Advocacy and Opposition An Introduction to Argumentation, 7E Karyn Charles Rybacki Instructor Manual

Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank to accompany

ADVOCACY AND OPPOSITION: An Introduction to Argumentation Seventh Edition

Karyn C. Rybacki Northern Michigan University Donald J. Rybacki Northern Michigan University with Sara Potter Northern Michigan University

Allyn & Bacon

ADVOCACY AND OPPOSITION: An Introduction to Argumentation Seventh Edition

INSTRUCTOR'S MANUAL AND TEST BANK

Karyn C. Rybacki Northern Michigan University Donald J. Rybacki Northern Michigan University with Sara Potter Northern Michigan University

PREFACE There are three parts to this manual. The first discusses instructional strategies for the argumentation course. It deals with what we feel are your two most important pedagogical decisions: topics and formats for in-class argumentation. Various options are discussed, and we offer recommendations based on our experience using this book.

Once you have resolved these questions, you are ready to start putting your syllabus together.

The second section of the manual may prove useful at this point since it contains a sample syllabus, including schedules for a fifteen-week semester for courses meeting two or three times per week. It also includes detailed sets of instructions for the written and oral assignments contained in the syllabus. We find that detailed instructions reduce anxiety by providing students with a checklist they can use to reassure themselves that they are on the right track in preparing assignments. We do not suggest including these instructions in the syllabus since this may send students into information overload during the first class meeting. Assignment instructions may be included in a separate handout or distributed and discussed individually at appropriate points in the semester.

Regardless of whether your syllabus looks anything like our sample, the final section of this manual should prove helpful at several points during the semester. For each chapter we include learning objectives, a list of key terms with definitions, lecture launchers that we have had good luck with, suggestions for using the Learning Activities at the end of each chapter, with an answer key to those that require one, and a discussion of possible essay questions. In addition, twenty true-false, and twenty multiple choice questions are provided for each chapter, a total of 440 objective test items.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Instructional Strategies

1

Sample Syllabus

4

Assignment Instructions

11

Chapter 1

22

Chapter 2

37

Chapter 3

43

Chapter 4

54

Chapter 5

70

Chapter 6

79

Chapter 7

90

Chapter 8

100

Chapter 9

110

Chapter 10

121

Chapter 11

136

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ADVOCACY AND OPPOSITION: An Introduction to Argumentation, 7th Edition

INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES It is not our intention to try to tell you how to teach your course. However, if you have been teaching argumentation from the perspective of intercollegiate debate, or if you have never taught this course before, the following suggestions may prove helpful.

They reflect our experiences, both good and bad, with teaching the argumentation course using this book.

Selecting a Topic for Argumentation Since the major in-class assignments deal with the presentation of oral and/or written arguments, selecting topics for these assignments deserves some thought. There are three basic options which require either instructor input or at least oversight. Let us discuss these options and the advantages and disadvantages associated with each of them.

Option 1: Each student selects a topic area that he or she is interested in, develops a series of propositions (fact, value, and policy if your syllabus includes all of them), and then researches and presents arguments of advocacy and opposition relative to each.

There are three obvious advantages to this option. First, because students select topics they are already interested in, their level of motivation is likely to be higher. Second, listening to arguments in class becomes less tedious for you and your students since you aren't hearing the same topic argued over and over again. Third, since the student argues both sides of the issue him/herself, if a student drops the course this action doesn't impact on other students and doesn't force you to reorganize your schedule.

Option 1 is not without disadvantages. First, the more unique topics there are, the greater the chance they will represent idiosyncratic, often obscure, student interests.

Failure to consider this problem during the topic selection phase practically guarantees that one or more students will come to you two days before their first argument is due to tell you they can't find any evidence on their topic, or that you’ll be seeing nothing but Web sources of possibly dubious quality for some arguments. Second, this option does not work well for large classes. If each student makes two presentations on each proposition, you may have to cut back the number of assignments since it is difficult, if not impossible, to present an opposing argument in the absence of an advocate's argument. Third, this option can foster bad habits. Since the students know they have to attack arguments they have created, some will attempt to make their job easier by building weak or fallacious advocacy arguments. Fourth, with many different topics it is impossible to discuss basic concepts in class in terms of all of them. This makes it more difficult for some students to transfer ideas discussed in class, and apparently understood, to their actual work. Many of these problems can be eliminated by having students work in groups of three or more, selecting a topic area, developing propositions, researching

1

Instructional Strategies

them and presenting arguments of advocacy and opposition in a Lincoln-Douglas debate format.

We recommend Option 1 for classes with fewer than twenty students, using predominantly oral assignments, and large classes, twenty students or more, using predominantly written assignments.

Option 2: The instructor selects a single topic area (hopefully one that students have some interest in), develops a series of propositions, and the students research and present arguments of advocacy and opposition in a Lincoln-Douglas debate format.

Compared to Option 1, motivation is somewhat lower, and listening to the same propositions being argued over and over again can become mind numbing. However, careful selection of a proposition eliminates the problem of locating credible sources of information, although it may produce greater competition among students for certain library materials only available in physical form. A drop has little or no impact on the other students in the class, and a single proposition means that in class discussion can be focused. This results in students both grasping and transferring concepts more rapidly, especially if they are average and below average students. The greatest problem with a single topic area is that students who present assignments later during a round of arguments have a tendency to adopt the successful arguments of their predecessors rather than developing arguments of their own. This comes perilously close to plagiarism, but is hard to police unless the case is a word-for-word duplicate of a previous case, and hard to discourage since the purpose of argumentation is to make the best possible case for your position. The problems associated with Option 2 increase as class size increases.

We recommend Option 2 in circumstances where class size is less than fifteen, and assignments are predominantly oral.

Option 3: The instructor selects a limited number of topic areas, and assigns students to them for various assignments over the course of the semester. Oral assignments can be structured as individual presentations, or as Lincoln-Douglas debates.

Motivation is somewhat higher if student interests and preferences are taken into account in selecting topic areas and assigning students to them. A variety of topics reduces the boredom associated with hearing the same proposition argued for the tenth time. Fewer propositions selected by the instructor overcomes many potential problems with library resources, while a range of topics increases the probability that what students making their presentations later in the semester adopt are the techniques of their successful classmates rather than their actual arguments.

Selecting a Format for Argumentation From the foregoing, it is obvious that we generally recommend using a LincolnDouglas format for assignments in a course emphasizing oral argument. It works well because it is more realistic, stimulating, and reassuring than having an individual present arguments on both sides of a proposition. While arguing both sides of an issue may be an intrapersonal process, we seldom see people doing it openly. Having the student test his

2

ADVOCACY AND OPPOSITION: An Introduction to Argumentation, 7th Edition

or her ideas against those of a classmate brings a sufficient degree of competition to the exercise to make it stimulating. As long as the student's grade is not contingent on who wins or loses the argument, competition is healthy. Finally, having someone else there, even someone who is arguing against what you have to say, is reassuring to the student.

They aren't alone during the process of developing and presenting their case. They have someone to talk to (besides you). Structuring grading to encourage students to work with, rather than against, each other results in better performance since students don't want to feel like they have let each other down. A suggested Lincoln-Douglas format is provide in Appendix A of the book.

What about using a traditional or cross-examination debate format with two person teams? While there is nothing intrinsically wrong with debate, using it as the format for oral assignments presents two problems. The first problem is time. You need at least ninety minutes to complete a debate and have time to talk about it. Solving this problem by cutting down time limits can result in some pretty shallow argumentation. The second problem is focus. It is necessary to teach at least rudimentary debate technique if students are going to benefit from the experience. If cross-examination is involved as well, what constitutes rudimentary technique can become quite extensive. As a result, the students' perception of what they are expected to learn may become blurred. Our experience has been that neither traditional nor cross-examination debate are optimum vehicles for teaching argumentation.

What about individuals arguing one side of a topic without a counterpart on the other side? This is an approach we have used with very good results. Rather than turning the student completely loose as suggested in Option 1, we developed a series of structured individual assignments, two of which restricted the range of topic areas a student may discuss. In the first assignment designed to get students up on their feet early in the semester, students self-selected one of eight topic areas recently in the news. Students were given references to three or four articles on each subject in case they were relatively uninformed on current events, and the emphasis in the assignment was to present a coherently structured argument on a proposition of fact or value. The second assignment put the student in the role of an opponent charged with refuting the arguments in an editorial. While three or four students were assigned to each editorial, their research and oral argument responsibilities were individual ones. The third assignment placed the student in the role of policy advocate, with the instructor retaining the right of approval of all propositions to avoid potential problems. The range of topics, everything from fur coats to flag burning, kept the class involved and actually enhanced the students' ability to grasp basic concepts of argumentation.

3

Sample Syllabus

Course Number/Title Instructor: Office: Office Phone: Email: Office Hours:

Semester: Meeting Days/Times: Building/Room Number:

Required Texts: Advocacy and Opposition: An Introduction to Argumentation, 7th ed., Karyn Charles Rybacki & Donald Jay Rybacki, Allyn & Bacon, 2012.

Little Brown Essential Handbook, 7th ed., Jane Aaron, Longman, 2010 Course Perspective: The purpose of a course in argumentation is to develop one’s ability to analyze and think critically. As we use the techniques of argumentation and debate today, they serve two purposes. First, argumentation is used to generate knowledge. We use the techniques of argumentation to find information, test ideas and reasons, and to analyze situations and the issues produced by those situations. Second, we use argumentation to influence the beliefs and behaviors of others, to gain acceptance from others for a particular point of view. Both uses of argumentation are necessary for the professional communication practitioner in the public sphere and for each of us in our private spheres. We describe the use of argumentation to generate knowledge and to influence belief and behavior as a form of instrumental communication. Our study of the process of argumentation will utilize the ideas of Stephen Toulmin, a theory set particularly suited to instrumental communication. Students will develop preparation skills for effective argumentation and practice those skills through a series of written and oral assignments.

Learning Objectives:  To develop an understanding of the theory and forms of argumentation.  To experience the application of the theory and forms of argumentation in written and oral exercises.  To demonstrate specific skill development in analysis, reasoning, researching a topic in depth, organizing materials, and effectively using proof to support conclusions.  To develop effective work habits as communication practitioners in working with others in a responsible and ethical manner.

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ADVOCACY AND OPPOSITION: An Introduction to Argumentation, 7th Edition

Assignments and Assignment Values Detailed assignment instructions, grading criteria, and study guides for examinations are provided separately. Each student is responsible for meeting all requirements specified in the assignment instructions and study guides.

Examinations: There are three unit examinations, each is worth 200 possible score points.

Exams use true-false and multiple-choice items; exams will be scored on a “curve,” with the top score setting 100%; letter grades will be converted to “score points,” a conversion chart is provided with the grade tabulation sheet.

Written & Oral Assignments:  Preparing to Argue: description of field of argument, presumption, nature of the controversy, and phrasing propositions, 100 points possible.  Research & Analysis: discovering and evaluating the research base for argumentation and analysis of issues for Fact, Value, and Policy, 150 points possible.  Fact Brief: an exercise in generating information on the pros and cons of the factual proposition, 100 points possible.  Value Briefing Book: development of advocacy and opposition positions for the value proposition, 100 points possible.  Policy Debates: In-class debates on an assigned topic, 100 points possible.  Participation: A variety of in-class activities will take place during the semester.

Students must be in class at the start of the activity to receive full credit. After missing three activities, 5 of the 50 possible points for participation will be deducted for each additional activity missed.

Grading & Final Grade Scale There are a possible 1200 score points from these grading areas. The student's final grade will be determined on the ratio of earned score points to the 1200 possible.

100 - 92%= A 91 - 90 = A89 - 88 = B+ 87 - 82 = B 81 - 80 = B79 - 78 = C+ 77 - 72 = C 71 - 70 = C69 - 68 = D+ 67 - 62 = D 61 - 60 = D59 - 0 = F

5

Sample Syllabus

General Course Requirements 1. Attendance: Attendance in this course is mandatory. We are preparing you to be professional communication practitioners and you are expected to be on the job and meet deadlines, period. If you must miss a class for personal or professional reasons, you must assume responsibility for having missed that class session. A substantial amount of class time is devoted to activities designed to help you learn the techniques of argumentation. I do not do “excuses.” Missing more than seven class meetings results in an automatic F in the class. This does not mean you get to skip seven classes without penalty. If you miss too many class meetings, your final grade will most likely suffer through lost participation points.

2. Check your university e-mail on a regular basis. Instructor contact with the class will be done through these e-mail services provided for notifying the class of any changes or clarifications.

3. Laptops and other electronic devices are banned during class time unless you are specifically requested to use them. There is a substantial body of reliable evidence to confirm that listening to music, checking your email, text messaging, and other such distractions have a significant, negative impact on student performance.

4. Due Dates & Deadlines: Oral and written assignments have absolute due dates. If you fail to do an assignment on time, your score is ZERO. Debate presentations must be done on the assigned dates. “I’m not prepared” is not an acceptable reason for missing an assignment date. Don’t even think about asking for an extension. In the event of class being cancelled, we will pick up the schedule at the next class meeting.

In the event that a due date must be extended, you will be notified in class. The extended due date becomes the absolute due date. You are responsible for paying attention in class. No written work will be accepted during final exam week.

5. Team member problems: The class will be divided into two-person teams for the written assignments and the policy debate. The fourth learning objective is to develop effective work habits, acting responsibly in working with others. If a team does not work together, then each person will have to do all of the assignments individually. If your assigned team member drops the course in mid-semester, accommodations will be made, but you may have to complete the remaining assignments on your own.

6. Evaluation of Student Work: Emphasis in this course is placed on following assignment instructions, accuracy, and quality of work. Content errors (failure to properly execute an assignment or an error in facts/ information used) may result in an automatic zero for the entire assignment. The written work must demonstrate good writing quality in: spelling, grammar, punctuation, sentence and paragraph structure, formatting, rules of writing in standard American English, editing, and proof reading work before it is submitted. Detailed instructions for each assignment are presented in a separate document and it is expected that students will follow those instructions.

6

ADVOCACY AND OPPOSITION: An Introduction to Argumentation, 7th Edition

7. There is a one point deduction for every error in spelling, grammar, punctuation, and the requirements of standard American English usage, formatting, and typing errors; there is no limit on the number of error points that will be deducted from scores.

Additional penalties will be assessed for failure to follow instructions and meet the requirements of formal writing. Substandard work may result in your earning negative score points.

8. Students with Disabilities: If you have a need for disability-related accommodations or services, please inform the University Coordinator of Disability Services.

Reasonable and effective accommodations and services will be provided to students if requests are made in a timely manner, with appropriate documentation, in accordance with federal, state and university guidelines.

9. Borrowed Material: Any materials borrowed from the instructor must be returned by the last week of classes. Failure to return, or replace a damaged item, will result in an automatic grade of F in this course.

10. Contract: This syllabus constitutes a contractual agreement between the student and the instructor.

A. Incompletes will not be granted to students having completed less than 60% of the assigned work by the conclusion of the semester, or to students having a total of more than seven absences (missing four, or more, weeks of class time). Since much of the work is done in teams, an incomplete may result in the student having to complete substantial work on his or her own.

B. To receive a passing grade in the course, you must attempt and pass 70% of the assigned work, or an automatic "F" grade will result.

Schedule of Events (for 15 week semester meeting 2 times/week) Week-Session 1-1 1-2 2-1 2-2

Course Introduction Nature of Argumentation – Chapter 1 Basic Concepts & Conventions – Chapter 2 Basic Concepts & Conventions

3-1 3-2

Presumption & Audiences Propositions – Chapter 3

4-1 4-2

Propositions Analysis for Case Preparation – Chapter 4 – Preparing to Argue

5-1 5-2

Analysis for Case Preparation Exam #1 – Chapters 1-2-3-4

Due

6-1 6-2

Creating Units of Argument – Chapters 5-6-7 Creating Units of Argument – Research & Analysis Due 7

Sample Syllabus

7-1 7-2

Creating Units of Argument Fallacies & Reasoning Breakdown – Chapter 8

8-1 8-2

Arguing Fact – Chapter 9 Exam #2 – Chapters 5-6-7-8

9-1 9-2

Arguing Fact Arguing Fact

10-1 10-2

Arguing Value – Chapter 10 Arguing Value – Fact Brief is Due

11-1 11-2

Arguing Value Arguing Policy – Chapter 11

12-1 12-2

Arguing Policy Exam #3 – Chapters 9-10-11-12

13-1 13-2

Setting Up Policy Debates Policy Debates – Value Briefing Book Due

14-1 14-2

Policy Debates Policy Debates

15-1

Final Exam Week – Policy Debates Schedule of Events (for 15 week semester meeting 3 times/week)

Week-Session 1-1 Course Introduction 1-2 Nature of Argumentation – Chapter 1 1-3 Nature of Argumentation 2-1 Basic Concepts & Conventions – Chapter 2 2-2 Basic Concepts & Conventions 2-3 Presumption & Audiences

8

ADVOCACY AND OPPOSITION: An Introduction to Argumentation, 7th Edition

Schedule of Events (for 15 week semester meeting 3 times/week) Week-Session 3-1 Presumption & Audiences 3-2 Propositions – Chapter 3 3-3 Propositions 4-1 Propositions 4-2 Analysis for Case Preparation – Chapter 4 4-3 Analysis for Case Preparation – Preparing to Argue Due 5-1 Analysis for Case Preparation 5-2 Analysis for Case Preparation 5-3 Exam #1 – Chapters 1-2-3-4 6-1 Creating Units of Argument – Chapters 5-6-7 6-2 Creating Units of Argument 6-3 Creating Units of Argument – Research & Analysis Due 7-1 Creating Units of Argument 7-2 Fallacies & Reasoning Breakdown – Chapter 8 7-3 Fallacies & Reasoning Breakdown 8-1 Fallacies & Reasoning Breakdown 8-2 Arguing Fact – Chapter 9 8-3 Exam #2 – Chapters 5-6-7-8 9-1 Arguing Fact 9-2 Arguing Fact 9-3 Arguing Fact 10-1 Arguing Value – Chapter 10 10-2 Arguing Value 10-3 Arguing Value – Fact Brief is Due 11-1 Arguing Value 11-2 Arguing Policy – Chapter 11 11-3 Arguing Policy 12-1 Arguing Policy 12-2 Arguing Policy 12-3 Setting Up Policy Debates – Value Briefing Book Due 13-1 Policy Debates 13-2 Policy Debates 13-3 Policy Debates 14-1 Policy Debates 14-2 Policy Debates 14-3 Policy Debates 15-1 Final Exam Week – Exam #3 – Chapters 9-10-11-12

Grade Tabulation Form 9

Sample Syllabus

ASSIGNMENT:

YOUR SCORE:

Preparing to Argue (100 points possible)

________

Research & Analysis (150 points possible)

________

Fact Brief (100 points possible)

________

Value Briefing Book (100 points possible)

________

Policy Debates (100 points possible)

________

Participation (50 points possible)

________

Exams (200 points possible) Exam #1

Letter Grade ______

________

Exam #2

Letter Grade ______

________

Exam #3 Letter Grade ______ Letter Grade – Score Points Conversion: B+ 178 A = 200 B 174 A- 182 B- 162

C+ 158 C 154 C- 142

________

D+ 138 D 134 D- 122

F 110

Final Point Total

________

Percentage

________

(Point Total/1200)

Letter Grade

________

There are a possible 1200 score points. Your final grade will be determined on the ratio of earned score points to the 1200 possible.

100 - 92%= A 89 - 88 = B+ 79 - 78 = C+ 69 - 68 = D+

91 - 90 = A87 - 82 = B 77 - 72 = C 67 - 62 = D

81 - 80 = B71 - 70 = C61 - 60 = D-

10

59 - 0 = F

ADVOCACY AND OPPOSITION: An Introduction to Argumentation, 7th Edition

General Instructions for Written Assignments  Each assignment must meet the specific requirements for that assignment. Work that does not fit the assignment will receive a score of zero. Work that is plagiarized, either taken as a whole or closely paraphrased from another source, will result in a score of zero, and possibly a grade of F in the course, depending upon the extent of the plagiarism.  Written assignments must follow specific formatting requirements. These requirements vary, so pay attention to individual assignment instructions. Penalties will be assessed for improper formatting.  Double space unless directed to use single space (bibliographies are always single spaced), use 12-point Times New Roman or Arial font, and “ragged right” justification.  Use one inch margins.  Number all pages sequentially. There is a five point penalty for failure to insert page numbers.  Use headings and subheadings (content/topic labels). There is a five point penalty for failure to use appropriate headings and subheadings in each assignment.  Do not “hang” a heading at the bottom of a page. Force a page break. There is a two point penalty for “hanging” a heading at the bottom of a page.  Do not write in over-long paragraphs. Review the Aaron handbook on proper paragraph writing. There is a three point penalty for each over-long paragraph.  Proof read and edit. Consult the Aaron handbook for help with writing problems.

There is a one point penalty for each error in the mechanics of spelling, grammar, punctuation, proper use of capitalization and italics, use of quotation marks, and the general rules of standard American English writing I find. If you make the same mistake 6 times, that is a 6 point deduction.

Preparing to Argue – Due Week 4-Session 2 Before you can begin building an argumentative case, you need to determine the field in which the topic is located, establish where presumption lies, and phrase preliminary proposition statements.

Field of Argument: to describe the field in which you are going to argue, provide a substantive response to each of the following:  What is the nature of the controversy or question to be answered? Be field-specific, do not generalize.  What is the field in which this controversy or question to be answered exists and is of importance? Describe the social-professional context in which the controversy or question exists at present.  What are the requirements for “proof” in this field? What constitutes acceptable proof in terms of quantity and quality?

11

Assignment Instructions

Presumption: provide a substantive, specific discussion of presumption in terms of the following:  Who makes up the audience for argumentation in this field? To whom do you expect to be offering your arguments?  What expectations about proof and reasoning will this audience have? Which sources do they have “deference” for? Who might be the opinion leaders and respected sources for them?  What is the nature of presumption for this controversy or question to be answered?

What artificial and natural presumption exists at present?  How can presumption be used as a decision rule?  How can presumption be used as hypothesis testing?

Propositions: for the controversy or question to be answered, phrase the central question of fact, value, and policy. Next, turn the central question into a statement of proposition, one proposition for fact, value, and policy. For each proposition, discuss the following:  What is the crux of the controversy or question to be answered represented by this proposition?  What is the advocate’s goal for the proposition?  What is the opponent’s benefit of presumption as represented by the proposition?  What are the key terms of the proposition that need defining? Why do they need defining?

Format:  This assignment must be done in three sections, field of argument, presumption, and propositions. Clearly label each section with appropriate headings.  The discussion of field of argument and presumption should be done in narrative style, double spaced.  The discussion of propositions may be done as single-spaced, bulleted lists. Make sure that each bulleted item is detailed and specific. Do not generalize. Keep all discussion of each type of proposition together. Clearly label fact, value, and policy as subheadings in the “propositions” section of the paper.  In discussing the field of argument and presumption some research is required. Cite all sources. Provide a bibliography of sources cited and follow APA or MLA requirements for proper source citation and full source citation in the bibliography.

Grading Criteria (This assignment is graded as a joint effort.)  Field of Argument – the nature of the controversy or question to be answered is clarified, the social-professional context in which the controversy or question exists is described in sufficient depth, the field requirements for what constitutes acceptable proof are explained. (20 points possible)  Presumption – the audience is identified in terms of the field and their expectations for proof, reasoning, and respected sources are explained. The nature of presumption in the controversy or question is explained, including a discussion of natural and 12

ADVOCACY AND OPPOSITION: An Introduction to Argumentation, 7th Edition

artificial presumption. An explanation of the potential use of presumption as a decision rule and for hypothesis testing is provided. (40 points possible)  Propositions – a question of fact, value, and policy is posed, each is then properly phrased as a proposition. The crux of controversy/question, the goal of advocacy, and the opposition’s benefit of presumption are discussed. Key terms for each proposition are identified and an explanation of why these terms need defining is provided. This section is divided into the three areas of fact, value, and policy for clarity. (30 points possible)  Use of Research – sources are cited in discussion of field of argument and presumption, a bibliography of sources cited is provided. Citation and bibliography meet the requirements of APA or MLA style. (10 points possible)

Research & Analysis – Due Week 6, Session 2 Argumentation is the process of drawing conclusions from available information. This information comes from direct personal observation (primary research) and published sources of information (secondary research). Most of the research base for effectively doing assignments will be secondary research. While you’ve done some research already, argumentation cannot go forward until you are familiar with the available information on a topic. To do the fact and value briefs, you will need to add to this research base as you go along, and find a range of different kinds of evidence that includes:  observations and opinions of experts in the field (authoritative sources)  statistical information (from reliable polling sources, almanacs and fact books, government studies and reports, scholarly journals and books)  field-specific definitions (the Reference Section of the library has many field-specific dictionaries, encyclopedias, and handbooks)  history of the controversy or question to be answered  examples and case studies  current news reports  scholarly studies and reports Once you’ve decided on a topic area, the team should begin the research process in earnest by finding a minimum of fifteen sources (sufficient to earn a C score on this portion of the assignment). You are encouraged to find more, read them, and prepare an annotated bibliography. Each item in the bibliography must include:  A full APA or MLA source citation.  A synopsis of content. Three or four clear, specific sentences that explain the position the source takes on the controversy (or question) and indicate the kinds of information that can be found in the source (such as statistical information, fieldspecific definitions, examples, and so on).  A statement of the “credentials” of the source. List the qualifications of the source, and explain why it is a reliable source of information.

13

Assignment Instructions

Using this research base and your work from the initial preparation assignment, do an analysis of your propositions of fact, value, and policy (correcting any problems in your phrasing of them) to discover the actual issues that may be used in preparing argumentative cases on the controversy or question to be answered. The analysis of issues needs to be clear, specific, and detailed. It includes discussion of: Immediate Cause: Locate the immediate cause of interest or concern with the controversy or question to be answered.  What significant events, occurrences, or circumstances focus attention on this controversy or question to be answered?  What are people in the field saying, especially the acknowledged experts?  What is being said in news sources and social media? Is this different from what people and experts in the field are saying?  What causes people, especially the people who might make up the audience for your argumentation, to focus on this topic at this time?  Use research and cite sources in describing and discussing immediate cause.

History of the Controversy or Question: Discuss the background of the controversy or question to be answered.  When did the controversy or question to be answered first emerge? How did people in the field respond?  What previous trends, beliefs, values, previous attempts at solving the controversy or answering the question exist?  How has the controversy or question to be answered evolved over time?  How have past considerations and efforts shaped current thought in the field regarding the controversy or question to be answered?  Use research and cite sources in describing the history of the controversy or question to be answered.

Propositions: Use the propositions of fact, value, and policy you created for the previous assignment, making any necessary corrections. For each proposition:  State the proposition, underlining the key terms to be defined.  Define each key term, using a field-specific source for definitions.  State the primary inference for the proposition that derives from the definition of terms.

Actual Issues: Use the stock issues for fact and value to frame the actual issues that may be used in advocating and opposing each proposition. You will not do “actual issues” for the policy proposition because these issues reprise fact and value. Your research base must provide sufficient information on the topic to help you find actual issues. If your research base is inadequate for doing this, you will need to do more research.

Issues for Propositions of Fact:

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ADVOCACY AND OPPOSITION: An Introduction to Argumentation, 7th Edition

 Begin by finding the subject and predicate of the primary inference. The actual issues will be statements of belief (fact) that confirm or deny the relationship between the subject and predicate found in your research.  Generate as many of these statements of belief and disbelief as you can find from your research. These are the actual issues of fact that advocates and opponents may choose to argue.  Consider the advocate’s burden of proof and what is necessary for a prima facie case about the probable truth of the primary inference to exist.  Consider the opponent’s benefit of presumption and what statements of belief exist to deny the probable truth of the primary inference.

Issues for Propositions of Value:  Find the value object and the value judgment in your primary inference.

Determine whether the primary inference sets up arguing the primacy of one value object over another, or asserts a judgment about one value object.  In the issues analysis phase, consider at least two value hierarchies. Identify and clearly state what you feel is the most appropriate value hierarchy to use in making judgments about the value object. A “value hierarchy” comes from the field of argument, and states the values those in the field commonly apply in making judgments about value objects.  For this value hierarchy, generate a list of value criteria that might be used in making a judgment of the value object.

Format:  There are four main sections for this assignment—1) immediate cause, 2) history of the controversy (or question), 3) propositions and issues, and 4) annotated bibliography. Use headings to indicate the four main sections. Organize section three, propositions and issues, by grouping all material on fact together, value together, and policy together, and use subheadings for each of these subsections.  The sections on immediate cause and history are to be done in narrative style, double spaced, and the research used should be cited.  The section on propositions and issues is to be single spaced, with bulleted lists for the actual issues. Make sure that each issue is phrased as a complete sentence. Note: You are not doing a separate set of issues for policy because “policy” reprises the issues for fact and value.  The annotated bibliography done in proper APA or MLA citation form comes last.

The source citation must be single spaced. The annotation may be double spaced if you write it in a narrative style, or single spaced if you are annotating in bulleted list format. If you are doing bulleted list annotation, use complete sentences for each bullet.

Grading Criteria (This assignment is graded as a joint effort.)

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Assignment Instructions

 Immediate Cause – an explanation of the specific, significant events, occurrences, or circumstances that presently focus attention on the controversy or question is provided. Documentation is provided in APA or MLA style. (25 points possible)  History of Controversy/Question – description provides details of the evolution of the controversy/question. An explanation of how the history shapes current thought is provided. Documentation is provided in APA or MLA style. (25 points possible)  Propositions and Actual Issues – fact, value, and policy propositions are stated, key terms defined, and the primary inference made for each. Actual issues are provided for propositions of fact and value by applying “stock issues” to determine actual issues. (70 points possible).  Annotated Bibliography – done with full source citations, following either APA or MLA style. Each source citation is followed by an annotation summarizing content, indicating the type of information contained, and credentials and qualifications of the source. A minimum of fifteen sources, reflecting a range of credible sources of material for creating arguments are included. (30 points possible)

Fact Brief – Due Week 10, Session 2 The focus of this assignment is using argumentation to generate information on the pros and cons of accepting the probable truth of a statement. You may choose to have one person work as “advocate” and the other as “opponent,” but work together to check for accuracy and proof read. This assignment is graded as a joint effort.

In using argumentation as a technique for “fact finding,” we approach developing the proposition as “we have a problem” (advocate) and “we don’t have a problem” (opponent). If we are examining a question to be answered, we approach the proposition as “this is an accurate understanding” (advocate) and “this is an inaccurate understanding” (opponent). Decide which approach you are using.

Use your proposition of fact and the issues you generated in the issues analysis assignment. You may decide not to use every issue. Each issue now becomes a main point or contention to be argued, developed through a series of claims with supporting proof and reasoning. You are required to have a minimum of three main points (minimum for a C score) and three claims with supporting proof and reasoning for each main point (minimum for a C score). The brief includes the following:  An overview stating the proposition, defining key terms, and making the primary inference from the advocate’s point of view. Indicate how the opponent’s view of the definition of key terms and the primary inference differs to establish the locus of disagreement.  The “pro” arguments—a minimum of three main points/contentions, each supported by a minimum of three units of argument consisting of claims, proof, and reasoning, ending with an underview that emphasizes the most compelling reason for accepting the probable truth of the proposition.

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ADVOCACY AND OPPOSITION: An Introduction to Argumentation, 7th Edition

 The “con” arguments—a minimum of three main points/contentions, each supported by a minimum of three units of argument consisting of claims, proof, and reasoning, ending with an underview that emphasizes the most compelling reason for rejecting the probable truth of the proposition.  Cite sources for each piece of proof used to support claim statements, and include a bibliography of all sources used, following either APA or MLA style for source citation and the bibliography.

Format:  Label each of the four main sections of this paper: introduction (includes the proposition statement, definition of terms, primary inference, opponent response to definitions and primary inference), the case for accepting the proposition (pro arguments), the case for rejecting the proposition (con arguments), and the bibliography.  The introduction is to be double spaced, written in narrative style, as are the underviews to the pro and con arguments.  The pro and con arguments themselves to be single spaced, and follow the quasioutlining style of the examples of Argument in Action in Chapter 9 (7th edition).

Label main points/contentions and the parts of each argument (e.g. claim, grounds, warrant, backing) as in the examples.  A single bibliography of the sources of proof used in the pro and con arguments should be provided, rather than separate bibliographies for each as is done in the examples.

Grading Criteria (This assignment is graded as a joint effort.)  Overview – states the proposition, defines key terms, makes the primary inference, and provides both the advocate’s and the opponent’s interpretation of the proposition.

(10 points possible)  Pro & Con Arguments – a minimum of three main points/contentions for and against the proposition are each developed with a minimum of three units of argument, properly labeled. A compelling reason for accepting and rejecting the proposition is offered in underview. (60 points possible, 30 each for the pro and con arguments)  Use of Research – appropriate evidence is used to support each claim statement that “fits” the claim and reasoning, and meets the tests of evidence. All evidence used is documented appropriately and a bibliography is provided following either APA or MLA style. (30 points possible)

Value Briefing Book – Due Week 13, Session 2 The focus in this assignment is making an evaluation of a value object, either by arguing for the primacy of one value over another, or by making an appropriate evaluation of a particular value object. This assignment is also designed to improve your ability to create units of argument by fully employing the Toulmin model. Carefully go over the 17

Assignment Instructions

requirements for advocating and opposing propositions of value in Chapter 10. From the issues analysis assignment, use your proposition of value and the issues you generated.

You may choose to have one person work as “advocate” and the other as “opponent,” but work together to check for accuracy and proof read. This assignment is graded as a joint effort.  Review the value proposition, definition of key terms, and primary inference. Fix any problems or make any changes that will help you successfully complete this assignment. Review your research base and make sure that you have adequate evidence for doing value argumentation.  Review the value hierarchy and the criteria that derive from the hierarchy you created for the issues analysis assignment. The advocate will use the value hierarchy for case development. The opponent will choose strategies of opposition for responding to the advocate’s case.  Prepare an overview for the briefing book in which you present:  statement of the proposition  definition of key terms  primary inference  define or explain the value object  explanation of the value hierarchy to be used  list of the criteria to be used in making the value judgment (you are required to have a minimum of two criteria for a C score) Individually or jointly create a brief for the advocate and opponent’s positions on the proposition.

The Advocate’s Brief contains:  An overview which defines key terms, creates the primary inference, and lists the criteria used in making the value judgment.  Criteria become main points in the brief. Each criterion is developed with at least three units of argument (the minimum for a C score), one each for effect, significance, and inherency. Identify whether a unit of argument is one of effect, significance, or inherency.  Units of argument must use evidence (grounds and backing in the Toulmin model), with source citations provided.  End the advocate’s brief with an underview which justifies the use of these criteria for making the value judgment.  Cite sources for each piece of proof used to support claim statements, and include a bibliography of all sources used, following either APA or MLA style for source citation and the bibliography.  Do a joint bibliography for the advocate and opponent.

The Opponent’s Brief contains:  A strategy of opposition, previewed at the beginning of the brief.  Criteria for opposition become main points in the brief. Each criterion is developed with arguments, of effect, significance, and inherency. These may be “counter 18

ADVOCACY AND OPPOSITION: An Introduction to Argumentation, 7th Edition

arguments” responding to those of the advocate’s or they may be unique to the opponent’s interpretation of the proposition. In the case of the later, a minimum of three arguments, one each of effect, significance, and inherency must be present.

Identify whether each unit of argument is one of effect, significance, or inherency  Units of argument must use evidence (grounds and backing in the Toulmin model), with source citations provided.  End the opponent’s brief with an underview which returns to the strategy of opposition and offers a compelling reason to reject the advocate’s interpretation of the proposition.  Cite sources for each piece of proof used to support claim statements, and include a bibliography of all sources used, following either APA or MLA style for source citation and the bibliography.  Do a joint bibliography for the advocate and opponent.

Format: With the exception of labeling units of argument as effect, extent, and inherency, the models of briefing in outline style in the examples of Argument in Action in Chapter 10 (7th edition) should be followed. Briefs should be single spaced and the bibliography should follow either APA or MLA style. Remember that you are doing one bibliography that includes sources for both advocate and opponent.

Grading Criteria (This assignment is graded jointly.)

Meeting the Requirements of Value Argumentation: (30 points possible)  Definition of terms provided to form the primary inference.  Value hierarchy selected to provide criteria for making the value judgment appropriate to the field.  Value criteria are used as main points for the advocate and opponent briefs.  Criteria are developed through units of argument of effect, extent, and inherency.  Oppositional strategy is offered to frame opponent’s arguments.

Creating Units of Argument: (30 points possible)  Claims phrased for maximum clarity to identify effect, significance, and inherency, logically derived from the value criterion they are used to support.  Evidence used supports claim statements or backs the warrant.  Source citations are provided for grounds and backing.

Adequacy & Sufficiency of Research: (30 points possible)  Research is sufficient for effective argumentation and represents a range of credible sources.  Sources of research cited and a bibliography provided in proper APA or MLA style.

Effective Brief Preparation: (10 points possible)  Follows model for brief preparation.  Use of “white space” makes it easy to follow the progression of arguments.

Policy Debates – As Scheduled on Weeks 13-15 19

Assignment Instructions

The purpose of this assignment is to develop skills in arguing policy propositions and to give you an opportunity to do oral argument in a Lincoln-Douglas debate format (one-onone). New team pairings will be made unless a team specifically requests to continue working together, and each team will be assigned a campus issue. Teams may choose to work cooperatively, approaching this assignment as information seeking, or they may choose to be competitive and seek to influence the belief of the audience. Class members will write a ballot for each debate and these ballots will be given to the team.

Research Requirement:  You are required to have a minimum of ten sources in addition to your personal observations. Remember that these must be used and cited in the oral presentation.  Three sources must be from scholarly sources; books, educational journals, and journals specific to university life are appropriate sources of scholarship.  Other appropriate sources include:  materials from the University Archives  news sources  university Web sites for other schools (good for parallel case arguments)  interviews with faculty and administrators  material collected by the University Office of Institutional Research (available online)  the Chronicle of Higher Education  reports by academic professional organizations such as the National Communication Association  student surveys conducted by you or others Whether you choose to approach this assignment cooperatively or competitively, you must begin preparation by working together to do the following:  Phrase a policy proposition on the topic you have been given.  Define key terms, make the primary inference (this is from the advocate’s point of view).  Use the stock issues for policy to generate the list of actual issues for this your proposition.  Decide which of you will be advocate and which opponent.

Turn in a written statement of this preparation at the time of your debate.

Oral Policy Debate The advocate and opponent will present an in-class debate on the assigned date, with speeches and responses in the audience Q&A based on their briefs. The class will act as “judge,” writing ballots to provide feedback to the debaters.  This is an oral presentation. You have an audience. Do not read your brief to us.

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ADVOCACY AND OPPOSITION: An Introduction to Argumentation, 7th Edition

 Advocate and opponent should each have an introduction in their speech that states the proposition and defines terms/establishes the stance on the policy proposition from their perspective.  Use the techniques of oral style necessary for effective communication: dress in appropriate professional attire, use previews, transitions between main points or sections of the speech, summarize ideas, use sufficient repetition for the audience to follow your reasoning.  Provide a conclusion that summarizes main ideas and your perspective as advocate or opponent.  You may use visual aids, but this is not to be a PowerPoint presentation.

Format for debates:  7 minute speech – Advocate  7 minute speech – Opponent  Audience question-answer session—up to 10 minutes Grading Criteria (Scores are assigned individually regardless of whether team members worked cooperatively or competitively.)

Meeting the Requirements for Policy Argumentation  An appropriate policy proposition has been phrased.  A definition of key terms is provided. Opponent provides his/her interpretation of the proposition.  Advocate provides a focus on interpretation of the policy proposition. Opponent provides a strategy for opposing the policy proposition.  Advocate presents a reason for change (first stock issue of policy). Opponent responds to reason for change (use of benefit of presumption).  Advocate presents a policy to resolve the reason for change (second stock issue of policy). Opponent responds to the workability of the proposed change.  Advocate presents the consequences of the proposed policy (third stock issue).

Opponent responds to the disadvantages or negative consequences of the proposed change.  Arguments are sufficiently developed with proof and reasoning; sources are cited.

(75 points possible) Effective Oral Presentation Skills  Clarity of presentation: an introduction, well-organized body of the speech, and a conclusion. Contested arguments or issues are clearly stated.  Effective oral communication style is used. (25 points possible) Written Preparation Statement  A statement of the policy proposition, definition of key terms and primary inference, and list of stock issues for advocate and opponent are turned in at the time of the debate.  Failure to provide this written statement will result in a 20 point penalty.

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Chapter 1: What is Argumentation?

CHAPTER 1 WHAT IS ARGUMENTATION? Learning Objectives  To compare argumentation as a means of influencing belief and behavior to persuasion.  To describe the multi-faceted role of the audience in argumentation.  To discuss the differences between the rhetorical, dialectical and logical perspectives on argumentation .  To explain the requirements of ethical behavior in argumentation.

Key Terms argumentation a form of instrumental communication relying on reasoning and proof to influence belief and behavior through the use of spoken or written messages (3) audience one or more people who have the power or ability to ensure the future influence of a belief or pattern of behavior the arguer seeks (5) clarity arguments need to be easily comprehended and avoid using ambiguous language or a confusing pattern of organization (15-16) decoding the interpretive process audience members and other arguer use to come to an understanding of what the arguer means (16) deontological ethics a set of absolutes, or rules of conduct, that differentiate between right and wrong (14) dialectical perspective focuses on the structure by which people offer and analyze issues so that all sides of an issue are raised and resolved through discussion (8) discourse ethics the attitude of respecting the process of dialog and people involved in it that one brings to the process of argumentation (18) efficiency the obligation to develop arguments that have the necessary rational power to make your point (17) Elaboration Likelihood Model describes the two routes that can be taken in processing a persuasive message based on one’s degree of involvement with its subject (4) honesty the orientation toward truth telling based on thorough knowledge of the subject being argued (16) logical perspective focuses on the formal rules for distinguishing sound arguments from unsound ones by applying the rules formal logic (8-9) persuasion a form of instrumental communication relying on emotion as well as reason to influence belief and behavior (4) pragma dialectics a set of guidelines regarding what can be done and what must be done for ethical participation in the process of argumentation (19) probable truth the likelihood of a statement being tested by the process of argumentation being true (19) 22

ADVOCACY AND OPPOSITION: An Introduction to Argumentation, 7th Edition

relevance recognizes that audience members selectively expose themselves to messages which meet their needs (17) rhetorical perspective focuses on the strategies for creating arguments and adapting them to the audience by relating content to context (7-8) teleological ethics are based on examining whether the outcomes of one’s actions are worthwhile or benefit society (13) Lecture Launchers  Nature of Argument Begin class with a question such as “Why are you at (name of your school)?” and write student responses on the board. Use responses to begin discussion of the concept of people having “good reasons” for believing or doing something. Expand the discussion by asking what evidence they have to back up their reasons. This can lead to consideration of the nature of audiences and their expectations.

Ask “What’s your major and why is it the best major?” if your class is comprised of students from a variety of majors. Because everyone isn’t in agreement at the outset, the idea of good reasons, the role of evidence in supporting them, and the role the audience plays in the process is more transparent.  Elaboration Likelihood Model This is an alternative to Learning Activity #4.

Distribute or show a graphic depiction of the ELM and briefly review its content.

Find a cartoon about a controversial issue along with an article or editorial on the same issue. Begin by showing the cartoon and use it to stimulate class discussion of processing along the peripheral route in more detail, and what information the viewer would have to supply to process along the central route. Share information from or copies of the article or editorial at this point.

While you’ll want to choose something that is a current focus of popular or media attention, a good example is the controversy about President Obama’s religion since an increasing number of people believe he is a Muslim.

Links to web resources for this lecture launcher: Graphic depiction of ELM: http://www.utwente.nl/cw/theorieenoverzicht/Theory%20clusters/Health%20Comm unication/Elaboration_Likelihood_Model.doc/ Cartoon: http://drybonesblog.blogspot.com/2010/08/obamas-religion.html Pew Research: http://blogs.abcnews.com/politicalpunch/2010/08/growing-numberof-americans-falsely-believe-president-obama-is-muslim.html Newsweek article: http://www.newsweek.com/2010/08/31/why-the-belief-thatobama-is-muslim.html  Ethical Behavior This is an alternative to Learning Activity #2.

Begin by showing an excerpt of a television program in which proponents of differing views on a issue are given the opportunity to express them. Use it to initiate discussion of the questions posed in Learning Activity #2, but be sure to go beyond 23

Chapter 1: What is Argumentation?

that to get the students talking about what constitutes ethical behavior, particularly as it relates to discourse ethics.

While news and opinion programs of ABC, CBS, NBC, Fox, and CNN are obvious sources of material, we recommend using ESPN’s Around The Horn, which refers to itself as “the show that scores the arguments,” for two reasons. First, it demonstrates that argument occurs in a variety of context. Second, the issues discussed are such that students’ political and moral beliefs do not get in the way of their learning what you are trying to teach.

Links to web resources for this lecture launcher: Around The Horn podcast: http://sports.espn.go.com/espnradio/podcast/archive?id=2870570 Learning Activities 1. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using argumentation as a means of influencing the belief and behavior of others. How will the advantages of argumentation improve your ability to communicate your views in a controversy?

How will you overcome the limitations of argumentation? 

If your syllabus includes in-class participation as one factor in determining a student’s grade in the course, assign discussion leadership responsibility to two students, with one focusing on advantages, the other on disadvantages, and both leading discussion of how limitations can be overcome. This activity can not only be used for discussion, but makes an interesting essay question for either an out-of-class assignment or as part of a test. If you do this, parse points as follows: 40% identification of advantages 40% identification of disadvantages 20% how limitations might be overcome

2. Choose an editorial or opinion essay such as the “My Turn” piece in Newsweek that you perceive to be an effective piece of argumentation and respond to the following questions: A. Why is this an example of argumentation? How is it instrumental communication?

B. What resources of reasoning and proof are used to develop the author’s opinion?

C. What evidence do you have that the author of the argument is fulfilling the ethical responsibilities of arguing? 



If your syllabus includes in-class participation as one factor in determining a student’s grade in the course, assign discussion leadership responsibility to two students, who will be responsible for getting a link to the article to classmates so they can read it before coming to class. If you use the Lecture Launcher on Ethical Behavior, do not assign this activity.

Even if you used the Lecture Launcher on Ethical Behavior, this activity makes an interesting essay question for either an out-of-class assignment or as part of a test for which you provide the stimulus material. If you do this, parse points as follows: 30% why is it an example of argumentation, how is it instrumental 40% what proof and reasoning are used by the author 30% what evidence of ethical behavior do you find 24

ADVOCACY AND OPPOSITION: An Introduction to Argumentation, 7th Edition

3. Think about your most strongly held opinions. Upon what are these based, the central or peripheral route in the Elaboration Likelihood Model? Examine the sources of these beliefs for evidence of reasoning, emotions, prejudices, tradition, or authority figures. 

This activity needs to be used with some care, since discussing it in class requires fairly high levels of disclosure among strangers early in the semester. Remember this is argumentation, not interpersonal communication, and use this activity as a vehicle to promote personal reflection and introspection.

4. Choose a current, widely discussed controversy. Find an editorial cartoon about the controversy as well as a fully developed opinion piece on the subject. Discuss how the cartoon is an example of the peripheral route of the Elaboration Likelihood Model and how the fully developed piece is an example of the central route. 

This activity is a good alternative to #3 if you are concerned about the level of disclosure it involves at an early point in the semester. If your syllabus includes in-class participation as one factor in determining a student’s grade in the course, assign discussion leadership responsibility to two students, who will be responsible for getting a link to the article to classmates so they can read it before coming to class. If you use the Lecture Launcher on the ELM, do not assign this activity.

5. Develop a code of ethical standards for your argumentation class. What will you consider to be ethical and unethical behaviors? How will it accommodate cultural differences? 

Assign this activity as an essay, and then have students read their essays in class. This avoids the problem of the pressure for reaching an easy consensus that sometimes exists in groups, and gets everyone involved and thinking. Discuss the similarities and differences in ethical standards suggested by the essays, and the problems that differences in expectations among the members of real-world audiences pose for arguers. If your syllabus includes in-class participation as one factor in determining a student’s grade in the course, score this activity on a pass-fail basis with the primary basis for failure being not completing the assignment or taking it seriously.

True or False 1-1 Arguments exist all around us in everyday communication.

Answer: T; Page: 3; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 1-2 Argumentation is a form of instrumental communication.

Answer: T; Page: 3; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 1-3 Argumentation relies on reasoning and proof to influence behavior.

Answer: T; Page: 3; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 1-4 The Elaboration Likelihood Model suggests we process all persuasive messages that we receive in the same way.

Answer: F; Page: 4; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 25

Chapter 1: What is Argumentation?

1-5 Argumentation and persuasion are two unrelated forms of communication.

Answer: F; Page: 4; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 1-6 Argumentation follows the peripheral route of the Elaboration Likelihood Model, because when you engage in argumentation, you depend upon a simple cue to get your message across to the audience.

Answer: F; Page: 4; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 1-7 Argumentation treats people as rational beings who can make decisions when given sufficient reasons.

Answer: T; Page: 5; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Conceptual 1-8 Argumentation, like all forms of communication, is rule governed behavior.

Answer: T; Page: 5; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 1-9 The self sometimes serves as the audience for argument.

Answer: T; Page: 6; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 1-10 The rules of engagement for argumentation specify how much precision an arguer must use in constructing arguments and what mode of resolution will be used to determine the outcome of arguing.

Answer: T; Page: 6; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 1-11 The rules of engagement for argumentation specify what delivery techniques the arguer is expected to use.

Answer: F; Page: 6; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 1-12 A key factor in being successful as an arguer is discovering what an audience expects and how knowledgeable they are on a topic.

Answer: T; Page: 6; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 1-13 Argumentation was first developed as a formal study by the ancient Greeks.

Answer: T; Page: 7; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 1-14 The three theoretical perspectives from which argumentation can be understood a referred to as the rhetorical, deontological, and logical perspectives.

Answer: F; Page: 7-8; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 1-15 Arguers have an obligation to practice ethical communication.

Answer: T; Page: 14; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 1-16 An ethical arguer accurately and honestly reports facts and opinions.

Answer: T; Page: 16; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 26

ADVOCACY AND OPPOSITION: An Introduction to Argumentation, 7th Edition

1-17 You need to be careful in choosing the words or symbols you use, because they have such concrete meanings that members of your audience will assign the same meaning to them.

Answer: F; Page: 16; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Conceptual 1-18 When you engage in argumentation, you risk having your beliefs challenged.

Answer: T; Page: 19; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 1-19 In argumentation, probable truth may be found only on one side of a controversy.

Answer: F; Page: 19; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 1-20 One drawback of argumentation is that changing belief or behavior through the process of argument is time consuming.

Answer: T; Page: 19; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual

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Chapter 1: What is Argumentation?

Multiple Choice 1-1 Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of argumentation? (a) It is a form of expressive communication. (b) It is a form of instrumental communication. (c) It relies on reasoning and proof to influence belief or behavior. (d) It uses written and spoken media.

Answer: A; Page: 3; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 1-2 The goal of argumentation is to (a) study rhetorical theory. (b) sell goods and services. (c) change belief or behavior. (d) get a candidate elected.

Answer: C; Page: 3; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Conceptual 1-3 How does persuasion differ from argumentation? (a) Argumentation focuses on how to appeal to the rational side of human nature. (b) Some persuasive messages place more emphasis on emotional appeals. (c) In persuasion, receiver psychology is important in determining the outcome of the message. (d) All of the above Answer: D; Page: 4; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 1-4 We say that one characteristic of argumentation is that is it is “rule-governed communication behavior.” In this course, you are learning the communication rules for using proof and reasoning so that you can become a proficient arguer. Which of the following best describes this rule-governed communication behavior? (a) It is field-dependent, you can use the rules of argumentation in a limited number of fields. (b) It is field-invariant, you can use the rules of argumentation across all fields in our society. (c) It is based on the cultural perception that the welfare of those in the field is the most important outcome of argumentation. (d) It adopts the feminist perspective that we should use argumentation to become “connected knowers.”

Answer: B; Page: 5 and 23; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Conceptual

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ADVOCACY AND OPPOSITION: An Introduction to Argumentation, 7th Edition

1-5 We are going to have in-class debates, and as a member of the audience, you will be asked to “write a ballot” expressing your view as to which debater offers the best case, the most compelling reasons. As a member of the audience, how are you characterized in this use of argumentation as instrumental communication? (a) You are seeking knowledge about the topic. (b) You are acting as an impartial judge. (c) You are engaging in an internal dialog about the pros and cons of what you hear. (d) All of the above Answer: B; Page: 6; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Applied 1-6 The Greeks termed the humane discipline, grounded in choice, that was designed to persuade the listener (a) rhetoric. (b) procedure. (c) dialectic. (d) argumentation.

Answer: A; Page: 7; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 1-7 The ability to find, in a given situation, all the means to persuade and audience to believe a proposition is what Aristotle termed (a) rhetoric. (b) dialectic. (c) logic. (d) pragma-dialectic.

Answer: A; Page: 7; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 1-8 The rhetorical perspective on argument and audience (a) explores how we use communication to influence or change people in situations where they have choices to make. (b) explores argumentation as a series of formal rules for distinguishing sound arguments from unsound ones. (c) explores the structure of conversations in which people offer and analyze reasons. (d) explores the ethics of the practice of argumentation.

Answer: A; Page: 7; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual

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Chapter 1: What is Argumentation?

1-9 The dialectical perspective on argument and audience (a) explores how we use communication to influence or change people in situations where they have choices to make. (b) explores argumentation as a series of formal rules for distinguishing sound arguments from unsound ones. (c) explores the structure of conversations in which people offer and analyze reasons. (d) explores the ethics of the practice of argumentation.

Answer: C; Page: 8; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 1-10 The logical perspective on argument and audience (a) explores how we use communication to influence or change people in situations where they have choices to make. (b) explores argumentation as a series of formal rules for distinguishing sound arguments from unsound ones. (c) explores the structure of conversations in which people offer and analyze reasons. (d) explores the ethics of the practice of argumentation.

Answer: B; Page: 8-9; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 1-11 A series of formal rules for distinguishing sound arguments from unsound ones is found in (a) rhetorical theory. (b) the dialectical perspective. (c) the logical perspective. (d) persuasion.

Answer: C; Page: 8-9; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 1-12 The arguer concerned with assuring the welfare of the greatest number of people rather than being bound by an absolute standard of right and wrong is practicing (a) deontological ethics. (b) enlightenment ethics. (c) teleological ethics. (d) the doctrine of perspicuity.

Answer: C; Page: 13-14; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual

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ADVOCACY AND OPPOSITION: An Introduction to Argumentation, 7th Edition

1-13 Which single ethical standard seems to be common across all cultures? (a) The feminist perspective which suggests that men engage in mono-causal reasoning. (b) The African perspective which suggests that reasoning belongs to all members of the community. (c) The dialogic perspective which suggests that argumentation is best thought of as a conversation. (d) The orientation towards telling the truth.

Answer: D; Page: 15; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 1-14 As an arguer, you are concerned that you do not mislead or deceive those in your audience with your language choices, your organization of ideas and reasoning, or your use of extraneous information. Your concern is reflected by which ethical standard? (a) Clarity (b) Efficiency (c) Honesty (d) Relevance Answer: A; Page: 15-16; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 1-15 When an arguer prepares arguments thoroughly, investigating both sides of a controversy, he is upholding the ethical standard of (a) clarity. (b) honesty. (c) efficiency. (d) relevance.

Answer: B; Page: 16; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 1-16 This ethical standard especially emphasizes your competence as an arguer because rambling, poorly developed arguments will probably not help you involve your audience.

In which standard is involving your audience in your reasoning process a key to ethical behavior? (a) Clarity (b) Efficiency (c) Honesty (d) Relevance Answer: B; Page: 17; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual

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Chapter 1: What is Argumentation?

1-17 Understanding the cultural differences of members of an audience so they can be bridged is part of the ethical standard of (a) clarity. (b) honesty. (c) efficiency. (d) relevance.

Answer: D; Page: 18; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 1-18 When an arguer respects the rights of other arguers and the audience, he is practicing (a) teleological ethics. (b) discourse ethics. (c) ontological ethics. (d) logical positivism.

Answer: B; Page: 18; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 1-19 You know that those who make up the audience for your arguments have a variety of religious traditions, including Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Wicca, and Native American spiritual traditions. Which ethical standard will you need to be especially conscious of because of its importance when addressing a diverse audience, such as one with a variety of religious beliefs? (a) Clarity (b) Efficiency (c) Honesty (d) Relevance Answer: D; Page: 18; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Applied 1-20 If your approach to argumentation is to use the basic principles of discourse ethics, which of the following principles are you likely to employ? (a) You will be concerned with the “attitude” you and the other participants have towards argumentation. (b) You and the other participants will be especially concerned with respecting “the process of dialog” so that each of you will behave ethically as you engage in argumentation. (c) You and the other participants will be concerned about the possible consequences that may result from your argumentation. (d) All of the above Answer: D; Page: 18-19; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual

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ADVOCACY AND OPPOSITION: An Introduction to Argumentation, 7th Edition

CHAPTER 2 WHERE DO I BEGIN IN ARGUMENTATION? Learning Objectives  To distinguish between fields of argumentation and those elements which are field dependent and field invariant in them.  To differentiate between artificial or natural presumption, and understand which is used in hypothesis testing.  To explain the burden of proof and its relationship to presumption.  To define the prima facie case and the role of structural and/or attitudinal inherency it creating one.

Key Terms advocate an individual who argues in favor of a change in belief or behavior (24) artificial presumption the arbitrary assignment of possession of the figurative ground over which argument takes place to one party to the dispute; the presumption of innocence is an artificial presumption (25) attitudinal inherency that which prevents change from occurring in a field of argument is a consequence of the beliefs of those in the field (31) burden of proof the advocate’s responsibility to provide reasoning and proof sufficient to overcome presumption and warrant a change in belief or behavior (28) field dependent elements are particular to a field, such as definitions and terminology or standards for the rigor of proof and reasoning expected by those in the field (23) field of argumentation the social or professional context in which people argue in order to build a body of knowledge or reach decisions about belief or behavior (23) field invariant elements do not change from one field to the next, such as basic patterns of reasoning or the ways in which the quality of information is assessed (23) hypothesis testing the use of presumption as a decision rule that determines what the advocate must prove for the proposition to be probably true (26-27) inherency the societal structure or attitude responsible for causing the present state of belief or behavior to exist (31) natural presumption assignment of possession of the figurative ground over which argument takes place based on observation of the natural order; natural presumption automatically rests with whatever belief or behavior is being challenged (25) opponent the individual who argues against the change in belief or behavior sought by the advocate (24) presumption describes a situation that presently exists and, naturally or artificially, grants possession of the figurative ground over which argumentation occurs to one party to the dispute or the other (25) 33

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prima facie case a series of arguments that, if taken at face value and left unrefuted, would be sufficient to justify a change in belief or behavior (30) stock issues field-invariant questions pertaining to propositions of fact, value, or policy that must be answered if belief or behavior is to change (33) structural inherency that which prevents change from occurring in a field of argument is a consequence of the institutions and the formal or informal systems of behavior adopted by those in the field (31) topicality the requirement in academic argumentation that an advocate’s proposed change in belief or behavior fit within the bounds of the proposition (30) Lecture Launchers  Presumption and Burden of Proof This is an alternative to Learning Activity #2.

Begin class by announcing “the university’s vice president for finance has determined that next year’s budget will probably fall short of covering expenses by 10%” and ask students what are some ways to reduce spending or increase revenue. Write their ideas on the board. At some point, cutting faculty and either reducing the number of classes offered or increasing class size as a way to reduce spending, and raising tuition as a means of increasing revenue will be mentioned. Ask students how they feel about these options and use their responses to begin a discussion of natural presumption. Focus on how presumption may be influenced by attitudes. Extend the discussion to the burden of proof by asking what arguments and evidence would be needed to convince them that either cutting faculty or raising tuition was a good idea.  Prima Facie Case This is an alternative to Learning Activity #4 Bring in an editorial or column from the campus newspaper that advocates a course of action regarding an issue that directly affects students. Two examples from our campus paper that worked for us were an editorial about the fact that the price of college textbooks was so high that the federal government should regulate them, and a column arguing that all students should take a CPR class.

After the class has had time to read the piece, ask them where presumption lies and if they think the writer’s position is sufficient to overcome it. In other words, do they believe it is a prima facie case. Probe for the reasons behind their conclusion, and write these on the board in two columns since some will believe it is prima facie and others won’t. Make sure the discussion touches on the concept of inherency and whether it is structural or attitudinal with regard to the issue raised by the editorialist/columnist. This concept is very important, and one of the more difficult concepts for students to grasp. Try to lay a good foundation here.

Learning Activities 1. Discuss what the three different views of presumption mean to the roles of advocate and opponent in argumentation. Should we always assign the roles before determining presumption? In which communication contexts might you use the view that presumption 34

ADVOCACY AND OPPOSITION: An Introduction to Argumentation, 7th Edition

rests with existing institutions? In which would it be appropriate to discover the beliefs of an audience? Which fields make extensive use of hypothesis testing as a form of argumentation? 

If your syllabus includes in-class participation as one factor in determining a student’s grade in the course, assign discussion leadership responsibility to two students, with one focusing on presumption from the advocate’s perspective, and the other from the opponent’s perspective. This activity can not only be used for discussion, but makes an interesting essay question for either an out-of-class assignment or as part of a test. If you do this, parse points as follows: 30% what the three different views mean for advocate’s 30% what the three different views mean for opponent’s 40% divided equally among the remaining four questions

2. Choose an ongoing controversy such as the rights of smokers versus nonsmokers, abortion versus right to life, environmental protection versus the need for employment.

Which side in the controversy has presumption? Which has the burden of proving that change should occur? 



If your syllabus includes in-class participation as one factor in determining a student’s grade in the course, assign discussion leadership responsibility to two students, who will be responsible for selecting a controversial issue with which they and their classmates are somewhat familiar to use in leading the discussion. If you use the Lecture Launcher on Presumption and Burden of Proof, do not assign this activity.

Even if you used the Lecture Launcher on Presumption and Burden of Proof, this activity makes an interesting essay question for either an out-of-class assignment or as part of a test for which you provide several controversial issues and ask the students to justify their reasons for assigning presumption and burden of proof as they did. If you do this, parse points as follows: 50% presumption 50% burden of proof

3. Scholars often argue over whether or not a proposed theory has accuracy or legitimacy in their field. Two theories of communication--fantasy theme analysis and the narrative paradigm--are examples of such argumentation. Choose one of the following debates for examination: A. ADVOCATE: Ernest G. Bormann (December, 1972). Fantasy and rhetorical vision: The rhetorical criticism of social reality. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 58, 396-407.

OPPONENT: Gearld P. Mohrman (May, 1982). An Essay on Fantasy Theme Criticism. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 68, 109-132.

B. ADVOCATE: Walter R. Fisher (December, 1985). The narrative paradigm: An elaboration. Communication Monographs, 52, 347-367.

OPPONENT: Robert C. Rowland (September, 1987). Narrative: Mode of discourse or paradigm? Communication Monographs, 56, 264-275.

How does the advocate identify presumption in the field of speech communication? Does he present good and sufficient reasons for accepting the proposed theory of communication? How does the opponent deny the accuracy of the theory? Are his 35

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reasons effective enough to cause you as the reader to reject the accuracy of the proposed theory? 

This is a more difficult activity that demands some knowledge of communication theory to be able to read and understand journals, but is an excellent exercise for examining how argumentation is used in our own disciple to build and test theory. Bormann and Fisher both advocate the proposition that he has come up with a universal paradigm for explaining human communication.

Presumption in both sets of articles is based on the field's acceptance of neo-Aristotelian and Burkean theories of rhetoric. If you have a class comprised entirely of communication majors, consider assigning this as an out-of-class essay assignment, possibly for extra credit.

A. As the advocate for Fantasy Theme Analysis, Bormann identifies presumption as the connections made in speech communication between the content of a message and the role of the audience or spectator in decoding that message. He proposes a new way of looking at this connection, to view meaning in messages as co-created by communicator and audience, rather than the traditional view that communicators create meaning. Bormann offers several reasons why this is probably true: 1) we all employ creativity in interpreting events and information; 2) what we believe to be reality is the result of this creative interpreting; and 3) it is the sharing of messages, not their creation by a communicator, that is the most important communication principle. Mohrman responds in opposition by arguing that presumption in the field continues to favor existing theories because Bormann has failed to meet his burden of proof on several counts: 1) Bormann misinterprets his evidence for the probable truth of fantasy and 2) Bormann does not offer a new theory, just a new set of labels.

B. As the advocate for Narrative theory Fisher identifies presumption in the field as the belief that humans are symbol users and the general recognition that storytelling is inherent in human nature.

Fisher's reasons for claiming that narrative theory is the universal paradigm for human communication include: 1) humans are story tellers by nature, this is not an ability that has to be taught, it is therefore the most natural communication mode; 2) we use stories as our primary means of reasoning; and 3) rationality of these arguments depends upon whether or not the story "rings true" by comparing it with other stories. Rowland responds in opposition by arguing that narrative theory is not a universal paradigm for human communication, but limited to those obvious examples of messages in story form, such as fiction and dramatic works. He argues that Fisher has failed to prove that narrative concepts such as plot, character, and setting can accurately be applied to nonstory forms of communication.

4. Find an editorial from a current newspaper or magazine that you believe is intended to alter behavior. Analyze it in terms of the following: A. What is the locus of presumption?

B. How does the arguer fulfill the burden of proof?

C. In your opinion, has the arguer succeeded in creating a prima facie case?

D. Assume that you will be the opponent, indicate what you might argue in response. 



If your syllabus includes in-class participation as one factor in determining a student’s grade in the course, assign discussion leadership responsibility to two students, who will be responsible for getting a link to the editorial to classmates so they can read it before coming to class. An alternative is to use a videotaped speech instead of an editorial, which you provide to the discussion leaders and show in class before they lead discussion. One student should be assigned to lead discussion of the locus of presumption and possible opposing arguments, while the other leads discussion of burden of proof and prima facie case. If you use the Lecture Launcher on Prima Facie Case, do not assign this activity.

Even if you used the Lecture Launcher on Prima Facie Case, this activity makes an interesting essay question for either an out-of-class assignment or as part of a test for which you provide the 36

ADVOCACY AND OPPOSITION: An Introduction to Argumentation, 7th Edition

editorial stimulus material. If you do this, parse points as follows: 30% what is the locus of presumption 50% burden of proof and prima facie case 20% what might be argued in response

True or False 2-1 The basic mental structure of the reasoning process is one of the elements in argumentation that is field invariant.

Answer: T; Page: 23; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 2-2 If something in argumentation is field dependent, this means it’s a concept such as the nature of cause-effect reasoning that does not change from one field to another.

Answer: F; Page: 23; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 2-3 If something in argumentation is field invariant, this means it’s a concept in a particular field, such as the critical standards for reviewing movies, and will change from field to field.

Answer: F; Page: 23; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 2-4 Presumption identifies which side in a controversy presently occupies the contested ground.

Answer: T; Page: 25; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 2-5 Artificial presumption is established through law or government practice.

Answer: T; Page: 25; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 2-6 Natural presumption is established by observing the order of nature or common practice.

Answer: T; Page: 25; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 2-7 Presumption is always determined by the laws which govern society.

Answer: F; Page: 25; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 2-8 It is necessary to determine who has presumption in argumentation in order to determine who has the burden of proving a change is necessary.

Answer: T; Page: 25-26 and 28; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 2-9 The beliefs of an audience should never be used to determine presumption.

Answer: F; Page: 26; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 2-10 The advocate always has presumption at the beginning of argumentation.

Answer: F; Page: 27; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 2-11 To determine who has the burden of proof, you first have to determine who occupies the contested ground.

Answer: T; Page: 28; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Conceptual 37

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2-12 The burden of proof always falls upon the arguer who has the benefit of presumption.

Answer: F; Page: 28; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 2-13 Presumption describes what exists; it does not pass judgment on what exists.

Answer: T; Page: 28; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 2-14 The burden of proof always falls upon the party who asks for a change in existing belief or behavior.

Answer: T; Page: 28-29; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 2-15 In fulfilling the burden of proof, the advocate judges or evaluates present beliefs and/or behaviors.

Answer: T; Page: 29; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 2-16 The concept of inherency identifies the broad general topic to be argued.

Answer: F; Page: 31; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 2-17 For a prima facie argument to exist, the advocate must demonstrate the inability of a belief or behavior to self-correct.

Answer: T; Page: 31; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 2-18 The concept of inherency suggests that the reason for change is the consequence of some shortcoming in existing beliefs or behaviors.

Answer: T; Page: 31; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 2-19 The concept of inherency identifies the contested ground over which argumentation takes place.

Answer: F; Page: 31; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 2-20 A stock issue is a standard question or set of questions that may be applied to a proposition to determine what will be argued.

Answer: T; Page: 33; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual Multiple Choice 2-1 Argumentation can be characterized as being (a) a social activity. (b) an intellectual activity. (c) a verbal activity. (d) All of the above Answer: D; Page: 22; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 2-2 Argumentation can be characterized as involving (a) opinion stating.

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(b) opinion justifying. (c) opinion refuting. (d) All of the above Answer: D; Page: 22; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 2-3 Argumentation can be characterized as being (a) directed toward an audience. (b) political in nature. (c) self-reflexive. (d) All of the above Answer: A; Page: 22; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 2-4 A field of argument (a) is a social or professional context in which people argue (b) is the basic unit of argument (c) establishes the tests we apply to determine the quality of information used to prove arguments (d) is static and unchanging once established.

Answer: A; Page: 23; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 2-5 The person who communicates to encourage a change in belief or behavior is referred to as the (a) advocate. (b) opponent. (c) spokesperson. (d) prime mover.

Answer: A; Page: 24; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 2-6 The person who acts to discourage a change in belief or behavior is referred to as the (a) advocate. (b) opponent. (c) spokesperson. (d) prime antagonist.

Answer: B; Page: 24; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 2-7 In the proposition, “Changing the semester structure to a ten-week semester with a six-day academic week would achieve substantial savings for NMU,” artificial presumption would: (a) require the opponent to begin argumentation because this is a substantial change. (b) suggest that we presently believe a semester structure with a six-day academic week will not necessarily achieve substantial savings over the present structure. (c) suggest that we presently believe that reducing the semester from 15 to 10 weeks will achieve substantial savings. (d) require the advocate to define “substantial savings.”

Answer: B; Page: 25; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 39

Chapter 2: Where Do I Begin in Argumentation

2-8 In the proposition, "A nuclear waste dump would benefit the local economy," artificial presumption would (a) require the advocate to provide reasons why the local economy needs "benefiting." (b) require the opponent to begin argumentation. (c) suggest that we presently believe the local area does not need a nuclear dump to benefit its economy. (d) suggest that we presently believe the local area does need a nuclear dump to benefit its economy.

Answer: C; Page: 25-26; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 2-9 When using natural presumption as a tool for audience analysis, it is advisable to ask such questions as (a) to what groups do members of the audience belong. (b) to what sources of information do audience members accord deference. (c) what is the popular or unpopular opinion on a particular subject. (d) All of the above Answer: D; Page: 26; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 2-10 When using natural presumption as a tool for audience analysis, it is advisable to ask such questions as what information on a subject might (a) hold the advantage of novelty. (b) be easily found on the Internet. (c) reflect artificial presumption. (d) All of the above Answer: A; Page: 26; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 2-11 When we use argumentation to test a hypothesis, presumption is (a) artificial. (b) natural. (c) not employed. (d) assigned to the advocate.

Answer: A; Page: 26; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 2-12 The benefit of presumption is granted to (a) the advocate. (b) the opponent. (c) the proposition for argumentation. (d) the focus of the locus.

Answer: B; Page: 27; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 2-13 Which of the following is NOT a description of presumption? (a) It identifies the shortcomings in existing beliefs and behaviors. (b) It identifies sources of information which provide good reasons for changing belief or behavior.

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ADVOCACY AND OPPOSITION: An Introduction to Argumentation, 7th Edition

(c) It describes existing beliefs, policies, practices, or institutions. (d) It is a decision rule that determines what the advocate must prove in testing the propositions as a hypothesis.

Answer: A; Page: 28; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 2-14 The _________ is the obligation of the advocate to contest the figurative ground of argument by offering arguments which are logically sufficient to challenge presumption. (a) burden of proof (b) burden of rebuttal (c) burden of refutation (d) burden of presumption Answer: A; Page: 28; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 2-15 The burden of proof is the logical opposite of (a) presumption. (b) inherency. (c) topicality. (d) a prima facie case.

Answer: A; Page: 29; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 2-16 The term prima facie argument refers to the responsibility of the: (a) opponent to present arguments which are sufficient to convince a reasonable person that the proposition is valid. (b) advocate to present arguments which are sufficient to convince a reasonable person that the proposition is valid. (c) opponent to present arguments which are sufficient to convince a reasonable person that the proposition is invalid. (d) advocate to present arguments which are sufficient to convince a reasonable person that the proposition is invalid.

Answer: B; Page: 30; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 2-17 Staying within the subject area of the proposition is the advocate's responsibility for doing what? (a) Assuming the burden of proof. (b) Developing a topical prima facie case. (c) Arguing inherency. (d) All of the above Answer: B; Page: 30; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Conceptual 2-18 When someone has presented a prima facie case, it is the same as saying that they have assumed the burden of (a) rebuttal. (b) presumption. (c) refutation. (d) proof.

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Answer: D; Page: 30 and 33; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 2-19 Inherency is the term used to describe the concept that (a) the reason for change is a consequence of some shortcoming in existing beliefs or behaviors. (b) existing beliefs or behaviors will self-correct if given enough time. (c) change is the natural course in human events. (d) existing problems can be identified by examining human beings as dwelling simultaneously in the state of being and the process of becoming.

Answer: A; Page: 31; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Factual 2-20 Why is inherency crucial to constructing a prima facie case? (a) Advocates must identify the cause(s) of a problem or a need for knowledge. (b) Advocates must determine whether inherency is “structural” or “attitudinal” because attitudinal inherency can be more difficult to overcome. (c) We take it as a given that if the cause of a problem cannot be found, we cannot determine how to solve it; if there is nothing to stimulate a quest for knowledge, we are unlikely to search for it. (d) We generally recognize that because the advocate seeks change, she has a more difficult task because she is required to use cause-effect reasoning.

Answer: C; Page: 31; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual

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ADVOCACY AND OPPOSITION: An Introduction to Argumentation, 7th Edition

CHAPTER 3 WHAT AM I GOING TO ARGUE ABOUT? Learning Objectives  To state the three purposes fulfilled by having a properly phrased proposition.  To recognize the difference between propositions of fact, value and policy.  To identify the kinds of terms that need to be defined.  To apply the methods of defining terms and the rules which these definitions should follow.

Key Terms adaptation rule is the requirement that terms are defined in a way that makes sense to the audience and the field in which you are arguing (50) authority is a method of defining a term by using a source deemed reputable by the audience or a field-specific definition (54) clarity rule is the requirement that a term be defined in a way that is more readily understood than the term itself (51) coined term is one invented when a convenient term does not already exist often created by combining parts of existing terms (52) connotative function is the use of language to react to what happens around us, make judgments, and express our feelings (37) denotative function is the use of language to identify, classify and organize objects, processes, ideas, and experiences (37) equivocal term is one with two or more equally correct meanings (51) example is a method of defining a term by using concrete, representative instances of something, including negative and behavioral examples (54) exclusionary rule is the requirements that terms are defined in such a way that they exclude things that don’t appropriately fall under them (50) factual propositions assertions that seek to alter the way we view reality concerning past, present, or future events, objects, places, persons, or phenomena (41) function is a method of defining a term by explaining how something works or what it does (55) inclusionary rule is the requirements that terms are defined in such a way that they include things that appropriately fall under them (50) issues key points under dispute, the resolution of which will aid in determining who prevails in an argument (40)

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Chapter 3: What Am I Going to Argue About?

neutrality rule is the requirement that terms are defined in a way that avoids unnecessary emotionality (50) new term is one added to the language that may have started out a part of the jargon of one field and spread to others (52) operation is a method of defining a term by explaining its parts or the steps involved in achieving an outcome (55) policy propositions assertions that seek to alter the behavior of individuals or institutions, often in regard to political, economic, or social issues (43) proposition a statement that identifies the argumentative ground and points to the change in belief or behavior sought by the advocate (36) synonym is a method of defining a term by using denotatively and connotatively more familiar terms (53) technical term is the jargon or specialized vocabulary of a particular field (52) terministic screen the ability of the language used to set limits or direct attention in one way as opposed to another; for example, sexist language creates a terministic screen about appropriate male and female roles (37) vague term is one having shades of meaning or lacking a clear-cut definition (52) value judgment the portion of the value proposition that identifies broad criteria by which a value object is to be measured; the predicate of the sentence (43) value object the portion of the value proposition that identifies an existing idea, person, action, agency, tradition, practice, or custom to be evaluated; the subject of the sentence (42) value propositions assertions that seek to alter belief by dealing with our subjective reactions to things and our opinions of them (42) Lecture Launchers  Phrasing Propositions and Defining Terms If you used the Lecture Launcher in Chapter 2 on Presumption and Burden of Proof (e.g. 10% budget reduction at your school), review the ideas students came up with.

Begin class by asking “how would you phrase a proposition of fact regarding increasing tuition (or whatever idea you select)?” and use what students suggest to review how it meets the objectives for having a proposition and properly phrasing one. Repeat for value and policy.

Extend the discussion to identifying terms requiring definition in each proposition. If your students have wireless access to the Web, you can also discuss how to define these terms by various means, with students looking up things online to suggest.  Phrasing Propositions and Defining Terms If you didn’t use the Lecture Launcher in Chapter 2 mentioned above (10% budget reduction at your school), doing so now is possible, but time consuming. A better alternative is to bring a video clip of some major recent news event that that students are likely to know something about and follow the procedure described above re phrasing propositions and defining terms. Examples would be things like the BP oil spill, the earthquake in Haiti, or the shooting of a member of Congress in Arizona.

You can also use a campus controversy or even a class policy (e.g. we ban laptops

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ADVOCACY AND OPPOSITION: An Introduction to Argumentation, 7th Edition

and handheld devices with Web access from class except on days when we instruct students to bring them for use in a class activity).

Learning Activities 1. Examine the following propositions. Identify the kinds of propositions--fact, value, and policy--represented. Be prepared to discuss how each example does or does not meet the rules for wording propositions suggested in this chapter.

ENERGY (A. value B. fact C. policy) A. Renewable energy sources are preferable to fossil fuels.

B. By 2020 the United States will run short of fossil fuels.

C. The federal government should implement an accelerated program of conversion to renewable energy sources.

ECOLOGY (A. fact B. policy C. value) A. The present system of environmental protection creates toxic waste dumps.

B. The United States should significantly improve its environmental protection policy.

C. The protection of the environment ought to take precedence over the expansion of industrial production.

LAW ENFORCEMENT (A. policy B. fact C. value) A. The judicial system should reform the system of juvenile and family courts.

B. Crimes by juveniles are the most serious crimes against persons.

C. The American judicial system unfairly favors the juvenile offender over the victim.

FOREIGN POLICY (A. fact B. value C. policy) A. United States foreign policy commitments over extend the federal budget.

B. United States foreign policy commitments ought to reflect the American belief in the principle of democratic government.

C. The United States should substantially reduce foreign aid to nations which fail to protect the rights of their citizens.

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Chapter 3: What Am I Going to Argue About?

EDUCATION (A. value B. fact C. policy) A. The quality of education in American public schools ought to be the nation's first priority.

B. The education of college professors does not place sufficient emphasis on teaching techniques.

C. The Department of Education should create and maintain a core curriculum for all public schools. 

If your syllabus includes in-class participation as one factor in determining a student’s grade in the course, assign discussion leadership responsibility to a student. Your students may give you an argument on some of these. For example, proposition A under foreign policy appears to be highly evaluative. Remind them that all language has an evaluative dimension, as well as an activity and a potency dimension (semantic differentiation). The key to classifying propositions is found in looking at what they ask us to change. Proposition A under foreign policy is concerned with the factualness, or existence, of the over extension, and not whether or not it ought to be regarded positively or negatively.

2. Taking the propositions in Activity 1, imagine you are listening to an advocate's speech on each topic. As a member of the audience, identify what words or phrases in each proposition you feel would need to be defined. 



Have students complete this activity outside of class. At the next class session, break the class up into groups by topic areas, and have them compare the lists of terms they wanted defined. This provides means for students to assess the impact of the "meanings are in people" aspect of language on their future responsibilities as arguers. Alternatively, if your syllabus includes in-class participation as one factor in determining a student’s grade in the course, assign discussion leadership responsibility to a student and conduct the group discussion as a “committee of the whole.”

Learning Activity #1 and #2 can be used in combination to create an interesting essay question for either an out-of-class assignment or as part of a test. Take one of the five sets of propositions from Learning Activity #1and ask students to classify them, justify the classification, indicate how the propositions conform to the rules for phrasing, and identify terms that need defining If you do this, parse points as follows: 30% classification of propositions 30% justification of this classification of propositions 30% discussion of rules for phrasing propositions 10% identification of terms needing definition

3. Select three topic areas that you might like to investigate in greater depth in completing future assignments. Formulate specific fact, value, and policy propositions that these topic areas suggest to you. Search the reference section of the library for possible sources within the field of each topic to serve as a source of definitions of key terms in your propositions. Compare these definitions to those in standard dictionaries and discuss the similarities and differences between them. What are the advantages of using specialized sources to define key terms in your proposition? 

IF YOU DO NONE OF THE OTHER ACTIVITIES FOR THIS CHAPTER, BE SURE TO DO THIS ONE. The key part of the activity is really the topic areas, not the propositions or even what the students find as sources of definitions. If you plan on using a single topic area for all class presentations, and haven't selected one, use this activity to get a sense of where the majority of class interest lies. If you plan on grouping students using several topic areas, use this activity to

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provide the basis for those groupings. If you plan on allowing students to work on individual topic areas of their own choosing, use this activity to weed out those areas that your library lacks the resources to support. Which ever strategy you are planning on using, performing this activity at this time will save you time and grief later on.

True or False 3-1 The proposition is a statement, the acceptance of which would result in an alteration of belief or behavior.

Answer: T; Page: 36; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 3-2 The advocate has the first opportunity to define the terms of a proposition.

Answer: T; Page: 37 and 47; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 3-3 The wording of a proposition points to the kind of change the advocate must support.

Answer: T; Page: 38; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 3-4 In a factual proposition, the argumentative ground concerns opposing evaluations of a person, event, idea, or object.

Answer: F; Page: 41-42; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 3-5 Propositions of fact assert a relationship between things, events, or persons.

Answer: T; Page: 41 and 44; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 3-6 Propositions should be phrased as a single statement, containing one central idea about the object of change and the direction of change.

Answer: T; Page: 45; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 3-7 Propositions should be phrased so that they contain several different ideas about the object of change and the kinds of changes that might be made.

Answer: F; Page: 45; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 3-8 It is best to phrase a proposition in such a way that the audience knows your exact feelings about the topic.

Answer: F; Page: 46-47; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual

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3-9 The dictionary problem is that a standard dictionary does not necessarily tell us the meaning or a word or term as it is used in a particular field.

Answer: T; Page: 48; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 3-10 The dictionary problem refers to the problem that we often need to define terms using synonyms and a standard dictionary seldom provides synonyms for a word.

Answer: F; Page: 49; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 3-11 However you choose to define a term, the definition should include all items which properly fall under the term being defined, and exclude all items which do not.

Answer: T; Page: 50; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 3-12 Definitions should be phrased so that their meaning is adapted to the needs of the audience.

Answer: T; Page: 50; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 3-13 Definitions should be descriptive of your feelings about the term being defined.

Answer: F; Page: 50; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 3-14 The definition of a key term should be phrased in such a way that its meaning becomes clearer for the audience.

Answer: T; Page: 51; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 3-15 You should define the terms of a proposition only if they are highly technical in nature.

Answer: F; Page: 51-53; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 3-16 The only terms you really need to define are those that are likely to be ambiguous, open to a variety of interpretations by the audience.

Answer: F; Page: 51-53; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 3-17 A vague term need not be defined since the listener or reader of argumentation will supply his own definition.

Answer: F; Page: 52; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Conceptual 3-18 New terms are those that are invented when a convenient term does not already exist.

Answer: F; Page: 52; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 3-19 When we define terms operationally, we turn to some authoritative source, such as Black's Law Dictionary.

Answer: F; Page: 54-55; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 3-20 A behavioral definition of a term tells us what function that term performs.

Answer: F; Page: 54-55; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual

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ADVOCACY AND OPPOSITION: An Introduction to Argumentation, 7th Edition

Multiple Choice 3-1 The use of a proposition identifies the alteration of belief or behavior the advocate desires, the burden of proof, and presumption. This is the __________ objective of propositions. (a) definition of terms (b) direction of change (c) issue identification (d) extent of response Answer: B; Page: 38; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 3-2 These are the central questions suggested by the wording of a proposition and how the advocate defines the key terms of the proposition. (a) Presumptions (b) Issues (c) Interpretations (d) Ideas Answer: B; Page: 40; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 3-3 "Unemployment will not be solved by job retraining programs," is an example of a proposition of (a) fact. (b) value. (c) policy. (d) definition.

Answer: A; Page: 41; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 3-4 "Restrictions on foreign imports will not solve the problems of American industry" is an example of a proposition of (a) fact. (b) value. (c) policy. (d) definition.

Answer: A; Page: 41; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied

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3-5 “The university’s operating budget can be significantly reduced by changing to a tenweek semester system,” is an example of a proposition of (a) fact. (b) value. (c) policy. (d) definition.

Answer: A; Page: 41-42; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 3-6 "The Bush Administration's methods of reducing the high cost of medical care have been ineffective," is an example of a proposition of (a) fact. (b) value. (c) policy. (d) definition.

Answer: B; Page: 42; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 3-7 "Protecting the welfare of the American farmer is more important than balancing the Federal budget," is an example of a proposition of (a) fact. (b) value. (c) policy. (d) definition.

Answer: B; Page: 42; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 3-8 “Changing the academic calendar can be an effective way to reduce the university’s operating budget.” Which of the terms in this proposition is the value object? (a) “can be” (b) “an effective way” (c) “to reduce the university’s operating budget” (d) “changing the academic calendar” Answer: D; Page: 42; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 3-9 What must the advocate do in defining the value object? (a) Define the thing that is being evaluated. (b) Define the figurative ground over which evaluation is being made. (c) Clarify whether this is a singular or comparative value judgment. (d) Provide a source of criteria to use in evaluating the value object.

Answer: A; Page: 42; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual

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ADVOCACY AND OPPOSITION: An Introduction to Argumentation, 7th Edition

3-10 “Selected senior students can be adequately prepared to teach entry level courses at this university .” Which of the terms in this proposition is the value judgment term? (a) “selected senior students” (b) “adequately prepared” (c) “can be” (d) “entry level courses at this university” Answer: B; Page: 43; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 3-11 What must the advocate do in defining the value judgment term? (a) Define the thing that is being evaluated. (b) Define the figurative ground over which evaluation is being made. (c) Clarify whether this is a singular or a comparative value judgment. (d) Provide a source of criteria to use in evaluating the value object.

Answer: D; Page: 43; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 3-12 "The Federal Government should implement a program which guarantees employment opportunities for all U.S. Citizens in the labor force," is an example of a proposition of (a) fact. (b) value. (c) policy. (d) definition.

Answer: C; Page: 43; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 3-13 The term "should" most commonly appears in propositions of (a) fact. (b) value. (c) policy. (d) definition.

Answer: C; Page: 43; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 3-14 A standard dictionary can be useful in some instances for defining the terms of a proposition for argumentation. Which of the following is one of these uses? (a) You need to define the technical terms of the jargon used in field, such as “paradigm,” to operationally define a policy term. (b) You need to define the relationship between the subject and predicate in a proposition of fact. (c) You need a list of synonyms for a vague or abstract value judgment term. (d) You need to clarify the use of the word “should” in a policy proposition.

Answer: C; Page: 49; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 3-15 The definitional rule that states "phrase definitions so that the meaning is appropriate to the context of the argument," is known as the _________ rule. (a) adaptation (b) neutrality (c) specificity (d) clarity

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Answer: A; Page: 50; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 3-16 __________ terms require clarification because they have two or more equally correct meanings. (a) Vague (b) Technical (c) New (d) Equivocal Answer: D; Page: 51; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 3-17 "By education, I mean the publicly financed school system, including grades kindergarten through twelve" is a definition by (a) example. (b) synonym. (c) function. (d) negation.

Answer: A; Page: 54; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 3-18 In The Uses of Argument, Stephen Toulmin defines a “claim” as a statement that expresses a specific position or some doubtful or controversial issues that the arguer wants the audience to accept. This illustrates the technique of definition known as (a) example. (b) operation. (c) synonym. (d) authority.

Answer: D; Page: 54; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Applied

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3-19 “By a six-day academic week, I mean a schedule in which four-credit classes will meet for one hour and forty-five minutes and courses will be blocked in a MondayWednesday-Friday or a Tuesday-Thursday-Saturday pattern,” illustrates which technique of definition? (a) Example (b) Operation (c) Synonym (d) Authority Answer: B; Page: 55; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 3-20 This type of argument specifies how something should be classified or understood. (a) Definitional argument (b) Presumption argument (c) Inherency argument (d) Functional argument Answer: A; Page: 56; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual

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Chapter 4: How Do I Analyze Propositions?

CHAPTER 4 HOW DO I ANALYZE PROPOSITIONS? Learning Objectives  To locate the immediate cause for concern about a controversy.  To assess the impact of the historical background of controversies of fact, value and policy.  To illustrate how defining key terms in a proposition creates the primary inference and focuses the controversy .  To use the stock issues of fact, value and policy to discover the actual issues in a controversy.

Key Terms actual issues the specific need for knowledge identified by the wording of the proposition and discovered while analyzing the proposition that must be satisfied if belief or behavior is to change (59) analysis the process of discovering the actual issues in a controversy by applying the stock issues of fact, value, or policy to the particulars of a proposition (59) case development the process of putting together a set of arguments to be used to advocate or oppose the acceptance of a proposition by the audience (59) immediate cause events or circumstances in the present or recent past that focus attention on the subject of the proposition (59) inference a conclusion or decision about what is unknown based on what is known derived by reasoning (69) primary inference the conclusion you draw about what you believe a proposition means, based on your definition of the key terms in it (69) value hierarchy the implied or actual order imposed on a set of competing values in resolving a problem; for example, in order to be safe from criminals we may have to give up a little freedom (76) Lecture Launchers  Immediate Cause and Historical Background Bring in a copy of Time or Newsweek with a cover story about a controversial issue.

For example, on the eve of the 2010 Super Bowl, Time did a cover story of football injuries. Without sharing the contents, ask students “what do you think is the immediate cause of concern?” Write their responses on the board. If they have wireless access to the Web, send them on a scavenger hunt to find out about the historical background of the issue, and note what they find on the board. For example, concern about football injuries dates back to 1905 when 18 college players died.

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ADVOCACY AND OPPOSITION: An Introduction to Argumentation, 7th Edition

together to discuss what could be done which lead to rule changes and the eventual formation of the NCAA. An alternative strategy is to use a current or recent campus controversy that students will be familiar with and able to discuss without doing research.

Links to web resources for this lecture launcher: Time cover story on football injuries: http://www.time.com/time/magazine/0,9263,7601100208,00.html  Primary Inference and Actual Issues Distribute copies of a one page editorial or article that offers an opinion about a proposition of fact. Ask the students to identify the main point/primary inference the writer is trying to make. Does it concern a question of fact, value, or policy? Next, walk them through the piece paragraph by paragraph to identify the arguments/actual issues the writer uses. Have them apply the stock issues. While proof and reasoning have yet to be discussed in depth, get them talking about what it is does or doesn’t make each argument convincing.

For example, there are links below to two pieces from Newsweek, one about why scientists have not done a good job communication the facts about global warming and the other why the bio-pic is a dying film genre, that break down as follows: Scientists will have a hard time convincing us about global warming. (OR have been unsuccessful) Stock issues applied to each paragraph: 1. Proof: Statistics (inferential)—Gallup poll—18% increase in those thinking risk of global warming is exaggerated Reasoning: Generalization—polls suggest what is true of some is true of all 2. Proof: Quotation from former marine biology prof Reasoning: Authority—takes one to know one—not self-serving 3. Proof: Quotation from book—example of how scientists turn people off Reasoning: Authority offering sign evidence 4. Proof: Illustration--they don’t know how to deal with opponent’s arguments Reasoning: Cause—why they fail 5. Proof: Study on where US ranks (33 of 34) in % who believe we evolved Quotation from Christian college prof on how we don’t bow to authority like English do for example Reasoning: Parallel case—less climate backlash in Europe & Japan 6. Proof: Quotation--same guy—anyone can know the divine—we are a nation of immigrants fleeing hierarchy--experts Reasoning: Cause—why anyone with a website has credibility 7. Proof: Examples of our faith in crowds to find answers and how supposed experts got the economy in trouble Reasoning: Sign—being an authority doesn’t count for much 55

Chapter 4: How Do I Analyze Propositions?

Bio-pics are not financially successful (OR Hollywood will stop making bio-pics.)

Stock issues applied to each paragraph: 1. Proof: Examples of pictures that didn’t make much money --includes some box office statistics (descriptive) Quotation from star of Darwin Reasoning: Multiple signs these pictures don’t make money Authority on the subject 2. Proof: Examples of past pictures that were successful vs. only musicals work today Reasoning: Cause—music rescues bad script 3. Proof: Illustrations of how Hollywood does a bad job with historical subjects—Amelia, Invictus, Sylvia Reasoning: Cause—buries history in costumes and accents 4. Proof: Illustrations of movies about little known people that had great buzz vs. about public figures with no buzz Reasoning: Cause—big star not enough, have good story 5. Proof: Illustrations of how TV makes history fun and sexy and how Hollywood got it right with Julia & Julia Reasoning: Parallel case for TV, Sign for Julia & Julia Links to web resources for this lecture launcher: http://www.newsweek.com/2010/03/17/their-own-worst-enemies.html http://www.newsweek.com/2010/02/10/are-biopics-history.html

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Learning Activities 1. Examine the propositions listed below. Select one of the propositions for issue analysis. What is the immediate cause of the controversy in the proposition? What are some important elements in the history of the topic? What key terms should be defined and what primary inference can be formed from those definitions? What are the actual issues that might be argued by the advocate? By the opponent?

A. The federal government should provide an opportunity for a college education to all U.S. citizens.

B. American football has become excessively violent.

C. The further exploration of space should be a priority in the twenty-first century.

D. The need for oil is the most important element of U.S. foreign policy.

E. The high cost of college textbooks is a consequence of the market for used textbooks. 

Immediate cause and history on any of these topics may be fluid as you see in the detailed discussion below. Noting this for your students, how immediate cause can quickly become history, may help them grasp the importance of staying current.  If your syllabus includes in-class participation as one factor in determining a student’s grade in the course, assign discussion leadership responsibility to two students, with one focusing on immediate cause and history, the other on definitions and issue. Do this activity for one, or at most two, of the propositions, then end with the topic or topics students are working with. If they have not selected or been assigned topics yet, be sure to do Activity 6.  This activity can not only be used for discussion, but makes an interesting essay question for either an out-of-class assignment or as part of a test. If you do this, restrict yourself to one of the propositions, and parse points as follows: 40% immediate cause and history 30% definitions 30% possible actual issues for advocate and opponent A. The federal government should provide an opportunity for a college education to all U.S. citizens.  Immediate cause includes the rising costs of a college education, the default of state “promise” programs to help parents pay their child’s tuition, and state practices of keeping tuition costs low have been set aside as state economies are in trouble.  History begins with the tradition of providing citizens with a primary education in the nineteenth century, the coverage of college costs for G.I.s returning from WWII, the development of various state and federal programs to support the costs of college, to the needs of the twenty-first century for technically educated workers.  Definition of key terms: Provide an opportunity – make low interest loans available College education – undergraduate  Primary inference: the federal government will become loan officers for undergraduate education  Actual issues – Advocate The U.S. needs an educated workforce to meet today’s technological demands.

Tuition and the cost of a college education keeps increasing to the point where many cannot afford a college education.

The present system of loans causes many graduates to beging their careers deeply in debt.  Actual issues – Opponent Not all U.S. citizens are capable of doing college-level work.

The cost of a federal loan system will be prohibitive.

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Chapter 4: How Do I Analyze Propositions?

A federal loan system will create problems for many colleges by increasing demand for admission to a few top-rated schools.

B. American football has become excessively violent.  Immediate cause includes the increasing number of injuries at all levels of American football, scientific studies on harm from injuries, and former players coming forward to talk about the ill effects of injuries from their playing days.  History begins with the early days of college football and concerns with the violence of the game and continues as the strength of players has become greater and a culture of violence has grown up around American football.  Definition of key terms: American football – the National Football League (NFL) Excessively violent – degree of force in hitting other players  Primary inference: NFL rules and practices allow for dangerous physical action.  Actual issues – Advocate There is a strong link between chronic traumatic encephalopathy and the violent play of NFL football.

The speed and size of professional football players has made the game increasingly dangerous.

There is a growing culture of violence in professional football.  Actual issues – Opponent Very few NFL players experience traumatic injuries.

NFL players have the protection of technically sophisticated safety equipment.

Rule changes have been enacted in the NFL to discourage violent hits on players.

C. The further exploration of space should be a priority for the twenty-first century.  Immediate cause includes the challenges posed by other nations posing challenges to the U.S. early exploits in reaching the moon and beginning to explore other planets, cutbacks in U.S. space programs, and the increasing need for new sources of raw materials.  History begins with the glory days of the U.S. manned space missions and extends through the information gathered by various missions to explore the planets and considered manned missions.  Definition of key terms: Further exploration of space – NASA will combine with U.S. private enterprise to undertake exploration programs Priority – Federal endorsement of the private enterprise initiative in combination with existing NASA programs  Primary inference: The federal government will support the combining of NASA with U.S. private enterprise for further space exploration.  Actual issues – Advocate Space exploration is necessary to provide new sources of raw materials for industry and manufacturing.

Private enterprise is eager to become involved in space exploration.

Space exploration in the past has provided many beneficial technological advances.  Actual issues – Opponent We have greater economic needs for education, health care, and improving the U.S. infrastructure than any need for expanded space exploration.

Bringing private enterprise into combination with NASA carries the risk of disclosing national security information.

The U.S. has made substantial technological advances with a reduced NASA. D. The need for oil is the most important element of U.S. foreign policy.  Immediate cause includes the deteriorating relationships with oil producing nations in the Middle East and South America and concerns over U.S. support of nations that seemingly foster terrorists.  History focuses on U.S. foreign policy since WWII that has supported a variety of Middle East regimes whose practices are the antithesis of U.S. values.  Definition of key terms: 58

ADVOCACY AND OPPOSITION: An Introduction to Argumentation, 7th Edition

Most important element – decision-basis for making foreign policy is whether or not a nation can sell oil to the U.S. U.S. foreign policy – support for governments whose policies and treatment of citizens are not consistent with democratic principles  Primary inference: U.S. foreign policy is made on the basis of the non-democratic of support for oil-producing nations.  Actual issues – Advocate The U.S. has a history of supporting repressive governments of oil-producing nations.

Placing oil imports ahead of human rights undermines the efforts of U.S. groups that support humanitarian principles.

A foreign policy based on oil importation undermines the fundamental values expressed in the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution.  Actual issues – Opponent The U.S. does not produce enough oil to meet the demands of U.S. citizens.

U.S. foreign policy supports humanitarian principles.

U.S. foreign policy since 9/11 is directed at combating terrorism, not protecting the practices of oil-producing nations.

E. The high cost of college textbooks is a consequence of the market for used textbooks.  Immediate cause is the student’s experience with textbook purchases, state and federal legislative hearings on textbook costs, and the passage of federal law to mandate earlier selection of textbooks by college teachers.  History focuses on the emergence of college bookstores and the practice of buying and selling textbooks, tracking the escalating costs of textbooks over the past four decades, and the rise of internet used textbook providers.  Definition of key terms: High cost – price of college textbooks as compared to pricing of other categories of books Market for used textbooks – student demand for used texts that cost less than new ones Consequence – the role of college bookstores in influencing the pricing of new and used college textbooks  Primary inference: College bookstores sell used textbooks that drives up the costs of new and used textbooks.  Actual issues – Advocate The price of both new and used college textbooks is influenced by the pricing practices of college bookstores.

College bookstores make a substantial profit on the sale of used textbooks.

Authors and publishers are forced to bring out new editions more frequently because they do not make any revenue on the sale of used textbooks.  Actual issues – Opponent The price of a college textbook is established by the publisher, not the college bookstore.

The owner of a used textbook has the right to sell it.

Increasingly, college bookstores are being shut out by the direct sale of electronic books.

2. Read the Committee for the Reunification of the Parthenon Marbles, “The Case for Reunification,” at www.parthenonuk.com/the_case_for_the_return.php. Is this case a value or a policy case? Which set of stock issues would best apply? Does the Committee meet the requirements of arguing either value or policy? What actual issues make up the case? 

This is policy development. The argument begins with the proposed policy that the British and Greek governments should put aside the question of who owns the Elgin marbles and work out an arrangement for mutually sharing of Greek Antiquities.

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



  

The stock issues of policy apply. The reason for change (stock issue one) and the consequences of change (stock issue three) are well developed and match up with many of the suggested actual issues appearing in Chapter 4. The weakness in this argumentation is in the second stock issue of policy, the details of the proposed policy change. There is only the vague suggestion of an arrangement for mutual sharing.

Actual issues:  The Parthenon is a symbol of Greek heritage and the Elgin marbles are part of that heritage.  The British Museum display is inaccurate, giving the wrong understanding of the Greek myth portrayed in the sculptures.  The Elgin marbles are an integral part of the Parthenon and the U.N. resolution on cultural heritage supports restoration of works that are an integral part of an existing structure, such as the Parthenon.  The British Museum illegally acquired the marbles.  Today, there is a strong international movement to restore cultural objects to their nation of origin.  It is unethical of the British Museum to keep the Elgin marbles in the United Kingdom.

This activity may be used to discuss the role of value arguments in policy argumentation because the value arguments are particularly strong and easy to extract from the piece. The majority of the arguments evaluate cultural heritage and the British Museum’s ineffective display of the marbles.

If your syllabus includes in-class participation as one factor in determining a student’s grade in the course, assign discussion leadership responsibility to two students.

It can also be used as an out-of-class essay assignment for extra credit. If used as an essay assignment, parse points as follows: 25% classification of type of argumentation and explanation of why the stock issues of this type (policy) apply 25% discussion of meeting the requirements of stock issues 50% identification of the actual issues

3. Follow the debate over the Elgin Marbles controversy on an online source such as Facebook, YouTube, or Twitter. What issues do you find in the debate? Are these issues similar to the ones identified in the chapter or are new issues emerging? 





A series of postings offering pro and con views on the return of the Elgin marbles can be found on Facebook and on Web sites from the variety of groups endorsing return of the marbles for display in the new Acropolis Museum. These posting reflect many of the issues of fact and value offered in Chapter 4. Many of those posting identify themselves by nationality or an ethnic identity.

Discussing different views based on where the arguer is from, or the arguer’s identification with an ethnic identify such as “Greek,” or “former colonial” is a good way to discuss the hierarchy of values that stem from nationalism. Because many of the postings offer passionate statement of nationalism, a profitable discussion can also occur over the use of language as a terministic screen.

A variety of video clips from the new Acropolis Museum portray the display of marbles, along with stark white cutouts of the marbles in the British Museum, can be found on You Tube. These can be used to discuss visual forms of argumentation. Some videos, done by visitors in the first weeks the Acropolis Museum was open, have voice over arguing the case for restoration of the Elgin marbles to Greece. You Tube offers a great variety of “visual argument” and you can find almost any topic to use for discussing visual proof and reasoning. Because most You Tube videos are narrated or set to music, discussion can include the use of visual elements as supporting proof for the verbal arguments.

When the new Acropolis Museum opened in 2009, a “tweet debate” occurred on Twitter. Tracking the “conversation” of comments and observations can be matched with the issues lists in Chapter 4. Twitter can also be used to discuss examples of immediate cause for issues of concern at the moment.

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



Online argumentation, because it is emotion laden, is very much subject to interpretation. The best use of online sources of argumentation is for class discussion. If your syllabus includes in-class participation as one factor in determining a student’s grade in the course, you pick the online thread and assign discussion leadership responsibility to two students.

A thread of commentary on Twitter, or another online site, might also be used as the basis for an essay on finding the issues in the thread. If used as an essay, parse points as follows: 20% development of a proposition from the commentary 20% finding the key terms and their definitions, given or implied 60% finding the actual issues

4. Richard Fraser argues that John Wilkes Booth was only indirectly responsible for the death of Abraham Lincoln, because the physicians on the scene were guilty of malpractice. Their inept medical treatment caused Lincoln’s death. Read the essay, “How Did Lincoln Die?” by Richard A. R. Fraser in American Heritage, February/March, 1995, pp. 63–64, 66–70, available online at www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1995/1/1995_1_63.shtml. What is the immediate cause that leads Fraser to author an argument about this subject in 1995? What historical background does Fraser use to build his argument? What actual issues did Fraser choose to argue? Does he create a prima facie case of factual argumentation? 



Fraser was led to develop his arguments because so much mystery and interest in the public mind continued to surround the death of Abraham Lincoln. Fraser's discussion of historical background begins with a review of the cases of James Garfield and William McKinley who died as a result of substandard medical care. He then casts backward to Lincoln's assassination and describes commonly known medical practices in the mid-nineteenth century. Fraser's actual issues were: 1) the physicians who treated Lincoln were incompetent; 2) the weapon Booth used and the wound it caused were not sufficient conditions to bring about Lincoln's death; and 3) medical knowledge at the time was sufficient to save Lincoln's life, had he received competent care.

This activity can not only be used for discussion, but makes an interesting essay question for an out-of-class assignment, possibly for extra credit. If you do this, restrict yourself to one of the propositions, and parse points as follows: 40% what is the immediate cause and history of the controversy 40% what actual issues are argued 20% is it a prima facie case

5. James Canton’s The Extreme Future: The Top Trends that Will Reshape the World in the Next 20 Years and Richard Watson’s Future Files: The 5 Trends that Will Shape the Next 50 Years discuss several trends that will shape the future. Choose one of these trends, or the trend assigned by your instructor, and make a presentation in class in which you explain the trend in terms of a value hierarchy it suggests. What values are implied by the trend? What degree of importance does society presently attach to these values?

How will the future affect the present hierarchy of these values? 

The discussion will obviously be of more interest to students if they can see relationships between the forces Canton and Watson describe and the topic area they have begun working with. If several different topic areas are being researched and argued, try to match students to trends pertinent to their particular topic. Since new prognostications by futurists are being published every year, feel free to substitute your current favorite for these books.

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

This activity can not only be used for discussion, but makes an interesting essay question for an out-of-class assignment, possibly for extra credit. If you do this, restrict yourself to one of the propositions, and parse points as follows: 40% discussion of trend 30% discussion of value hierarchy and values implied 30% how does society presently view these values and how will this change

6. Phrase your own proposition of fact, value, or policy. What terms require definition?

What type of definition should you provide? What is the primary inference that your definitions lead to? What is the immediate controversy in your proposition's topic area?

What issues may be argued by advocates? By opponents? 

This activity is only used if you did not get students started earlier on the topic or topics they will use for in-class argumentation exercises

True or False 4-1 Analyzing the immediate cause of interest in a topic can be accomplished by examining the mass media.

Answer: T; Page: 59; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 4-2 Analyzing the immediate cause of interest in a topic can be accomplished by examining social media, blogs, and electronic discussion sites.

Answer: T; Page: 59; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 4-3 In a factual proposition, the immediate cause of a controversy is usually some event that leads to differing interpretations or makes people realize they need to acquire new knowledge.

Answer: T; Page: 60; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 4-4 In a value proposition, the immediate cause of a controversy is usually stimulated by someone demanding that something should be done.

Answer: F; Page: 60; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 4-5 In a policy proposition, the analysis of the immediate cause of a controversies is particularly important to developing inherency arguments.

Answer: T; Page: 60; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 4-6 Whether we are arguing fact, value, or policy, we look for the immediate cause of a controversy in some recent event, occurrence, or set of circumstances.

Answer: T; Page: 60; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 4-7 Investigating the contemporary and historical background of your proposition’s subject provides you with information that helps you find the issues you will argue.

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Answer: T; Page: 62; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 4-8 Because policy argumentation is concerned with change for the future, analyzing the historical background of the topic is not important.

Answer: F; Page: 68; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 4-9 Because value propositions focus on what is a salient value judgment at the present time, an extensive analysis of the historical background of a controversy is inappropriate.

Answer: F; Page: 68; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 4-10 Finding the immediate cause of a problem and exploring its historical background can give you insight into the audience's understanding of the proposition.

Answer: T; Page: 68; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual

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4-11 An inference is an earlier attempt to institute a policy such as the one you are proposing.

Answer: F; Page: 69; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual

4-12 The reason to define key terms in a proposition is to clarify what we mean and how we want the audience to understand the proposition.

Answer: T; Page: 69; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 4-13 The purpose of value argumentation is to decide how to judge something.

Answer: T; Page: 71; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 4-14 Defining value-laden terms such as "beneficial," "harmful," or "effective" provides the criteria used to make value judgments.

Answer: T; Page: 71; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 4-15 At a minimum, the advocate of a policy proposition must define the specifics of the change in belief sought by the proposition.

Answer: F; Page: 73; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Conceptual 4-16 A stock issue of factual argumentation asks what information confirms or denies the relationship between the subject and predicate of the primary inference.

Answer: T; Page: 74; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 4-17 A stock issue of factual argumentation is to ask by what criteria is the object of the proposition best evaluated.

Answer: F; Page: 74 and 76; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 4-18 A stock issue of factual argumentation is to ask if there is a proposal to resolve the reason for change.

Answer: F; Page: 74 and 79; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 4-19 A stock issue for arguing a value proposition asks by what value hierarchy is the object of the proposition best evaluated.

Answer: T; Page: 76; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 4-20 The stock issues for a proposition of policy lead to the consideration of one or more issues of fact or value.

Answer: T; Page: 79; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual

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Multiple Choice 4-1 Ultimately, the arguer's goal in analyzing the proposition is to (a) determine how many arguments can be advanced. (b) raise questions about the field in which arguments exist. (c) suggest strategies for advocating or opposing the proposition. (d) determine the actual issues to be argued.

Answer: D; Page: 59; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 4-2 In analyzing a proposition, you should always begin by (a) defining key terms and creating the primary inference. (b) determining the actual issues in the controversy. (c) investigating the history of the topic. (d) locating the immediate cause of concern about the topic.

Answer: D; Page: 59; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 4-3 In analyzing a proposition, the final thing you should do is (a) define key terms and create the primary inference. (b) determine the actual issues in the controversy. (c) investigate the history of the topic. (d) locate the immediate cause of concern about the topic.

Answer: B; Page: 59; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 4-4 Analyzing the immediate cause for concern about a proposition of policy is important because it can help you find (a) core values. (b) inherency. (c) the need to make a fresh interpretation of existing information. (d) presumption.

Answer: B; Page: 60; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 4-5 Investigating the historical background of a topic is valuable because it helps you (a) find issues to argue. (b) understand the field in which you are arguing. (c) discover where presumption lies. (d) All of the above Answer: D; Page: 62; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual

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Chapter 4: How Do I Analyze Propositions?

4-6 Lord Elgin’s nose was disfigured because he (a) picked it as a child. (b) was punched by a Turkish fireman. (c) contracted a disease, possibly syphilis. (d) was struck by one of the metopes which fell while he was collecting them.

Answer: C; Page: 64; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 4-7 A good reason for considering the historical background of a proposition of fact is that (a) factual propositions often have elements of value and policy built into them. (b) it is human nature to keep making the same mistakes. (c) it provides a frame of reference for developing arguments. (d) it is always a good idea to learn the history of events.

Answer: C; Page: 68; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 4-8 You have defined the key terms in your proposition for argumentation and used these definitions to further interpret the proposition to clarify what you want the proposition to mean based on these definitions. In argumentation, we call this making (a) the statement of presumption (b) the declaration of intent (c) the primary inference (d) the hypothesis statement

Answer: C; Page: 69; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 4-9 Why is it helpful to define terms in propositions? (a) To narrow the range of possible issues to be argued. (b) To clarify what we mean. (c) To establish precisely what the primary inference is. (d) All of the above Answer: D; Page: 69; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 4-10 Once the advocate defines terms, the opponent is (a) obligated to accept these definitions. (b) obligated to contest these definitions. (c) able to choose whether to accept or contest these definitions. (d) able to begin the process of analysis.

Answer: C; Page: 71; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 4-11 You should always define __________, such as “desirable,” “beneficial,” or “disadvantageous” in value argumentation, because these terms are the source of criteria you will use in making the value judgment. (a) value-laden terms (b) value-generating terms 66

ADVOCACY AND OPPOSITION: An Introduction to Argumentation, 7th Edition

(c) value-neutral terms (d) value-development terms

Answer: A; Page: 71; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 4-12 When a proposition of value is phrased in comparative terms, the opponent (a) is obligated to provide a definition of the value judgment term. (b) is precluded from providing a definition of the value judgment term. (c) has the option of accepting the advocate’s definition of the value judgment term. (d) has the obligation to accept the advocate’s definition of the value judgment term.

Answer: A; Page: 72; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 4-13 If you want to efficiently set up the basis of what the change is a proposition of policy should be, you should define terms by (a) authority. (b) example. (c) operation. (d) synonym.

Answer: C; Page: 74; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 4-14 There are two stock issues for arguing factual propositions. The first stock issue asks: “What information confirms or denies the alleged relationship between the subject and the predicate of the primary inference?” What is the second stock issue? (a) By what criteria is the alleged factual relationship located in a hierarchy of acceptable fact? (b) What techniques of reasoning should be used to demonstrate this relationship? (c) What are the consequences of accepting this relationship as probably true? (d) What hierarchy of acceptable fact does the relationship exist in?

Answer: B; Page: 74; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual

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Chapter 4: How Do I Analyze Propositions?

4-15 What are the stock issues in factual argumentation used to accomplish? (a) Verify the relationship between the subject and the object of the proposition through appropriate reasoning (b) Discover proof that is sufficient to confirm the relationship between the subject and object of the proposition (c) Argue the probable truth of the relationship between the subject and object of the proposition (d) All of the above Answer: D; Page: 74; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 4-16 If using the stock issues for factual argumentation, the first stock issue ask you to (a) meet your research responsibility. (b) meet your responsibility to reason with your audience. (c) identify where presumption lies. (d) identify whether presumption is natural or artificial.

Answer: A; Page: 74-75; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 4-17 In applying the stock issues for value propositions to develop a prima facie case, you will use all of the following stock issues EXCEPT which one? (a) In what value hierarchy is the value of object of the proposition best evaluated? (b) By what criteria is the value object to be located in this value hierarchy? (c) What techniques of reasoning should be used to demonstrate this relationship? (d) Do indicators of effect, extent, and inherency show that the value object meets these criteria?

Answer: C; Page: 76; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 4-18 What produces the value hierarchy and criteria used in arguing a given value proposition? (a) The identification of the immediate cause of concern. (b) The investigation of the topic's historical background. (c) The way key terms are defined in the proposition. (d) The application of stock issues of value argumentation.

Answer: C; Page: 76-77; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual

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4-19 In applying the stock issues for policy propositions to develop a prima facie case, you will use all of the following stock issues EXCEPT which one? (a) Is there a reason for change in the manner generally suggested by the policy proposition? (b) Does the policy proposed resolve the reason for change? (c) Do indicators of effect, extent, and inherency for your policy proposal conform to your definition of what that policy will be? (d) What are the consequences of the proposed policy?

Answer: C; Page: 76 and 79; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 4-20 In using the stock issues to analyze a policy proposition to determine the potential issues he will argue, the opponent (a) needs to remember he only needs to defeat the advocate on one of the stock issues in order to prevail. (b) can develop generic arguments that apply to a number of different interpretations of a proposition, such as the cost of a proposal. (c) generate potential issues on both sides of the controversy in order to anticipate what the advocate might argue. (d) All of the above Answer: D; Page: 80-82; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Factual

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Chapter 5: How is a Unit of Argument Created?

CHAPTER 5 HOW IS A UNIT OF ARGUMENT CREATED? Learning Objectives  To create the variety of claims (factual, definitional, value, policy) that can be argued.  To construct a basic unit of argument using grounds, warrant and claim.  To distinguish circumstances in which it is necessary to provide backing for the warrant.  To choose to modify claims with qualifiers and rebuttal statements when necessary.

Key Terms backing information that supports the warrant and helps legitimize the inferential leap from grounds to claim (97) claim a statement that does not stand alone without further proof, a conclusion the audience will not accept without verification (86) grounds information of fact or opinion used to verify the claim; also termed evidence (91) modal qualifiers adverbs, adverbial phrases, or prepositional phrases that modify the action suggested by the verb in a claim statement (98) qualifier a statement that shows the degree of force an arguer believes a claim possesses (97) rebuttal a statement that limits a claim, showing the circumstances under which it might not be true, or a response to an argument that refutes a claim previously made (99) unit of argument each individual argument that develops a main point, the basic building block of case construction (85) warrant the pattern of reasoning that justifies the inferential leap from grounds, which are known to be true or probable, to a claim (94) Lecture Launchers  The Primary Triad in the Toulmin Model Begin class by putting a proposition which students are likely to accept as true, such as “College textbooks are too expensive” on the board. Ask them how they would go about proving it to someone with no experience with college textbooks. Press them for the evidence they would use to support their claims, and the warrants they would use to connect grounds to claims. Write their responses on the board. Use responses to begin discussion of the primary triad in the Toulmin Model.

A more challenging version of this activity is to use an aphorism such as “Power corrupts, and absolute power corrupts absolutely,” or Karyn’s favorite “If it has tires or testicles, you’re going to have trouble with it” as the proposition.  Identifying the Parts of an Argument This is an alternative to Learning Activity #4.

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If you used the Primary Inference and Actual Issues Lecture Launcher in Chapter 4, extract a paragraph or paragraphs from the article you used and ask students to identify element of the Toulmin Model in it. For example, the second paragraph in the Newsweek piece on global warming would deconstruct as follows: Scientists are lousy communicators. They appeal to people's heads, not their hearts or guts, argues Randy Olson, who left a professorship in marine biology to make science films. "Scientists think of themselves as guardians of truth," he says. "Once they have spewed it out, they feel the burden is on the audience to understand it" and agree.

CLAIM: Scientists are lousy communicators.

GROUNDS: Randy Olson…"Scientists think of themselves as guardians of truth," he says. "Once they have spewed it out, they feel the burden is on the audience to understand it" and agree.

WARRANT: Cause—Olson tells us why they are lousy (Assuming processing along ELM’s central route. For the less engaged audience processing along the peripheral route, the warrant would be Olson’s qualifications as an authority.)

BACKING: Randy Olson… left a professorship in marine biology to make science films.

Learning Activities 1. Select a topic with which you are familiar. Create four arguments for that topic corresponding to the four types of claims: fact, definition, value, and policy. For each unit of argument provide and label each of the following elements: grounds, warrant, backing and claim. When you have finished, examine your arguments. Do any of them require qualifiers or rebuttals? If so, provide and label appropriate qualifier or rebuttal statements. Concentrate on developing each part of the argument rather than on the use of evidence in establishing the grounds, warrant, and backing. 



While this activity can be a group activity using a local or campus issue, a wiser strategy is to use it in conjunction with the topic area the student will use for presentation of in-class arguments. If a single topic, or series of topics, is going to be used, this activity provides useful in-class discussion. It works better, and is more time effective, as a written assignment if individual topic areas are involved.

If your syllabus includes in-class participation as one factor in determining a student’s grade in the course, assign discussion leadership responsibility to two students and have them work together in preparing to lead discussion on all parts of the activity.

2. Find three examples of claims in an editorial or opinion piece that use qualifiers.

Develop a complete Toulmin model of each, being sure to label all parts of the argument. 

If you plan on using this activity, use it in conjunction with Activities 3 and 4. Break the class into thirds, and assign each group to one of these three activities. Suggest that they examine editorials, columns such as "My Turn" in Newsweek, and advocacy ads for examples. These three activities can be handled in one class session, since a little of this goes a long way for both you and your students.

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3. Find three examples of claims in an editorial or opinion piece that use rebuttals.

Develop a complete Toulmin model of each, being sure to label all parts of the argument. 

See Activity 2.

4. Select an argument such as an editorial, letter to the editor, or an opinion column.

Complete the following: A. In a single sentence, state the proposition for argument.

B. Identify the contentions used in developing the proposition and the claims used to develop each contention.

C. Classify these claims as to type: fact, definition, value, or policy.

D. Of the parts of argument, identify those which the author uses, and those which are left to the reader to supply.  

See Activity 2.

If you use the Lecture Launcher on Identifying the Parts of an Argument, you probably want to forego using this as an in class activity. Even if you used the Lecture Launcher, this would make an interesting essay question for either an out-of-class assignment or as part of a test in which you provide the stimulus material. If you do this, parse points as follows: 10% identification of the proposition 40% identification of contentions and claims 20% classification of claims 30% what the author uses and what is left for the reader to supply

5. Classify the following claims as to type, and identify those claims that use qualifiers, rebuttals, or both. Be sure to identify that part of the claim statement which serves as qualifier or rebuttal.

A. Argumentation is the process of arriving at conviction through the use of reason.

B. For good performance through a severe winter, front wheel drive vehicles are best.

C. Most restrictions on trade and imports will not solve America's economic problems.

D. Discretion is the better part of valor.

E. Evolution and Creation are opposing theories of the development of life on Earth.

F. Professional sports just aren't the same now that many players are paid such huge salaries.

G. If you want to develop confidence in your ability to communicate with others, take a public-speaking course.

H. We should intervene in the affairs of Central American nations, since they are geographically close to the United States.

I. Laughter is the best medicine.

J. White tigers are a separate strain of Bengal tigers with recessive genetic characteristics that cause the white coat and blue eyes.

K. In the absence of more equitable proposals, many Americans favor a policy of flat rate taxes.

L. For those who would gain insights into the future, study the past.

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 



If your syllabus includes in-class participation as one factor in determining a student’s grade in the course, assign discussion leadership responsibility to two students and have them work together in preparing to lead discussion on all parts of the activity.

This would also make an interesting essay/short answer question for either an out-of-class assignment or as part of a test. If you do this, parse points as follows: 50% classification of claims 50% identification of qualifiers and rebuttals Key to types of claims. Rebuttals precede the commas in B, G, K, and L. Qualifier in C, "most." L is policy because "they should" is implied by the statement.

A. definition E. fact I. definition B. value F. value J. definition C. fact G. policy K. fact D. definition H. policy L. policy

True or False 5-1 Claims begin the process of argument by identifying the stand being taken.

Answer: T; Page: 86; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 5-2 Claims end the process of argument by stating what the listener or reader is expected to accept as true or probable.

Answer: T; Page: 86; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 5-3 A claim may offer a conclusion about a fact, definition, value, or policy.

Answer: T; Page: 86; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 5-4 "It is morally wrong to sell grain to China," is a factual claim.

Answer: F; Page: 86; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 5-5 Factual claims are, in principle, directly verifiable or provable by direct recourse to the proof which supports them.

Answer: T; Page: 86; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 5-6 "The United States will continue to sell grain to China," is a factual claim.

Answer: T; Page: 86; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 5-7 “For the bookstore to pay students less that the wholesale value for a used textbook is an outrage,” is an example of a factual claim.

Answer: F; Page: 86; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 5-8 “The bookstore typically pays students about 40% of the wholesale value of a used textbook,” is an example of a factual claim.

Answer: T; Page: 86; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 5-9 “The wholesale value of a used textbook is the price per copy that the bookstore pays the wholesale provider before adding its own amount to the retail price charged to students,” is an example of a definitional claim.

Answer: T; Page: 86; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 73

Chapter 5: How is a Unit of Argument Created?

5-10 “The bookstore should pay students the wholesale value for a used textbook,” is an example of a factual claim.

Answer: F; Page: 87; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 5-11 Claims may be stated as compound sentences in order to make argumentation more economical Answer: T; Page: 87; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 5-12 "The United States should not sell grain to China," is a factual claim.

Answer: F; Page: 87; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 5-13 The grounds are that portion of the argument which requires further proof before the listener is willing to accept it as verified.

Answer: F; Page: 91 and 96; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 5-14 The information used to ground claims needs to be evaluated for reliability, quality, consistency, and audience acceptability.

Answer: T; Page: 92-94; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 5-15 The warrant is the conclusion which the listener does not want to accept or assume, but toward which we attempt to move his thoughts and beliefs through argumentation.

Answer: F; Page: 94; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 5-16 The reasoning process in a unit of argument is moving from grounds, through the warrant, to proving the claim statement.

Answer: T; Page: 94-95; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 5-17 The backing provides the mental leap from grounds to claim.

Answer: F; Page: 94 and 97; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 5-18 The secondary triad in the Toulmin Model of argument, backing, qualifier, and rebuttal, show an argument's strength or force.

Answer: T; Page: 96; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 5-19 Rebuttal phrases show the degree of force which the arguer believes his claim possesses.

Answer: F; Page: 97 and 99; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 5-20 Qualifier phrases show the degree of force which the arguer believes his claim possesses.

Answer: T; Page: 99; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual Multiple Choice 5-1 "A nuclear waste dump would benefit the local economy," is a (a) factual claim. (b) definitional claim.

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(c) value claim. (d) policy claim.

Answer: C; Page: 86; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Applied 5-2 What can a factual claim make and assertion about? (a) That which has existed in the past. (b) That which exists at present. (c) That which will exist in the future. (d) All of the above Answer: D; Page: 86; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 5-3 "Unemployment is harmful" is (a) a factual claim. (b) an unqualified factual claim. (c) a value claim. (d) an unqualified value claim.

Answer: D; Page: 86 and 97; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 5-4 “The lakeshore condominium project will benefit the local economy,” is (a) a value claim. (b) a simple claim statement. (c) an unqualified claim. (d) all of the above.

Answer: D; Page: 86-87 and 97; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Conceptual 5-5 “Unemployment is harmful” is a (a) simple claim. (b) compound claim. (c) complex claim. (d) compound-complex claim.

Answer: A; Page: 87; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 5-6 In general, the evidence used to ground your arguments can be tested by determining whether or not it A. is of sufficient quality.

B. will be understandable to your audience.

C. is representative of the available information.

D. All of the above Answer: D; Page: 92; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 5-7 The __________ provides specific information about how the arguer reasons. (a) claim (b) grounds (c) warrant (d) backing Answer: C; Page: 95; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 75

Chapter 5: How is a Unit of Argument Created?

5-8 “The lakeshore condominium project will offer potential buyers a variety of options, but it may be too expensive for most potential home buyers in the Marquette area,” is (a) a policy claim (b) a simple claim statement (c) a qualified claim statement (d) all of the above Answer: C; Page: 97; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Conceptual 5-9 The reliability of the warrant is established by the __________ in the argument. (a) grounds (b) backing (c) claim (d) rebuttal Answer: B; Page: 97; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual Read the following argument, and then answer multiple choice questions 10-13.

"This is an unsatisfactory place to live, because unemployment nationally is running at a lower rate than it is here. The U.S. Department of Labor announced an 8.5% national rate of unemployment while the State Employment Security Commission has said that the local unemployment rate is 11.5%."

5-10 "Because unemployment nationally is running at a lower level than it is here" functions as (a) grounds. (b) warrant. (c) backing. (d) claim.

Answer: B; Page: 94; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 5-11 "The State Employment Security Commission has said that the local unemployment rate is 11.5%" functions as (a) grounds. (b) warrant. (c) backing. (d) claim.

Answer: A; Page: 91; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 5-12 "The U.S. Department of Labor announced an 8.5% national rate of unemployment" functions as (a) grounds. (b) warrant. (c) backing. (d) claim.

Answer: C; Page: 97; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 76

ADVOCACY AND OPPOSITION: An Introduction to Argumentation, 7th Edition

5-13 "This is an unsatisfactory place to live" functions as (a) grounds. (b) warrant. (c) backing. (d) claim.

Answer: D; Page: 86; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied Read the following argument and then answer multiple choice items 14-17.

The lakeshore condominium project will threaten the ecology of the Lake Superior shoreline. The plan calls for widening Lakeshore Drive to four lanes, putting in six highrise buildings, and building a four-foot wall around the complex. Look what happened when a similar project was built in Duluth—water fowl lost their nesting places and the grasses that hold the shoreline were uprooted by construction equipment. When there is a major construction project along a shoreline, the plant and animal life are harmed.

5-14 “The plan calls for widening Lakeshore Drive to four lanes, putting up six high-rise buildings, and building a four-foot wall around the complex,” functions as which part of this unit of argument? (a) grounds (b) backing (c) warrant (d) claim Answer: A; Page: 91; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 5-15 “The lakeshore condominium project will threaten the ecology of the shoreline,” functions as which part of this unit of argument? (a) grounds (b) backing (c) warrant (d) claim Answer: D; Page: 87; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 5-16 “When there is a major construction project along a shoreline, the plant and animal life are harmed,” functions as which part of this unit of argument? (a) grounds (b) backing (c) warrant (d) claim Answer: C; Page: 94; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 5-17 “Look what happened when a similar project was built in Duluth—water fowl lost their nesting places and the grasses that hold the shoreline were uprooted by construction equipment,” functions as which part of this unit of argument? (a) grounds (b) backing (c) warrant 77

Chapter 5: How is a Unit of Argument Created?

(d) claim Answer: B; Page: 97; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied Read the following argument and then answer multiple choice items 18-20.

There is every reason to believe that the concussion crisis in NFL football will get worse.

The speed and size of professional athletes have made American football more dangerous. Offensive linemen now average nearly 315 pounds—65 more pounds than they did 30 years ago. They launch that weight from a three-point stance, headfirst, at opposing linemen of nearly the same size. The impact of two such massive players produces a concussion in the cranium when the brain bangs against the skull. Professor of Neurology at Boston University, Dr. Ann McKee, notes, “when helmets clash, the head decelerates instantly, yet the brain continues to lurch forward, like a driver who jams the brakes on. Even though the skull is protected by a helmet, the brain itself is still in motion and a concussion is often the result.”

5-18 “The speed and size of professional athletes have made American football more dangerous. Offensive linemen now average nearly 315 pounds—65 more pounds than they did 30 years ago. They launch that weight from a three-point stance, headfirst, at opposing linemen of nearly the same size” functions as which part of this unit of argument? (a) claim (b) warrant (c) grounds (d) backing Answer: B; Page: 91; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 5-19 The statement by Dr. Ann McKee that concludes the argument functions as which part of this unit of argument? (a) claim (b) warrant (c) grounds (d) backing Answer: D; Page: 97; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 5-20 The opening sentence, “there is every reason to believe that the concussion crisis in NFL football will get worse,” functions a which part of this unit of argument? (a) claim (b) warrant (c) grounds (d) backing Answer: A; Page: 86; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied

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CHAPTER 6 HOW DO I PROVE MY ARGUMENT? Learning Objectives  To evaluate library vs. online sources of information.  To research a variety of types of sources of evidence.  To discover evidence of various kinds which meets tests of validity.  To organize evidence in a system which facilitates its efficient storage and retrieval.

Key Terms artifacts evidence in the form of actual objects, audiotapes and videotapes, photographs, or diagrams (115) dependent variable the variable in which changes are hypothesized to occur as a result of changes in the independent variable (117) descriptive statistics numerical data in which the entire population of people, events, or phenomenon of a particular kind are observed and reported (113) evidence information taken from material of fact or opinion used to establish the probable truth of a claim (102) example evidence that briefly describes events that have occurred (111) factual evidence information obtained by direct or indirect observation that describes or reports on events, objects, places, persons, or phenomena (111) illustration evidence that describes in detail events that have occurred (111) independent variable the variable manipulated to produce hypothesized changes in the dependent variable (117) inferential statistics numerical data in which data concerning a portion, or sample, of the entire population are observed and the researcher infers that what is true of the sample is true of the population from which it was drawn (113) nuisance variable minimizes or maximizes the predicted effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable (117) opinion evidence a form of evidence consisting of the interpretive or evaluative statements of an expert in a field regarding facts pertinent to that field (122) premises factual claims that carry the weight of evidence because the audience accepts them as true reflections of human belief or experience (116) scientific evidence reports of the results of field and laboratory experiments on the effect of one variable on another (117) statistics numerical information about people or events used to ground claims (113) Lecture Launchers  Library Research Arrange a session with a research librarian in which they show the class a variety of sources physically available in the library related to the topic they are going to be 79

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preparing arguments about. While the librarian may include online materials, ask them to focus on what is physically present.

This experience is most valuable if the sources discuss relate directly to the topic or topics the students are researching. If you have a class of twenty or more in which pairs of students have selected different topics, it will be impractical for the librarian to touch on all of them in any depth and your students won’t get much out of the session.  Online Research If you have web access and the ability to project screen images in your classroom, begin class by asking students for a word or phrase relevant to the topic they are researching. Type it into a search engine like Google, and navigate to the first few links. Lead a discussion of how to evaluate the credibility of what these websites contain. Now type the term into one of the online indexes discussed in the chapter.

Use the results to discuss differences in the kind of evidence this search provided.

As with the previous Lecture Launcher, students will be more interested in, and get more out of, this activity if it relates to the topic they are working on. If you have a large class working on a wide range of topics, pick a subject that has been in the news recently that doesn’t relate to any of the topics students are working on. This has the advantage of allowing you to prepare in advance. Knowing what you will find using various terms or phrases enables you to solicit a number of suggestions and wait to pick the one that gives you the best teaching opportunity.  Cutting Evidence Distribute copies of a newspaper or magazine article that contains evidence of various kinds. Ask students to identify the specific pieces of the article they would extract to prove arguments. Use their responses to initiate a discussion of not only how to cut evidence, but types and tests of evidence as well.

Learning Activities 1. Find two samples of each of the following types of factual evidence: example, illustration, and statistic. Explain how each of your samples meets the tests for its type of factual evidence.

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



ALL STUDENTS SHOULD COMPLETE THIS ACTIVITY, as well as Activities 2 and 3, as a part of Activity 5 to avoid the specter of busy work. These activities allow for a thorough review of the concepts in the chapter, and require the student to collect a wide variety of evidence. This will prove useful when it comes time to start putting arguments together. These activities should be processed in class.

If your syllabus includes in-class participation as one factor in determining a student’s grade in the course, assign discussion leadership responsibility to two students

2. Choose a topic with which you are familiar. Find three sources that provide authoritative opinion evidence on this topic. Explain why each source is credible in terms of the tests of opinion evidence. 

See Activity 1.

3. Find five examples of evidence based on premises. Consider each premise in terms of how it came to be held as true without needing further proof. Is there any reason to believe these premises might become invalid? 

See Activity 1.

4. Review the definitions of fact and opinion in this chapter. Decide which of the following statements are facts and which are opinions.

A. The Supreme Court has decided that legal counsel will be provided for those who cannot afford to pay for it.

B. Humans are primates descended from earlier forms of primates.

C. College tuition costs have stabilized.

D. The Pacific Rim will dominate world trade in the twenty-first century.

E. Many professional educators believe studying a foreign language helps students become more proficient in the structure and grammar of the English language.

F. Railroads played an important part in the North's ability to win battles during the Civil War. G. Simply by visiting the Smithsonian, all may enjoy our nation's treasures.

H. Natural-habitat zoos are more interesting than traditional caged-exhibit zoos. 



Key to statements. Statements B and C may also be considered to be opinion, depending on the point of view of the individual.

A. fact E. opinion B. fact F. fact C. fact G. opinion D. opinion H. opinion If your syllabus includes in-class participation as one factor in determining a student’s grade in the course, assign discussion leadership responsibility to two students

5. Begin researching the topic area you have selected for future assignments concerning propositions of fact, value, and policy. Your evidence file should meet the following criteria: A. All sources of information should be identified in a bibliography.

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B. Each item of evidence should be classified as to type.

C. Each item of evidence should be evaluated as to credibility--meeting the tests of evidence.

D. Each piece of evidence should be slugged according to the topic you have selected.  

Students do a better job completing the requirements of this activity if you bring a couple of articles to class and work through the mechanics of finding, editing, and recording evidence with them. If you didn’t use the Cutting Evidence Lecture Launcher, do so now.

If you have students turn in their complete evidence file or a portion of it for evaluation, assign at least half the points for the actual usefulness/quality of the evidence it contains. Some of the remaining points should be assigned for doing A, B, and D properly, but the lion’s share should be assigned for C, evaluating the credibility of evidence. For example: 60% usefulness/quality 5% bibliographic information (A) 5% classification (B) 25% evaluation of credibility (C) 5% slug line (D)

True or False 6-1 Evidence is information taken from fact or opinion material used to establish the probable truth of a claim.

Answer: T; Page: 102; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 6-2 The value of the five-volume set of the Library of Congress Subject Headings is that they contain the precise terms to look under when searching for books and indexes to most periodicals.

Answer: T; Page: 105; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 6-3 The difference between The Reader’s Guide to Periodical Literature and The Applied Science and Technology Index is that the former catalogs scholarly journals and special interest publications while the latter catalogs popular periodicals.

Answer: F; Page: 106-107; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 6-4 Many newspapers make current and back issues available online that are searchable by keyword. The difference between searching by keyword and searching by subject is that the vocabulary in a keyword search is totally free. You can search for any word, not just those contained in the Library of Congress Subject Heading system.

Answer: T; Page: 108; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 6-5 Examples are detailed accounts that describe or report events or phenomena.

Answer: F; Page: 111; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 6-6 Examples are brief statements that describe or report an event or phenomenon.

Answer: T; Page: 111; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 6-7 Factual proof is always grounded in experience, either one's own or that of someone else.

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6-8 Examples, illustrations, and statistics are forms of factual evidence.

Answer: T; Page: 111 and 113; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 6-9 In evaluating examples and illustrations, we must be concerned with the recency of observation and the attitude of the observer.

Answer: T; Page: 113; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 6-10 Artifacts are numerical representations of information about people, events, and phenomena.

Answer: F; Page: 113 and 115; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 6-11 Statistical evidence need not meet the test of having come from a reliable source.

Answer: F; Page: 114; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 6-12 Artifacts are an exhibit of objects, photographs, diagrams, or recordings.

Answer: T; Page: 115; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 6-13 Premises are factual claims that are so widely accepted they have the status of "fact".

Answer: T; Page: 116; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 6-14 Laboratory experiments differ from field experiments in that they afford the experimenter less control over the variables of research interest.

Answer: F; Page: 117-118; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 6-15 The credibility of scientific evidence derives from the rigor of the scientific method rather than the prestige of those who use it.

Answer: T; Page: 119; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 6-16 Statements that interpret or evaluate factual information made by an expert in a given field are evidence from opinion.

Answer: T; Page: 122; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 6-17 Evidence from opinion is accepted by an audience when they believe the "expert" is qualified to offer the opinion.

Answer: T; Page: 123; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 6-18 Because opinion evidence is based on the interpretation and evaluation of facts by "experts," such evidence cannot be tested for reliability.

Answer: F; Page: 123; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Factual 6-19 When you are excerpting specific facts and opinions you will use to construct your arguments, it is important to include information about the source it came from (e.g. author, author’s qualifications, title, date of publication, page number).

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6-20 When you excerpt specific facts and opinions you will use to construct your arguments from cybersources, information about the source it comes from should include the URL and the date you recorded the information since Internet sites can vanish or change address.

Answer: T; Page: 126; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual Multiple Choice 6-1 Why is the library potentially a better source of information than the Internet? (a) Because it is better organized. (b) Because it probably contains more accurate information. (c) Because it has historical as well as current information. (d) All of the above Answer: D; Page: 102-104; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 6-2 Tracings, which appear toward the bottom of a card in the library’s physical card catalog or electronic record, or the Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data in a book itself are valuable to look at because they provide you with information on (a) other terms, besides the one you used, that the book could be found under. (b) who has checked this book out most recently. (c) other books by this author. (d) All of the above Answer: A; Page: 105-106; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 6-3 A source of information which provides a comprehensive treatment of subjects but can become quickly outdated is (a) the Library of Congress Subject Headings. (b) books. (c) periodicals. (d) newspapers.

Answer: B; Page: 106; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 6-4 Which of the following indexes does NOT catalog scholarly journals and special interest publications. (a) General Science Index (b) Humanities Index (c) Reader’s Guide to Periodical Literature (d) Social Science Index Answer: C; Page: 106-107; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 6-5 Which of the following is NOT a test to be used in assessing the reliability of examples and illustrations? (a) Data accuracy. (b) Things will continue in the future as they have in the past. (c) The attitude of the observer.

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(d) The originality of the observation.

Answer: B; Page: 112-113; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 6-6 When a portion, or sample, of a population of people, events, or phenomena of a particular kind are observed, the resulting statistical data is termed (a) descriptive. (b) inferential. (c) unambiguous. (d) methodological.

Answer: B; Page: 113; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 6-7 The reliability of the source of information is one test to perform when assessing the reliability of (a) artifacts. (b) examples and illustrations. (c) premises. (d) statistics.

Answer: D; Page: 114; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual

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6-8 __________ are tested by having the audience employ their own senses for verification. (a) Statistics (b) Premises (c) Artifacts (d) Examples Answer: C; Page: 115; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 6-9 __________ are that form of factual evidence which is accepted on the basis of uniform patterns of experience. (a) Statistics (b) Premises (c) Artifacts (d) Examples Answer: B; Page: 116; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 6-10 In scientific evidence, the variable which is hypothesized to produce changes in another variable is the (a) dependent variable. (b) hypothesized variable. (c) independent variable. (d) nuisance variable.

Answer: C; Page: 117; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 6-11 Scientific evidence must meet the test of (a) source reliability. (b) statistical accuracy in data collection. (c) comparing things that are really comparable. (d) All of the above Answer: C; Page: 119-120; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 6-12 What test of evidence must scientific evidence must meet? (a) The generalizability of settings. (b) The generalizability of subjects. (c) The consistency with other findings. (d) All of the above Answer: D; Page: 119-121; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Conceptual

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6-13 An audience will accept the opinion of an uncredentialed source (a) when the opinion was expressed recently. (b) when they view the opinion as expressing a premise. (c) if the opinion is internally consistent. (d) under no circumstances.

Answer: B; Page: 123; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 6-14 What test of evidence must opinion evidence meet? (a) The source must be a qualified expert in the field by training or background. (b) The source must be relatively unbiased. (c) There must be a reliable factual basis for the opinion. (d) All of the above Answer: D; Page: 123-124; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 6-15 Experimental observations, statistics, expert opinion statements, premises, or artifacts, are common sources of (a) claims. (b) evidence. (c) warrants. (d) propositions.

Answer: B; Page: 124-125; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual Read the following argument and use it to answer questions 16 and 17.

Claim: Athletes receive preferential treatment in some classes.

Grounds: Members of the basketball team are allowed to miss classes without incurring the penalties imposed on non-athletes who miss classes.

Warrant: These conditions suggest preferential treatment of the athlete over the nonathlete by some professors.

Backing: Preferential treatment in the classroom is commonly recognized as being allowed to miss classes without penalty and being allowed to make up exams that have been missed.

6-16 The type of evidence used as grounds in the argument stated above is (a) an example. (b) a premise. (c) an opinion. (d) a scientific report.

Answer: A; Page: 111-112; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied

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6-17 The type of evidence used as backing in the argument stated above is (a) an example. (b) a premise. (c) an opinion. (d) a scientific report.

Answer: B; Page: 116; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied Read the following argument and use it to answer questions 18, 19 and 20.

There is every reason to believe that the concussion crisis in NFL football will get worse.

The speed and size of professional athletes have made American football more dangerous. Offensive linemen now average nearly 315 pounds—65 more pounds than they did 30 years ago. They launch that weight from a three-point stance, headfirst, at opposing linemen of nearly the same size. The impact of two such massive players produces a concussion in the cranium when the brain bangs against the skull. Professor of Neurology at Boston University, Dr. Ann McKee, notes, “when helmets clash, the head decelerates instantly, yet the brain continues to lurch forward, like a driver who jams the brakes on. Even though the skull is protected by a helmet, the brain itself is still in motion and a concussion is often the result.”

6-18 “Offensive linemen now average nearly 315 pounds—65 more pounds than they did 30 years ago” is (a) an example. (b) a statistic. (c) an opinion. (d) a scientific report.

Answer: B; Page: 113; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 6-19 Professor of Neurology at Boston University, Dr. Ann McKee statement, “when helmets clash, the head decelerates instantly, yet the brain continues to lurch forward, like a driver who jams the brakes on. Even though the skull is protected by a helmet, the brain itself is still in motion and a concussion is often the result” is (a) an example. (b) a statistic. (c) an opinion. (d) a scientific report.

Answer: C; Page: 122; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied

6-20 In assessing the reliability of Dr. McKee’s statement we would be concerned about (a) the recency of the observation. (b) the comparability of units being compared.

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(c) the expertise of the source. (d) the generalizability of settings and subjects.

Answer: C; Page: 123; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied

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CHAPTER 7 HOW DO I REASON WITH MY AUDIENCE? Learning Objectives  To differentiate between causal reasoning and sign reasoning.  To demonstrate the ability to make valid generalizations.  To decide when it is appropriate to reason from a parallel case or an analogy.  To develop valid arguments from authority.  To produce an argument from dilemma only when circumstances warrant it.

Key Terms analogy the pattern of reasoning that compares fundamentally dissimilar cases and asserts that what is known to be true of one is true of the other; the weakest form of reasoning (140) authority the pattern of reasoning that relies on the credibility or expertise of a source of information to warrant acceptance of a claim (142) cause the pattern of reasoning that suggests a temporal connection between phenomena in which the first is capable of producing the second (130) dilemma the pattern of reasoning in which a choice between unacceptable alternatives is presented when a true either–or situation exists (145) generalization a form of inductive reasoning in which conclusions are drawn about an entire class of events or individuals based on a representative sample of items from the class (136) necessary cause a cause that must be present for an effect to occur but that is not itself sufficient to produce the effect without the presence of other necessary causes (132) parallel case a pattern of reasoning based on examining two or more similar cases and inferring that what is known to be true of one will be true of the other (138) sign the pattern of reasoning that suggests a temporal connection between phenomena in which the first is a symptom, condition, or mark used to predict the second (133) sufficient cause a cause that must be present for an effect to occur and is itself capable of producing the effect without the presence of any other causal factors (132)

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Lecture Launchers  Identifying Patterns of Reasoning Bring in a copy of a newspaper or magazine article in which the author uses a variety of patterns of reasoning. Number the paragraphs to facilitate the discussion that will follow. Ask the students to identify the various patterns of reasoning and to apply the tests of validity to them.

The article in the April 21, 2010 Philadelphia Inquirer mentioned in the previous chapter is particularly good since it contains examples of reasoning from cause, sign, generalization, parallel case, and authority.

Powerball has certain features that CAUSE players to prefer it to MegaMillions. (paragraphs 17, 20, 25 and 27) The speed with which Powerball’s jackpot grows is a SIGN that people prefer it. (paragraphs 2 and 3) Player preferences in Pennsylvania and New Jersey can be GENERALIZED to other states. (paragraphs 7 and 8) Lottery tickets are a PARALLEL CASE to consumer products like facial tissue or window cleaner where brand equity matters. (paragraph 30) An AUTHORITY in the field of business says Powerball is a better name/brand. (paragraphs 19, 29, 31 and 32) If you want to press things, there is an ANALOGY of sorts in paragraph 6.

Link to web resource for this lecture launcher: The Inquirer article has been moved to the newspaper’s archives which require a fee to access, but the full text of the article with paragraphing intact is available at http://www.lotterypost.com/news/212751  Understanding the Nature of Warrants and Reasoning from Analogy Bring is a picture of an obscure tool used to fasten things together, and ask students what it is and what it is used for. Ask them to name all the ways different kinds of material can be joined together (e.g. nailing, screwing, bolting, stapling, gluing, taping, soldering, welding). Use this as a springboard to discuss warrants via analogy (e.g. just as there is a right way to join materials together in a particular application, there is a right way to join grounds to the claim they supports).

We favor using the Allen Wrench as stimulus material since few students have ever seen one and if they have, they may not know its name, since it looks nothing like a wrench. You can find a number of images by Googling your tool of choice.

Link to web resource for this lecture launcher: http://www.google.com/search?q=allen+wrench&rls=com.microsoft:en-us:IESearchBox&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&sourceid=ie7&rlz=1I7GFRC

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 Dilemmas Bring in a news story about a situation in which people faced a dilemma. Get students talking about the choice the people in the story made, why they made it, and whether it was really an either-or situation. Below are links to stories about firemen who responded to a call but did nothing until the fire spread to the property next door. If you want to get students to explore the kind of moral and ethical dilemmas people can encounter, there are numerous websites that provide scenarios for them to consider.

Break them into groups and have them try to arrive at a consensus on what they would do and their “good reasons” for making that choice.

Links to web resources about the house fire that was allowed to burn: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39516346/ns/us_news-life/ http://www.examiner.com/us-headlines-in-national/firefighters-let-gene-cranick-shouse-burn-pets-die-over-75-00-video http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/10/04/firefighters-watch-ashom_n_750272.html http://today.msnbc.msn.com/id/39535911/ns/today-today_people Links to web resources containing moral/ethical dilemmas for discussion: http://www.differencemakers.com/swapshop/pdf/dilemma_examples.pdf http://listverse.com/2007/10/21/top-10-moral-dilemmas/ Learning Activities 1. Conduct a discussion of argument from cause on one or more controversial topics such as gun control, abortion, euthanasia, or a campus controversy. What necessary and sufficient conditions establish cause in each case? Are these instances in which multiple causality may apply? What would be necessary to prove cause in each case? 

 

Topics such as gun control and abortion certainly provide for lively discussion, but it may be advisable to substitute the topic area or areas which students began researching in completing the activities in the previous chapter. The more closely related the in-class discussion is to what students have been, and subsequently will be, asked to do, the more rapid the learning.

If your syllabus includes in-class participation as one factor in determining a student’s grade in the course, assign discussion leadership responsibility to two students.

This activity can not only be used for discussion, but makes an interesting essay question for either an out-of-class assignment or as part of a test. If you do this, restrict yourself to a single topic and parse points as follows: 40% necessary and sufficient conditions 30% multiple causality 30% what is necessary to prove cause

2. Find examples of public opinion polls on an issue such as gun control, pollution, or presidential popularity. Construct an argument from sign based on the statistical information. Explain the strengths and weaknesses of this sign in establishing the probable truth of your claim. 

See notes above for Learning Activity 1. If you turn this activity into an essay question, assign half the points to the argument the student constructs, and the other half to the discussion of its strengths and weaknesses.

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3. Examine the text of several speeches from a recent issue of Vital Speeches, or other similar source, for examples of the use of analogies. Share your examples in class. Which analogies succeed in creating comparisons that make the unknown more easily understood? Which seem to fail, and why do they fail? On the basis of this experience, are analogies a useful reasoning technique? 

As with Activities 1 and 2, this activity benefits from being keyed into the topic or topics that the students have been researching. If they haven't come across some analogies already, or are having trouble identifying them, use Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Have A Dream" speech to get them started.

True or False 7-1 The reasoning process in argumentation is most commonly found in the warrant step in the Toulmin model.

Answer: T; Page: 129; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Conceptual 7-2 When we reason, we make inferences about the relationship between the grounds and the claim these grounds support.

Answer: T; Page: 130; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 7-3 Argument from cause suggests a temporal connection between events in which one comes before the other.

Answer: T; Page: 130-131; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 7-4 "Since the Pegasus, a wide bodied jetliner with serious design flaws, has a record of crashing more frequently than any other wide bodied commercial jetliner, we are safe in assuming that these crashes are caused by design flaws," is an example of argument from sign.

Answer: F; Page: 130 and 133; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 7-5 In testing the validity of the argument provided in question 4, we would attempt to determine if the cause, design flaws, was sufficient to produce the effect, crashes.

Answer: T; Page: 132-133; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Applied 7-6 In testing the validity of the argument provided in question 4, we would attempt to determine if other factors, such as weather or pilot error, might impede or negate establishment of a causal relationship between design flaws and crashes.

Answer: T; Page: 132-133; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Applied 7-7 Any two phenomena that occur in sequence possess a cause-effect relationship to each other.

Answer: F; Page: 132; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 7-8 Causes are observable symptoms, conditions, or marks used to prove that a certain state of affairs exists.

Answer: F; Page: 133; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual

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7-9 Statistics are often interpreted through sign reasoning.

Answer: T; Page: 133; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 7-10 Argument from sign analyzes a situation, while argument from cause describes a situation.

Answer: F; Page: 135; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 7-11 A generalization is a form of deductive reasoning.

Answer: F; Page: 136; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 7-12 When you make a generalization, you look at the details of examples, specific cases, and occurrences and infer that what is true of them is true of the entire class they represent.

Answer: T; Page: 136; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 7-13 Generalizations reason that, on the basis of two or more similar events or cases, what is true of case one will also be true of case two.

Answer: F; Page: 138; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 7-14 "Since the Pegasus, a wide bodied commercial jetliner has been shown to have serious design flaws, it is reasonable to assume that other wide bodied commercial jetliners, such as the Valkyrie, have serious design flaws," is an example of argument from parallel case.

Answer: T; Page: 138; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 7-15 The strength of the argument offered in question 14 would rest on the extent to which the two aircraft are similar. Insofar as they are different, the argument is weakened.

Answer: T; Page: 139; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Applied 7-16 Argument from parallel case is just another name for argument from analogy.

Answer: F; Page: 140; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Conceptual 7-17 Argument from analogy is one of the strongest forms of argument.

Answer: F; Page: 141; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 7-18 Analogies are most useful in illustrating, clarifying, or making an argument more memorable or striking.

Answer: T; Page: 141; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 7-19 Argument from authority relies on the credibility and expertise of the source to warrant acceptance of a claim.

Answer: T; Page: 142; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 7-20 Arguments from dilemma are built with two or more arguments from cause that embody undesirable consequences.

Answer: T; Page: 145; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual

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Multiple Choice 7-1 In reasoning from __________, phenomena are connected along a time line, the one which occurs first acts as the generative agent which brings the second into being. (a) definition (b) dilemma (c) cause (d) sign Answer: C; Page: 130; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 7-2 What type of reasoning is used in the following argument?

There is every reason to believe that the concussion crisis in NFL football will get worse.

The speed and size of professional athletes have made American football more dangerous. Offensive linemen now average nearly 315 pounds—65 more pounds than they did 30 years ago. They launch that weight from a three-point stance, headfirst, at opposing linemen of nearly the same size. The impact of two such massive players produces a concussion in the cranium when the brain bangs against the skull. Professor of Neurology at Boston University, Dr. Ann McKee, notes, “when helmets clash, the head decelerates instantly, yet the brain continues to lurch forward, like a driver who jams the brakes on. Even though the skull is protected by a helmet, the brain itself is still in motion and a concussion is often the result.” (a) Argument from dilemma. (b) Argument from authority. (c) Argument from cause. (d) Argument from generalization.

Answer: C; Page: 130; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 7-3 In testing the validity of the argument in question 2, you would be well advised to ask (a) is the asserted relationship between the grounds and the effect consistent, or are there instances in which the effect has not followed from these grounds? (b) are sufficient case or instances cited as grounds to ensure the reliability of the generalization? (c) how similar are the cases cited and are the similarities cited key factors? (d) is this truly an either-or situation?

Answer: A; Page: 132; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 7-4 Which of the following is NOT a test of argument from cause? (a) Is the cause capable of producing the effect? (b) Is the effect produced by the cause or did it occur coincidentally with the cause? (c) Can the symptom in question be taken as reliable? (d) Has such an effect always followed such a cause?

Answer: C; Page: 132-133; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 7-5 Reasoning from __________ relies on observable symptoms, conditions, or marks that tell us what is the case. (a) parallel case

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(b) analogy (c) generalization (d) sign Answer: D; Page: 133; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 7-6 The following argument is an example of __________ reasoning.

CLAIM: Athletes receive preferential treatment in some classes.

GROUNDS: Members of the football team are allowed to miss classes without incurring the penalties imposed on non-athletes who miss classes.

WARRANT: These conditions suggest preferential treatment of the athlete over the nonathlete by some professors.

BACKING: Preferential treatment in the classroom is commonly recognized as being allowed to miss classes without penalty and being allowed extra time for exams. (a) cause (b) sign (c) generalization (d) parallel case Answer: B; Page: 133; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 7-7 In testing the validity of the argument in question 6, you would be well advised to ask (a) do the grounds reliably point to the conclusion drawn and not some alternative conclusion? (b) are sufficient case or instances cited as grounds to ensure the reliability of the generalization? (c) how similar are the cases cited and are the similarities cited key factors? (d) is this truly an either-or situation?

Answer: A; Page: 135; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 7-8 Reasoning from __________ relies upon whether or not the condition or mark cited can be taken as reliable proof. (a) cause (b) sign (c) parallel case (d) generalization Answer: B; Page: 135; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 7-9 Which of the following is a test of argument from sign? (a) Is the sign capable of producing the effect? (b) Is the effect produced by the sign or did it occur coincidentally with the sign? (c) Can the sign in question be taken as reliable? (d) Has such an effect always followed such a sign?

Answer: C; Page: 135; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual

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7-10 Reasoning from __________ is a form of induction which uses the details of examples, specific cases, or situations and makes predictions about an entire class. (a) parallel case (b) analogy (c) generalization (d) sign Answer: C; Page: 136; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 7-11 Which of the following is NOT a test of argument from generalization? (a) Have a sufficient number of cases or instances been cited? (b) Are the instances cited representative of all members of the group? (c) Are the cases similar in important, non-trivial factors? (d) Are the cases or instances taken from a random sample of the group's population?

Answer: C; Page: 138-139; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 7-12 Reasoning from __________ makes a figurative comparison between case that are essentially dissimilar. (a) analogy (b) parallel case (c) dilemma (d) definition Answer: A; Page: 140; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 7-13 "North Korean leader Kim Jong Il’s claim about what his country will do with nuclear weapons can best be understood in terms of the character Darth Vader in the Star Wars trilogy. North Korea is the Death Star of the Pacific Rim." This statement reflects the reasoning pattern termed (a) parallel case. (b) analogy. (c) generalization. (d) authority.

Answer: B; Page: 140; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 7-14 In testing the validity of the argument in question 13, you would well advised to ask (a) are the dissimilarities between the leader of a country and a fictional movie character so great as to adversely influence perception of the implied similarities in the analogy? (b) are sufficient cases of instances cited as grounds to ensure the reliability of the generalization? (c) is the relationship described consistent with the views of a majority or minority of experts in the field? (d) All of the above Answer: A; Page: 141; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 7-15 “The war against the Taliban is like the popular card game of Texas Hold ‘Em in which the terrorists consistently out bluff the Obama Administration.” This statement reflects the reasoning pattern known as

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(a) parallel case. (b) generalization. (c) analogy. (d) authority.

Answer: C; Page: 140; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 7-16 In testing the validity of the argument in question 15, you would be well advised to ask (a) are the war against terrorism and a card game sufficiently similar in all important ways for the analogy to hold up? (b) are sufficient cases of instances cited as grounds to ensure the reliability of the generalization? (c) is the relationship described consistent with the views of a majority or minority of experts in the field? (d) All of the above Answer: A; Page: 141; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 7-17 An argument from __________ relies on the credibility and expertise of the source to warrant acceptance of a claim. (a) parallel case. (b) generalization. (c) analogy. (d) authority.

Answer: D; Page: 142; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 7-18 Which of the following is a test of argument from authority? (a) Is the source a qualified expert in the field by reason of training, experience, or background? (b) Is the statement made within the context of the authority’s area of expertise? (c) Is the authority unbiased? (d) All of the above Answer: D; Page: 143-144; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 7-19 The pattern of reasoning based on creating an either-or choice is (a) analogy. (b) parallel case. (c) dilemma. (d) cause.

Answer: C; Page: 145; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual

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7-20 “If I stay in school, I’ll be tens of thousands of dollars in debt by the time I graduate. If I drop out of school, I won’t be able to land a high-paying job.” This is an example of an argument from (a) sign. (b) cause. (c) dilemma. (d) generalization.

Answer: C; Page: 145; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual

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CHAPTER 8 WHAT SHOULD I AVOID? Learning Objectives  To recognize fallacies of reasoning and what causes them to occur.  To identify fallacies of appeal when they are committed.  To avoid fallacies in the use of language in creating arguments.

Key Terms ad hominem argument the fallacy of attacking the person rather than the argument (155) ad ignorantium argument the fallacy of asserting that when something has not been proven false it must therefore be true (159) ad populum argument the fallacy of asserting that something should be believed or done because popular opinion favors it (160) ambiguity occurs when a term is used in legitimate but different senses by two or more persons involved in argumentation (165) appeal to authority the fallacy of reasoning that occurs when an ultimate source of authority is invoked to restrict further consideration of an issue (161) appeal to emotion urges acceptance of a claim out of pity for those who have suffered some misfortune or out of a fear of adverse consequences which may occur (160) appeal to tradition urges acceptance of a claim because it represents a customary belief or course of action (163) circular reasoning the fallacy of reasoning in which the grounds and warrant are equivalent in meaning to the claim they purport to support, thus making no inferential leap from grounds to claim (153) emotionally loaded language is a problem when it becomes the sole means used to alter the belief and behavior of others (166) equivocation occurs when an individual uses a term in different ways in the context of the same argument (165) fallacies errors in reasoning, appeal, or language use that render a conclusion invalid (148) fallacy of composition is the erroneous claim that what is true of a part is true of the whole (150) fallacy of division is the erroneous claim that what is true of the whole is true of its parts (151) fallacy of refutation directs attention to the successful refutation of an argument that was never raised (152) forced dichotomy (false dilemma) the fallacy of presenting a choice between unacceptable alternatives as being necessary when a true either–or situation does not exist (157) 100

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hasty generalization the fallacy of jumping to a conclusion based on too few instances or on atypical instances of particular phenomena (148) non sequitur an argument that is irrelevant to the issue or in which the claim does not follow from the proof offered (153) reductio ad absurdum the fallacy of reducing another’s claim to absurdity rather than raising serious points to refute it (163) shifting ground occurs when an arguer abandons his or her original position and adopts a new one (156) simple evasion occurs when an arguer changes the subject for no apparent reason or bypassing a critcal issue (154) technical jargon is a problem when the audience is presented with too many new terms or when it is used to impress the audience or replace sound reasoning (166) Lecture Launchers  False Dilemmas Present the class with what appears to be a dilemma, but is actually a logic puzzle.

The link below is to one of our favorites. Ask them what they would do, and use their responses to initiate a discussion of the fallacy of forcing a dichotomy and false cause.

You will find this is particularly effective if you concluded the previous chapter with Lecture Launcher on Dilemmas. Students will assume what you are doing is an extension of what happened during the last class meeting and respond accordingly and erroneously. Even if you didn’t use that Lecture Launcher, this one is worthwhile not only because it is relevant to exploring false dilemmas/forced dichotomies, but also because it involves the kind of thing an interviewee often asked to measure their ability to think on their feet.

Link to web resource for this lecture launcher: http://www.devdaily.com/blog/post/software-dev/job-interview-question-car-busstop-three-people  Identifying Fallacies Distribute copies of an editorial or article that offers an opinion, a letter to the editor or blog posting no longer than one page in length that contains one or more fallacies of reasoning, appeal, or language use. You won’t have to look far. We suggest starting with the latest issue of the campus newspaper. Ask the students to identify the fallacies and explain why the use of reasoning, appeal or language is flawed.

Learning Activities 1. Discuss current examples of advertising in the mass media. Which seem to have fallacies? What kinds of fallacies are they? Which examples of advertising, if any, employ sound reasoning according to the tests in Chapter 7?  

This activity is made more interesting if advertising from different media (print, radio, television, the Web), using different formats (predominantly visual or verbal) are considered.

If your syllabus includes in-class participation as one factor in determining a student’s grade in the 101

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course, assign discussion leadership responsibility to two students.

This activity can not only be used for discussion, but makes an interesting essay question for either an out-of-class assignment or as part of a test. If you do this, provide the students with no more than three examples at least one of which does not include fallacies of reasoning, appeal, or language use. Assign one-third of the total points possible to the students’ discussion of each ad.

2. Each of the following statements represents a fallacy of the types discussed in this chapter. Identify the type of fallacy in each statement and explain why the reasoning, appeal, or use of language is in error. Some statements contain more than one error, so be sure to identify all fallacies.

A. In reference to high levels of defense and social spending, the government should have learned from the Vietnam experience that you can't have guns and butter at the same time.

B. By definition, since a housewife is someone who doesn't work, it follows that all housewives are unemployed.

C. When you've seen one zoo, you've seen them all.

D. The Democratic party has always been the party of the working man and woman.

It makes no sense for the AFL-CIO to endorse a Republican candidate.

E. Obviously, the authors of this book want to make us schizophrenic. They want us to learn how to both advocate and oppose a proposition on the same topic.

F. Your argument that drunk driving causes death and injury is very interesting, but what about all the people who weren't wearing their seatbelts at the time of the accident? Aren't you assuming that every person involved in an automobile accident has been drinking? You can't really make that claim until you look at some of the other information.

G. We outlawed prayer in schools and look what happened! Within ten years of that sacrilegious Court's decision, the divorce rate approached 50 percent, students were becoming functionally illiterate, drug abuse increased in our schools, and juvenile crime rose.

H. Cheating on exams must surely be acceptable. After all, most college students cheat on an exam at least once.

I. The advocate has obviously misanalyzed the situation. The Supreme Court ruled in favor of freedom of choice in the matter of abortions in 1973, not 1972.

J. The Motor Car Company's new Q-Body designs have had serious problems with their brake systems. I'd be suspicious of all their products.

K. Rolling Valley Vineyards must produce good wines. Their commercials state that they are the only American winery that doesn't use pesticides to control insect damages to the crop. We should all be concerned about pesticides in what we eat and drink.

L. The chairman of the rules committee says that our bylaws have been incorrectly developed. He ought to know. After all, he's the chairman of the rules committee.

M. We shouldn't be surprised that State University's basketball team was cited for recruiting violations. Recruiting players has always been a matter of which college could offer a prospect the best deal.

N. Professional athletics is a hotbed of drug abuse. Why just last week, three more football players were arrested for using cocaine.

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Key to types of fallacies.

A. hasty generalization and forced dichotomy B. circular reasoning, ambiguity, and equivocation C. fallacy of composition D. appeal to tradition E. appeal to fear and emotionally loaded language F. fallacy of refutation G. emotionally loaded language and non sequitur H. hasty generalization and equivocation I. seizing on a trivial point J. fallacy of composition K. non sequitur L. appeal to authority and circular reasoning M. appeal to pity and tradition N. hasty generalization and fallacy of composition If your syllabus includes in-class participation as one factor in determining a student’s grade in the course, assign discussion leadership responsibility to two students.

This activity can not only be used for discussion, but makes an interesting essay/short answer question as part of a test. If you do this, decide how many of the statements to include and award equal points for each.

True or False 8-1 Fallacies only occur when arguers intentionally attempt to deceive their listeners or readers.

Answer: F; Page: 148; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 8-2 Hasty generalizations occur when there are insufficient cases presented to warrant the claim.

Answer: T; Page: 149; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 8-3 A hasty generalization will occur if your reasoning is based upon an atypical example.

Answer: T; Page: 149; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 8-4 When you assert that what is true of the whole will be true of its parts, you risk committing a fallacy of composition.

Answer: F; Page: 150-151; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 8-5 The fallacies of composition, division, and refutation can occur when arguers resort to using emotional rather than logical appeals.

Answer: F; Page: 150-152; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 8-6 “The food at Wally World is bland and overpriced. I wouldn’t bother getting something to eat at any theme park,” is an example of the fallacy of composition.

Answer: T; Page: 150-151; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Applied 8-7 Begging the question occurs when the claim is supported by reasons that do nothing more than rephrase the claim itself.

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8-8 A non sequitir is an argument in which the character of the arguer rather than the arguments he or she advanced is attacked.

Answer: F; Page: 153; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 8-9 An ad hominem argument is one in which the character of the arguer rather than the arguments he or she advanced is attacked.

Answer: T; Page: 155; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 8-10 If you have no response to the arguments of another, you should offer an ad hominem argument to avoid committing the fallacy of avoiding the issue.

Answer: F; Page: 155; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 8-11 When you offer arguments applying the tests of proof, source credibility, and sound reasoning to demonstrate the deficiencies in another person’s arguments, you are committing the fallacy of employing ad hominem arguments.

Answer: F; Page: 156; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual

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8-12 When an arguer abandons his original position on an issue and adopts a new one, a shift of ground has probably taken place.

Answer: T; Page: 156; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 8-13 The primary difference between an argument from dilemma and the fallacy of forcing a dichotomy is that in the latter the choices available to the listener or reader are over simplified.

Answer: T; Page: 157; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 8-14 It is not an error in reasoning to ask your audience to accept a claim because no proof contradicting it exists.

Answer: F; Page: 159; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 8-15 Appealing to emotions such as pity and fear will always result in the commission of a fallacy.

Answer: F; Page: 161; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 8-16 An argument from authority is fallacious if the use of the authority prevents the other side of the issue from receiving a fair hearing.

Answer: T; Page: 161; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 8-17 An argument from authority is fallacious if the source of opinion lacks expertise.

Answer: T; Page: 162; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 8-18 As long as we remember that meanings are in words, and use the appropriate words, we can avoid committing fallacies of language.

Answer: F; Page: 164; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 8-19 Because a word may have a number of legitimate meanings, you need to be careful not to commit errors of ambiguity or equivocation.

Answer: T; Page: 165; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 8-20 A good way to avoid committing a fallacy of language is to use as much of the technical terminology of the field of the proposition as possible.

Answer: F; Page: 166; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual

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Multiple Choice 8-1 In this category of fallacy in argumentation, the problem is often the result of a flaw in the warrant that justifies the mental leap between grounds and claim. Errors of this kind fall into the category of fallacies (a) in reasoning. (b) of appeal. (c) in language use. (d) of evaluation.

Answer: A; Page: 148; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 8-2 Arguments that offer conclusion based on insufficient information, too few instances, atypical examples, or offer conclusions that overstate what is warranted by the evidence are referred to as (a) hasty generalizations. (b) fallacies of composition. (c) ad hominem arguments. (d) forced dichotomies.

Answer: A; Page: 149-150; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 8-3 "Since the Pegasus, a wide bodied commercial jetliner has been shown to have serious design flaws, it is reasonable to assume that other wide bodied commercial jetliners, such as the Valkyrie, have serious design flaws." What fallacy of reasoning does this argument commit? (a) Composition. (b) Division. (c) Refutation. (d) None, the argument is not fallacious.

Answer: A; Page: 150; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 8-4 “You say the food at Wally World is bland and overpriced. Did you try the tacos or the hot wings? Did you use the family feast plan, which can save you a lot of money? Did you really give the food at the park a fair shot?” This argument commits the fallacy of (a) hasty generalization. (b) the fallacy of refutation. (c) ad ignorantium argument. (d) circular reasoning.

Answer: B; Page: 152; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied

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8-5 A straw man argument is one in which an arguer does which of the following? (a) Directs attention to the refutation of an argument that was never raised. (b) Restates an argument in a way that makes it appear weaker. (c) Commits a transfer fallacy. (d) All of the above Answer: D; Page: 152; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Factual 8-6 "If we accept the argument about the lack of safety of the Pegasus, then we must abandon whatever faith we have in the free enterprise system as we know it," is a statement that commits the fallacy of (a) circular reasoning. (b) use of technical jargon. (c) appeal to authority. (d) irrelevant argument.

Answer: D; Page: 153; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 8-7 "Safety questions not withstanding, I think everyone will admit that the Pegasus is a much more comfortable passenger plane than the Valkyrie or any other wide bodied jet."

This argument commits the fallacy of (a) circular reasoning. (b) hasty generalization. (c) simple evasion. (d) forcing a dichotomy.

Answer: C; Page: 154; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 8-8 When an arguer abandons their original position on a particular argument and adopts a new one, they are committing the fallacy of (a) shifting ground. (b) non sequitir. (c) division. (d) ad populum.

Answer: A; Page: 156; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 8-9 When an arguer magnifies the importance of a weak argument out of proportion and uses it to discredit the other person's entire position, the arguer risks committing the fallacy of (a) simple evasion. (b) shifting ground. (c) ad hominem argument. (d) seizing on a trivial point.

Answer: D; Page: 157; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 8-10 An argument from dilemma becomes a fallacious when (a) the choices it offers are too simplistic. (b) the arguer fails to account for the possibility of partial or multiple causality. (c) the arguer fails to consider alternative choices fully.

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(d) All of the above Answer: D; Page: 157; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 8-11 One type of fallacy is to claim “that because we cannot prove something has not happened or does not exist, it therefore must have happened or must exist.” We call this (a) a fallacy in reasoning. (b) a fallacy of appeal. (c) a fallacy in language use. (d) a fallacy of evaluation.

Answer: B; Page: 159-160; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 8-12 When a claim is justified on the basis of the fact that the majority of people believe it, the arguer may be committing the fallacy of offering an __________ argument. (a) ad absurdum (b) ad hominem (c) ad ignorantium (d) ad populum Answer: D; Page: 160; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 8-13 "How can we question the safety of the Pegasus when so many people choose to fly on them each and every day?" This is an example of an appeal to (a) ignorance. (b) the people. (c) tradition. (d) fear.

Answer: B; Page: 160; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 8-14 "It is foolish to claim that the Pegasus is unsafe, after all the Federal Aviation Administration has certified it to fly and has not revoked that certification," is a statement which commits the fallacy of appeal to (a) ignorance. (b) the people. (c) tradition. (d) authority.

Answer: D; Page: 161; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 8-15 An argument from authority becomes a fallacious appeal to authority when (a) a seemingly authoritative source of opinion lacks real expertise on the subject. (b) the authority is characterized as infallible and used to shut off further discussion of the issues. (c) the use of authoritative opinion prevents a fair hearing of the other side of the issue. (d) All of the above Answer: D; Page: 161; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 8-16 Asking your audience to accept something because it represents the customs of our 108

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society, rather than because the issues justify its acceptance, commits the fallacy of appeal to (a) ignorance. (b) the people. (c) authority. (d) tradition.

Answer: D; Page: 163; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 8-17 "More people are killed and injured every year in their bathtubs than in Pegasus. I suppose the next thing you will argue is that we should give up bathing." This argument commits the fallacy of (a) appeal to fear. (b) refutation. (c) appeal to ignorance. (d) reducing a claim to absurdity.

Answer: D; Page: 163; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Applied 8-18 Which of the following is NOT a fallacy in language use? (a) Equivocation (b) Ambiguity (c) Emotionally loaded language (d) Definition by negation Answer: D; Page: 165-167; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 8-19 If in answering your question about how people reason, your professor uses the terms “epistemological” and “ontological,” and you have no idea what those two terms mean, the professor may be committing (a) a fallacy in reasoning. (b) a fallacy of appeal. (c) a fallacy in language use. (d) All of the above Answer: C; Page: 166; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 8-20 “The university’s golf course is terrible. The rough is so uneven that you could break your wrist trying to get your ball out of a thick patch, while five feet away you could destroy a club on a rocky patch.” This argument commits the fallacy of using (a) ambiguous language. (b) equivocal language. (c) emotionally loaded language. (d) technical jargon.

Answer: C; Page: 166; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Applied

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CHAPTER 9 HOW ARE FACTUAL PROPOSITIONS ARGUED? Learning Objectives  To analyze factual propositions.  To construct a prima facie case for a factual proposition using arguments of effect, significance and inherency.  To use arguments of denial and extenuation in refuting factual advocacy.  To decide when it is appropriate to use preemptive arguments and how to respond to them.

Key Terms denial refutation of an argument by pointing out how the person advancing it has misanalyzed the situation, overlooked important facts, given undue significance to certain facts, or drawn an unwarranted conclusion (186) effect the consequences of what has happened, is happening, or will happen (174) extenuation refutation of an argument by focusing on the circumstances surrounding a fact or the interpretation of it, which lead to a different conclusion than the one that has been drawn (187) inherency in factual argument often deals with attitudes, why we do or do not believe something to be probably true (176) preemptive argument an argument offered in anticipation of an argument from your opponent to blunt its effectiveness (177) refutation the process of responding to opposing arguments by means of denial and extenuation; refutation becomes fallacious when directed at arguments that were never raised or were not raised in the manner suggested (186) significance the magnitude of an effect; the seriousness of the consequences of that which has happened, is happening, or will happen (175) Lecture Launchers  Resolving Factual Disputes Begin by asking the class something like “is running better than walking to keep dry in the rain?” You’ll probably get proponents of both sides of the question. Press them for the “good reasons” they have for their beliefs, and how we might go about proving the probable truth of those reasons. Write their ideas on the board. At this point we show the segment from the first season of Mythbusters in which hosts Adam Savage and Jamie Hyneman tackled this question. Like most episodes, elements of 110

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effect, significance and inherency are addressed in tackling the myth. Use this to initiate discussion of how factual questions are resolved.

While this particular myth is not available online at this time, many others have been posted on Google Video and YouTube so you can use this Lecture Launcher without resorting to buying DVD sets. Recording your own favorite when it is rebroadcast is also an option. Just be sure the myth you choose is NOT one that involves blowing things up, since these tend to degenerate into silliness.

Links to web resources for this lecture launcher: http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=7765557442856739526&q=mythbusters&hl=en# (breaking glass with human voice) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o3xqZH_ZbeA (killer brace position)  Prima Facie Case in Factual Argument Distribute copies of Newsweek article on why many people believe President Obama is a Muslim, or some other article or editorial that argues a factual proposition. Ask students whether they think the article constitutes a prima facie case for a factual proposition. This opens up the opportunity for a quick review of propositions, presumption, and burden of proof, before turning to the stock issues, and arguments of effect, significance, and inherency as they relate to fact.

The article we suggest is particularly useful, even if you introduced students to it in the the Lecture Launcher on the Elaboriation Likelihood Model in Chapter 1. It includes evidence of the writer having looked at the historical background of the broader issue of how U.S. presidents have been characterized by their opponents as well as exploring how President Obama is viewed and current research into how people form beliefs about people they consider different from themselves.

Links to web resources for this lecture launcher: http://www.newsweek.com/2010/08/31/why-the-belief-that-obama-is-muslim.html Learning Activities 1.

In discussing the advocacy and opposition for the proposition, Jane Austen was a feminist, we did not reveal the outcome of the audience’s response to the hypothesis testing that went on in class. Review the briefs in Box 9.1 and 9.2. Which side makes the more compelling case? Why? How does each arguer’s use of information and reasoning influence your opinion of which side offered the more compelling case? 



The criticism class concluded that classifying Austen as a feminist is more the result of how recent films have interpreted her novels for today’s audience than what can be found in her novels.

Having not seen the films, only read references to them in the briefs, your class may come to a different conclusion.

Use this item as a class activity to develop brief writing skills. Have students examine the advocate and opponent briefs to discuss which brief is more compelling based on the evidence and reasoning techniques used.

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To extend this activity to a more hands-on experience, choose a film that adapts an Austen novel for the contemporary audience; Emma Thompson’s adaptation of Sense and Sensibility is particularly good for this. If you don’t want to devote class time to viewing the entire film, it is easy to select a few clips. Match the clips with the corresponding passages from Austen’s novel, Sense and Sensibility. Have students do their own version of hypothesis testing for the proposition, Jane Austen was a feminist. Linda Troost & Sayre Greenfield’s anthology, Jane Austen in Hollywood, 2nd ed., provides excellent articles if you choose this activity. This may be used as an in-class debate, essay, or brief writing assignment. If used as a graded assignment, parse points as follows: 10% definition of key terms and primary inference 60% development of arguments 30% use of supporting evidence

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The Web site, Male Voices in Praise of Jane Austen at http://www.theloiterer.org, offers argumentation and commentary on how the film and television adaptations either serve as “models” of Austen’s novels or make “egregious errors” that “must be confronted,” along with a variety of other Austen-related topics. How does this argumentation compare to that offered by the advocate and opponent in this chapter? 

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A chapter that has so much material on what is today considered a “woman’s” topic can be offputting to male students. This activity is an opportunity to engage the men in your class with argumentation from men who want to defend Jane Austen from the “feminist bowdlerism” of popular culture’s interpretations of her novels today. The original Loiterer was a literary journal published by one of Austen’s brothers when he was an undergraduate. This site picks up on the traditions of the original Loiterer with a contemporary ethos of what “real men” can find in Austen. The advocate’s brief in Chapter 9 takes the stance that Austen’s own work proves her to be an early feminist, while the opponent’s brief takes the stance that Austen herself was not a feminist, but contemporary film interpretations of her novels impose current feminist views on her stories. The articles in Male Voices tend to support the opponent’s stance.

This activity may be used to examine one or more of the articles posted on the site, or follow the thread of commentary from its discussion postings. If your syllabus includes in-class participation as something that contributes to the student’s final grade, assign discussion leadership responsibility for a particular article of thread of discussion postings to two students.

As an essay assignment, use the Emma Thompson filmed version of Sense and Sensibility discussed above, or one of the other films discussed by Male Voices, with corresponding sections from the Austen novel. Have students write their own contribution to The Loiterer, or a response to one of the site’s articles and parse the points as follows: 10% proposition phrasing 10% definition of key terms and primary inference 50% development of arguments 30% use of supporting evidence

3.

Develop your own class project for factual argumentation as inquiry to determine the relationship between audience perceptions of people and how they are portrayed in various “reality” programs on television. Choose a group of shows that have a similar theme for your inquiry—for example, choose The Jersey Shore (MTV), Jersey Couture (Oxygen), Jerseylicious (Style Network), and The Real Housewives of New Jersey (Bravo). Create a factual proposition to test as a hypothesis about what a specific reality show or group of shows says about people. For the New Jersey reality television group of 112

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shows, the proposition might be: “Reality television programs about people from New Jersey portray them as overly emotional.” Develop positions of advocacy and opposition to test your hypothesis. 

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Any group of reality television programs may be used for this activity. Choose three or four different series that have a common element such as a location (New Jersey), family issues, fashion, or cooking. Show an episode of each, and have the class develop a proposition to be tested as a hypothesis. There is an abundance of online information from the “official” Web sites and Face Book pages for such series and many have a Wikipedia page to use for research.

Students should also research fan commentary and critical reviews and scholarship on reality television.

This activity may be done as an in-class debate or discussion, or it may be used as a written assignment (essay or brief preparation). If this is a graded assignment, parse the points as follows: 10% proposition statement and definition of key terms 60% case development (brief) or argument development (essay) 30% use of supporting evidence

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Phrase your own proposition of past, present, or future fact. Prepare a prima facie case from the advocate’s position. Respond as an opponent to your advocate’s case of factual argumentation, or to that of a classmate as assigned by your instructor. 

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As a major course assignment, this activity may best be done as either “fact finding” or “argument as inquiry.” From the fact-finding perspective, advocates begin on the basis of “we have a problem” and opponents begin on the basis of “we don’t have a problem.” In the argument-asinquiry approach, advocates begin on the basis of “this is an accurate understanding” and opponents begin on the basis of “this is an inaccurate understanding.” A topic may be assigned or students may choose their own topics.

The assignment may be done as in-class debate or discussion, an essay, or brief preparation.

Instruct students to follow the requirements for the advocacy and opposition of fact found in Chapter 9. If the assignment is done as brief preparation, the models of briefs in the chapter may be used. If this is a graded assignment, parse the points as follows: 10% proposition and definition of terms, statement of interpretation from advocate’s or opponent’s perspective 60% argument development 30% use of supporting evidence

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True or False 9-1 Factual argumentation is used in a number of fields to pursue new knowledge and interpret existing knowledge.

Answer: T; Page: 170-171; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 9-2 Although argumentation as inquiry, or knowledge seeking, can be used in value and policy argumentation, it is most commonly used in arguments about facts.

Answer: T; Page: 170; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 9-3 As you investigate the historical background of a factual proposition, collect sufficient research and commentary by experts in the field to give you an understanding of the topic.

Answer: T; Page: 172; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 9-4 In factual argumentation, arguments about effect focus on units of argument that call attention to the consequences of what has happened, is happening, or will happen.

Answer: F; Page: 174; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 9-5 In factual argumentation, arguments about significance focus on units of argument that call the audience's attention to the consequences of what has happened, is happening, or will happen.

Answer: T; Page: 175; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 9-6 In factual argumentation, arguments about significance focus on units of argument that call the audience's attention to why the consequences of what has happened, is happening, or will happen are important.

Answer: T; Page: 176; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 9-7 In factual argumentation, arguments about inherency focus on calling the audience’s attention to the consequences of what happened, is happening, or will happen.

Answer: F; Page: 176; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 9-8 A pre-emptive argument establishes the probability of something being true in the future.

Answer: F; Page: 177; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 9-9 The idea of briefing arguments is adapted from the field of law and legal brief writing.

Answer: T; Page: 178; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 9-10 A brief should contain your main points, subpoints, and the evidence that supports them in your argument.

Answer: T; Page: 178; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 114

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9-11 The opponent in factual argumentation may not dispute the topicality of the advocate's primary inference.

Answer: F; Page: 184; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 9-12 The clarity of the opponent’s position is enhanced if it begins with a statement of his philosophy of opposition which previews his strategy and tells the audience in general terms how he will respond to the advocate’s arguments.

Answer: T; Page: 185; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 9-13 Although the advocate must consider presumption in building a prima facie case in factual argumentation, the opponent need not consider it in determining what to argue and how to argue it.

Answer: F; Page: 185; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Conceptual 9-14 In using the stock issues in factual argumentation, the opponent should determine whether the pattern of reasoning used by the advocate is sufficient to show the probable truth of the primary inference about the proposition.

Answer: T; Page: 186; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 9-15 In using the stock issues in factual argumentation, the opponent should determine whether the advocate has offered proof that is sufficient to show the probable truth of the primary inference about the proposition.

Answer: T; Page: 186; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 9-16 A denial argument suggests the advocate's argument is weak because it misanalyzes the situation and the opponent will provide the proper analysis.

Answer: T; Page: 186; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 9-17 Denial arguments suggest the advocate's argument is weak because it overlooks certain important facts which the opponent provides.

Answer: T; Page: 186; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 9-18 Extenuation arguments claim that the advocate has knowingly distorted information in building her case.

Answer: F; Page: 186-187; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual

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9-19 The opponent's strategy of extenuation is a form of refutation in which the claim is made that the advocate has failed to determine what is required to establish the alleged fact or has failed to provide sufficient proof or reasoning to establish the alleged fact.

Answer: F; Page: 186-187; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 9-20 The opponent must always respond to the advocate's preemptive arguments, even if they are straw man arguments.

Answer: F; Page: 188; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual Multiple Choice 9-1 What can factual argumentation be used to accomplish? (a) Interpret existing knowledge. (b) Advance value and policy arguments. (c) Inquire as to what is rational to believe about a topic. (d) All of the above Answer: D; Page: 170-171; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 9-2 In factual argumentation, we can seek knowledge by treating the proposition as a hypothesis to be tested. Which of the following steps would NOT be part of your hypothesis testing? (a) Decide what question or problem involving fact may be found in the factual proposition. (b) Formulate a primary inference on the subject by defining terms or clarifying what the question or problem asks you to answer or solve. (c) Demonstrate the disparity of not accepting your interpretation of facts. (d) Discover those issues and their supporting arguments that deny the primary inference is probably true.

Answer: C; Page: 170-174; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Conceptual 9-3 As an advocate developing a prima facie case for your proposition of fact, you must develop arguments of significance to support your main points. Significance often is a way of focusing on this element of the analysis of propositions. What is it that draws our attention to a subject or controversy and are often what gives it significance? (a) The immediate cause. (b) The stock issues. (c) The historical background. (d) The primary inference.

Answer: A; Page: 172 and 175; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Conceptual 9-4 In developing arguments to advocate and oppose a proposition of fact, how should you use the stock issues for analyzing factual propositions? (a) To develop the primary inference for your proposition of fact.

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(b) To decide what main points (contentions) to use in developing your proposition of fact. (c) To create an explanation of the appropriate hierarchy of fact in which you want your audience to locate your interpretation of fact. (d) All of the above Answer: B; Page: 173; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 9-5 What purpose do the stock issues for factual argumentation serve? (a) To verify the relationship between the subject and predicate of the proposition through appropriate reasoning patterns. (b) To discover whether information confirms or denies the inferred relationship between the subject and predicate of the proposition. (c) To argue the probable truth or falsity of the primary inference. (d) All of the above Answer: D; Page: 173-174; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 9-6 In preparing a prima facie case for factual argumentation, the advocate must (a) state appropriate criteria to be used in judging the probable truth of the inference. (b) consider what the audience presently values. (c) consider what proof the audience needs to convince them of the probable truth of the primary inference. (d) state whether simple or complex arguments are being offered.

Answer: C; Page: 174; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 9-7 As an advocate for a proposition of fact, you may use presumption as a way of identifying common practices and experiences that relate to your subject. What other use might you make of presumption? (a) Presumption may be used as a method for analyzing your audience to discover what sources of information and what kinds of reasoning the audience will find most credible for arguments on this subject. (b) Presumption may be used to discover the issues and their supporting arguments that will encourage the audience to accept that the primary inference for your proposition of fact is probably true. (c) Presumption may be used to locate an immediate cause that signifies something important about the topic. (d) Presumption may be used to determine what objections the opposition may raise so that you can develop preemptive arguments.

Answer: A; Page: 174; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Conceptual 9-8 In factual argumentation, arguments about _________ focus on units of argument that call the audience's attention to why the consequences of what has happened, is happening, or will happen are important. (a) effect (b) inherency 117

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(c) significance (d) extenuation Answer: C; Page: 175; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 9-9 In advocating the proposition "equipping cars with anti-lock brakes does not reduce accidents," an argument claiming "drivers with ABS-equipped cars drive faster and follow closer than drivers without ABS" would constitute (a) an effect argument. (b) an inherency argument. (c) a significance argument. (d) a pre-emptive argument.

Answer: C; Page: 175; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 9-10 In arguing factual propositions, arguments concerning inherency (a) need not be made. (b) can only be presented concerning propositions of past fact. (c) address why the primary inference about the proposition is the case. (d) are replaced by the use of preemptive arguments.

Answer: C; Page: 176; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 9-11 In opposing the proposition "equipping cars with anti-lock brakes does not reduce accidents," an argument stating "teaching drivers to use anti-lock brakes properly, by applying them forcefully won't prevent them from overdriving the conditions" would be (a) an effect argument. (b) an inherency argument. (c) a significance argument. (d) a pre-emptive argument.

Answer: A; Page: 177-178; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 9-12 The opponents first strategic decision is to (a) determine whether to accept the advocate’s primary inference as topical. (b) decide how to employ presumption to refute the advocate’s case. (c) determine whether to use strategies of denial and extenuation to dispute the advocate’s case. (d) decide how to deal with any preemptive arguments the advocate has offered.

Answer: A; Page: 184; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 9-13 In preparing to oppose a factual proposition, the opponent's first task is to (a) decide how many extenuation arguments to use. (b) examine the criteria the advocate used to evaluate the topic. (c) provide his own definition of terms. (d) examine the inference made by the advocate in her interpretation of the proposition.

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9-14 In factual argumentation, presumption (a) resides with the advocate and is natural when the proposition is treated as a hypothesis to be tested when we use argumentation to seek knowledge. (b) resides with the opponent and is natural when the proposition is treated as a hypothesis to be tested when we use argumentation to seek knowledge. (c) resides with the advocate abd is artificial when the proposition is treated as a hypothesis to be tested when we use argumentation to seek knowledge. (d) resides with the opponent and is artificial when the proposition is treated as a hypothesis to be tested when we use argumentation to seek knowledge.

Answer: D; Page: 185; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 9-15 In arguing propositions of fact, as an opponent you have two strategies for responding to the advocate’s arguments, denial and extenuation. What must you examine to decide whether strategies of denial and extenuation will be appropriate for refuting the advocate’s arguments? (a) How the advocate uses presumption. (b) How the advocate defined terms. (c) How the advocate’s placement of arguments of effect, significance, and inherency organized the message. (d) How the advocate’s arguments satisfy the requirements of the stock issues of factual argumentation.

Answer: D; Page: 186; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 9-16 In opposing an argument made by the advocate, you have decided to use a strategy of denial. You may NOT employ the strategy of denial in which of the following circumstances? (a) The advocate has offered a preemptive argument and you will explain why the preemptive argument is an accurate denial from your perspective on the proposition. (b) The advocate has overlooked certain important facts which you will provide along with an explanation of the significance of their having been overlooked. (c) The advocate has given undue significance to certain facts and you will explain why these facts lack significance. (d) The advocate has drawn unwarranted conclusions from her proof and you will provide the proper conclusion.

Answer: A; Page: 186; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 9-17 In opposing an argument made by the advocate, you argue that the advocate has misanalyzed the situation and that the analysis you provide is the proper one. You are using the strategy of opposition know as (a) using the benefit of presumption. (b) denial. (c) extenuation.

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(d) responding preemptively.

Answer: B; Page: 186; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 9-18 __________ arguments focus on the circumstances surrounding the facts and are used by the opponent to suggests that the advocate has a limited understanding of these circumstances. (a) Extenuation (b) Denial (c) Pre-emptive (d) Kitchen sink Answer: A; Page: 187; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 9-19 In using extenuation arguments to refute the advocate’s case, the opponent argues (a) that the relationship inferred by the advocate is based on a limited understanding of the circumstances. (b) that a more complete understanding of the circumstances leads to a different inference. (c) that unusual circumstances warrant a conclusion of than the one normally drawn when these facts are present. (d) All of the above Answer: D; Page: 187; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 9-20 The opponents final strategic decision is to (a) determine whether to accept the advocate’s primary inference as topical. (b) decide how to employ presumption to refute the advocate’s case. (c) determine whether to use strategies of denial and extenuation to dispute the advocate’s case. (d) decide how to deal with any preemptive arguments the advocate has offered.

Answer: D; Page: 188; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual

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CHAPTER 10 HOW ARE PROPOSITIONS OF VALUE ARGUED? Learning Objectives  To describe the nature of values and how individual values exist in a hierarchical relationship to each other.  To discuss how values come into conflict with each other and undergo change.  To demonstrate the ability to advocate a proposition of value using discovered or developed criteria as appropriate.  To choose strategically sound techniques for opposing a proposition of value.

Key Terms criteria the discovered or created standards by which a value judgment is made (210) values modes of thought that influence the way we perceive things, the behaviors we engage in, and the subjective, judgmental statements we make about people, places, ideas, and artifacts. (197) Lecture Launchers  Criteria for Judging Things Divide the class into 4-5 person groups. Give each group a package of Kellogg’s Pop Tarts and a package of your store’s generic brand of toaster pastry (each box contains four foil wrapped packages and each package contains two pastries so shop accordingly). Also give each group nutritional and cost information from the box (photocopying works well) a paper plate and some napkins (to keep you in the good graces of your school’s custodial staff). Tell them that they have 15 minutes to decide whether the name brand or the generic is “best,” and to be prepared to make a case for why their decision is correct. This gets them talking about things like taste, nutritional content, cost/value for the money, and you can use what they present as a springboard to discussion of discovered vs. developed criteria, single vs. multiple criteria, necessary vs. sufficient conditions. If your students have web access in the classroom, some of the more resourceful may surprise you with the detailed arguments they come up with concerning why differences in certain vitamins and minerals have important health implications.

A cheaper, faster means to the same end, that produces less mess, may be achieved by asking “which place has the best pizza in town” and probing for the reasons why proponents of one establishment or another believe it is best.  Examining Arguments Favoring or Opposing Values Distribute copies of an editorial or article that focuses on a value-related question.

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advocate or opponent, and how what they have written reflects the techniques of arguing either side of a proposition of value discussed in the chapter. Be sure the discussion touches on things such as criteria, stock issues, and how the writer proves the arguments contained in the piece.

If the article is a longer one, like the Newsweek article arguing that same-sex marriage is an American value that we provide a link to below, you might want to distribute it at the class meeting prior to the one at which you plan to discuss it to give students adequate time to read and digest what it contains.

Link to web resource for this lecture launcher: http://www.newsweek.com/2010/01/08/the-conservative-case-for-gaymarriage.html Learning Activities 1. Choose an article that reviews a film from a magazine such as Entertainment Weekly or a similar source. What hierarchy does the reviewer use as a source for evaluative criteria? What specific criteria are used in evaluating this film? What arguments of effect, significance, and inherency are used? 

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If your syllabus includes in-class participation as one factor in determining a student’s grade in the course, assign discussion leadership responsibility to two students.

This activity can not only be used for discussion, but makes an interesting essay question for an out-of-class assignment, possibly for extra credit, since it is too complex to be part of a test. If you do this, provide students with some guidance on selecting the article, and parse points as follows: 40% value hierarchy 40% value criteria 20% arguments used

2. In the field of speech communication, one area of scholarship, rhetorical criticism, is devoted to making value judgments about the relative merits of human communication.

Read one of the following articles and prepare a report using the questions listed.

Nick Trujillo & Leah R. Ekdom, (September, 1985). Sportswriting and American Cultural Values: The 1984 Chicago Cubs. Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 2, 262-281.

Janice H. Rushing, (February, 1989). Evolution of "the New Frontier" in Alien and Aliens: Patriarchical Co-optation of the Feminine Archetype. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 75, 1-24.

A. How does the rhetorical critic identify the value hierarchy used in doing criticism?

B. Is a theory of rhetoric used to discover criteria, or does the critic create criteria by combining ideas from rhetorical theory and other fields?

C. How are criteria applied to the communication examples of the value object?

D. How does this value argumentation differ from other types you have read or heard?

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This is a more challenging version of Activity 2 that requires some knowledge of communication theory. Both articles are well-written and can be mastered by the non-speech communication major with a little help in understanding rhetorical jargon.

"Sportswriting and American Cultural Values: The 1984 Chicago Cubs" A. Examples from investigation of the historical background of baseball in America are used to establish the sport as "emblematic" of Americans and their national system of values.

B. The authors created their own value criteria by extracting common themes from sports writing about the Chicago Cubs and then apply those themes as criteria to activities of individual players, the team as a whole, and others involved in the sport.

C. The authors applied their criteria by choosing examples of behavior in the sport, quotations from newspaper sports stories, and then drawing an inference about what kind of value in American life the example and the story about it represent.

D. Students should note that argumentation in an academic journal makes extensive use of argument from authority, opinion evidence.

"Evolution of 'The New Frontier' in Alien and Aliens: Patriarchal Co-optation of the Feminine Archetype" A. The value hierarchy in this article comes from the value of a potent myth (the Frontier Myth) to convey truth.

B. The author draws on existing rhetorical theories from cultural criticism and feminist theory, but she does not just discover existing criteria; she selects ideas and shapes her own criteria for criticism of the two films.

C. The author develops criteria about the American Frontier Myth (patriarchal) and symbols of feminism that she finds are blended together in the character of Ripley in these films to argue that a new version of the Frontier myth, one with feminist symbols, is emerging.

D. A third "Alien" film was made subsequent to this article. Ask students to extend the author's application of criteria to the third film.

If your syllabus includes in-class participation as one factor in determining a student’s grade in the course, assign discussion leadership responsibility to two students for each article.

This activity can not only be used for discussion, but makes an interesting extra credit essay for an out-of-class assignment, since it is too complex to be a regular assignment or part of a test. If you do this, assign points equally to questions A, B, C, and D.

3. Discuss each of the following value propositions in terms of the value(s) to be supported by the advocate, the field(s) from which value criteria could be taken, and the specific judgmental criteria that might be used in measuring the value object.

A. Students will benefit from classical literature studies in grades 6 through 12.

B. For most college students, going to Cancun for spring break is a waste of money.

C. The rights of endangered species ought to take precedence over the rights of indigenous human populations.

D. Humanitarian rather than geopolitical objectives ought to govern foreign policy decisions.  

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Begin discussion with the propositions listed above, but be sure to end with the topic or topics that the students have been researching.

If your syllabus includes in-class participation as one factor in determining a student’s grade in the course, assign discussion leadership responsibility to two students.

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more than two of the propositions provided, and parse points as follows: 30% values to be supported 30% fields from which value criteria could be taken 40% criteria that could be used

4. Examine the Value Advocate Brief in Box 10.1 and do the following: A. Although we have identified effect, extent, and inherency in the advocate’s first argument, do the same for the remainder of her arguments. Are any parts missing?

Remember that the pattern of organization in which these three elements are handled can vary, that some parts of an argument can be implied by what is explicitly stated in others, and that the arguer may rely on the audience’s common knowledge to fill in the blanks. If something is implied, how likely is the audience to get it? If the audience is expected to supply something, how reasonable is it to assume that what is to be supplied is a matter of common knowledge?

B. Using the types and tests of reasoning in Chapter 7, classify each of the advocate’s arguments as to type. Apply the tests of reasoning for that type of reasoning and determine if her reasoning is sound or if she has committed one of the fallacies of reasoning identified in Chapter 8. Is anything done to preempt potential arguments by the opponent? 

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The best use of 4A will be for class discussion because what constitutes “effect,” “extent,” and “inherency” in the advocate’s case is open to interpretation, particularly if students are encouraged to bring their own experience with social media to bear on the advocate’s arguments. A profitable class discussion can be had over whether or not the advocate has omitted some parts of developing sound arguments for each criterion and the role the audience’s common knowledge plays in understanding the arguments.

To use 4A as an essay item on an exam, limit the item to contention IIC, with subpoints 1, 2, 3, because it has the most obvious use of inherency (IIC1), extent (IIC2), and effect (IIC3). If you use this as an essay item, parse the points as follows: 30% correct identification of each type of argument 60% explanation of why the argument is to be classified as inherency, extent, and effect 10% understanding of the primary focus of IIC on the effect of enhancing the probability of getting a job The advocate’s arguments for both the second and third criteria, contentions II and III focus primarily on effect, the proper and improper use of the value object, social media, in a business context. Ideas of inherency and extent (also called “significance”) are implied in the supporting arguments for these contentions.

IIA1 and IIA2 The effect in this unit of argument is that one’s ability to use social media skills properly will increase the probability of getting a job because employers favor applicants who know how to use social media. Inherency is implied in the sense that knowledge of social media can be a cause of being hired.

IIA2 Significance is suggested in a variety of fields that require social media skills. This is a weaker version of significance because it is a generalization rather than a qualification of how extensive the requirement for knowledge of social media is in the business context.

IIB1 Effect is the showcasing of the job applicant’s knowledge of social media.

IIB2 Inherency is what social media can do to achieve the effect of a successful job search.

IIC focuses on an effect, the use of social media to screen job applicants and reject them on the basis of what is found, an implied inherency that employers also have the ability to use social media; and significance, the practice of screening job applicants is now widespread.

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IIC1 offers the inherency argument that employers are capable of using social media to screen job applicants and this is now an inherent use of social media.

IIC2 addresses the significance of how widespread the use of “cybervetting” is and the supporting evidence offers a clear example of quantification.

IIC3 address the effect of the negative consequences of personal postings on social media sites.

The Advocate’s third contention focuses on the effects of proper and improper use of social media through arguments that suggest improper use can have negative consequences.

IIIA uses a series of examples to demonstrate that the effect of improper use of social media can be to lose one’s job. In each example, inherency is demonstrated, the cause of losing one’s job is improper use of social media. There is a suggestion of significance through the use of four examples of people losing their jobs as a result of improper use of social media.

IIIB provides evidence of employees in one school system who, while not fired, suffered negative effects from their improper use of social media.

The best use of 4B is as the basis for a class discussion. Divide the class into small groups and have each group go through the advocate’s brief and classify the type of reasoning used in each unit of argument, apply the tests of sound reasoning, and consider if the unit of argument creates one or more fallacies. Record the findings of each group. You will probably find differences across the groups for how a unit of argument’s reasoning should be classified and whether or not there are any fallacies. This is a good opportunity to discuss how the audience perceives reasoning patterns.

IA1 and IA2 develop a unit of argument using cause-effect reasoning. The term “enable” in IA1 sets up the idea of cause and “share . . . feelings about products and services” is the effect. IA1 states the effect, sharing opinions, and IA2 states the cause; social media is the cause of people having the ability to share feelings. The temporal connection between the existence of social media and sharing feelings is implied. Some students may classify the reasoning as a generalization because the evidence used in IA1 and IA2 are general statements. This unit of argument is a good opportunity to discuss how much evidence offers “general” statements and this is why good argumentation should supply clear and specific warrant statements to allow the audience to follow the arguer’s reasoning. IA1 is a statement of effect and IA2 is a statement of cause. The advocate clearly stated her warrant in this unit of argument.

IB is sign reasoning. The claim stated in IB sets up what is necessary to be successful in business.

IB1 offers the inference that successful use of social media for a business is to avoid allowing others to define the business. IB2 and subpoints IB2a and IB2b present signs, examples of businesses that successfully use social media to define themselves. In this unit of argument, the warrant is implied. This is an argument from sign because the evidence simply provides a series of observable indicators of using social media in the way the claim suggests. The evidence used provides sufficient detail to treat these as reliable signs of businesses using social media to define themselves.

IIA is sign reasoning. The claim statement in IIA expresses a particular quality businesses want in their employees, social media skills. IIA1 uses the term “indicate” which implies this unit of argument is sign reasoning. The supporting evidence provides an example of a job description.

IIA2 extends beyond the single example. IIA2 is weak sign reasoning because the supporting evidence is an assertion about the need for social media skills rather than additional specific signs.

IIB is cause-effect reasoning, social media is suggested to be a causal agent in facilitating the effect of a successful job search. The evidence provided in IIB1 and IIB2 indicate how social media do this, by making a person stand out from the crowd and seem more well-rounded.

IIC1 is a definitional argument from authority. The claim in IIC uses the coined term, “cybervetting,” and the advocate defines “cybervetting” using the authoritative source, A Dictionary of Human Resource Management. The test of reasoning is stated in the evidence used in IIC1, that this is “the main source of information” on social networking sites.

IIC2 and IIC3 extend the argument from definition, but also use sign reasoning. IIC2 uses statistics which are signs of the practice of cybervetting and IIC3 provides an example of rejecting 125

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an applicant based on cybervetting her on a social network site. The example is one sign of an employer’s use of cybervetting.

IIIA is argument from generalization. The claim in IIIA asserts that using social media improperly can cost someone his or her job. The supporting evidence is a series of examples that are generalized as proof of the claim. The warrant is implied. Using this unit of argument to discuss the difference between argument from sign and argument from generalization may help students understand the difference between the two reasoning patterns. Whether a unit of argument is considered sign or generalization can be in the eye of the beholder. When a unit of argument is created using statistical information, the statistics are usually the signs of the claim’s probable truth. When the supporting evidence offers one or two specific examples that are obvious indicators of the claim’s probable truth, the pattern of reasoning is usually sign. In IIIA, the claim is supported by a variety of examples and the reasoning pattern is better understood to be a generalization.

IIIB is intended to develop the contention’s idea about the connection between social media use and job security further. The pattern of reasoning might be interpreted as sign because the evidence offers an indicator of a school district’s sanctions against employees for improper use of social media. It might also be interpreted as a generalization because the evidence mentions several instances. Whether this argument is interpreted as sign or generalization, it’s a weak argument.

The models of fact, value, and policy argumentation were created to serve as examples of brief preparation. Every effort was made to create effective units of argument, but this one was included to allow for discussion of a weaker use of reasoning.

IIIB may be considered a transfer fallacy of composition because using one school district as representative of the whole of the business world commits the fallacy of composition.

IIIB can also be viewed as a hasty generalization because of the way it reasons about sanctions for improper use of social media by employees on the basis of three incidents in one school system.

5. Examine the Value Opposition Brief in Box 10.2 and do the following: A. We showed how the value advocate demonstrated effect, extent, and inherency in her first argument. Using this as a model, do the same for the opponent’s arguments. Are any parts missing? Remember that the pattern of organization in which these three elements are handled can vary, that some parts of an argument can be implied by what is explicitly stated in others, and that the arguer may rely on the audience’s common knowledge to fill in the blanks. If something is implied, how likely is the audience to get it? If the audience is expected to supply something, how reasonable is it to assume that what is to be supplied is a matter of common knowledge?

B. Using the types and tests of reasoning in Chapter 7, classify each of the opponent’s arguments as to type. Apply the tests of reasoning for that type of reasoning and determine if his reasoning is sound or if he has committed one of the fallacies of reasoning identified in Chapter 8. Is anything done to preempt potential rebuttal arguments by the advocate? 

The best use of 5A will be for class discussion of what constitutes “effect,” “extent,” and “inherency,” because the opponent’s use of the value measurement techniques are open to interpretation, particularly if students are encouraged to bring their own experience with social media to bear. Have students examine how the opponent uses effect, extent, and inherency in his response to the advocate’s case development. Encourage them to find the points of direct 126

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refutation and the different evaluation of social media skills by employers that the opponent provides.

To use 5A as an essay item on an exam, Contention III, used as a whole, offers the most obvious use of extent (III A), effect (III B and III C), and inherency (III D). If you use this as an essay item, parse the points as follows: 30% correct identification of each type of argument 60% explanation of why the argument is to be classified as extent, effect, and inherency 10% understanding that the primary focus of Contention III is to evaluate the workability of teaching a college course in social media skills The opponent’s development of arguments in the first contention reflect effect, extent, and inherency arguments as he responds to the advocate’s arguments on the importance of skills in social media use in the business world.

IA1 and IA2 argue the effect, that employers want employees with broader educational skills, and the extent to which this general knowledge is desirable. Inherency is implied in the overall sense in IA, that broader knowledge and skill sets are what will get someone a job, not knowledge of social media.

IB focuses on inherency and effect as the opponent argues that concentrating on teaching social media skills will take away the more desirable emphasis on general knowledge.

IB1 sets up the inherency and effect, that social media is the inherent cause of the loss of desired skills in written communication.

IB2 extends the inherency and effect to the inherent cause of the loss of another desired effect, cognitive thinking skills.

IB3 focuses on the effect of social media, making the user “dumber.”

IC is a direct response to the advocate’s position that knowledge of social media skills is desired by employers with an argument focusing on the effect that employers seek contact with prospective employees, “off line.”

The opponent’s second contention is primarily an inherency argument in which he argues the reason for keeping or losing one’s job is understanding the nature of social media as a “public space.”

IIA sets up the extent of social media use with the example of Facebook’s 500 million active users.

IIB argues there is no inherent connection between a formal class and learning how to use social media.

IIC argues the effect, that those who understand the nature of social media as public space probably understand what they post is open to the scrutiny of their employers.

The opponent’s third contention evaluates the workability of teaching social media courses in the college curriculum. This contention has more obvious argumentation reflecting extent, effect, and inherency.

IIIA focuses on the extent to which social media exists worldwide and the variety of social networking sites.

IIIB and IIIC argue the effect of social media being in a constant evolutionary process.

IIID focuses on the inherency of the workability argument contained in this contention. Because of the variety of social networking sites, and their being in a state of constant evolution, it is inherently difficult to create a class to teach social media skills.

The best use of 5B is class discussion identifying the types of reasoning used and applying the tests of reasoning. There are several cause-effect units of argument in the opponent’s brief. This is a good opportunity to focus on cause-effect reasoning and to have the class consider which units of argument clearly state the cause and which seem to imply the nature of a cause.

IA1 and IA2 develop a unit of argument using sign reasoning. IA1 states the effect, employers seek a broadly educated employee, and uses the sign of statistical information from a study of 127

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what employers seek. IA2 also states the effect, seeking broadly educated employees, and reasons on the basis of six areas of broad education that are desirable.

IB1, IB2, and IB3 are a series of cause-effect arguments that state the cause, social media use, and the effect, a negative impact on skills and knowledge sets desired by employers. IB1 sets up cause, the ability of social media to inhibit, and effect, diminished written communication skills. IB2 sets up cause, the ability of social media skills to inhibit, and effect, diminished cognitive thinking skills. IB3 asserts social media as cause of another effect, making students “dumber.”

IC implies a cause-effect relationship between social media skills and the ability to get a job. The opponent’s emphasis is that the effect of using social media sites is not necessarily beneficial or effective for job seekers.

IIA is an argument based on sign reasoning showing extent, social media are currently used by millions of people who have no formal training in how to use them.

IIB and IIB1 use cause-effect reasoning to argue that there is no necessary connection between taking a college class in social media use and knowing how to use social media. IIB focuses on the cause, learning through direct experience, and IIB1 focuses on an effect, the difficulty of teaching a class in social media.

IIC implies cause-effect reasoning, how one understands the public nature of social media sites influences how one uses them. IIC1 focuses on the legal status of social media as “public” spaces.

IIC2. focuses on the right an employer has to examine what is posted in a public space. IIC3 explains the logical inconsistency in the advocate’s reasoning about the public vs. private nature of cyberspace.

IIIA, IIIB, IIIC and IIID represent an argument based on cause-effect reasoning. IIIA focuses on an effect, the existence of a variety of social media. IIIB and IIIC focus on the cause, the evolutionary nature of social media. IIID pulls together the cause-effect relationship by pointing to the consequence of the evolutionary nature of social media, the difficulty of creating a course about using it.

The models of fact, value, and policy argumentation were created to serve as examples of brief preparation. Every effort was made to create effective units of argument, but class discussion of perceived weaknesses in the use of proof and reasoning may result in the conclusion that some fallacies in reasoning are present. Cause-effect reasoning is subject to the problem of focusing on one particular cause when an effect may be the product of several different causes. Have students examine the cause-effect reasoning in this brief and apply the tests of this form of reasoning to determine if other factors may be said to “cause” the effects the opponent identifies.

True or False 10-1 Value argumentation is almost exclusively concerned with making aesthetic judgments about artistic works using sets of critical standards from fields such a theatre, music, painting, and dance.

Answer: F; Page: 196; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 10-2 Values predispose us to think of something or someone in positive or negative terms.

Answer: T; Page: 197; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Conceptual 10-3 How we value something or someone is fixed, we do not change that evaluation.

Answer: F; Page: 198 and 205; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Conceptual 10-4 When we state values exist in a hierarchy, we mean that they exist independent of 128

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each other.

Answer: F; Page: 201-202; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Conceptual 10-5 A society's value system may change when new information is discovered.

Answer: T; Page: 205; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 10-6 A value hierarchy is a set of attitudes and core values shared by members of a field or an audience.

Answer: T; Page: 209; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 10-7 The criteria development case uses an existing framework of values that is applied to the value object.

Answer: F; Page: 210; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 10-8 Criteria development cases are used when criteria to evaluate the value object do not already exist or are not commonly understood.

Answer: T; Page: 210; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 10-9 Value criteria constitute the attributes something or someone must possess in order to be thought of as "beneficial," "harmful," or "effective."

Answer: T; Page: 210-211; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Conceptual 10-10 In value argumentation, the advocate must make a strategic decision whether to employ single or multiple value criteria.

Answer: T; Page: 211; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 10-11 In value argumentation, the use of multiple value criteria by the advocate automatically means that while each is a necessary condition for judging the value object in a particular way, none of them is sufficient by itself to warrant such a judgment.

Answer: F; Page: 211; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Conceptual 10-12 In value argumentation, arguments about effect are related to measuring the magnitude, severity, frequency, or consequences with which the significance occurs.

Answer: F; Page: 212; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 10-13 In value argumentation, arguments about significance are related to measuring the magnitude, severity, frequency, or consequences with which the effect occurs.

Answer: T; Page: 212; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 10-14 In value argumentation, if the significance of the effect is not inherent to the fundamental nature of the value object, then measurement of the value object by the criterion is invalid.

Answer: T; Page: 213; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 129

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10-15 In value argumentation, inherency often refers to the attitudes society now holds about the value object.

Answer: T; Page: 213; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 10-16 In value argumentation, the opponent need not concern himself with analyzing the proposition.

Answer: F; Page: 218; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Conceptual 10-17 The opponent in value argumentation uses the stock issues to determine where and how to attack the advocate's case.

Answer: T; Page: 219; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 10-18 One strategic option the opponent always has available is the ability to argue that a value other than that suggested by the advocate should occupy the pinnacle of the hierarchy of values.

Answer: T; Page: 219; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 10-19 As an opponent in value argumentation, you may shift ground without committing a fallacy when you ask the audience to view the value object from the position of a different value hierarchy than the one proposed by the advocate.

Answer: T; Page: 219; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 10-20 The strategies of refutation by denial and extenuation are not usable in opposing propositions of value.

Answer: F; Page: 221; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual Multiple Choice 10-1 Our general understanding of value is that it is a mode of thought that can influence the way we think about things and about the behaviors in which we engage. What do we do in this “value-thinking mode”? (a) We isolate a particular value that seems to apply to the “something” that is the value object of a proposition. (b) We make subjective, judgmental statements about people, places, ideas, and artifacts. (c) We describe the nature and extensiveness of a disparity. (d) We test a hypothesis that derives from a moral or ethical position.

Answer: B; Page: 197; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 10-2 All of the following can be considered to be core America values EXCEPT (a) acceptance of diversity. (b) individualism. (c) self-confidence. (d) belief in American superiority.

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Answer: D; Page: 198 and 204; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Factual 10-3 A society's value system may undergo change when what takes place? (a) New information is introduced. (b) Political and ideological change occurs. (c) Old values erode. (d) All of the above Answer: D; Page: 205; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 10-4 The factor which is most likely to bring about a change in societal values as a result of resistance by large numbers of people is termed (a) new information. (b) ideological change. (c) political change. (d) erosion.

Answer: D; Page: 205; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 10-5 The “social media revolution” that includes the increasing use of Internet sites such as Face Book and Twitter has produced a great deal of debate about the value and consequences of these new media. Value change such as we find in the social media revolution is value change that comes from (a) new information. (b) political change. (c) erosion of a value. (d) change in the operating environment.

Answer: D; Page: 206; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Applied 10-6 Value change that occurs when society adopts the value of a minority group which has been successful in promoting a new way of making a value seem important is termed (a) value implementation retargeting. (b) value emphasis or de-emphasis. (c) value redistribution. (d) value restandardization.

Answer: C; Page: 206; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 10-7 Value change that occurs when the environment changes in a way that causes an existing value to become more or less important physiologically or psychologically is termed (a) value implementation retargeting. (b) value emphasis or de-emphasis. (c) value redistribution. (d) value restandardization.

Answer: B; Page: 206-207; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 131

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10-8 Value change that occurs when society alters the manner in which it pursues a value rather than changing the value itself is known as (a) value implementation retargeting. (b) value emphasis or de-emphasis. (c) value redistribution. (d) value restandardization.

Answer: A; Page: 207; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 10-9 In preparing a prima facie case for value argumentation, the first step for the advocate is (a) defining the value object. (b) identifying the value hierarchy. (c) specifying the value criteria. (d) measuring the value object.

Answer: A; Page: 207; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 10-10 In resolving the conflict between values framed by a proposition in his or her favor, the advocate should attempt to prove that the value he or she favors does which of the following? (a) It has more desirable consequences for society than the competing value. (b) It minimizes the attainment of some other already agreed-upon value. (c) It is subsumed by the opposing value. (d) All of the above Answer: A; Page: 209; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Factual 10-11 As an advocate, you may attempt to resolve a value conflict by creating a decision rule. Which of the following would NOT be one of these decision rules? (a) Prove that your value maximizes another agreed upon value. (b) Prove that your value has the more desirable consequences. (c) Prove that your value overcomes an existing cultural value. (d) Prove that your value subsumes (includes) opposing values.

Answer: C; Page: 209; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 10-12 In establishing a prima facie position on the proposition "Pittsburgh is the most livable city in the United States," it would be necessary to offer arguments on all of the following areas except (a) inherency. (b) significance. (c) effect. (d) limitation.

Answer: D; Page: 212-213; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 10-13 Assuming that one of our criteria for "most livable city" is whether or not cultural and recreational opportunities are available. When we advance an argument ending in the claim "therefore there are a large number of different cultural and recreational 132

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opportunities are available in Pittsburgh," we are most likely arguing the claim of (a) inherency. (b) significance. (c) effect. (d) limitation.

Answer: B; Page: 212; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 10-14 Of course we would have to prove more than just a large number of cultural and recreational opportunities are found in Pittsburgh. If we advanced another unit of argument ending in the claim, "therefore, having access to cultural and recreational opportunities enhances the quality of life," we are most likely arguing the claim of (a) inherency. (b) significance. (c) effect. (d) limitation.

Answer: C; Page: 212; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 10-15 In order to complete our argumentation about the cultural and recreational advantages of Pittsburgh, we might advance a final unit of argument ending in the claim, "therefore of the nation's 329 metropolitan areas, only Pittsburgh's city commission provides financial support for the arts," we are arguing the claim of (a) inherency. (b) significance. (c) effect. (d) limitation.

Answer: A; Page: 213; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 10-16 In value argumentation, what does the inherency argument do? (a) The inherency argument explains or proves what the value object is purported to do or possess. (b) The inherency argument explains or proves the magnitude, severity, or frequency with which the effect of the value object occurs. (c) The inherency argument explains or proves that the effect and significance are intrinsic to the value object, often the result of an attitude toward the value object. (d) All of the above Answer: C; Page: 213; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 10-17 As an opponent in value argumentation, to gain an advantage from the benefit of presumption, what must you do? (a) Be aware of how the value object is presently viewed in the field or by the audience. (b) Investigate what opinions have been formed about the value object, particularly those of respected authorities in the field.

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(c) Determine what value standards (criteria) are used to judge the value object and what controversies exist about the value object at the present time. (d) All of the above Answer: D; Page: 218; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 10-18 In responding to the advocate's prima facie case on the proposition, "Pittsburgh is the most livable city in the United States," the opponent argues that "although Pittsburgh may have cultural opportunities, it fails to meet the other tests of 'livability,' clean air, low crime rate, and available housing." The opponent would be using what strategy? (a) Challenging the definition of terms. (b) Challenging the criteria of measurement. (c) Challenging the measurement of the value object. (d) All of the above Answer: B; Page: 220; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 10-19 As an opponent in value argumentation, you have the strategic option of challenging the advocate’s criteria. In using this strategy, which of the following could you NOT do? (a) Challenge the advocate’s definition of the value object as either including elements she failed to consider, or excluding elements that she erroneously included. (b) Challenge the appropriateness of the advocate’s criteria as “good” measures of effect, significance, and inherency. (c) Challenge the appropriateness of the advocate’s criteria on the basis that they are too unusual or that they are more appropriate for measuring some other value object. (d) Provide better, more appropriate, criteria for measuring the value object.

Answer: A; Page: 220; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual

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10-20 As an opponent in value argumentation, you have the strategic option of accepting the advocate’s value criteria and then refuting her measurement of the value object as she applies the criteria. In using this strategy, which of the following would you NOT do? (a) Argue that the effect suggested by the advocate occurs only in an exceptional case or in extenuating circumstances. (b) Challenge inherency by demonstrating that the value in question is either not central to society or the field, or that the value is subject to change over time. (c) Ask the audience to view the value object from the perspective of a different value hierarchy. (d) Show that prominent sources in the field do not consider the effect or significance to be of great importance.

Answer: C; Page: 221; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual

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Chapter 11: How Are Propositions of Policy Argued?

CHAPTER 11 HOW ARE PROPOSITIONS OF POLICY ARGUED? Learning Objectives  To compare different patterns of organization for advocating policy propositions.  To develop a prima facie case for a proposition of policy using stock issues.  To select an appropriate strategy for opposing a policy proposition.  To assess how the use of disadvantage arguments, counterproposals and critiques fit with each other and can be part of the strategy for opposing a policy proposition.

Key Terms change the element of the advocate’s proposal that identifies the change in behavior that will take place; what will be done differently (234) circumvention argument identify ways in which people will avoid complying with the advocate’s proposal for change (245) counterproposal a nontopical and competitive proposal for change offered by the opponent that remedies the reason for change (248) critique an indictment of the underlying philosophical premise on which the advocate’s proposal for change or the policy proposition itself rests (246) disadvantage argument identify adverse consequences of the advocate’s proposal for change which are worse than the problem it attempts to solve (246) enforcement the element of the advocate’s proposal that identifies what will be done to ensure compliance with the change in behavior it mandates (234) financing the element of the advocate’s proposal that identifies what it will cost and how it will be paid for (234) mechanism the element of the advocate’s proposal that identifies how change will take place; will a law be passed or an agency created (234) minor repairs the strategy of policy opposition in which it is suggested that naturally occurring changes in existing institutions will remove any reason for change within the foreseeable future (244) solvency the ability of the advocate’s proposal in policy argumentation to resolve the reason for change (235) subsidiary effect a consequence of an advocate’s proposal in policy argumentation beyond its ability to resolve the reason for change that may be advantageous or disadvantageous (236) workability the ability of the advocate’s proposal in policy argumentation to not only resolve the reason for change but to do so in an efficient and effective manner (236) 136

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Lecture Launchers  Advocating Change Begin class by asking your students what their least favorite university-wide graduation requirement is at your school (e.g. mathematics, foreign language, service learning-civic engagement, study abroad, etc.). Use the one that most people name as a basis for walking students through the process of creating a prima facie case using the stock issues for policy.  Opposing Change Prior to class identify a university-wide graduation requirement your school doesn’t have (e.g. mathematics, foreign language, service learning-civic engagement, study abroad, etc.) and rough out an advocate’s case for instituting it. Ask your students to indicate how they would oppose this change. Make sure discussion includes strategies such as minor repairs, disadvantages, and how a counterproposal or critique might fit into the overall strategy of opposition.

Learning Activities 1.

In The Parthenon Marbles: The Case for Reunification (rev. ed.), Christopher Hitchens examines the arguments the British have made over the years for keeping the Elgin Marbles collection in the British Museum. He makes the case for the returning the marbles to Greece.

A. What disparity does Hitchens identify?

B. What issues of fact and value does he argue in making the case for reunification of the Parthenon sculptures?

C. What proof and reasoning does he offer in response to the reasons given by the British for keeping the marbles?

D. Does he make a compelling case for returning them to Greece? Why or why not?   

A. the disparity The current view is that a substantial number of the surviving marble sculptures that were once part of the Parthenon now reside in the British Museum when they are clearly the cultural property of Greece.

Hitchens’ arguments begin with the original view (early 1800s) of the disparity as the removal of the marbles from Greece by lord Elgin and concludes with the disparity of the new Acropolis Museum’s having only half of the surviving sculptures.

The disparity is based on the question of legal acquisition of the marbles by the British Parliament in 1816.

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B. issues  Issues of Fact in Hitchen’s case for return include:  Lord Elgin misled the House of Commons regarding his motives for removing the marbles from Greece, claiming to have acquired them for the British nation when he originally intended them for his own estate in Scotland.  The legality of Lord Elgin’s acquisition of the marbles is questionable because he exceeded the permission given him from the ruling Turkish officials and paid bribes and exploited his position as the British ambassador to the Ottoman Turkish government.  Issues of Value in Hitchens’ case for return include:  The central issue for return of the marbles is the unity and integrity of the Parthenon as the symbol of the Greek people, the marbles have greater value in their original setting than in the British Museum.  The British Museum has not been an effective conservator of the marbles, damaging them through improper cleaning techniques.

C. proof and reasoning  Although Hitches is an advocate for return of the marbles to Greece, his case is structured as a refutation of the arguments the British have used for keeping the marbles in the British Museum.  “Argument 1” (pp. 83-104 in the 2008 edition) addresses the legality issue with refutation of the argumentation that Lord Elgin legally acquired the marbles and that their acquisition by the House of Commons in 1816 was a legal purchase. Hitchens organizes his proof and reasoning chronologically, beginning with the House of Commons debate over acquisition in 1816. His proof and reasoning includes:  Documents from the 1816 debate in the House of Commons to prove than many in Commons did not believe Lord Elgin had a legal right to sell the marbles to the British government.  George Gordon, Lord Byron’s very popular poetry of the day, Canto II of Childe Harold and The Curse of Minerva are used extensively to argue the injustice of Lord Elgin’s removal of the marbles from Greece.  Letters and travel memoirs by Britons who had traveled to Greece to view the antiquities, including H.W. Williams, Travels in Italy, Greece and the Ionian Islands, are used to argue the cultural value of the marbles in their original setting.  Opinions from journals and letters published in newspapers in the late nineteenth century are used to support the cultural value of maintaining the marbles in Greece.  Additional poetry from the early twentieth century, including Thomas Hardy’s 1905, Christmas in the Elgin Room are used to support Hitchens’ view that historically many Britons have thought the marbles belonged to the Greeks.  Statements by Greek officials in exile during World War II are used to prove that the Greeks have revered the marbles and see them as essential to the Greek cultural heritage.  Hitchens makes extensive use of British documents from the foreign service to prove that members of the British government have recommended return of the marbles to Greece.  “Argument 2” (pp. 83-104 in the 2008 edition) refutes the reasons offered by the British Museum that it is the proper conservator of the marbles. This is the value development of Hitchen’s case for return. His proof and reasoning includes:  An argument for retention suggests that removal of the marbles to Britain was a boon to the fine arts and classical studies. Hitchens acknowledges that the presence of the marbles in London did have a significant effect on British architecture, but emphasizes the “Phidias effect” (Phidias was the primary sculptor and designer of the Parthenon) to link the marbles to their Greek heritage.  John Keats’ poem, “On Seeing the Elgin Marbles” is used to argue that more people have been able to see, and will be able to see the marbles in the British Museum. Hitches agrees that historically more people were able to see the marbles in London than would have been 138

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able to see them in Athens, but that the argument no longer is sound. Hitchens offers the generalization that based on this reasoning, removing the marbles to Disney theme parks would enable far more people to see them today.  The safety of the marbles in both the past and for the future has been used as an argument favoring retention by the British Museum. Hitches argues that claims about their safety in the past is now a non sequitur because it is impossible to prove whether or not the marbles that were removed would or would not have survived had they been left in Athens.  On the issues of the value of the British Museum as the best conservator of the marbles, Hitchens argues that improper cleaning techniques, acknowledged by the Museum Board, substantially damaged the marbles in 1938. Hitchens offers a series of examples as signs that the marbles have not been, nor will they be, necessarily safer in the British Museum.

Hitchens also refutes arguments that restoration of the marbles to Greece would set a precedent for denuding the world’s great museum collections using techniques of proof and reasoning.  First, he argues this is a false claim (the fallacy of hasty generalization) because Greece is asking for only the return of the Parthenon sculptures, not the British Museum’s entire collection of Greek antiquities, and not all of the sculpture Lord Elgin sold to Britain.  Second, he uses argument from definition to distinguish the Parthenon as unique, an antiquity that is still found in its original site. No mistake can be made as to where these sculptures originated.  Third, he uses a series of examples of contested items that the British Museum has returned to claimants as signs of Museum policy.  Finally, he uses statements by several British Museum directors to show a fallacy of shifting ground on the part of the Museum and its supporters.

D. compelling case Hitchens is quite successful in refuting the arguments the British government and British Museum directors have offered over two centuries for retaining the Elgin marbles. His technique is to refute each argument, revealing fallacies in reasoning and flaws in the proof for each argument. His approach to advocacy is to find the fallacies of the presumption that the marbles which presently reside in the British Museum should remain there. This activity has two particularly valuable uses for teaching argumentation concepts.  First, it can be used to reinforce the value of researching the historical background of the topic. Hitchens’ segments case building around the series of arguments offered by the British government and British Museum for retaining the marbles. If your syllabus includes in-class participation as one factor in determining a student’s grade in the course, assign discussion leadership responsibility for each one of the arguments to two students. Have them track the historical progression of the argument as Hitches supports it by extensive research from the historical record. Have each group explain how their argument evolved over time and how Hitchens uses evidence and reasoning from his own historical background research.  Second, because Hitchens approaches advocacy as refutation of existing arguments by pointing out the fallacies in proof and reasoning used by those who favor retention of the marbles. In many instances, Hitchens clearly identified the type of reasoning fallacy in the retention arguments. If your syllabus includes in-class participation as one factor in determining a student’s grade in the course, assign discussion leadership responsibility for each one of the arguments to two students. Have them report on how Hitchens refutes the argument by explaining the fallacious use of proof and reasoning by the opponents of change.

2.

Read Neil MacGregor’s “To Shape the Citizens of that Great City, the World,” in Whose Culture? The Promise of Museums and the Debate over Antiquities, (pp. 39–54).

It presents arguments using presumption for the world’s great encyclopedic museums.

A. What arguments does he offer in support of the encyclopedic museum?

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B. Is his proof and reasoning effective in defending these museums against the case for return of cultural property?

A. MacGregor defends the presumption that the world’s encyclopedic museums should retain their collections. One of the features that makes this an interesting activity is that MacGregor uses artifact evidence, photos and images from museum collections as part the proof for his arguments.  An extensive argument from definition is used in which MacGregor defines the encyclopedic museum in terms of Enlightenment principles and defines the British Museum as an encyclopedic museum in this tradition.  MacGregor offers a series of arguments to defend the relevancy of the encyclopedic museum as having a role in cultural diversity and bringing the concerns of individual nations and cultures to all the peoples of the world.  The responsibilities of trustees of the British Museum are defined as not just for Britons, but to hold the museum’s collection in trust for the world.  Visual artifacts are used and explained to argue that the cultural representations offered by the British Museum have the potential to promote understanding across time and national boundaries.  Examples and visuals are used to demonstrate the extent to which the British Museum lends its collection to smaller museums and to nations that do not have an encyclopedic museum of their own. A detailed illustration of the cross-cultural collection sent to a Beijing museum is used to prove the obligation of encyclopedic museums to share with the world.  MacGregor develops the argument that, as an encyclopedic museum, the value of the British Museum is found in its ability to shed light on current issues by showing how artifacts can reveal truths about people and their issues. The example of the “throne of weapons” (made of automatic rifles) from Mozambique us used to prove this argument..  MacGregor argues the value of the encyclopedic museum in the world today. He places the encyclopedic museum in the Enlightenment value hierarchy, that truth is a central value for all cultures, and encyclopedic museums have the ability to provide truth gained from reasoning about what we find in the world. MacGregor’s article is positioned as a defense of the encyclopedic museum in policy argumentation over return of artifacts to the nation that claims them as cultural patrimony.

B. Effectiveness?  Assessing the effectiveness of MacGregor’s defense of the great encyclopedic museums as custodians of world culture is an opportunity for a written assignment or a class discussion activity. Students can be asked to examine MacGregor’s use of evidence and reasoning used to develop the arguments identified in 2. a.  If used for class discussion, organize the class into 3-4 person groups and have each group extract the specific kinds of evidence MacGregor uses, explain how he reasons on the basis of the evidence, and how these arguments collectively use the benefit of presumption. Each group should present its findings and discuss whether or not MacGregor’s arguments meet the tests for effective proof and reasoning. Ask each group to determine if MacGregor has successfully defended the encyclopedic museums against claims for the return of cultural artifacts such as the Elgin marbles.  Because of its complexity, if this Activity is used as an individual written assignment it should be for extra-credit. Have students identify the issues, the types of evidence and reasoning used to develop each issue, and discuss whether or not MacGregor has made use of the benefit of presumption in defending the role of the encyclopedic museum. Parse points as follows: 10% issue identification 30% identification of types of evidence and application of tests of evidence 30% identification of types of reasoning and application of tests of reasoning 30% discussion of use of benefit of presumption 140

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3.

Many online news sources provide an opportunity for readers to respond to a story and interact with each other. Choose a story and the discussion of the issue, or issues, by respondents. For example, you might choose the story from the 7 April 2010 edition of the Telegraph, “British Museum Under Pressure to Give Up Leading Treasures,” which provoked an extensive discussion of the issue of returning cultural property. The responses are a form of debate on the return of cultural property topic. The URL is http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/egypt/7563963/Britis hmuseum-under-pressure-to-give-up-leading-treasures.html.

A. What specific issues do you find being argued?

B. What extensions of the central issue are made as the debate evolves?

C. Are these issues similar, or different, from the ones in the advocate and opponent cases in Boxes 11.1 and 11.2?

D. Which arguments are most compelling? Why? E. What is the difference between this kind of online argumentation and the advocacy and opposition you saw taking place in Chapters 9, 10, and 11? 







The article from the Telegraph is available now only from the archives for a fee. The comments may not be archived as many news sources archive only the original story. The best use of this activity is to choose a current story and the following commentary. Select a story that strikes a responsive chord with readers and stimulates a lively on-line discussion. The commentary on the “British Museum Under Pressure to Give Up Leading Treasures” story sparked a dialog in which several people offered one brief response, but three engaged in more lengthy exchanges. Many of the responses offered very clear arguments with supporting proof and reasoning. The objective of this activity is to have students apply what they have learned about argumentation to an on-line debate responding to a news story. While the news story itself need not be lengthy, choose one that offers some substantive responses so that students may identify issues and proof in the story and then follow these in the on-line discussion.

A. specific issues Have students identify the issues in the news story and then identify how each discussant responds to these issues. Have them search for new issues or modification of the original issues as the online debate develops.

B. extensions Have students identify the central issue from the original article and track what happens with it across the on-line comments. Have them consider whether the on-line comments seem to be a “discussion” in which all sides are considered and commented upon, or whether the on-line interaction constitutes a “debate” in which sides seem to be taken and developed during the interaction. Also have students consider if one or more of those participating on-line seem determined to steer the issues in a particular direction, especially if it is significantly different from the original article.

C. advocate-opponent Because the Telegraph article and its commentary are no longer readily available, it isn’t relevant to make this comparison here. In the article you choose for this activity, have students determine which discussants take the position of advocate and which act as opponent. Have them explain how those engaging in advocacy undertake the burden of proof and those who seem to be opponents use the benefit of presumption.

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





D. compelling arguments Examining how on-line arguments phrase claims, use evidence, and reason from evidence to claim is a good opportunity to make the bridge from the classroom to how people argue in everyday life.

Have students examine arguments to determine what is stated, what is implied, and how one arguer will pull ideas and information from previous comments to support his or her claims. This can be used to discuss what makes an on-line argument compelling or easy to dismiss.

E. on-line difference One of the obvious differences is that on-line discussion and debate is much less structured and is often very informal. An important feature to discuss is the extent to which many parts of a unit of argument are unstated. Have students consider what units of argument seem to have developed for each issue as the on-line debate evolves and how participants fill in the unstated parts of an argument. This will be a good opportunity to discuss how fallacies emerge when participants fill in the unstated parts of arguments and how meaning shifts and breakdowns can occur.

The best use of this activity is for class discussion rather than as a graded assignment. Students may find it difficult to follow the flow of unstructured argumentation and it is best to use this type of activity as a means of teaching how fallacies occur when arguers don’t take the time to plan their arguments and do research to support their claims.

4.

Group project: Each group should scan news stories to find a problem that needs solving. Phrase a policy proposition for this topic, prepare a brief description of the policy topic, and consider which approach (traditional, comparative advantage, goalscriteria) would be most feasible for case development of the proposition. Present your ideas, and consideration of each approach, to the class. 





This activity can be done using any national news source, but this is an especially good activity for local and campus policy issues. You may either have students scan news stories to find problems to be solved through policy argumentation or you may select articles. Choose a selection of news articles from the local or campus news source that suggest “someone needs to do something” about a particular problem.

If you choose the topics, it is useful to give the same set of articles to two groups for comparison purposes. Three person groups work best for this activity. Have each group do the following: Phrase a policy proposition, define key terms, make the primary inference.

Prepare a brief description of the topic using the first stock issue of policy argumentation to identify the reason for change (nature of the disparity, harm, and inherency).

Develop three approaches to case construction based on the three ways to prepare a policy case: traditional, comparative advantage, and goals-criteria.

Each group will present their ideas in class, explaining how they used each approach and which approach they think is best for case development.

If you have two groups working with the same set of articles or topic, you can have some good discussion of the similarities and differences in how they developed the three approaches and which approach they chose as the best for case development. If used as a graded assignment, parse the points as follows: 20% proposition phrasing and definition of terms 20% description of policy topic in terms of first stock issue of policy 30% consideration of case development, three approaches 30% explanation of the preferred approach

5.

Group project: Each group will be assigned a policy proposition from the following list. Each group should identify the disparity implied in their policy 142

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proposition, brainstorm possible fact and value argumentation that could be used in developing the advocate’s case, and proposals to achieve the change. Then, discuss the arguments you would use in opposing the case you have brainstormed. Present your findings to the class and discuss each group’s ideas for case development.

A. The Federal Communications Commission should create a uniform system of cell phone regulation for all national phone service.

B. A nationwide ban on the use of electronic devices while driving a motor vehicle should be instituted.

C. Alcohol consumption should be banned at all sporting events.

D. Good nutrition habits should be a standard part of the K–12 curriculum.

E. The United States should initiate a new Manhattan Project to expand safe and effective nuclear power generation for the nation’s energy needs.

F. All high school graduates in the United States should be given the opportunity for a college education.

G. Noise-making devices should be banned at sporting events. 

Because using these topics for graded assignments would require substantial research to develop effective argumentation, the best use of this activity is as a class brainstorming activity to help students learn how to find the possibilities for advocating and opposing policy propositions for a graded assignment. Choose those propositions that you believe your students will have enough general knowledge of to make brainstorming possible. Assign a proposition to each group, have them brainstorm the possibilities for advocating and opposing the proposition. Have each group present their findings and discuss the possibilities.

A. The Federal Communications Commission should create a uniform system of cell phone regulation for all national phone service.  The central issue is the regulation of the telecommunications industry to standardize cell phone service.  The disparity is the many variations in cell phone equipment and service that creates problems for customers.  The value is the benefit of standardization to improve the quality of service for customer.  Opposition considerations include the impact on free enterprise and the disadvantages of increased government regulation

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B. A nationwide ban on the use of electronic devices while driving a motor vehicle should be instituted.  The central issue is the danger to motorists and pedestrians created by inattention to driving while using an electronic device.  The disparity is the increasing number of deaths and injuries caused by inappropriate use of electronic devices while operating a motor vehicle.  The value is the increased safety to motorists and pedestrians.  Opposition considerations include the difficulty of defining what constitutes an “electronic device,” the loss of personal freedoms.

C. Alcohol consumption should be banned at all sporting events.  The central issue is the disruptive and rude behavior that results from alcohol consumption at sporting events.  The disparity is the increasing number of incidents involving drunk and disorderly behavior at sporting events.  The value is the family-friendly potential of sporting events and the ability of fans to enjoy an event without having to endure harassment.  Opposition considerations: the extreme loss of revenue to sports venues, the number of “drunk and disorderly” incidents is small when compared to the whole of attendance at sporting events.

D. Good nutrition habits should be a standard part of K-12 curriculum.  The central issue is the need to teach children what good nutrition is and how to develop healthy eating habits.  The disparity is the increasing number of obese children and young adults with the resulting health problems.  The value is a healthier population.  Opposition considerations include the problems school systems presently face in meeting education needs without adding one more requirement and the fact that parents have a greater influence on the child’s development of nutrition habits.

E. The United States should initiate a new Manhattan Project to expand safe and effective nuclear power for the nation’s energy needs.  The central issue is the need for the U.S. government to provide the impetus to find effective alternatives to fossil fuels.  The disparity is the nearly total reliance on fossil fuels for most of the nation’s energy needs in the face of rising costs of energy.  The value is a safe, cheaper source of energy.  Opposition considerations include the cost of a “new Manhattan Project” in an era when the federal government must substantially cut budgets and the questionable safety of nuclear power generation.

F. All high school graduates in the United States should be given the opportunity for a college education.  The central issue is the need for a work force sufficiently educated to meet the increasing technological demands of the 21st century.  The disparity is the rising cost of a college education for a substantial number of high school graduates.  The value is better educated citizens and a more prepared work force.  Oppositional considerations include the cost of a college education and the ability of many high school graduates to successfully do college-level academic work.

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G. Noise-making devices should be banned at sporting events.  The central issue is the disruptive property of noise makers.  The disparity is the inability of coaches, players, and officials to communicate on the field and the damage done to the hearing of those close to the noise making devices.  The value is the orderly play of the game and the enjoyment of the game for all.  Opposition considerations include the loss of fan sprit and bonding and the cultural traditions of certain noise making devices.

6. Identify one or more problems at your school that seem to create a disparity. Analyze this disparity in terms of its nature, extent, harm, and inherency. Suggest proposals to solve the disparity. How would each proposal solve the disparity? What advantages does each proposal have? 



This activity and Activity 7 are alternatives to Activity 5 and can be used if you are not having students debate policy propositions concerning campus issues as suggested in the Sample Syllabus and Assignment Instructions. Students who are not up on current events have a hard time with Activity 5, the focus on campus issues often facilitates their ability to work through the advocate's responsibilities. Having them complete this Activity often opens their eyes to the fact that there are no simple solutions to many problems.

If your syllabus includes in-class participation as one factor in determining a student’s grade in the course, assign discussion leadership responsibility to two students.

7. Take the role of opponent for the policy proposals made in #6. What would be your strategy of opposition? What minor repairs might remedy the disparity? What would be the consequences of adopting the changes suggested? What kind of critique or counterproposal might be in order?  

See Activity 6.

If your syllabus includes in-class participation as one factor in determining a student’s grade in the course, assign discussion leadership responsibility to two students, being sure to instruct them to coordinate their efforts with those of the students leading discussion on Activity 6.

True or False 11-1 Outside of academic debate competitions, the only place we find argumentation taking place is in state and federal legislative bodies.

Answer: F; Page: 230; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 11-2 In the traditional pattern of organization, the advocate argues the three stock issues for policy argumentation in the order in which they are numbered in the text.

Answer: T; Page: 231; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual

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11-3 In policy argumentation, a "disparity" is a proposal for some behavioral change.

Answer: F; Page: 233; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 11-4 A "disparity" is a problem or difference between the way things exist now and some more ideal future state.

Answer: T; Page: 233; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 11-5 In arguing the "reason for change" in a policy proposition, the advocate must offer argumentation concerning extent, harm, and inherency.

Answer: T; Page: 233; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 11-6 The only value claim an advocate of a policy proposition must make is the one which evaluates the workability of her proposed policy.

Answer: F; Page: 233; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 11-7 In policy argumentation, part of the advocate's burden of proof is to present the details which explain exactly how the policy change is to occur.

Answer: T; Page: 234; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 11-8 In policy argumentation, the advocate's policy proposal may be used as an operational definition of the terms in the proposition.

Answer: T; Page: 234; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 11-9 "Solvency" refers to the ability of a proposed policy to overcome a disparity.

Answer: T; Page: 235; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 11-10 The subsidiary effects of the advocate's proposal constitute a warrant for change, and their absence renders the advocate's case non-prima facie.

Answer: F; Page: 236; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 11-11 A counterproposal must be non-topical and preclude the adoption of the advocate's proposal as well.

Answer: T; Page: 248; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 11-12 A comparative advantage case is a strategy used by the opponent to offer a counterproposal or minor repair to the advocate's reason for change arguments.

Answer: F; Page: 231; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual

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11-13 One option for case development for advocating a policy proposition is to use the “goals-criteria” approach to case development. If you selected this option, you would use techniques of value argumentation to begin by examining what is presently valued by your audience and the goals that have been set to achieve this value.

Answer: T; Page: 232; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 11-14 In arguing against propositions of policy, it is usually wisest for the opponent to argue against both the reason for change and the consequences of change.

Answer: T; Page: 243; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Conceptual 11-15 The advocate has the option of suggesting "minor repairs" that would satisfy the reason for change without making the change stated in the proposition.

Answer: F; Page: 244; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Conceptual 11-16 A minor repair must be a natural consequence of that which presently exists, rather than a consequence of a structural or attitudinal change.

Answer: T; Page: 245; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 11-17 An opponent's "circumvention arguments" in policy argumentation are based on the premise that people resist change.

Answer: T; Page: 245; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual 11-18 If the opponent in policy argumentation offers a minor repair, it must meet the same standards of proof and reasoning as the advocate’s policy proposal.

Answer: T; Page: 245; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 11-19 One strategy available to the opponent in an argument over a change in policy is to perform a "worst case" analysis and look for harmful consequences, or disadvantages, to the proposed plan of action.

Answer: T; Page: 246; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 11-20 As an opponent, you might use the technique of offering a counterproposal when all those involved in argumentation agree that a problem exists and must be solved, but disagree over the best solution.

Answer: T; Page: 248; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual

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Multiple Choice 11-1 In preparing to advocate your policy proposition, you have discovered that there is almost universal agreement that a reason for policy change exists. The controversy is over what the best course of action should be. You will structure your case as a “comparative advantages” development of arguments. What should appear first in your case development? (a) The first stock issue: arguments about the reason for a change in the manner suggested by your proposition. (b) The second stock issue: the details of the specific policy you are proposing. (c) The third stock issue: the advantages or consequences of the policy you are proposing. (d) The fourth stock issue: arguments explaining how your policy proposal meets certain goals or criteria that society presently values.

Answer: B; Page: 231; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 11-2 The __________ pattern of organization for policy argumentation begins by examining what society values and offering a policy change that will better achieve that objective. (a) need-plan-advantage (b) comparative advantage (c) goals-criteria (d) counterproposal Answer: C; Page: 232; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 11-3 In arguing that there is a reason for change in policy, which of the following is NOT part of the advocate's burden of proof? (a) Presenting disadvantages of the proposed policy. (b) Quantifying the nature of the problem. (c) Characterizing the consequences of the problem. (d) Establishing that the problem is inherent.

Answer: A; Page: 233-234; Difficulty: 1; Skill: Factual

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Assume that the advocate has offered the following arguments on behalf of the proposition: The Federal Government should impose minimum standards for teacher certification.

I. Teachers are poorly prepared in academic subjects.

II. Of students graduating with education degrees in the past five years, over 40% cannot pass eighth grade equivalency tests in spelling, grammar, vocabulary, and basic mathematical skills.

III. Poorly prepared teachers produce poorly taught students.

IV. Teacher licensing standards in most state demand too much time spent in "education" courses and not enough time spent in academic subject matter and basic skills.

11-4 Which argument in the example is an inherency argument? (a) I (b) II (c) III (d) IV Answer: D; Page: 233; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 11-5 Which argument in the example is a significance argument? (a) I (b) II (c) III (d) IV Answer: B; Page: 233; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 11-6 Which argument in the example describes harm? (a) I (b) II (c) III (d) IV Answer: C; Page: 233; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied

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Assume that the advocate's proposal for change relative to the problem described in the example above is: I. All teachers with five years or less seniority and all teachers seeking employment in the public school system will be required to pass a basic competency examination in academic subjects and basic skills.

II. The Department of Education with the approval and assistance of the National Education Association and the American Federation of Teachers will design and administer competency tests.

III. A reasonable fee, not to exceed the cost of designing, administering, and processing the test, will be charged to each applicant for certification.

IV. Those teachers presently in the school system with less than five years seniority must pass the test or face revocation of their teaching licenses. New teachers will not receive teaching licenses until they have passed the test.

11-7 In the example above, the mechanism is found in which part of the proposal? (a) I (b) II (c) III (d) IV Answer: B; Page: 234; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 11-8 In the example above, the enforcement of the proposal is found in which part of the proposal? (a) I (b) II (c) III (d) IV Answer: D; Page: 234; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 11-9 In the example above, the change is found in which part of the proposal? (a) I (b) II (c) III (d) IV Answer: A; Page: 234; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied

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Assume that the advocate has offered the following arguments on behalf of the proposition: Our school should institute a system of textbook rentals for all courses.

I. The cost of college textbooks has increased by over 200% in the last decade.

II. A combination of the sale of used textbooks by university bookstores and the practice of “bundling” software and audio-video packages is responsible for the increasing costs of college textbooks.

III. Authors of college textbooks, such as the one you are using in this course, receive 10% in royalties on the wholesale price of each new textbook sold.

IV. College students, already paying increased tuition and housing fees, go further into debt to pay for increasingly expensive textbooks.

11-10 Which claim in the example suggests inherency? (a) I (b) II (c) III (d) IV Answer: B; Page: 233; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 11-11 Which claim in the example suggests significance? (a) I (b) II (c) III (d) IV Answer: A; Page: 233; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 11-12 Which claim in the example suggests effect? (a) I (b) II (c) III (d) IV Answer: D; Page: 233; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied

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Assume that the advocate’s proposal for a policy in response to the problem of the high costs of college text books offers the following proposal for a textbook rental system.

I. Students will be charged a rental fee of 30% of the wholesale price for each rented textbook.

II. Faculty will be required to select textbooks for a three-year academic calendar before requesting new books or a change in textbooks. An earlier change in textbooks must be approved by the Vice President for Academic Affairs.

III. Beginning in Fall 2012, students may rent textbooks with an option to buy at the end of the semester.

IV. The Campus Bookstore will be responsible for providing textbooks and managing the rental system. Textbook rentals will be available only from the Campus Bookstore.

11-13 In the proposed policy example, the mechanism is found in? (a) I (b) II (c) III (d) IV Answer: C; Page: 234; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 11-14 In the proposed policy example, the financing is found in? (a) I (b) II (c) III (d) IV Answer: A; Page: 234; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 11-15 In the proposed policy example, the change is found in? (a) I (b) II (c) III (d) IV Answer: D; Page: 234; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied

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11-16 As an opponent for a policy proposition, which of the following questions should you NOT ask yourself in establishing your strategy of opposition? (a) What is the advocate’s burden of proof and has she met it? (b) Has the advocate implied one or more values that she asks the audience to accept without explaining the value(s)? (c) Has the advocate used the “traditional” need-plan-advantage structure for developing the proposition? (d) Does the advocate’s reason for change contain assumptions that are unwarranted because she has not offered adequate proof and reasoning for these assumptions?

Answer: C; Page: 243; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual 11-17 The advocate must establish the “workability” of her proposal. As the opponent, you have the strategic option of challenging this workability. Which of the following are ways you might challenge workability? (a) Demonstrate that the cost of making the proposal work because it will be slow, inconvenient, and time consuming would outweigh any benefits gained from it. (b) Question the solvency of the advocate’s proposal by the application of the principle, “whatever can go wrong will go wrong.” (c) Identify the attitudinal barriers to the advocate’s proposal that will cause those who are supposed to change to resist change. (d) All of the above Answer: A; Page: 245; Difficulty: 3; Skill: Applied 11-18 In a circumvention argument, the opponent of a policy proposition argues (a) because society is not static, given enough time, self-correction will occur. (b) because people resist change, they will find ways to avoid a change imposed upon them. (c) because society is not perfect, the possibility for disadvantageous consequences from a policy always exist. (d) because people favor change in the face of disparity, a counterproposal should be examined.

Answer: B; Page: 245; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 11-19 One type of argument which can be made against a proposal for change is referred to as a "disadvantage" argument. Which of the following things is NOT true of a disadvantage argument? (a) It visualizes the world as if the advocate's proposal were adopted. (b) It suggests that the proposal would have no effect if adopted. (c) It is argued using the claims of effect, significance, and inherency. (d) It has the same requirements for proof that any other argument would have.

Answer: B; Page: 246; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Conceptual 11-20 One option available to you as an opponent of a policy proposition is to examine the underlying philosophy of the advocate’s case for a policy change. Using this strategy, 153

Chapter 11: How Are Propositions of Policy Argued?

you would begin with the value hierarchy in which the advocate seems to have placed her proposal for change and develop arguments about the appropriateness of this value hierarchy. This is the opposition strategy of (a) offering a counterproposal. (b) presenting a critique of the proposition or the proposal for change. (c) presenting disadvantages to the proposal’s workability. (d) identifying barriers that might preclude inherency from being overcome.

Answer: B; Page: 246-247; Difficulty: 2; Skill: Factual

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