelines or regulations your university has about working with human subjects and help students develop their projects accordingly.

3.

Working in small groups, guide students in crafting an open-ended interview or more structured questionnaire that they can administer to fellow classmates. Choose a few examples to demonstrate how to analyze data after the interviews have been completed.

4.

Generate a random sample of students to illustrate how the process works. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the technique afterward.

5.

Have students bring in examples of anthropology in popular culture, especially in terms of the way popular media conceives of tribes and chiefdoms. Analyze these examples according to the anthropological definition and usage of these terms.

6.

Bring in examples of texts that exemplify the difference between ethnography and ethnology. Ask students to see if they can identify which text would be classified as ethnography and which as ethnology. They should offer reasons to support their answers.

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RESEARCH AND WRITING TOPICS 1.

Visit the American Anthropological Association’s Web site and read its statement on ethics. Explain why you think such ethical considerations are so important in anthropological research.

2.

Compare and contrast two ethnographies in which the author discusses his/her research methods.

What methods do the two works have in common? How are they different? How did the research methods help or hinder the ethnographer in achieving his/her goals?

3.

Research the methods used by ethnographers working in large-scale, urban communities. Discuss how urban ethnographers have adapted traditional fieldwork methods to working with larger populations.

4.

Read an ethnography about a band-level society. Describe how people interact with their environment and how egalitarianism is expressed in this society. Does the ethnographer comment on any changes occurring in the community? Follow up with some online research to investigate whether life in this community is the same or different today compared to when the ethnography was written.

5.

Do a critical analysis and interaction paper on “What is a tribe?” Evaluate Morton Fried’s objections to the term. Can “tribe” still be used as a legitimate term?

6.

Research the origins of the state in a certain region of the world. Discuss how the state developed in conjunction with changes in subsistence technology, economic structure, and social and political organization in that part of the world. Cite specific archaeological evidence to support your claims.

7.

Conduct research on life during the Industrial Revolution. Compare the information you find with descriptions of life in developing parts of the world today. Describe how people react to and adopt new technologies in each case, as well as the effects on the type of work people do, the economic structure of the society, and if there are changes in terms of family, gender, and home life.

8.

Research and describe the type of ethnological work researchers are doing today. What questions are they asking? What methods do they use to arrive at answers? Include specific examples.

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CHAPTER 15 ENVIRONMENT, SUBSISTENCE, AND DEMOGRAPHY LEARNING OBJECTIVES 15.1 Discuss the relationship between subsistence and the physical environment (biomes).

15.2 Describe how anthropologists study population with reference to fertility, mortality, and migration.

15.3 Describe the different environments and subsistence activities of foragers.

15.4 Discuss the demographic conditions for foragers.

15.5 Describe the environments and subsistence for horticulturalists and pastoralists.

15.6 Describe how settling down influences population growth for horticulturalists and pastoralists.

15.7 Describe the environments and subsistence activities for chiefdoms.

15.8 Describe the changes for populations in agricultural states.

15.9 Discuss the development of energy sources in industrial and postindustrial societies.

15.10 Discuss the demographic transition for industrial and postindustrial societies.

CHAPTER OUTLINE SUBSISTENCE AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT Modern Cultural Ecology Biomes Subsistence Patterns and Environments DEMOGRAPHY Fertility, Mortality, and Migration Population and Environment Population and Culture MODERN FORAGING ENVIRONMENTS AND SUBSISTENCE Deserts Tropical Rainforests Arctic Regions Mobility and Subsistence DEMOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS FOR FORAGERS Fissioning Infanticide and Geronticide Fertility Rates for Foragers ENVIRONMENT AND SUBSISTENCE FOR HORTICULTURALISTS AND PASTORALISTS Amazon Horticulturalists: The Yanomamö New Guinea Horticulturalists: The Tsembaga Horticulturalists in Woodland Forest Areas: The Iroquois Environment and Subsistence for Pastoralists East African Cattle Complex The Nuer DEMOGRAPHICS AND SETTLEMENT 55 .

ENVIRONMENT, SUBSISTENCE, AND DEMOGRAPHY FOR CHIEFDOMS Pacific Island Chiefdoms African Chiefdoms Native American Chiefdoms The Mississippi Region The Northwest Coast Demography ENVIRONMENT AND DEMOGRAPHY IN AGRICULTURAL STATES ENVIRONMENT AND ENERGY USE IN INDUSTRIAL AND POSTINDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES DEMOGRAPHIC CHANGE The Demographic Transition Urbanization SUMMARY AND REVIEW OF LEARNING OBJECTIVES

LECTURE AND DISCUSSION TOPICS Each of these topics is intended to generate ideas for either a lecture/recitation format or discussion in the classroom. For most topics, students should be able to respond and participate in discussions based solely on reading the text. For others, you may need to provide further reading or other forms of information so that students can develop some personal perspective and become equipped to make independent decisions about the topics.

1.

Discuss the importance of the physical environment to human societies. Show how culture is the means through which we interact with the environment. Present the physical environment and subsistence as interacting variables. Explain in detail: ecology, environmental niche, subsistence patterns, biomes, and cultural ecology.

2.

Lecture on demography and demographic anthropology. Get some current demographic figures (e.g., crude birth rate, crude death rate, migration rate, fecundity, life expectancy, infant mortality rate) for your area, state, or the nation as a whole. Graph this data (or have students graph it) to create a vivid representation that students will remember. Discuss each of these demographic variables if you believe there is any confusion among your students. This would be a good time to explore some of the relationships between population and culture.

3.

Lecture on hunter-gatherer or foraging societies. Discuss the sorts of environments they live in today. Describe what you think the future holds for foraging societies.

4.

Define a marginal environment. Describe, using specific examples, the foraging adaptations to the following marginal environments discussed in the text: (a) deserts, (b) tropical rainforests, and (c) Arctic regions.

5.

Talk about the mobility and subsistence patterns of foragers. Discuss the impact of these patterns on the physical environment.

6.

Discuss the interrelationships of the environment and demography for foragers in terms of carrying capacity, fissioning, infanticide, geronticide, and fertility rates.

56 .

7.

Lecture on horticulture. Show how it differs from agriculture. Explain how swidden (slash-and-burn) agriculture works and its environmental requirements. Describe, compare, and contrast the horticultural systems of the Yanomamö, the Tsembaga, and the Iroquois.

8.

Lecture on pastoralism, using the Nuer pastoralist system as an example. You could show the film The Nuer to provide some exciting visuals for your lecture.

9.

Describe the types of ecological regions in which chiefdoms emerged. Talk about regional symbiosis, and give examples. Describe for your students the demography and settlement patterns of chiefdom societies. Compare and contrast chiefdoms in the Pacific to those in Africa and native North America.

10. Discuss the major subsistence and demographic changes that characterized the Neolithic and formation of agricultural states. Explain why these changes occurred. Use archaeological examples to help illustrate your points. Compare and contrast the agricultural states of the past to contemporary agricultural societies.

11. Review the changes that occur with industrialization, especially in terms of energy use, urbanization, and the demographic transition. Illustrate these processes with examples from different societies around the world. Compare these subsistence, settlement, and demographic patterns to those of agricultural, horticultural, pastoralist, and foraging societies.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES 1.

Ask your students to define the biome they live in and give examples of how their culture impacts the environment. Have them assess whether their cultural behavior impacts the environment in beneficial, harmful, or neutral ways. Conclude with a discussion of how the environment impacts their community.

2.

Ask your students what kinds of ecological regions are necessary for our type of society. Then ask them to compare these ecological needs with those of the other types of societies discussed in this chapter.

3.

Gather some basic demographic information from your students in class, and talk about some of the differences that arise. If there are not many differences, lead the discussion into the population and culture arena. Create graphs to reflect demographics of the school, area, state, or nation.

4.

Ask your students to describe the demography and settlement patterns of their own society. Compare and contrast their descriptions with the demography and settlement patterns of foraging societies, horticultural societies, pastoralist societies, chiefdoms, agricultural states, and industrial and postindustrial states. This should exercise their knowledge, imagination, and empathy for other societies as they explain, compare, and contrast these societies with their own.

5.

Show some films on foragers in marginal environments. Some classics would be The Hunters; The Desert People; Pygmies of the Ituri Forest; N!ai: The Story of a !Kung Woman, and Nanook of the North. After viewing the films, ask students what they observed about the skills men, women, and children need in order to survive. Discuss what they think the future holds for the foragers in the film. Bring in news stories or recent ethnographic studies to update the class on the circumstances of foragers today.

6.

After you have described the interrelationships of foraging and demographic conditions in terms of fissioning, infanticide, geronticide, and fertility rates, ask your students if they see any parallels to 57 .

their own culture. Discuss how their own culture responds to issues of overpopulation and the management of environmental resources.

7.

Screen a film about a horticultural society, such as Indians of Early America; Dani Sweet Potatoes; Dead Birds; The Ax Fight; Jungle Farming; Weeding the Garden; Yanomamö: A Multi-Disciplinary Study, and A Man Called “Bee”: Studying the Yanomamö. Discuss student observations about subsistence and demographic factors.

8.

Ask your students to imagine living in a foraging, pastoralist, or horticultural society. How would their lives be different? How would their outlook and perceptions be different? Ask them to imagine this country as a horticulturalist or pastoralist society. How would it be different? This activity could be organized in a small or large group discussion format.

RESEARCH AND WRITING TOPICS 1.

Use U.S. Census data to examine fertility, mortality, migration, fecundity, life expectancy, and infant mortality. Look for long-term trends in previous reports.

2.

Choose a foraging society discussed in the text. Read an ethnography about this group. Conduct research on the current status and living conditions of the community. Report on any changes that have occurred since the ethnography was written, especially in terms of subsistence and demography.

3.

Compare and contrast two horticultural societies in terms of how they make use of the environment and how their subsistence strategy connects to their settlement pattern and other demographic conditions.

4.

Read the classic monograph The Nuer, by E. E. Evans-Pritchard. Describe the Nuer pastoralist system, focusing on the importance of the environment and cattle to the Nuer way of life.

5.

Write a paper describing the demography and settlement patterns of tribal societies. Compare and contrast them with the demography and settlement patterns of foraging societies. How are these patterns connected to the subsistence strategies of tribal societies? Give examples.

6.

Write a descriptive paper on the types of ecological regions in which chiefdoms developed. Describe the environment, subsistence, and demography of chiefdoms in Polynesia, Africa, the Mississippi region, and the Northwest Coast.

7.

In a paper, describe the major demographic and subsistence changes that characterized the Neolithic revolution. Why did these changes occur? Were any of these changes not what you would have expected?

8.

Research the impact of industrialization and modernization on energy use, fertility rates, or settlement patterns in a particular time and region of the world. Make sure you approach your paper from an anthropological perspective, even if you are writing about a historical time period.

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CHAPTER 16 TECHNOLOGY AND ECONOMIES LEARNING OBJECTIVES 16.1 Discuss the anthropological explanations of technology.

16.2 Discuss how anthropologists study economics in different societies.

16.3 Describe the technologies of foraging societies.

16.4 Describe how the economy works in foraging societies.

16.5 Describe the technologies of horticulturalist and pastoralist societies.

16.6 Discuss money and property ownership in horticulturalist and pastoralist economies.

16.7 Describe technology and housing in chiefdom societies.

16.8 Describe the unique type of economic exchange that emerged in chiefdom societies.

16.9 Discuss agricultural state innovations in technology and diffusion.

16.10 Describe the type of economies that developed in agricultural civilizations.

16.11 Describe technology and economic changes for industrial and postindustrial societies.

CHAPTER OUTLINE ANTHROPOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF TECHNOLOGY ANTHROPOLOGY AND ECONOMICS The Formalist Approach The Substantivist Approach Contemporary Economic Anthropology TECHNOLOGY IN FORAGING SOCIETIES ECONOMICS IN FORAGING SOCIETIES Reciprocity Generalized Reciprocity Balanced Reciprocity Negative Reciprocity Exchange and Altruism Collective Ownership of Property The Original Affluent Society?

The Affluence Hypothesis Challenged TECHNOLOGY AMONG HORTICULTURALISTS AND PASTORALISTS Horticulturalist Technology Pastoralist Technology ECONOMICS IN HORTICULTURALIST AND PASTORALIST SOCIETIES Money Property Ownership TECHNOLOGY IN CHIEFDOMS

59 .

Housing in Chiefdoms ECONOMY IN CHIEFDOMS Food Storage Property Ownership Political Aspects of Property Ownership Economic Exchange in Chiefdoms Reciprocal Exchange The Kula Exchange Redistributional Exchange Potlatch Redistribution in Polynesia TECHNOLOGY IN AGRICULTURAL STATES Agricultural Innovations The Diffusion of Technology ECONOMICS IN AGRICULTURAL STATES Property Rights The Command Economy versus the Entrepreneur The Peasantry The Moral Economy Trade and Monetary Exchange The Rise of Merchants and Peripheral Markets TECHNOLOGY AND ECONOMIC CHANGE IN INDUSTRIAL AND POSTINDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES Technology and Work The Division of Labor Anthropologist at Work: Gabriella Coleman: The Ethnographer of Geeks and Hackers Economic Exchange Market Economies Perspectives on Market Economies Capitalism Capitalism in the United States Capitalism in Japan Socialism Socialism in the Former Soviet Union Hybrid Economic Systems The Evolution of Economic Organizations Multinational Corporations Capitalist Consumer Societies SUMMARY AND REVIEW OF LEARNING OBJECTIVES

LECTURE AND DISCUSSION TOPICS Each of these topics is intended to generate ideas for either a lecture/recitation format or discussion in the classroom. For most topics, students should be able to respond and participate in discussions based solely on reading the text. For others, you may need to provide further reading or other forms of information so

60 .

that students can develop some personal perspective and become equipped to make independent decisions about the topics.

1.

Define technology and economy. Explain the ways anthropologists identify and analyze technology and economic processes. Introduce the concepts of production, exchange, consumption, and the division of labor. It is important to talk about the formalist and substantivist approaches. Talk about modern economic anthropology.

2.

Discuss the technology of foraging societies. Talk about the sorts of tools and shelters we find. Use specific cultural examples from films if available. Vivid visual images will keep the students’ attention and are usually more memorable than a verbal description of something they have never seen or experienced.

3.

Lecture about reciprocal economic systems. Define generalized, balanced, and negative reciprocity.

Illustrate with examples. Conclude with a discussion of altruism and prosocial norms.

4.

Describe the form of property relations found in foraging societies, both in terms of territory and personal property. Discuss how property relations are tied to the local ecological conditions.

Compare and contrast property relations in different foraging groups.

5.

Lecture on the conflicting ideas about the affluence of foraging societies. Show how and why our view of foraging societies has changed over the years. Discuss how this affluence hypothesis has been challenged.

6.

Look at the technologies that have emerged in horticulturalist and pastoralist societies. Discuss the relationship between technology and nomadic or sedentary settlement patterns.

7.

Students tend to take money for granted as some sort of universal concept. You need to define money in terms of its functions and to develop the concepts of general-purpose, multipurpose, and limited-purpose (special-purpose) money. Sharon Hutchinson’s Nuer Dilemmas: Coping with Money, War, and the State offers some excellent examples.

8.

Describe property ownership in tribal societies. Compare and contrast it with property ownership in foraging societies and in our own.

9.

Explore the material culture and technology of chiefdoms. Show how material culture and technology are related to locally available resources and trade. Discuss the importance of houses and how they can reflect a society’s economic organization as well as its social and political aspects.

10. Lecture on how economic exchange functions in chiefdoms. Define, explain, and give examples of reciprocal exchange and redistributional exchange. Give parallels in our society. Describe the kula system of exchange. Compare and contrast Bronislaw Malinowski’s analysis of the kula system with Annette Weiner’s analysis. Describe the Northwest Coast potlatch, and explain the functions it serves. Compare the interpretations of Franz Boas, Ruth Benedict, Brian Hayden, and Marvin Harris. Describe the redistribution systems in Polynesia, and show how and why they differ from reciprocity systems.

11. Describe the different technologies used in horticulture, intensive horticulture, and agriculture, including the way land is parsed and prepared and innovations such as the plow and irrigation.

Compare and contrast agricultural innovations in different world regions.

12. Describe the form property rights took in agricultural societies. Define, explain, and give examples of a tributary mode of production and a kin-ordered mode of production. Define, compare, and 61 .

contrast entrepreneurs and the command economy. Define peasants, explain their need to generate a surplus, and describe how they support one another through a moral economy. Describe the structure and patterns of trade, monetary exchange, merchants, and peripheral markets of agricultural states.

13. Explore the economic changes related to technological changes in industrial societies, especially in terms of the nature of work, the division of labor into primary, secondary, and tertiary sectors, and market economies. Point out the similarities and differences concerning capitalism in the United States and Japan. Discuss socialism and the former Soviet Union. Talk about the idea of hybrid economic systems and give some examples. Define the terms oligopoly and monopoly capitalism.

Discuss the influence of multinational corporations and global consumption historically and today.

14. Discuss Gabriella Coleman’s work on postindustrial computer technology and the influence of information technology. Explore the way information technology is forcing us to look at property ownership (e.g., copyright laws, the digital music industry, intellectual property) in new ways.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES 1.

Discuss reciprocity with your students. Ask them if it plays a role in their personal lives. Have them discuss generalized reciprocity, balanced reciprocity, negative reciprocity, and altruism. Ask them to give personal examples. Address any patterns you observe in their responses.

2.

Ask students if they consider themselves affluent. They will probably say “no.” Compare their standard of living to that of any developing nation. Ask them how they conceive of property relations. Ask them if they see any parallels between property relations of foraging groups and those of their own society. How are their property relations tied to their ecological conditions?

3.

Ask your students, “What is money? What functions does it have?” Elicit sayings about money, such as “It’s only money,” and discuss what such sayings imply about how we view money specifically and our system of production and exchange in general. Have them imagine living in America without money. Discuss whether we have general-purpose and limited-purpose money in our society. Discuss different categories of money: money earned on the black market, money that has been stolen, money for taxes, money given as a gift, money donated to charity, etc. Have they heard the phrase “dirty money”? What does it mean? Ask students to debate whether or not money set aside for charity is different from that spent on commodities or gambling.

4.

Show and discuss the film Indians of Early America, which has a section on the potlatch. If class size permits, stage a potlatch ceremony or act out a model of the kula ring.

5.

Ask your students if the United States has a tributary mode or a kin-ordered mode of production.

Then have them describe the structure and patterns of trade, monetary exchange, and merchants within U.S. society. Have them compare these elements with those found in agricultural states.

6.

Ask students to describe the division of labor in our society. Create a chart illustrating primary, secondary, and tertiary sectors and ask students to categorize the types of work they have done and jobs they have held. Analyze any patterns that emerge.

7.

Assign part of your class to study Karl Marx’s ideas on market economies and the other part to study Adam Smith’s ideas. Have them debate the strengths and weaknesses of market economies from these two perspectives.

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RESEARCH AND WRITING TOPICS 1.

Write a descriptive paper on the various systems of property relations found in foraging societies. Show how and why property relations are tied to local ecological conditions. Write a critical evaluation of Lewis Henry Morgan’s assertion that small-scale societies practice collective property ownership.

2.

Evaluate the affluence hypothesis. Research the technology and division of labor of two or three foraging societies to gather details to support your argument.

3.

Read Nuer Dilemmas: Coping with Money, War, and the State, by Sharon Hutchinson. Discuss how the Nuer view cattle, money, and exchange. Include details from the ethnography.

4.

Write a descriptive paper on the technology and housing of chiefdoms. What patterns do they tend to follow? How do they reflect other aspects of culture manifest in chiefdoms, such as social structure, political organization, and religious belief? Include specific examples and illustrations if possible.

5.

Write a paper explaining how economic exchange functions in chiefdom societies. Define, explain, and give examples of reciprocal exchange and redistributional exchange.

6.

Describe the kula system of reciprocal exchange. Compare and contrast Bronislaw Malinowski’s analysis and Annette Weiner’s analysis of the kula system.

7.

Describe in an analytical essay the Northwest Coast potlatch. Why is it considered redistributional exchange? What functions does the potlatch serve? Describe also the redistribution systems in Polynesia. How and why do redistribution systems differ from reciprocity systems? Can redistribution systems only function in a hierarchical society? Why?

8.

In a descriptive paper, discuss the division of labor in agricultural states. Describe the form property rights took in agricultural societies and discuss three of the following in greater depth: peasantry, moral economy, tributary mode of production, entrepreneurship, command economy, and kin-ordered mode of production.

9.

Discuss the structure and patterns of trade, monetary exchange, merchants, and peripheral markets as they appear in agricultural states. Compare and contrast these systems with capitalism in the United States and Japan. How have industrial and postindustrial capitalist economies retained or changed the economic systems of agricultural states?

10. Research a contemporary multinational corporation. Discuss the history of its formation and its labor policies. Evaluate whether this corporation contributes to the global economy in a beneficial, detrimental, or neutral way. Support your argument with specific examples.

11. Discuss how new information technologies are altering our concepts of property ownership and exchange. Bring in specific examples to illustrate your ideas.

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CHAPTER 17 SOCIAL STRUCTURE, THE FAMILY, GENDER, AND AGE LEARNING OBJECTIVES 17.1 Discuss the general components of social structure, including status, the family, marriage, gender, and age.

17.2 Describe the social structure, family, marriage, gender, and age in foraging societies.

17.3 Describe the social structure, family, marriage, descent groups, gender, and age for tribal societies.

17.4 Discuss how status differences, the family, gender, and age are related in chiefdom societies.

17.5 Discuss the family, kinship, marriage, gender, and age patterns in agricultural states.

17.6 Discuss the type of stratification characteristic of agricultural states.

17.7 Discuss the social structure, family, marriage, gender, and age patterns in industrial and postindustrial societies.

17.8 Compare the class structures of Britain, the United States, Japan, and the former Soviet Union.

CHAPTER OUTLINE SOCIAL STRUCTURE Components of Social Structure The Family Marriage Gender Gender and Enculturation Sex and the Division of Labor Gender and Status Age Age and Enculturation Age and the Division of Labor Age and Status SOCIAL STRUCTURE IN HUNTER-GATHERER SOCIETIES Marriage and Kinship Marriage Rules Brideservice Other Marital Patterns among Foragers Divorce Gender Gender and the Division of Labor Sex-Based Explanations of the Division of Labor Female Status Age The Roles of the Elderly Childcare Activities SOCIAL STRUCTURE IN TRIBES Families Descent Groups 64 .

Unilineal Descent Groups Ambilineal Descent Groups Bilateral Descent Clans Phratries and Moieties Functions of Descent Groups Descent Groups and Economic Relationships Marriage Polygyny Bridewealth Exchange Polyandry The Levirate and Sororate Postmarital Residence Rules in Tribal Societies Causes of Postmarital Residence Rules Generalizations on Marriage in Tribal Societies Divorce Gender Gender and Enculturation: Margaret Mead’s Study Mead’s Study Reappraised Patriarchy Patriarchy and Sexism in Tribal Societies Gender, Subsistence, and Female Status Female Status in Matrilineal Societies The Iroquois: Women in a Matrilineal Society Age Age Sets Age Sets and Age Grades among the Tribal Pastoralists The Elderly SOCIAL STRUCTURE IN CHIEFDOMS Rank and Sumptuary Rules A Case Study: Polynesia and Stratified Descent Groups Marriage Endogamy Polygyny General Social Principles in Chiefdoms Gender Age Slavery SOCIAL STRUCTURE IN AGRICULTURAL STATES Kinship and Status The Extended Family Other Kinship Principles Family Structure among the Nayar Marriage Dowry and Bridewealth Polygyny Divorce Gender, Subsistence, and Status 65 .

Female Seclusion Patriarchy and Sexism Variations in the Status of Women Critical Perspectives: Were There Matriarchal States?

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION IN AGRICULTURAL STATES The Caste System Slavery SOCIAL STRUCTURE IN INDUSTRIAL AND POSTINDUSTRIAL STATES Kinship Family Marriage Divorce Gender Gender and the Division of Labor Female Status in Industrial Societies Feminism Age SOCIAL STRATIFICATION IN INDUSTRIAL AND POSTINDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES The British Class System Class in the United States Class in Japan and the Former Soviet Union SUMMARY AND REVIEW OF LEARNING OBJECTIVES

LECTURE AND DISCUSSION TOPICS Each of these topics is intended to generate ideas for either a lecture/recitation format or discussion in the classroom. For most topics, students should be able to respond and participate in discussions based solely on reading the text. For others, you may need to provide further reading or other forms of information so that students can develop some personal perspective and become equipped to make independent decisions about the topics.

1.

Give an overview of the aspects of social structure discussed in this chapter, including the concepts of status, family structure, marriage, gender, and age. Define basic terms that students should master in order to work with the material, such as socioeconomic status, ascribed status, achieved status, role, social stratification, nuclear and extended families, marriage, endogamy and exogamy, monogamy, polygamy, polygyny, polyandry, sex, gender, division of labor, age grades, and enculturation.

2.

Explain to your class the bases for the social organization of foraging societies (i.e., family, marriage, kinship, gender, and age). Discuss the two basic elements of foraging social organization: the nuclear family and the band.

3.

Describe the marriage and kinship patterns found among foraging societies. Explain cross-cousin marriage and brideservice. Introduce the topic of postmarital residence patterns, patrilocal residence, and matrilocal residence. Show how these forms of marriage and residence patterns intersect with kinship reckoning in foraging societies. Talk about the process of divorce in foraging societies.

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4.

Discuss gender dynamics in foraging societies. Talk about the relationships between gender and the division of labor. Explain the “woman the gatherer” model and the biological explanations (e.g., strength hypothesis, childcare compatibility hypothesis) given in the text, and show how they help us to understand the division of labor in foraging groups. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of these views. Conclude with a discussion of gender and status in foraging societies. Show how it can vary by foraging society or ecological conditions. Offer explanations for why you think this is so.

5.

Lecture on the aspect of age among foragers. Discuss the roles and status of elderly people. Draw attention to how elderly people participate in childrearing, as pointed out by Colin Turnbull.

6.

Discuss the descent groups found in tribal societies. Describe each type. Talk about lineages and kindreds. Compare and contrast them. Show what functions descent groups serve.

7.

Outline the various forms of marriage in tribal societies. What are the advantages, disadvantages, or functions of polygyny, polyandry, parallel-cousin marriage, bridewealth, levirate, and sororate?

Compare and contrast the forms of marriage in our society with those of tribal societies. Incorporate a discussion of postmarital residence rules and the process of divorce into this lecture.

8

Describe the roles of gender in the social structure of tribal societies. What did Margaret Mead conclude from her study concerning gender and enculturation? Explain how Mead’s work has been reappraised.

9.

Define patriarchy and sexism. Lecture on how gender, subsistence, and female status are interrelated. Discuss female status in matrilineal versus patrilineal societies. Illustrate with the example of Iroquois women.

10. Explain age sets and age grades, using the Sebei as an example. Explain how age grades cut across ties of kinship to strengthen social cohesion.

11. Summarize how the elderly are treated in tribal societies. Describe examples of gerontocracies and how they work. Compare this to how elderly people are treated in our own society.

12. Lecture on the overall patterns of social organization in chiefdoms. Compare and contrast the patterns of a chiefdom social organization with those of foraging and tribal societies. Explain how social stratification and sumptuary rules function in a chiefdom. Describe Polynesian stratified descent groups.

13. Describe the forms of marriage in chiefdom societies. Show why endogamy and polygyny make sense in a chiefdom society. Discuss the general social principles of chiefdom societies, including gender relations, the role of the elderly, and slavery. Compare and contrast these principles with those of foraging and tribal societies. Draw parallels to our own society.

14. Discuss the role of kinship and family in agricultural states. Go over the example of family structure among the Nayar and point out its unique aspects. Reveal the reasons why anthropologists think this system developed and what benefits it conferred.

15. Discuss the forms that marriage takes in agricultural societies. Distinguish dowry from bridewealth and mention the types of societies with which they are associated. Discuss the prevalence of monogamy, polygyny, and divorce in agricultural societies. Offer reasons for why certain types of marriage practices are associated with an agricultural way of life.

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16. Describe for your class the patterns of gender, subsistence, and status in agricultural societies.

Discuss the forms and extent of female seclusion, patriarchy, the status of women, and sexism in agricultural societies. Explain which types of societal practices tend to promote gender equality.

17. The archaeological, historical, and anthropological record provides no evidence of a truly matriarchal society. Define matriarchy and whether or not it is the exact inverse of patriarchy.

Discuss the work of Peggy Reeves Sanday. What would female rule look like?

18. Lecture on the forms of social stratification found within agricultural societies. Discuss open and closed societies. Describe the caste system in India. Compare and contrast the open slavery and closed slavery systems. Explain what factors led to these different systems developing.

19. Explore the changing structure and meaning of family and kinship in industrial and postindustrial societies. Launch a discussion about marriage, arranged marriage, romantic love, and divorce. Show how these are related to family structure and modernization. Laura M. Ahearn’s book Invitations to Love: Literacy, Love Letters, and Social Change in Nepal delves deeper into these issues.

20. Explain what feminism is and how it arose. Explore some feminist perspectives on gender equality.

Bring in statistics and news articles to make the ideas more concrete and accessible.

21. Speak about the ways elderly people are treated in different industrial and postindustrial countries, what their status is, what roles they play, and how these have been changing. Compare and contrast the roles, status, and treatment of the elderly in the United States and Japan.

22. Compare and contrast the class systems found in Great Britain, the United States, Japan, and the former Soviet Union. Bring in current event stories to enhance your lecture.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES 1.

Show the film Argument about a Marriage or N!ai: The Story of a !Kung Woman to illustrate some of the marriage problems that appear in a foraging society.

2.

Students can create kinship diagrams of their own families and compare them to diagrams of unilineal descent systems to emphasize the difference between unilineal descent and kindred systems. Ask if anyone’s family functions as a corporate group in a way similar to unilineal descent groups.

3.

Bring in passages from the studies by Margaret Mead and Deborah Gewertz as a basis to explore the interaction between gender and enculturation. Ask students to share their own experiences of being enculturated to the gender with which they identify.

4.

Have students compare and contrast the age grades and age sets found in African pastoralist societies with aspects of their own society, like school grades. How are the phenomena similar and different?

5.

Ask your students to compare and contrast the general social principles of chiefdom societies and industrial states. Discuss this in terms of gender relations, role of the elderly, and slavery. Even though we do not have legal slavery, do we have anything analogous to it?

6.

Patriarchy, not matriarchy, is part of the archaeological, historical, and anthropological record. Ask your students why they think this is so. Do they agree with the sociobiologists, the cultural 68 .

materialists, or the other anthropologists discussed in the text? Do they think men and women wield power differently in our own society? What do they think a matriarchy would look like?

7.

Ask your students to debate the merits of arranged and non-arranged marriages. How do they feel about love and romance? What role do they see their families playing in their relationships or marriages? Facilitate small group discussions about the relevance of these ideas outside of heterosexual monogamous marriage.

8.

Ask your students to discuss the roles of gender in their society. How is gender related to the division of labor in the United States? Have your students generate a list of gender roles for males and females in our society. Now tie that list into labor roles. Are similar roles or labor activities called by different names for males and females? Now move the discussion into a general discussion on sex and gender status and rank in our society. Have students draw parallels with foraging societies. Tying concepts into their own cultural experience hopefully will make these concepts relevant and meaningful for students, rather than just dry concepts in a text about what “someone else” does.

9.

Ask your students to give their ages. Ask them if they would be as willing to divulge their ages 25 years from now. Use any student’s reluctance or embarrassment about revealing age as a lead-in to talk about age stereotypes. Now move the discussion into aging. Ask your students what aging means to them. Ask them to analyze their own society in terms of age and the division of labor.

What patterns can they discern?

RESEARCH AND WRITING TOPICS 1.

Based on an ethnography of your choice, describe the elements of social structure and how they are interrelated. Include a discussion of status, family and kinship, and division of labor.

2.

Evaluate theories about the connections among gender, division of labor, and the status of women. If you had to choose one explanation, which would you choose? Why? Support your answer with specific cross-cultural examples.

3.

Investigate the ethnography of aging. What kind of work is being done in the field? Describe two or three research projects and their findings.

4.

Compare and contrast the marriage and kinship patterns found among foraging societies with another type of society of your choice (horticulturalist, pastoralist, agricultural, industrial, or postindustrial). What marriage rules do you find? How do they relate to postmarital residence patterns and broader kinship structures? What forms of exchange surround the marriage process?

How does divorce take place? Show how all of these aspects interconnect.

5.

Read Nisa: The Life and Words of a !Kung Woman, by Marjorie Shostak. Use it as the basis for a paper on gender in foraging societies. Include a discussion of the relationship between gender and the division of labor. Conduct further research to investigate how these roles have changed in recent times among the !Kung.

6.

Research the life and work of Margaret Mead. Why was so much of her work focused on gender and enculturation? How did what she learned doing ethnographic fieldwork translate into her personal life? Provide historical context.

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7.

Investigate the status of women in matrilineal societies. Is their status higher than those in patrilineal societies? Can a society be both matrilineal and patriarchal? Support your arguments with crosscultural examples.

8.

Write a paper comparing and contrasting practices of female seclusion in two different cultures.

Describe each practice within the larger cultural context. How are they related to female status in each society?

9.

Read Peggy Reeves Sanday’s ethnography Women at the Center: Life in a Modern Matriarchy.

Summarize the arguments she makes about how we should understand matriarchy. Analyze how this fits with the archaeological, historical, and anthropological record. Compare and contrast how a sociobiologist and feminist anthropologist would explain the absence of matriarchy in these records.

10. Write a short history of your family’s journey through the class structure in this society and any others from your family history. In other words, as far as you can trace back, has your family always been in the class they are in now? When did things change and why? Make sure you clearly define each class and describe the economic and cultural markers associated with it. Include a kinship diagram.

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CHAPTER 18 POLITICS, WARFARE, AND LAW LEARNING OBJECTIVES 18.1 Discuss how anthropologists understand politics, warfare, and law.

18.2 Discuss the characteristics of politics in foraging societies.

18.3 Describe the features of violence and warfare in foraging societies.

18.4 Discuss the characteristics of politics in tribal societies.

18.5 Discuss how anthropologists explain tribal warfare.

18.6 Describe political authority in chiefdoms.

18.7 Discuss how anthropologists explain the evolution and origins of chiefdoms.

18.8 Discuss the features of politics in agricultural civilizations.

18.9 Discuss the characteristics of politics in industrial and postindustrial societies.

18.10 Discuss how warfare changes in industrial and postindustrial states.

CHAPTER OUTLINE POLITICS, WARFARE, AND LAW Decision Making in a Political System Warfare and Feuds Law and Social Control Law as Formalized Norms and Sanctions POLITICAL ORGANIZATION IN FORAGING SOCIETIES Characteristics of Leadership WARFARE AND VIOLENCE IN FORAGING SOCIETIES Conflict Resolution The Eskimo Song Duel POLITICAL ORGANIZATION IN HORTICULTURAL AND PASTORALIST TRIBES Sodalities How Leaders are Chosen Village Headman Big Man Pastoralist Tribal Politics Segmentary Lineage Systems Complementary Opposition EXPLAINING TRIBAL WARFARE The Yanomamö and Protein Shortages Biological Hypotheses of Tribal Warfare Multidimensional Explanations of Tribal Warfare Critical Perspectives: Human Aggression: Biological or Cultural?

Law and Conflict Resolution among Tribes Ordeals Oaths and Oracles 71 .

POLITICAL AUTHORITY IN CHIEFDOMS Limits on Chiefly Power A Case Study: The Trobriand Islands A Case Study: Hawaii and Tahiti THE EVOLUTION OF CHIEFDOMS Warfare Law in Chiefdoms POLITICS IN AGRICULTURAL STATES Law in Agricultural States Mediation and Self-Help A Case Study: Law in China Warfare POLITICAL ORGANIZATION IN INDUSTRIAL AND POSTINDUSTRIAL STATES Political Organization in Socialist States Industrialism and State Bureaucracy Law Japanese Law WARFARE AND TECHNOLOGY IN INDUSTRIAL AND POSTINDUSTRIAL STATES SUMMARY AND REVIEW OF LEARNING OBJECTIVES

LECTURE AND DISCUSSION TOPICS Each of these topics is intended to generate ideas for either a lecture/recitation format or discussion in the classroom. For most topics, students should be able to respond and participate in discussions based solely on reading the text. For others, you may need to provide further reading or other forms of information so that students can develop some personal perspective and become equipped to make independent decisions about the topics.

1.

Give an overview of the terms and concepts that will be discussed in this chapter: centralized and decentralized political organization, legitimate and illegitimate political power, coercion, authority, sodality, fields and arenas, warfare, feud, social control, ethos, norm, law, and sanctions.

2.

Lecture on the types of political organization found in foraging societies. Discuss the characteristics of leadership. Compare and contrast the political organization and leadership of foraging societies with what is found in our culture.

3.

Describe warfare, violence, and conflict-resolution patterns found among foraging societies. Include details from the Tiwi, Ju/’hoansi San, Mbuti, and Eskimo (Inuit) cultures. You can introduce the idea that the size of the community and level of political centralization are connected to patterns of conflict and their resolution.

4.

Lecture on the political organization of tribes. Compare and contrast the political organizations of tribes and foraging societies. Define sodalities and discuss how this concept is used to distinguish tribes from bands. Show why and how tribal leaders have little coercive power and formal authority.

Describe, compare, and contrast the village headman and the big man (Melanesia). Explain segmentary lineage systems and complementary opposition. Diagrams will be helpful here. Illustrate 72 .

the role of the leopard skin chief in Nuer society. Describe the legal systems of tribal societies and how they resolve conflict. Discuss ordeals, oaths, and oracles.

5.

Discuss why tribes engage in warfare. Describe and critically evaluate the following theories that attempt to explain tribal warfare: how the Mae Enga understand warfare; the contention that protein shortages lead to warfare among the Yanomamö; and biological hypotheses and multidimensional explanations for the existence of tribal warfare. Conclude with an evaluation of whether human aggression is biological or cultural.

6.

Describe the system of political authority that is characteristic of chiefdoms. Is the chief primarily a person or an office? Are there any limits to chiefly power? If so, what are they? Include some analysis of the Trobriand Islands, Hawaii, and Tahiti. Discuss the various thoughts anthropologists have about how chiefdoms developed in relation to the control of resources, centralized leadership, and warfare.

7.

Show how law functions in chiefdom societies. Discuss adjudication. Do we find adjudication in foraging and tribal societies? Why or why not?

8.

Define and illustrate through cross-cultural examples the various forms of political organization associated with agricultural states, including the segmentary state, theater state, galactic polity, radial polity, and feudalism.

9.

Discuss the forms of conflict and conflict resolution seen in agricultural states. Review the origins of codified laws, such as the Code of Hammurabi. Summarize some of the ideas anthropologists have had about the function of codified laws: to reinforce systems of inequality (allowing those in positions of authority greater access to certain resources) or to maintain social order. Review the case study about law in China presented in this chapter. Describe the nature of warfare in agricultural states.

10. Lecture on the political changes that accompany industrialization and the emergence of nationalism.

Review Benedict Anderson’s concept of “imagined communities” and how they are generated and sustained. Discuss Michael Herzfeld’s idea that nationalism parallels religious cosmologies.

Illustrate with cross-cultural examples.

11. Discuss Marxist ideas about political organization and how these did or did not manifest in socialist states such as the former Soviet Union. Compare the political organization of the former Soviet Union to that of other socialist countries. Offer examples of government repression and totalitarianism that continue today.

12. Reflect on how law develops in industrialized, centralized states. Discuss the bureaucracy of legal systems and administrative law. Use the example of Japanese law to illustrate how cultural beliefs are reflected in the legal system. Compare and contrast Japan’s legal system with that of the United States.

13. Outline the changes in warfare technology that have occurred over the last century. Discuss how technology has changed the way that war is practiced in industrial and postindustrial states. Bring in current event stories to illustrate these points.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES 1.

Ask students to discuss the types of political organization and leadership they find in their own society. Have them compare and contrast their own political organization and leadership with those 73 .

of foraging societies. Ask them, “Would any of the patterns found in foraging societies work in your own society?”

2.

Have your students contrast warfare among industrial societies to warfare in tribal societies. Are there any similarities? Do the explanations for tribal warfare provide any insights into warfare in our own society?

3.

To help explain segmentary lineage systems and complementary opposition, set up a mock tribal war. Assign students to different lineage groups. Establish the central figures in a blood feud and ask students to take sides according to how they are affiliated with these central characters. Choose someone to play the role of leopard skin chief.

4.

Have students talk about checks and balances on the political and police power in our own society.

Have them look for parallels with the limitations on chiefly power.

5.

Have your students describe the conflict-resolution patterns found in their own society. Have the students show any parallels with foraging, tribal, or chiefdom societies.

6.

Open the floor to a discussion about whether aggression is biological or cultural. Ask students to support their opinions with meaningful examples.

7.

Ask your students what law is, when it began, and what it does. Ask them to compare and contrast the two perspectives on the function of codified law presented in this chapter: to reinforce inequalities or to maintain social order. Which perspective do they accept and why? Which do they think would be most applicable to the laws of their society? You can split the class into pairs and have them debate each perspective.

8.

Screen one of the following films on law and disputes: Little Injustices: Laura Nader Looks at Law; Argument about Marriage; Meat Fight; and The Cows of Dolo Ken Paye. The film Dead Birds shows warfare along with other aspects of Dani society. The feature film Henry V has some interesting war sequences set within the context of a larger story from which you could probably generate a good discussion.

9.

Ask your class how they define and view warfare. Is it ever justified? Never justified? Are there things or ideals worth dying and fighting for? If you have an R.O.T.C. unit on campus or a reserve unit in the area, ask them to send a guest speaker to talk on warfare. If there is a Quaker population or Mennonite church in the area, they could probably furnish a speaker to talk about nonviolence.

RESEARCH AND WRITING TOPICS 1.

Conduct a cross-cultural study in which you define, explain, and give examples of one of the following: warfare, feud, law, or sanctions.

2.

Write a descriptive paper showing the various types of political organization and leadership found in foraging societies. Compare and contrast these arrangements with those of your own culture.

3.

Write a descriptive paper on the political organization of tribes. Compare and contrast the political organizations of tribes and foraging societies. Include a discussion of sodalities.

4.

Write a critical analysis and interaction paper on why the political leaders in tribal societies have little coercive power and formal authority. Describe, compare, and contrast the village headman and

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the big man (Melanesia). Are there any parallels to the village headman and the big man in our society?

5.

Write a descriptive paper on tribal warfare. What forms does it take? Why do tribes have wars? How do anthropologists account for tribal warfare? Does complementary opposition within a segmentary lineage contribute to or discourage warfare?

6.

Write a descriptive paper on the legal systems of tribal societies and how these societies resolve conflict. Discuss oaths, oracles, and ordeals. Provide cross-cultural examples.

7.

Analyze the system of political authority among chiefdoms. Is the chief primarily a person or an office? Are there any limits to chiefly power? If so, what are they? Include specific examples to illustrate your points.

8.

Research a feudal political system in existence today or in the past. How does feudal political organization relate to agriculture in this example? What do the leaders do to maintain power? Assess the political system in terms of how authority is invested in people or bureaucracies and the types of laws and sanctions used.

9.

Go to a local Bet Din (Jewish court), a Victim–Offender Reconciliation program, or a Christian Legal Society mediation group to see how mediation and self-help work in your community. Write up your observations.

10. Interview at least one military person at your local reserve unit or R.O.T.C. unit as to whether war is necessary. Try to interview a male and a female if possible. Now go to a local Mennonite church or any other reputable pacifist group and interview a member to find out why he or she is against war.

Write up your findings in a paper that compares and contrasts the perspectives of the two groups.

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CHAPTER 19 RELIGION AND AESTHETICS LEARNING OBJECTIVES 19.1 Discuss how anthropologists such as Clifford Geertz define religion.

19.2 Discuss how anthropologists define myth and ritual.

19.3 Describe the stages of rites of passage as discussed by anthropologists.

19.4 Discuss the new developments by cognitive anthropologists and their understanding of religion.

19.5 Discuss how anthropologists study art and music in different societies.

19.6 Describe examples of religion found in foraging societies.

19.7 Describe examples of art and music found in foraging societies.

19.8 Describe examples of religion found in horticulturalist and pastoralist societies.

19.9 Discuss how religion is interrelated with politics in chiefdom societies.

19.10 Describe examples of art, architecture, and music in chiefdom societies.

19.11 Describe some examples of ecclesiastical and universalistic religions found in agricultural societies.

19.12 Describe some examples of art, architecture, and music in agricultural societies.

19.13 Discuss religion and secularization in industrial and postindustrial societies.

19.14 Discuss some developments in art and music in industrial and postindustrial societies.

CHAPTER OUTLINE RELIGION MYTH AND RITUAL Rituals RITES OF PASSAGE Critical Perspectives: Graduation: A Rite of Passage in U.S. Society Religious Specialists Religious Movements COGNITION AND RELIGION AESTHETICS: ART AND MUSIC RELIGION AMONG FORAGERS The Dreamtime Inuit Religion Rites of Passage among Foragers ART, MUSIC, AND RELIGION RELIGION AMONG HORTICULTURALISTS AND PASTORALISTS Animism and Shamanism in South America Witchcraft and Sorcery The Role of Witchcraft 76 .

The Role of Sorcery Totemism Ghost Lineage Members among the Lugbara Art and Music in Tribal Societies Musical Traditions RELIGION IN CHIEFDOMS A Case Study: Law and Religion in Polynesia Shamanism in Chiefdoms Human Sacrifice ART, ARCHITECTURE, AND MUSIC Music RELIGION IN AGRICULTURAL STATES Ecclesiastical Religions Divine Rulers, Priests, and Religious Texts Universalistic Religions Hinduism Buddhism Judaism Christianity Protestantism Islam ART, ARCHITECTURE, AND MUSIC RELIGION AND SECULARIZATION IN INDUSTRIAL AND POSTINDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES Religion in Socialist States Religion in Japan ART AND MUSIC Music SUMMARY AND REVIEW OF LEARNING OBJECTIVES

LECTURE AND DISCUSSION TOPICS Each of these topics is intended to generate ideas for either a lecture/recitation format or discussion in the classroom. For most topics, students should be able to respond and participate in discussions based solely on reading the text. For others, you may need to provide further reading or other forms of information so that students can develop some personal perspective and become equipped to make independent decisions about the topics.

1.

Introduce the terms and concepts that anthropologists use when discussing religious systems. Begin with an examination of Clifford Geertz’s definition of religion and the additional perspective offered

by David Parkin. Then define and give examples of myth, ritual, rites of passage, shaman, priest, and priestess.

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2.

Discuss how to understand religion from the perspective of cognitive anthropology. Illustrate anthropomorphism with cross-cultural examples. Compare the cognitive approach to functionalist and interpretive humanistic approaches to studying religion.

3.

Lecture on how anthropologists study art and music. Discuss aesthetics and how it varies crossculturally. Mention the impact Franz Boas had on how anthropologists approach art.

4.

Explain the overall pattern of religion in foraging societies. Discuss animism and rites of passage among foragers. Draw on examples from the Australian Aborigines, Inuit, Mbuti, and Ju/’hoansi San to illustrate these concepts.

5.

Introduce the art and music of foraging societies and their relationship to religion and ritual in the society. You can also discuss the relationship between art and the environment. Discuss how music can strengthen communal bonds and enable people to interact with the supernatural world (e.g., inducing trance states).

6.

Describe to your students the overall religious systems of tribal societies and why they are considered to be “cosmic religions.” Describe animism and shamanism in South America. Talk about witchcraft and sorcery, drawing examples from the cultures of the Azande, Navajo, and Fore.

Explain the concept of totemism and how many tribal religions are connected to descent systems.

The Lugbara beliefs about their ancestors is a good example to use to illustrate this point.

7.

Lecture on the art and music of tribal societies. Compare and contrast them with art and music in foraging societies and in our society.

8.

Explain how religion operates within a chiefdom society. Describe the interaction of politics, law, and religion in Polynesia. Clarify the meanings of tabu and mana. Discuss how shamanism is practiced in chiefdoms.

9.

Lecture on human sacrifice as practiced in chiefdoms. What functions did it serve in these societies?

Discuss how human sacrifice combines religious belief, hierarchical social organization, and the political domain.

10. Describe for your students the art, architecture, and music of chiefdom societies. Show what extensive labor projects, such as the moai of Easter Island and the mounds at Cahokia, indicate about the resources, power, and authority of a chief. Analyze totem poles from the Northwest Coast in terms of being status symbols connected to a chief’s ancestral lineage. Explain how music, like art, expressed the connection between the sociopolitical structure of the chiefdom and religion.

11. Discuss the forms of religion that appear in agricultural states. Define ecclesiastical and universalistic religions. Discuss the various functions that ecclesiastical religions serve and how they relate to political rule. Illustrate with examples of this phenomenon from the Aztec. Give an overview of some of the universalistic religions practiced today, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, Protestantism, and Islam. You can spend some time comparing and contrasting these universalistic religions and/or discussing their core belief systems and practices.

Incorporate a discussion of art and music in agricultural states and how it relates to different religious systems.

12. Try to use current events and material from other peoples and cultures as examples for lecture topics on religion and secularization in industrial and postindustrial societies. Explore the text’s examples of religion in Japan and in socialist states. Show how the art and music of industrial and postindustrial societies reflect trends in religion, secularization, and globalization.

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CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES 1.

Create a casual exhibit of art pieces (actual or pictorial) from different areas of the world. Ask students to take notes on the materials, shapes, and motifs used in these pieces. See if they can identify what types of society produced them. What evidence did they use to arrive at their conclusions?

2.

Listen to musical recordings from different societies. Compare and contrast them.

3.

Ask students to find examples of Western artists or musicians using non-Western motifs in their work and bring pictures, recordings, or descriptions to discuss in class.

4.

Facilitate a discussion about witchcraft and sorcery. Ask your students to compare what they know about witchcraft and sorcery in tribal societies with what they know about witchcraft and sorcery from their own cultural backgrounds.

5.

Students can compare and contrast leaders that have charismatic qualities and chiefs that possess mana, or how leaders control resources in a chiefdom and in an industrial or postindustrial society.

6.

Ask students to consider the idea of the separation of church and state in the United States. What does this mean? Do we really keep religion separate from politics and law? Students should offer examples to support their opinions. Contrast these ideas with the essential connection between religion and politics in chiefdom societies. Discuss other countries that are based on the idea that religious beliefs or laws should be an essential part of the political and legal system.

7.

Invite a representative of one of the universalistic religions discussed in this chapter to speak to your class.

RESEARCH AND WRITING TOPICS 1.

Write a research paper on the interconnection of art, music, and religion in foraging societies.

Include cross-cultural examples.

2.

Research an artist or musician who has been influenced by the art or music of a culture not their own. How did they learn about this other culture? How do they use aspects from other cultures in their work? Include illustrations, musical notations, or recordings if possible.

3.

Conduct a cross-cultural research project on shamanism. Compare and contrast shamanism as practiced in two or three different societies. Give a brief ethnographic overview of each society and show how other aspects of their culture are related to shamanism.

4.

Collect examples of material culture connected to witchcraft in your own country. Where did you find these materials? Describe the broader cultural context. Compare the way these materials are supposed to work to the descriptions of witchcraft and sorcery in your text.

5.

Investigate the role of religion in ancient states. What types of archaeological evidence are thought to indicate religious practices or beliefs? Supply details about a specific culture or archaeological site and the archaeologists’ interpretations about religion. How did religion in this society connect to other aspects such as politics, economics, or gender?

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6.

Visit an art museum and critically evaluate how curators describe art from different parts of the world. What patterns do you see? Would an anthropologist have done things differently? How so?

Give specific examples to illustrate your points.

7.

Write a paper on the architecture of religious buildings, such as churches, synagogues, Buddhist temples, or mosques. How does the architecture of the building reflect religious beliefs and practices? After conducting library research, visit the type of building you are writing about and take notes on decorative and spatial details. Interpret what you see in light of what you have read.

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CHAPTER 20 GLOBALIZATION, CULTURE, AND INDIGENOUS SOCIETIES LEARNING OBJECTIVES 20.1 Discuss how anthropologists define globalization.

20.2 Describe some of the technological and economic trends resulting in globalization.

20.3 Compare the three theoretical approaches to analyzing globalization.

20.4 Discuss how anthropologists analyze globalization.

20.5 Discuss how anthropologists criticize some of the approaches to understanding politics, culture, and globalization.

20.6 Discuss the consequences of globalization on indigenous peoples.

20.7 Describe the different forms of resistance to globalization by indigenous peoples.

20.8 Discuss how anthropologists contribute to the understanding of globalization.

CHAPTER OUTLINE GLOBALIZATION: A CONTESTED TERM GLOBALIZATION: TECHNOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC TRENDS GLOBALIZATION: GENERAL THEORETICAL APPROACHES Modernization Theory Modernization Theory and the Cold War First, Second, and Third Worlds Criticisms of Modernization Theory Dependency Theory Criticisms of Dependency Theory World-Systems Theory Criticisms of World-Systems Theory ANTHROPOLOGICAL ANALYSIS AND GLOBALIZATION Anthropologists at Work: Eric Wolf: A Global Anthropologist GLOBALIZATION, POLITICS, AND CULTURE GLOBALIZATION AND INDIGENOUS PEOPLES Vanishing Foragers The Ju/’hoansi San The Mbuti Tribes in Transition North American Horticulturalists The Relocation of Native Americans Native North American Indians in the Twentieth-First Century South American Horticulturalists Recent Developments among the Yanomamö Pastoralist Tribes Middle Eastern Pastoralists: The Bedouins 81 .

The Qashqa’i East African Pastoralists and Globalization Chiefdoms in Transition The Hawaiian Islands FORMS OF RESISTANCE AMONG INDIGENOUS PEOPLES Revitalization among Native Americans The Ghost Dance The Peyote Cult Melanesia and New Guinea: The Cargo Cults A Hawaiian Religious Renaissance A Lost Opportunity?

Native American Knowledge Preserving Indigenous Societies PRO- AND ANTI-GLOBALIZATION: AN ANTHROPOLOGICAL CONTRIBUTION Critical Perspectives: Globalization and McDonald’s SUMMARY AND REVIEW OF LEARNING OBJECTIVES

LECTURE AND DISCUSSION TOPICS Each of these topics is intended to generate ideas for either a lecture/recitation format or discussion in the classroom. For most topics, students should be able to respond and participate in discussions based solely on reading the text. For others, you may need to provide further reading or other forms of information so that students can develop some personal perspective and become equipped to make independent decisions about the topics.

1.

Present an overview of the theories about globalization included in this chapter: modernization theory, dependency theory, and the world-systems approach. Compare and contrast these approaches and illustrate how each could be applied to understand global phenomena.

2.

Discuss the anthropological approach to analyzing globalization and its concern with labels such as traditional, modern, metropole-satellite, and peripheral. Define relevant terms and concepts such as “globalization from below,” glocalization, and neoliberalism. Conclude with a discussion of Eric Wolf and his contribution to the anthropology of globalization.

3.

Compare and contrast the approach of political scientists to that of anthropologists in terms of understanding political interrelationships and related phenomena. After reviewing the examples coming from the Islamic world and Asia mentioned in the text, illustrate these different approaches further by applying them to current events.

4.

Lecture on globalization and indigenous societies, including a discussion of ethnocide and genocide.

5.

Discuss the vanishing foragers mentioned in the text: the Ju/’hoansi San and the Mbuti. Include the latest current events affecting these peoples.

6.

Compare and contrast the tribes in transition discussed in this chapter: the Iroquois, Yanomamö, AlMurrah Bedouin, Qashqa’i, Nuer, Dinka, and Maasai. Discuss how their specific colonial histories and current places in the global economy have affected each of them.

7.

Lecture on Hawaii as a chiefdom in transition and the Hawaiian religious renaissance.

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8.

Define revitalization movements and provide details about the Ghost Dance, peyote cult, and cargo cults in Melanesia and New Guinea.

9.

Lecture on the importance and relevance of indigenous knowledge to societies today. Use the examples of Native American botanical and medical knowledge mentioned in the text to illustrate this idea.

10. Address the question of preserving indigenous societies. Discuss the difficulties inherent in reconciling indigenous cultural practices with industrial and postindustrial technologies, economies, politics, and social relationships.

11. Illustrate how global processes work through the example of McDonald’s and its spread throughout the world. Discuss the influence of local practices on how global phenomena are adopted. Bring in other examples of commodities, art forms, or ideas that have gone global in recent years.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES 1.

Divide your class into five groups. Choose a global phenomenon and ask each group to analyze the phenomenon from one of the following orientations: 1) modernization theory, 2) dependency theory, 3) the world-systems approach, 4) political science, and 5) anthropology. Compare and contrast the insights they develop.

2.

Read aloud excerpts from Eric Wolf’s writings about peasants and globalization.

3.

Create a map indicating where indigenous people live today and where they lived in the past.

Include groups that no longer exist. This helps to illustrate the effects of ethnocide and genocide.

4.

Bring in over-the-counter medicines (such as aspirin), products made from rubber, coffee, cocoa, cotton fabric, and other everyday objects that make use of Native American botanical knowledge.

5.

Ask students to identify cultural practices, ideas, foods, clothing, music, or other products that have been adopted into your society from other regions of the world. Bring in some examples to analyze as a class.

RESEARCH AND WRITING TOPICS 1.

Compare and contrast the anthropological approach to studying and understanding globalization with one of the following: modernization theory, dependency theory, or the world-systems approach.

Use specific examples to illustrate the similarities and differences you find.

2.

Read one of the books written by Eric Wolf mentioned in this chapter. Write a report summarizing what the book was about, his perspective, and his conclusions.

3.

Scan news articles and current event stories for a political situation that has global implications.

Analyze how this situation is interpreted by political scientists or popular media. Find an ethnography relevant to the situation and offer an anthropological interpretation of the same event or situation.

4.

Research the effect of missionaries on an indigenous population of your choice. Look for ethnohistorical as well as ethnographic resources. Why did missionaries choose to address this particular population? What did they do? How were the people affected? Is this indigenous group still alive and functioning today?

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5.

Read an ethnography about one of the following: the Ju/’hoansi San, Mbuti, Yanomamö, Bedouins, Qashqa’i, Nuer, Dinka, or Maasai. Give an overview of their culture and discuss some of the changes that have taken place in recent decades.

6.

Research the ethnohistory of the Iroquois, Kwakiutl (Kwakwaka’wakw), or indigenous Hawaiians.

Describe how their culture was transformed by conquest and colonization. What is the status of the community today?

7.

Learn more about revitalization movements in general. Then investigate one of the following in particular: the Ghost Dance, peyote cult, or cargo cults of Melanesia and New Guinea. How does the movement you have chosen fit the definition of a revitalization movement? Illustrate with specific examples.

8.

Investigate the use of Native American botanical knowledge by non-Native Americans. Write about one or two products that have been derived from Native American botanical knowledge. How was the knowledge transferred from one culture to the other?

9.

Should indigenous societies be “preserved”? What are your thoughts on this issue? Consider the pros and cons and support your argument with cross-cultural examples.

10. Find an example of a commodity, art form, or idea that has a global presence. Where did it originate? Outline the history or how it reached other regions. What are some of the local ways it has been reinterpreted?

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CHAPTER 21 GLOBALIZATION IN LATIN AMERICA, AFRICA, AND THE CARIBBEAN LEARNING OBJECTIVES 21.1 Discuss the early phases of Western colonialism in Latin America, Africa, and the Caribbean.

21.2 Describe the demographic, economic, and religious changes associated with globalization in Latin America, Africa, and the Caribbean.

21.3 Discuss why independence, nationalist, and revolutionary movements developed in Latin America, Africa, and the Caribbean.

21.4 Describe how Latin America, Africa, and the Caribbean countries are situated in the global economy today.

21.5 Discuss what anthropologists have learned about the peasantry in Latin America, Africa, and the Caribbean.

21.6 Describe the characteristics of family and gender relationships in Latin America, Africa, and the Caribbean.

21.7 Discuss the issues related to ethnicity in Latin America, Africa, and the Caribbean.

21.8 Discuss how urbanization has influenced Latin America, Africa, and the Caribbean.

CHAPTER OUTLINE GLOBALIZATION AND COLONIALISM Latin America Cortés and the Aztec Empire Africa Slave Trade Colonization in Africa The Caribbean CONSEQUENCES OF GLOBALIZATION AND COLONIALISM Demographic Change Economic Change Religious Change POLITICAL CHANGES: INDEPENDENCE AND NATIONALIST MOVEMENTS Explaining Revolution UNEVEN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Peripheral Societies A Case Study: The United Fruit Company Semiperipheral Societies Mexico Nigeria South Africa: An Economy in Transition ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDIES African Peasants: A Unique Phenomenon?

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SOCIAL STRUCTURE Latin American Social Relationships Machismo African Social Relationships Gender in Africa Urban Women PATTERNS OF ETHNICITY Ethnicity in Latin America Ethnicity in Africa Ethnicity in the Caribbean URBAN ANTHROPOLOGY SUMMARY AND REVIEW OF LEARNING OBJECTIVES

LECTURE AND DISCUSSION TOPICS Each of these topics is intended to generate ideas for either a lecture/recitation format or discussion in the classroom. For most topics, students should be able to respond and participate in discussions based solely on reading the text. For others, you may need to provide further reading or other forms of information so that students can develop some personal perspective and become equipped to make independent decisions about the topics.

1.

Describe the precolonial indigenous societies of the Americas. Review archaeological and ethnohistorical information about the Aztec and their interaction with Spanish conquistadors.

Expand on this topic further by discussing the Inca.

2.

Discuss the slave trade. Talk about various forms of slavery that existed in Africa and the exploitation of African people by Europeans in order to establish the plantation system in the Americas. Review the colonization of Europe.

3.

Give a general overview of the consequences of colonialism in Latin America, Africa, and the Caribbean. Review the demographic changes that occurred, as well as the elements of the economic system that emerged.

4.

Lecture on the religious forms that emerged as a consequence of colonialism. Define religious syncretism and illustrate with examples. Show how these religious forms continue today.

5.

Show how colonialism gave rise to independence and nationalist movements in Latin America, Africa, and the Caribbean. Compare and contrast the movements that arose in each of these areas and how they were related to particular colonial situations. Discuss apartheid in South Africa and how it was brought to an end. Finally, explore the circumstances surrounding and reasons for revolutions.

6.

Lecture on the uneven economic development in Latin America, Africa, and the Caribbean. Review the term “monocultural dependency.” Explore examples of semiperipheral and peripheral societies, and how they function in the global economy. Talk about the economic transition in South Africa.

Bring in relevant current event stories to bring these topics up to date.

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7.

Explain the difference between open and closed peasant communities. Discuss the effects of neoliberalism on Latin America and how these have been studied ethnographically. Compare the peasant communities of Latin America to the rural communities that emerged in Africa. Explain why the term “peasant” is not always applicable to African agricultural areas.

8.

Explore various topics concerning the social structure of communities in Latin America and Africa.

When discussing Latin America, define and give examples of dyadic contracts, patron-client ties, fictive kinship ties, and compadrazgo. Discuss gender ideologies in Latin America and the concept of machismo. For Africa, focus on the importance of lineages and extended families and women’s roles and status in rural and urban areas. Conclude with an overview of how women’s status may be changing in both Latin America and Africa.

9.

Discuss ethnicity in Latin America and Africa. Describe the ethnic landscape of each area and the politics of ethnicity. Draw examples from the Zapatista movement, Nigeria, and the Hutu and Tutsi in Rwanda and Uganda. In addition, discuss the complex issues of ethnicity that have arisen in the Caribbean.

10. Speak about the effects of urbanization in Latin America and the Caribbean. Spend time discussing Oscar Lewis’s assessment of the “culture of poverty.”

11. Explore tourism as a process of globalization. Discuss the particular effects of tourism in Mayan regions and how people have reacted to it. Reflect on contemporary global processes and their impacts on other regions of Latin America, Africa, and the Caribbean.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES 1.

Show the film Cortés and the Legend and lead a discussion about the conquest of Mexico by the Spanish.

2.

Bring in maps to explore slave trade and migration routes between and within Latin America, Africa, and the Caribbean. Use maps to review European colonial holdings as well.

3.

Create a timeline to show the course of events surrounding the conquest and colonization of Latin America, Africa, and the Caribbean.

4.

Show the film The Other Side of the Border and discuss illegal immigration in class.

5.

View artifacts or slides of Latin American material culture, such as religious symbols, architecture, or artwork. Use them as a basis for discussing changes and continuities in the life of the peoples of these areas.

6.

View artifacts or slides of different African material objects, such as clothing, artworks, or domestic tools. Use them as a basis for discussing changes and continuities in the lives of the peoples of different areas of Africa.

RESEARCH AND WRITING TOPICS 1.

Write a descriptive paper on the ancient world of the Maya, Aztec, or Inca. Describe the major archaeological sites associated with the culture you chose. Give an overview of what we know about their cultural practices, such as subsistence and economy, political organization, and religion.

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2.

Write a descriptive paper on one of the following topics: (a) the Treaty of Tordesillas; (b) consequences of Spanish and Portuguese colonialism in the Americas; (c) conquistadores in the New World; (d) the Virgin of Guadalupe; (e) Spanish and Portuguese political control in Latin America; or (f) religious syncretism in Latin America.

3.

Read and evaluate Robert Redfield’s Tepoztlán: A Mexican Village or Redfield and Alfonso Villa Rojas’s Chan Kom: A Maya Village. Do you agree with the authors’ conclusions? Why or why not?

4.

Research the emergence of a multinational corporation working in Latin America. How did it get established? How has it effected local communities? Discuss this corporation in light of your understanding of globalization.

5.

Read an ethnography about the Caribbean. How is colonial history reflected in the particular culture you are studying? Support your statements with specific examples.

6.

Compare and contrast two independence movements that occurred in Africa, Latin America, or the Caribbean. Discuss how each was influenced by its colonial history. What patterns, similarities, and differences do you see?

7.

Research South African apartheid and the resistance to it from an anthropological perspective. Can the effects of apartheid still be felt in South Africa? Include specific examples.

8.

Write a paper analyzing gender ideology in a community from Latin America, Africa, or the Caribbean. Have the roles and status of men and women changed in response to colonialism or globalization? Use specific examples to illustrate your arguments.

9.

For either Africa or Latin America, analyze how ethnicity is determined in two different regions.

Compare and contrast the ethnic composition of these regions. Offer an explanation for the similarities and differences you find.

10. Investigate tourism as an aspect of globalization in either Africa, Latin America, or the Caribbean.

Why is the place you chose considered a tourist destination? How is the area marketed to tourists?

How has tourism influenced the local infrastructure?

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CHAPTER 22 GLOBALIZATION IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND ASIA LEARNING OBJECTIVES 22.1 Discuss the anthropological contributions to understanding the Middle East and Asia since 9/11/01.

22.2 Describe the early colonization of the Middle East and Asia.

22.3 Discuss the demographic, economic, and religious consequences of globalization in the Middle East and Asia.

22.4 Discuss the political consequences of globalization and colonialism in the Middle East and Asia.

22.5 Discuss what has created uneven development in the Middle East and Asia.

22.6 Discuss the major features of family and gender relations in the Middle East and Asia.

22.7 Discuss the factors that influence ethnic tensions in the Middle East and Asia.

22.8 Discuss the links between globalization and Islamic movements.

CHAPTER OUTLINE ANTHROPOLOGY FOLLOWING 9/11 EARLY COLONIALISM AND GLOBALIZATION The Middle East Asia India, Myanmar (Burma), and Malaysia China The Dutch Empire French Indochina Thailand: An Independent Country The Philippines CONSEQUENCES OF COLONIALISM Demographic Change Economic Change Religious Change POLITICAL CHANGE: INDEPENDENCE AND NATIONALISM A Nationalist and Independence Movement in India Revolutionary Movements in Asia UNEVEN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Oil and the Middle East Withdrawal from the Global Economy ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDIES A Middle Eastern Village and Globalization MIDDLE EASTERN FAMILY, MARRIAGE, AND GENDER The Family 89 .

Marriage Divorce Gender The Veil and Seclusion Social Structure, Family, and Gender in India and South Asia Origins of the Caste System Family and Marriage in South Asia The Dowry Gender and Status in South Asia Family and Gender in China The Family, Marriage, and Kinship in Red Flag Commune ETHNIC TENSIONS China and Ethnic Minorities Anthropologists at Work: Susan Brownell: Ethnography and Sports in China ISLAMIC REVITALIZATION Islamic Revolution in Iran Islamic Revitalization in Afghanistan Islam Interpreted Anthropologists at Work: Akbar Ahmed, Islam and the “War on Terrorism” SUMMARY AND REVIEW OF LEARNING OBJECTIVES

LECTURE AND DISCUSSION TOPICS Each of these topics is intended to generate ideas for either a lecture/recitation format or discussion in the classroom. For most topics, students should be able to respond and participate in discussions based solely on reading the text. For others, you may need to provide further reading or other forms of information so that students can develop some personal perspective and become equipped to make independent decisions about the topics.

1.

Discuss the anthropological approach to understanding cultures in the Middle East and Asia, emphasizing the fact that the cultures and societies of these regions are heterogeneous and not shared uniformly. Show how anthropologists offer a unique understanding of these regions following the events of 9/11/01. Clarify the meaning of terms such as Middle East, Near East, and Arab.

2.

Review the process of European colonialism that occurred in the Middle East and Asia. Give a historical overview of colonialism in the Middle East before and after World War I. Include a brief discussion of Zionism. Illustrate the various approaches European powers used to colonize different areas in Asia.

3.

Discuss the consequences of colonialism in the Middle East and Asia in terms of demographic, economic, and religious change. Indicate how colonialism increased urbanization and affected the agricultural and peasant populations in these regions. Use Kafr El-Elow as an example.

4.

Reintroduce the concept of moral economy and how colonization and globalization affected the moral economy in different parts of Asia. Discuss the formation of banking institutions, financial cooperatives, and savings and credit associations.

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5.

Point out the difficulties Western missionaries faced when confronting followers of Islam, Buddhism, and Hinduism. Compare and contrast the impact of colonialism on religion in the Middle East and Asia to that in Latin America, Africa, and the Caribbean.

6.

Lecture on the political effects of globalization and colonialism in Asia. Discuss the nationalist and independence movement in India and the role of Mahatma Gandhi. Talk about revolutionary movements in other parts of Asia, the rise of the Chinese Communist Party, and Vietnam.

7.

Using oil as an example, explain the role of the Middle East in the world system. Discuss OPEC and its effects on world oil prices and availability. Bring in news stories and current events to illustrate the lasting effects on the world economy.

8.

Describe Asia’s place in the global economy. Give a brief historical overview of communism in China, including the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution. Compare and contrast the attempts to withdraw from the global economy in China and Vietnam. Show how these attempts were connected to communist and socialist ideals.

9.

Discuss the interrelationship of family, marriage, and gender in the Middle East. Describe the ideal type of marriage and family in Muslim society and explain how these ideals are changing. Explain the hamula system and review the concepts of extended families, parallel cross-cousin marriage, polygyny, and arranged marriage. Discuss gender segregation, seclusion, purdah, and the veil. Show how these practices vary cross-culturally throughout the Muslim world.

10. Lecture on ideologies and practices surrounding family, marriage, and gender in India and South Asia. Review the Indian caste system and explain the jajmani economy. Discuss the preference for joint families in South Asia. Explain the preference for parallel-cousin marriages in Pakistan and Bangladesh. Review the continued importance of dowry in certain regions, such as India. Discuss variations in the roles and status of women in South Asia.

11. Review the changes in family structure and gender ideology that have occurred in China over the last century. Describe the patrilineal, patriarchal family values and the roles and status of women in pre-Communist China. Explain how these influenced and were influenced by the Chinese Revolution. Discuss Norman Chance’s study of Half Moon Village.

12. Analyze the ethnic and religious issues confronting Asian countries. Explore the relationship between the ethnic majority and ethnic minorities in China, such as the Uyghur Muslims. Analyze the conflict with Tibet. Bring in current event stories that discuss these ongoing issues.

13. Discuss the work of Susan Brownell on sports and globalization in China. Discuss the value of anthropological research as a means to improve our understanding of global processes.

14. Explain how Islamic revitalization and Islamic fundamentalism have affected political and social patterns in the Middle East. Describe the reasons for the Iranian revolution. Describe how the Pahlavi dynasty contributed to the Islamic revolution in Iran. Explore the process of Islamic revitalization in Afghanistan. Address the idea of jihad. Offer cross-cultural examples of Islamic beliefs and practices, emphasizing that Islam is not homogenous or static. Discuss Scott Atran’s research on suicide bombings. Conclude with a discussion of Akbar Ahmed’s perspective on the “War on Terrorism.”

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CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES 1.

Invite a member of a Middle Eastern consulate or a Middle East expert on your faculty to lecture to your class.

2.

An interesting film on the development of agriculture in the Middle East is the Ascent of Man film titled Harvest of the Seasons.

3.

Good films on Islam include: The Long Search for Islam; There Is No God but God; Islam; Five Pillars of Islam; Islamic Art; The Islamic City; Islamic Knowledge; and The Sufi Way. The film The Sword of Islam focuses on radical Islamic fundamentalism and its views toward the United States and Israel. It should provoke some productive discussion.

4.

View examples or slides of material culture from the Middle East and Asia, such as clothing, artwork, or domestic tools. Use them as a basis for discussing changes and continuities in the life of the peoples of different areas of the Middle East and Asia.

5.

Show the feature film Gandhi, and discuss what it shows and what it omits about the era of Gandhi and India.

6.

Invite a member of an Asian consulate or a faculty member who is an expert on Asia to talk to your class.

7.

Show some of the Long Search series of religion films to give your students a background on the religions mentioned in the chapter. You can show each film and then discuss it. They are: Hinduism: 330 Million Gods; Buddhism: Footprint of the Buddha—India; Islam: There Is No God But God; Religion in Indonesia: The Way of the Ancestors; Buddhism: The Land of the Disappearing Buddha—Japan; and Taoism: A Question of Balance.

8.

Facilitate a debate concerning the United States’ response to the attack on 9/11/2001 and the “War on Terrorism.”

RESEARCH AND WRITING TOPICS 1.

Research the work of missionaries in one area of Asia or the Middle East. How were they part of larger colonial projects? What means did they use to try to influence religious beliefs and cultural practices? Evaluate their level of success and discuss any difficulties they encountered.

2.

Write a descriptive paper on family structure and marriage in a Middle Eastern society.

Contextualize the information you find within a broader framework of gender roles and ideologies.

3.

Write a critical analysis paper on gender relationships and the role of women in the Muslim world, including a description of the veil and purdah. Describe some of the variations in these practices.

4.

Conduct research on the way European colonial powers influenced the economic system of an area in the Middle East or Asia. Pay particular attention to pre- and post-colonial systems of land use and ownership. Discuss the continuing effects of these changes and how they relate to globalization.

5.

Read an ethnography about a Hindu community in India. Describe how the caste system works in that community. Include specific examples.

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6.

Investigate gender roles and women’s status in China. Compare and contrast different time periods, ethnic groups, or regions. Explain how gender is tied to family structure and marriage.

7.

Read about the plight of Tibetans. Incorporate ethnographic, historical, and journalistic sources in order to explain the conflict between China and Tibet.

8.

Explore the work of Scott Atran or Akbar Ahmed. Discuss their research, perspectives, and findings.

How does their work influence the way we understand Islamic movements and global terrorism?

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CHAPTER 23 ETHNICITY LEARNING OBJECTIVES 23.1 Discuss the basic criticisms of scientific racism by anthropologists.

23.2 Discuss how race is understood in different societies.

23.3 Discuss the basis of ethnicity as understood by contemporary anthropologists.

23.4 Compare the difference between the primordialist and circumstantial perspectives on ethnicity.

23.5 Compare the different patterns of ethnic relations described by anthropologists.

23.6 Discuss the historical and contemporary conditions of race and ethnic groups in the United States.

23.7 Discuss why ethnonationalist movements have developed in relationship to globalization.

CHAPTER OUTLINE RACE, RACISM, AND CULTURE Critiques of Scientific Racism THE CULTURAL AND SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF RACE ETHNICITY ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON ETHNICITY The Primordialist Model The Circumstantialist Model PATTERNS OF ETHNIC RELATIONS Pluralism Assimilation Ethnic Violence Racial and Ethnic Stratification ETHNIC RELATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES WASP Dominance New Ethnic Challenges for U.S. Society German and Irish Americans Italian and Polish Americans The Melting Pot: Assimilation or Pluralism?

African-Americans Postslavery and Segregation The Civil Rights Movement African-Americans Today Hispanic Americans Puerto Rican Americans Cuban Americans Hispanic Americans Today Asian and Arab Americans Cultural Pluralism 94 .

Multiculturalism in the United States ETHNONATIONALISM SUMMARY AND REVIEW OF LEARNING OBJECTIVES

LECTURE AND DISCUSSION TOPICS Each of these topics is intended to generate ideas for either a lecture/recitation format or discussion in the classroom. For most topics, students should be able to respond and participate in discussions based solely on reading the text. For others, you may need to provide further reading or other forms of information so that students can develop some personal perspective and become equipped to make independent decisions about the topics. It is critical with this chapter on race and ethnicity to incorporate current events from a variety of sources. The more inclusive you are in your sources, the more likely it is that students will find the relevance and application of this material.

1.

Define the concepts of race, racism, and culture. Review content from Chapter 6 concerning the anthropological understanding of race. Explain the anthropological critique of scientific racism.

2.

Explain the social significance of race and how it is understood in different societies. Make crosscultural comparisons of racial categories and the various meanings associated with them to illustrate this point. Define the hypodescent concept and one-drop rule and show how these have been used in the United States.

3.

Identify the term “ethnicity” as an individual’s cultural heritage rather than race. Discuss the objective and subjective aspects of ethnicity and illustrate with examples.

4.

Compare and contrast the primordialist and circumstantialist models of ethnicity. Show how these approaches lead to different understandings of how ethnicity works. Review the concept of ethnogenesis and explain how it happens. Discuss how globalization, economics, and political policies affect ethnicity.

5.

Discuss cultural pluralism and assimilation. Define and give examples of cultural, biological, and forced assimilation (including ethnocide). Demonstrate how different societies have used systems of racial and ethnic stratification, such as the United States, Russia, and Japan.

6.

Cover the three patterns of ethnic violence identified by anthropologists: segregation, ethnic cleansing, and genocide. Discuss examples of these phenomena.

7.

Explore the patterns of ethnic relations in the United States. Discuss WASP dominance and Angloconformity. Talk about the experiences of immigrants from Germany, Ireland, Italy, and Poland.

Explain the melting pot concept and whether or not it fits with the ethnic patterns we see. Review the historical and contemporary circumstances of African-Americans and Hispanic Americans.

Discuss Asian and Arab American communities. Look at how cultural pluralism and multiculturalism play out in the United States.

8.

Give a lecture about ethnonationalist movements. Explore ethnonationalism as a response to cultural hegemony. Consider examples of ethnonationalism from postcolonial Africa and the former Soviet Union. Show how ethnonationalism is tied to globalism.

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CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES 1.

Facilitate a discussion concerning changing ideas about racial identity in the United States. Consider how people identify themselves compared to how other people identify them. Ask students to offer experiences of how they have been affected by racism in their own lives.

2.

Split students into small groups to share their experiences of growing up in an ethnic community. On what basis does the community define itself? Does the community have a shared history, language, or other cultural practices?

3.

Invite a guest speaker to lecture about an ethnic festival or community center in the area.

4.

Use maps to demarcate occurrences of ethnic violence around the world. Include areas affected by segregation, ethnic cleansing, and genocide.

5.

Look at a map of the United States. Discuss the history of immigration in the United States and where different groups settled. Assess how these patterns influence communities in the United States today.

6.

Create a timeline of events relevant to the history of African-Americans in the United States.

7.

Ask students to bring in news stories about immigration and present them in class.

8.

Examine maps of the former Soviet Union and Africa. Identify areas where ethnonationalist movements have arisen. Ask students if they can identify any patterns and how they would explain them.

RESEARCH AND WRITING TOPICS 1.

Research the uses of scientific racism to justify violence, slavery, or genocide in the past. Identify the ways scientific racism can be tied to economic and political issues. Provide details to support your insights.

2.

Investigate the way race is defined in a society other than your own. Compare and contrast it with your own society’s criteria for racial classification. How can you account for the similarities and differences?

3.

Conduct research on ethnic identity in your community. If you can secure permission, interview people about their ethnic identities. Compare their subjective understanding of their ethnicity with objective descriptions of the group from other sources.

4.

Write a paper about the effects of globalization on ethnicity. Discuss specific examples of the circumstances that help generate feelings of ethnicity in the era of globalization. Look at the way religious celebrations, festivals, foodways, marriage practices, clothing, and language perpetuate an ethnic community.

5.

Research the process of assimilation for a particular indigenous or ethnic group. Did the pressure to assimilate come from within or outside of the group? Did members of the group become fully or partially assimilated? How was assimilation achieved?

6.

Investigate ethnic violence from an anthropological perspective. Conduct research on the historical and ethnographic nature of the situation. Describe the current status of the situation.

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7.

Explore the origins of the melting pot concept. What is the history behind this idea? Argue whether you think the melting pot concept supports assimilation or cultural pluralism. Assess how well you think it describes the ethnic patterns found in the United States today. Support your statements with specific examples.

8.

Explore the folklore of a specific immigrant group in the United States. Analyze the songs, stories, or celebrations of the group in terms of how they reflect on the immigration experience and reflect ethnic identity.

9.

Write a paper about the African-American or Hispanic American experience. Pick a particular point in time and a region or community. Base your research on life histories, ethnohistorical data, and/or archaeological studies. Assess the effects of racism, ethnic stratification, and assimilation on the community.

10. Discuss a contemporary ethnonationalist movement and how it is related to globalization. Use news articles and current event stories, as well as ethnographic and historical sources.

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CHAPTER 24 CONTEMPORARY GLOBAL TRENDS LEARNING OBJECTIVES 24.1 Compare the logic-of-growth model with the pessimistic model of global technological, environmental, and demographic developments.

24.2 Discuss the results of globalization for technology and energy use.

24.3 Discuss how globalization has had an impact on the environment.

24.4 Discuss globalization and demographic trends.

24.5 Discuss globalization and economic trends.

24.6 Discuss the political, ethnic, and religious trends resulting from globalization.

24.7 Discuss the role of anthropology as it studies current political, ethnic, and religious trends.

CHAPTER OUTLINE PESSIMISTS VERSUS OPTIMISTS ON GLOBALIZATION ISSUES The Doomsday Model The Optimists: The Logic-of-Growth Model The Pessimists and the Optimists: An Anthropological Assessment TECHNOLOGICAL TRENDS Energy Consumption Patterns ENVIRONMENTAL TRENDS Mechanized Agriculture and Pollution Air Pollution POPULATION TRENDS The Demographic-Transition Model Applied The One-Child Policy in China Loss of Biodiversity Ethnographic Research on the Green Revolution Case Study: The Green Revolution in Shahidpur GM Crops A Global Solution for Global Problems Anthropological Research on Climate Change The Sustainability Model ECONOMIC TRENDS Multinational Corporations Jobs and Growth: A Positive Assessment Neocolonialism: A Negative Assessment Case Study: The Potlatch Corporation Emerging Global Economic Trends Changes in Socialist Countries The Former Soviet Union: Perestroika and Glasnost Eastern Europe 98 .

China Vietnam Changes in the Core Societies: The United States and Japan The Semiperipheral NICs Global Economic Development and World Poverty POLITICAL, ETHNIC, AND RELIGIOUS TRENDS Ethnic Trends Religion and Secularization THE ROLE OF ANTHROPOLOGY SUMMARY AND REVIEW OF LEARNING OBJECTIVES

LECTURE AND DISCUSSION TOPICS Each of these topics is intended to generate ideas for either a lecture/recitation format or discussion in the classroom. For most topics, students should be able to respond and participate in discussions based solely on reading the text. For others, you may need to provide further reading or other forms of information so that students can develop some personal perspective and become equipped to make independent decisions about the topics. It is critical with this chapter on global trends to incorporate current events from a variety of sources. The more inclusive you are in your sources, the more likely it is that students will find the relevance and application of this material.

1.

Assess the doomsday and logic-of-growth models from an anthropological perspective. Show how anthropology can help analyze global issues from an interdisciplinary perspective. Discuss ways that anthropologists can integrate local, ethnographic research with studies of global processes.

2.

Lecture on technological and environmental trends associated with globalization. Evaluate energy consumption in different areas of the world and the effects on the environment. Look at examples of mechanized agriculture, agribusiness, and the Green Revolution. Review the effects of these developments on the local community and environment. Discuss air pollution and explain the greenhouse effect.

3.

Explain recent models drawn from the demographic-transition theory that address the connections among fertility and mortality rates and socioeconomic development. Show how such demographic models can be applied to global population trends. Define doubling time and zero population growth (ZPG). Review China’s one-child policy.

4.

Discuss the importance of biodiversity and practices that contribute to the loss of biodiversity.

Explore ethnographic case studies about the Green Revolution and the introduction of genetically modified crops.

5.

Talk about the 1992 Earth Summit. Discuss some of the solutions that have been proposed to address technology’s effect on the environment, population growth, loss of biodiversity, and pollution. Review some of the anthropological research that has been conducted on climate change.

Outline the sustainability model and how it can be applied.

6.

Evaluate the positives and negatives of multinational corporations. The example of the Potlatch Corporation offers a concrete illustration of some of the problems stemming from the actions of multinational corporations, especially in terms of creating new forms of economic dependency and neocolonial relationships.

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7.

Provide information about global economic trends and how they manifest in specific societies.

Discuss these trends in socialist countries, Eastern Europe, and the former Soviet Union. Explain perestroika and glasnost and the effects of these policies. Turn your attention to Asia, discussing emerging economic trends in China, Vietnam, and Japan. Look at some examples of newly industrializing countries and their place in the global economy. Conclude with an analysis of the relationship between economic development and poverty.

8.

Discuss global political trends. Address some of the political and economic changes that have occurred recently in Europe. Review the concept of the nation-state and what the future holds for this type of political institution.

9.

Address the effects of globalization on ethnicity. Cover growing ethnic tensions and the revival of ethnic identities in the face of a potentially globalized culture. Look at some specific examples of these trends in more detail.

10. Explore the role of religion and trends in secularization as influenced by the dynamics of globalization. Discuss John Bowen’s work on secular policies in France and their effects on Muslim citizens. Bring in current event stories that may speak to this issue. Discuss religious revival movements, such as the Iranian Islamic revolution and fundamentalist movements in North America, and how they are related to globalization.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES 1.

A variety of guest speakers could contribute meaningful current information on the topics in this chapter. You might invite specialists in the areas of economics, biology, population control, environmental education, or energy consumption, historians or sociologists specializing in developing nations, religious leaders interested in the conflict between religion and secularism, and many others available in your community. A combination of different speakers engaged in discussion or debate might be an interesting way to cover these topics.

2.

An interesting film on a familiar company in an unfamiliar land is The Colonel Comes to Japan. It describes how Kentucky Fried Chicken penetrated the Japanese market. Some other interesting films that can encourage discussion are The Kyocera Experiment, One Man’s Multinational, Hong Kong Dresses Up, and The Buck Stops in Brazil.

3.

Some interesting short films on ecology include Ecological Realities—Natural Laws at Work, Ecology: Checks and Balances, and Ecology: The Silent Bomb.

4.

Poll students as to whether they agree with the doomsday or logic-of-growth model. Select a few students to explain why they support one model or the other.

5.

Ask students to bring in news articles about pollution, energy use, or the environment. Discuss them in class.

6.

Bring in products from the local grocery store. Are genetically modified ingredients used? How and where is the food grown or manufactured? How is it transported to your area? Assess the environmental impact of these food products. Compare them to items sold at a local farmers’ market.

7.

Bring in everyday products manufactured by multinational corporations, such as clothing or footwear. Talk about the origins of the multinational corporation and its labor and manufacturing practices. Compare these to products manufactured in your own country.

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8.

Create a map depicting the locations of global economic trends. Include multinational corporations, newly industrializing countries, and areas of poverty. As a class, discuss any patterns you see.

9.

Over the course of the semester, follow the political and economic events related to the European Union, a nation-state, or an ethnic group that has received global recognition. Ask students to identify trends and patterns.

RESEARCH AND WRITING TOPICS 1.

Select an ethnography and show how the details about the community presented in it can be understood in light of global processes.

2.

Analyze recent events in an ethnographic community in terms of the doomsday model, logic-ofgrowth model, or a combination of the two. Apply an anthropological approach to the issue that considers multiple cultural factors, human universals, and an archaeological temporal perspective.

3.

Research the introduction of mechanized agriculture or genetically modified crops in a particular region. Describe the effects on the local community, culture, and environment.

4.

Conduct research on environmental and conservation efforts in your community. With permission, interview people in your community who have established environmentally conscious businesses or political action groups.

5.

Analyze the effects of a multinational corporation on a specific community. Examine its labor policies and how it affects the environment. What other effects has its existence had on the local community? Describe the items it produces and where they are marketed and sold. Explain the interplay of local and global processes that resulted in this relationship between the local community and multinational corporation.

6.

Research economic, political, or ethnic trends emerging in Eastern Europe or the former Soviet Union. Provide ethnographic details and identify any patterns or processes at work.

7.

Investigate the corporate culture of Japan or the manufacturing of export goods in China. Discuss the global forces that are at play. Include a local perspective to balance out your macro-level analysis.

8.

Research ethnic tensions in a particular region of the world. Explain how they are tied to forces of globalization.

9.

Examine the interplay of religious and secularist movements in a community here or abroad.

Compare and contrast the perspectives and practices of each. Analyze the ways they are related to other local cultural phenomena as well as global processes.

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CHAPTER 25 APPLIED ANTHROPOLOGY LEARNING OBJECTIVES 25.1 Describe the different roles of applied anthropologists.

25.2 Discuss the applied aspects of biological anthropology.

25.3 Define medical anthropology and discuss some of the research undertaken.

25.4 Define cultural resource management and discuss the role of archaeologists in the field.

25.5 Discuss the meaning of “cultural patrimony” and the role of NAGPRA legislation in the United States.

25.6 Discuss the applied aspects of cultural anthropology.

25.7 Discuss how applied anthropologists are engaged in human rights research.

CHAPTER OUTLINE THE ROLES OF THE APPLIED ANTHROPOLOGIST BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY Forensic Anthropology Forensic Facial Reconstruction Determining the Cause of Death Identifying Victims of War and Genocide Anthropologists at Work: Clyde Collins Snow: Forensic Anthropologist MEDICAL ANTHROPOLOGY Ethnomedicine Ethnomedicine in Thailand Chinese Acupuncture Cultural Patterns and Epidemiology Medical Anthropology and Mental Illness What is Abnormal?

Culture-Specific Disorders Globalization and Mental Illness CULTURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT: APPLIED ARCHAEOLOGY Preserving the Past Cultural Resource Management in the United States Cultural Resource Management in Global Perspective The Study of Garbage WHO OWNS THE PAST? Critical Perspectives: The Elgin Marbles Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act APPLIED CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY Planning Change The Vicos Project 102 .

Anthropologists at Work: John McCreery: Applying Anthropology in Japan Engaged Anthropology APPLIED ANTHROPOLOGY AND HUMAN RIGHTS Cultural Relativism and Human Rights Relativism Reconsidered Ethical Relativism A Resolution to the Problem of Relativism The Problem of Intervention Universal Human Rights The Role of Applied Anthropology in Human Rights Critical Perspectives: Ethical Controversies in El Dorado SUMMARY AND REVIEW OF LEARNING OBJECTIVES

LECTURE AND DISCUSSION TOPICS Each of these topics is intended to generate ideas for either a lecture/recitation format or discussion in the classroom. For most topics, students should be able to respond and participate in discussions based solely on reading the text. For others, you may need to provide further reading or other forms of information so that students can develop some personal perspective and become equipped to make independent decisions about the topics. It is critical with this chapter on applied anthropology to incorporate current events from a variety of sources. The more inclusive you are in your sources, the more likely it is that students will find the relevance and application of this material.

1.

Define the different roles played by applied anthropologists and give examples of each. Base your lecture on Erve Chambers’s identification of applied anthropologists as representatives, facilitators, informants, analysts, and mediators.

2.

Discuss the various applications of biological anthropology. Include forensic facial reconstruction, determining cause of death, and identifying victims of war and genocide. Review the work of Clyde Collins Snow.

3.

Review the type of work and research undertaken by medical anthropologists. Define and give examples of Western biomedicine and ethnomedicine. Discuss Louis Golomb’s research on therapeutic pluralism in Thailand. Introduce other cross-cultural examples of medical pluralism.

Explore Chinese acupuncture, discussing the belief system upon which it is based and how practitioners, patients, and researchers determine its efficacy. Use Caroline Wilson’s research on heart disease in India as the basis of a lecture on the relationship between epidemiology and cultural practices.

4.

Explore the topic of mental illness from an anthropological perspective. Begin with an overview of psychiatry and the Western approach to mental illness. Then look at some of the details of culturespecific disorders such as latah, amok, windigo, and pibloktoq. Compare and contrast the way Americans and Chinese report symptoms of depression and how depression and PTSD are diagnosed cross-culturally. Discuss how globalization affects the occurrence and treatment of mental illness. Talk about the conflict between biomedical and psychodynamic approaches in Western psychiatry.

5.

Discuss the role of archaeologists in cultural resource management (CRM). Talk about the uses and methods of CRM. Illustrate with specific examples of CRM projects in the United States and around the world.

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6.

In addition to cultural resource management, review some of the other ways archaeological research can be applied to contemporary society. The Garbage Project is a useful example.

7.

Present the issue of cultural patrimony. Offer examples of when cultural patrimony has become an issue and how the situations were resolved. The controversy surrounding the Elgin Marbles and issues of Native American repatriation and reburial are good examples to explore.

8.

Lecture on the various ways cultural anthropology can be applied. Explain how social-impact studies are conducted and when they are relevant. Describe the Vicos Project, the roles of anthropologists in the project, and the outcome. Explore the work of John McCreery as an example of applied anthropology focused on consumerism, media, and new technologies. Show how he combines social network analysis with ethnography and historical research.

9.

Discuss the emerging perspective of engaged anthropology. Give examples of the ways anthropologists are partnering with the people they study in order to resolve social, economic, medical, or political issues.

10. Revisit the notion of cultural relativism. Demonstrate the difference between cultural relativism, methodological relativism, and ethical relativism. Emphasize the importance of recognizing the power relationships in any society. Raise the difficult issues of “honor killings” and female genital mutilation/cutting. Discuss the pros and cons of intervention.

11. Explore the role anthropologists can play in developing universal human rights. Discuss the work of John Van Willigen and V. C. Channa on bride burning (dowry deaths) in India. Evaluate the effects of globalization on human rights and define what is meant by a pluralistic metaculture.

12. Review the controversy surrounding Napolean Chagnon’s work with the Yanomamö. Relate this to the ethical concerns of anthropologists and discuss how it has influenced ethnographic research.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES 1.

Present brief examples of applied anthropology projects, real or imagined. Ask students to identify what type of applied anthropology is central to the project (forensic, cultural resource preservation, archaeological, medical, or cultural) and what role the anthropologists are playing (representative, facilitator, informant, analyst, or mediator).

2.

Screen an episode of a crime scene drama. Discuss how the forensic science presented relates to the real work of forensic anthropologists.

3.

Generate a list of medical practices available in your community, including biomedical and ethnomedical examples. Discuss whether or not your society should be considered medically pluralistic.

4.

Put together several bags of dry garbage (substitute imitation food for real food) to bring to class.

Break into small groups. Each group should analyze the contents of its bag as evidence of cultural practices.

5.

Stage a debate over the cultural patrimony of the Elgin Marbles or Native American remains.

6.

Conduct a mini ethnographic research project on texting behavior among your students. Show how the results could be applied to marketing, developing new products, or addressing social issues among certain age groups.

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7.

Give an objective description of a controversial cultural practice such as bride burning, female genital mutilation/cutting, or intimate partner abuse. Ask students to illustrate how the same phenomenon would be interpreted from the perspectives of cultural relativism, ethical relativism, and methodological relativism.

8.

Review the American Anthropological Association’s code of ethics. Have small groups read and discuss key passages and how they relate to research methods.

RESEARCH AND WRITING TOPICS 1.

Find an example of an applied anthropology project to illustrate each of the five roles identified by Erve Chambers: representative, facilitator, informant, analyst, and mediator. Give a brief synopsis of each.

2.

Explore the role of forensic anthropologists in identifying the remains of victims of war and genocide. Focus on one project, describing its goals, methods, and outcomes.

3.

Read an ethnography written by a medical anthropologist. Describe the research methods used by the anthropologist. Summarize what he or she learned. Reflect on any applications of the research.

4.

Research a culture-specific disorder found in your society or another. Describe the symptoms and treatment of the disorder. Analyze what makes it culturally specific.

5.

Find information about cultural resource management projects that have been conducted in your region. Summarize their goals, methods, and outcomes.

6.

Look at the text of the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act. Write an opinion paper about the issues this act addresses. Do you agree or disagree with these sorts of measures?

Support your argument with specific examples.

7.

Read about a social-impact study. Describe the goals, methods, and outcome of the study.

8.

Investigate how anthropologists are researching social media and new technologies. What are some of the applications of these studies?

9.

Visit the Cultural Survival Quarterly Web site. Read one of the articles, then conduct additional research on the issue and ethnic group discussed. Write a paper describing the issue, its circumstances, and the way anthropologists are working with the local population to resolve it.

10. Conduct research on a cultural practice that is considered ethically questionable. On what basis do outsiders question this practice? What do insiders say about their practice? How have anthropologists viewed it? Do you feel intervention is appropriate? Explain your position.

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