Art & Architecture By Josephine Florentine
Rituals, traditions and artefacts provide a window into the beliefs and values of cultures
Have you ever wondered how culture can be expressed through art forms? I was interested in this, and how the art from the country that I come from expresses their culture. In this report, I will talk about how art expresses the culture of the Māori, the architecture of the ancient Romans, the artists and architecture of the famous Italian Renaissance, and some case studies on New Zealand artists. To help me with my inquiry, I was lucky enough to go to these places and interview these people: • • • •
Hill Street Basilica - I went to look at the architecture for Question 2. Classics Department at Victoria University Wellington- I talked to a senior curator about Question 2. Bowen Gallery - I talked to Jenny and Penney (curators of the gallery) for their opinion on Question 4. Jenny Mehrtens - I interview Jenny via email as she is an artist and would be a good case study for Question 4.
For my first question, in what ways can visual art express culture, I decided to look into the art of our native New Zealanders, the Māori. Māori Art Through visual art, the culture of the Māori has been and continues to be expressed, through many forms of art. Carving, painted designs, tattooing and weaving are all examples of ways visual art can express the Māori culture. Carving
Carvings by the Māori were traditionally carved on wood, stone and bone. Carvers were equipped with chisels and adzes. Many of the Māori carvers that we have today descend from a long line of carvers - the skills are passes down through the family. It seems that the carvings by the Māori have developed significantly since the Polynesians first arrived on New Zealand's shores. It is thought that the first settlers brought simple designs and a small collection of geometrical designs for surface patterns that had mainly straight lines. When the first Europeans came, rather than the straight lines, more curvy patterns were used. Many archaeologists have uncovered objects with patterns that were similar to ones found in Polynesia, with most of them found in the South Island. Carving in New Zealand became increasingly popular. This was most likely to be due to the availability of totara timber. This timber was used because it wasn't dense or cross-grained, unlike the timber of tropical Polynesia. There was also pounamu (greenstone, similar to jade) which could be made into adzes and chisels to carve from. Using the pounamu was a lot better than using basalt, shell or limestone to make the adzes. Not all carvings served a decorative purpose though - some carvings had functional uses. The nose flute was carved out of a whale tooth. It is a popular musical instrument in Polynesia and the Pacific. The mouth flute, similar to the nose flute and used for the same purpose, was sometimes carved out of human bones. As well as passing down legends verbally, the Māori population also used carvings to tell stories. Elaborate carvings like the ones that were used to pass down stories are shown on meeting houses, or whares. These carvings often represent ancestors. Many carvings consist of birds, lizards and whales, but mostly of humans. The carvings of humans either had naturalistic heads or a head that was distorted and grotesque. Tane, the god of the forest, was also carved out of wood. Once Tane was carved, the wood he was carved from was thought to take on or embody the qualities of that god. Carving Tane is an example of the spiritual importance of Māori art. Painted Designs
Designs that the MÄ ori painted also expressed the MÄ ori culture. These designs were used on rafters, doors, windows of buildings, the under surface of the bows on war canoes, and also on cenotaphs (an empty tomb or monument that was created in honour of a person or group of people). The designs were also painted on the walls of caves and shelters made of rock, mainly in the South Island. Painted Designs - Wood Paintings
 The designs that were painted on wood are called kowhaiwhai. These paintings on buildings, canoes and the cenotaphs were painted in the main colours, red, black and white. These colours were made from natural substances like iron oxide deposits, clay, shark oil and soot. The white was the natural colour of wood before the European times. Now, instead of this, white paint is used. The black paint used to be made from soot, and the red paint was made from some red ochre, also known as kokowai, mixed with shark oil. The Ngati Porou tribe have also been said to paint with blue, made from clay that was called tutae-whetu. Basic elements of the kowhaiwhai are the koru and the double spiral. The koru has a curved stalk with a 'bulb' that is almost circular on one end. On the East Coast, on some designs, there is a koru that has a 'bulb' on both ends, and some other circular 'bulbs' that are equally spaced along the inner side of the curves between 'bulbs'. The elements of the designs that are most important are usually white, while the rest of the spaces in red or black. If both black and red are used in one design, the colours are usually alternating. Kowhaiwhai developed the most in the district of Gisborne.
Tattooing
Tattooing is another example of art that expresses culture. Māori tattoos are called moko. The moko has been around for centuries, and is not like other Polynesian tattoos as the lines were engraved into the skin instead of being pricked in. In ancient times, the skin was carved with a chisel and hit with a mallet, leaving deep grooved incisions. The facial moko has seen a comeback in recent times, but newer, less painful techniques have been adopted. The moko is a feature that identifies Māori tribespeople from others. When the Māori first traded with the British, ancestors from some tribes drew their facial moko on documents as a signature. They were able to do this because, in the past, every facial moko was unique. Social rank, authority and marriage eligibility are all shown in the moko. The pigment that was used to tattoo was a soot that was obtained from a burning kahikatea, also known as white pine, that was sometimes mixed with kauri gum or soot from a shrub named korimiko, or Hebe. The chisel used for tattooing was usually made from an albatross wing, or even from a human bone. Weaving The Māori traditionally wove by hand, without using a loom (device used to weave cloth). Weaving was traditionally taught within a family, usually by a female relative (mother, aunt, or grandmother). There were strict guidelines and rules to follow to keep the techniques in the family. In and before the 1950s, weaving was declining fast, so educational programmes were set up to preserve the art of weaving. Restrictions around the sorts of plants that were used for weaving were put in place to keep it going.
Harakeke, also known as New Zealand flax, is the most used material for weaving. The weaving was used for ropes, nets, food baskets, floor mats, and prestigious cloaks. The cloaks were sometimes also made out of dog skin and hair. Ancestors of the Māori forged a method to produce fine thread of flax fibre, which was and is still used now to weave garment that had great beauty. The development of weaving was largely due to lack of adequate clothing for the weather conditions, when the Māori ancestors first arrived in New Zealand form Polynesia. A weaving technique was developed to provide for the Māori extra warmth, and to be both beautiful and comfortable. The Māori can express their culture in many varieties of art. These forms of art are both functional and decorative. Through these forms of art, the Māori people can also display their creative talents. These arts are very important to the Māori culture historically, as they tell stories, legends, and tales. Many of these arts are also an important part of their cultural traditions, values and heritage. Roman Architecture Architecture that was innovated and inspired by the Ancient Romans is all around us. Since I come from an Italian background, I wanted to look into the great architectural developments by the Romans. To do this, I wanted to look at certain aspects of architecture that the Romans established. After thinking about this, I decided to look at one big architectural structure and three different innovations that the Ancient Romans used. I chose to look into the Colosseum, the arch, the vault and some Ancient Roman concrete.
The Colosseum The Colosseum is the biggest amphitheatre built in the Roman Empire. The official name is the Flavian Amphitheatre. It is located in the centre of Rome, close to the Roman Forum. Built in 70 AD, it was constructed for the pure enjoyment of the Ancient Romans. It was built for and by Emperor Vespasian, and for his son and successor, Titus.
There are other similar monuments near the Colosseum, such as the Imperial Forum, The Arch of Constantine, buildings on Palatine Hill. But the Colosseum holds the most historical interest. History of the Colosseum The name Colosseum came about due to a huge statue of Nero that stood close by. During Nero's reign, the area surrounding the Colosseum caught fire and burned down in the year 64 AD. Nero confiscated the land for his personal use and built his residence, the Domus Aurea, there. It was no ordinary residence with its artificial lake, gardens and statues. The main gate of the residence was guarded by the Colossus of Nero, which was a giant bronze statue. After Nero's death, Vespasian ruled and provided stability to the Empire. Vespasian took over the land and built an enormous amphitheatre which became known as the Colosseum. It took 8 - 10 years to build. Vespasian died during the process so it was officially opened by Titus, the son and successor of Vespasian. It was years later that the fourth upper gallery was completed. The amphitheatre was converted into an enormous oval building. The Measurements The measurements of the Colosseum are impressive: 189m long 156m wide 57m high. More About The Colosseum The Colosseum inspired the designs of many sports stadiums in the 20th century. With the way there are internal galleries and a number of connecting steps allowing rapid entry and exit by the public. There was a wooden floor that covered the arena for the battles. This has not lasted, so the underground dungeons where prisoners, gladiators and wild animals were held, can be seen. The Colosseum was constructed of ancient Roman concrete, Travertine limestone (used for the main pillars), 300 tons of metal, Tuff or Tufo, tiles, bricks, marble, lead, and terra cotta pipes. Roman concrete can last for at least 2000 years, and this is why the Colosseum has stood for so long. When the Colosseum was built, it was designed by more than one architect. Today this is unusual and it would have probably just been designed by one. The Colosseum is an emblem of the power and cruelty of the Ancient Roman Empire. There were four main levels in the Colosseum, each one with 80 arches. Every arch on the bottom level was an entrance and exit, which meant that everyone could get into and out of the stadium, even when at its full capacity. This is faster than most modern stadiums today. The Colosseum could hold a huge capacity of 50,000 people. Certain people were banned from attending the games - this included former gladiators, actors, and gravediggers. It is 157 ft (47 metres) tall and 1788 ft wide (544 metres).
The stories told about the history of the Colosseum are sometimes mixed with legend. During its glory days, bloody Roman spectacles were held in the arena. There were animal fights, gladiator fights, reconstructions of naval battles and executions of prisoners using wild animals. The enjoyment of battles and watching an animal or person get killed was what the Colosseum was usually used for. The battles were usually wild animal vs. human. As well as gladiators fighting the beasts, so called 'criminals' were also made to fight. The Ancient Romans always enjoyed somebody or something get ruthlessly killed. The last recorded games were held in the 6th century. The Colosseum continued to function until the 6th century, despite being damaged by earthquakes and lightning strikes. It became lost in the middles ages, and lost its splendour. It fell in to the hands of the Church, which did not have the funds to maintain it. With the many natural catastrophes that struck Rome, the Colosseum deteriorated with irreparable damage. The earthquake of 1349 damaged its structure and the upper galleries and is responsible for the current appearance of the Colosseum. The Colosseum has been in existence for almost 20 centuries. It and has an impressive history as an amphitheatre, execution ground, artificial lake, scene of battles, a sacred site, fortress, quarry and an impressive example of Roman architecture. It is now a worldwide icon and an emblem of the city of Rome. It is one of the most visited tourist attractions in the world. The semi - ruined stadium is an image recognised all over the world.
Roman Arch Ancient Rome have many architectural influences on many cultures and one of these is the Roman development of the arch. It is a supporting structure in building construction that carries a lot of weight and supports and strengthens a structure. An arch is a curved structure that is made of stone, brick or concrete. In modern times, an arch is usually made of steel. The arch consists of wedge - shaped blocks. The top centre stone is called the keystone. The Romans did not invent the arch. Arches have been used since prehistoric times by the ancient Egyptians and Greeks. These cultures used the arch to support small structures and used columns to support the roof of these structures. The design of the arch meant that only small structures could be built. The ancient Romans created the arch that could support huge amounts of weight. This was achieved through the use of Roman concrete. Arches made with this were able to support a lot of weight and the Romans built massive structures such as aqueducts, which provided water to cities. The aqueduct was made of many arches and was constructed out of concrete and bricks. Roman concrete enabled architects to design different and even larger structures. The Roman arch soon became a design used in other cultures and it was modified and developed and now has a huge impact on architecture around the world. In the Arab world, the arch was modified in to the design of mosques and palaces. The Roman arch enabled the Romans to make further architectural developments and to solve problems where the arch was not strong enough to support large amounts of weight. They combined arches to form ceilings or roofs called vaults. The Romans also used the principals of the arch to form a ceiling or roof called a dome. As well as aqueducts, The Roman Colosseum, the Baths of Caracalla and basilicas are an example of many arches in a structure. Rome remains the centre of the world in classical architecture. Romans are considered to be the innovators of the foundations of the architectural forms, the arch, dome and vault. Factors such as wealth and high population densities meant that the Romans needed to develop innovative architecture. They wanted to construct imposing structures for public use that would be impressive to citizens and visitors. They used domes, arches and vaults to do this using their knowledge of building materials such as Roman concrete, which proved to be very successful. The Pantheon was intended to be used as a Temple. It became an inspiration to architects designing buildings in the Western Hemisphere. Roman Vault A vault is an arrangement of arches made of masonry that forms a roof or ceiling. It can also be an underground storage compartment where the space is covered by an arched structure. A barrel vault is an arch that is built over and over and can create a doorway. The term barrel is used as the appearance looks like the inside of a barrel. The earliest barrel vaults were built by people living in the Roman Empire who used them for roofing. In the Middle Ages, architects used barrel vaults to put stone roofs on Romanesque churches and cathedrals.
A more advanced form of vault called the groin vault became more popular with architects by the late 1100's AD. A groin vault is a stronger version of a vault as it formed by building two vaults that cross each other so that they form an X and more capable of holding more weight. Roman Vault - Dome A dome is a rounded vault with a circular base which forms the roof of a building or structure. The dome allowed the Romans to construct vaulted ceilings which would provide covering for large public spaces such as Roman baths and basilicas. A lot of the Roman architecture was based on the dome and one of the best known would be the Pantheon in central Rome. A modern example of a building structure with a dome would be a roofed sports stadium. Roman Concrete The Romans were definitely the expert builders of the ancient world. Most of the structures that they built still stand today - and all because of the development of Roman concrete. Interior spaces that had never been built before were built for the first time. Roman concrete was first developed more than 2000 years ago, around the time of the 2nd century BC. The recipe for the concrete was unique and isn't anything like today's concrete. The mixture made in ancient Roman times for concrete was a lot weaker than the concrete that is made now. Despite this, the concrete made was extremely durable and huge structures like the Colosseum and the Pantheon are still standing today with hardly any maintenance. It was also good for the environment. The Roman Concrete is heated to a lesser temperature when produced, releasing less fumes in to the atmosphere. The key component to the Roman concrete that is thought to help make it last so long was the volcanic ash. Here is how the concrete was made and what it was made out of: The mortars (a mixture that becomes hard like stone. It was used in buildings to hold bricks and stones together) used to bind the concrete structures are a mixture of 85 per cent volcanic ash, fresh water and lime. The mortar was thermally treated at a temperature that was much lower than modern cement. Rough chunks of volcanic tuff formed up to 45 per cent of the concrete. Some of the buildings that were built with Roman concrete are so magnificent and big that they wouldn't be attempted today, even though we have so much technology around us. This is what makes Roman architecture and concrete so historic and special. To get a first-hand look at some Roman architecture, I went to Hill Street Basilica. A History Of The Cathedral In June 1848, Pope Pius IX ordered that NZ should be divided into two dioceses. One would be Auckland, which would consist of the whole province of Auckland, and also Wellington, which had the rest of New Zealand. The first bishop appointed was Bishop Phillip Viard. He arrived on a barque (a small sailing ship with masts whose sails are fixed breadthways square) named Clara on May the 1st 1850. With him, he brought five Marist priests, two male teachers, 3 MÄ ori people, 4 women who were very eager to join a religious order and to teach, and 10 untrained brothers. Because of this, the Diocese of Wellington came about.
Before the Diocese of Wellington was established, the faith of the Catholics was sustained by Dr John Fitzgerald. He first arrived on Wellington soil on the 31st of January 1840. The prayers on Sunday and the Christian Doctrine classes were all lead by him. The first resident priest followed him, the Capuchin, Fr Jeremiah O'Reily, in January of 1843. Within the year, a Catholic church was built and it was dedicated to the Nativity. After Viard's arrival, he bought land in Thorndon, where a bishop's house and St Mary's Convent were later built. The cathedral foundation was also laid there. Bishop Viard died on June the 2nd 1872 and was succeeded by Rev Francis Redwood SM who remained in power as bishop for 61 years. The old cathedral was destroyed by a fire in 1998, but was rebuilt. One of the greatest periods of time for Italian art and architecture was the Renaissance, which means 'rebirth'. To get a deeper understanding of what the Renaissance was really about and the art that was created, I chose to look into one of the best artists of the High Renaissance, Michelangelo. Michelangelo Born on March 6, 1475, Michelangelo Buonarroti was one of the best artists of the Renaissance. At a young age, Michelangelo was sent to live with a family of stonecutters due to his mother having ongoing illnesses and his father not being able to look after him. For my fourth and final question, in what ways can contemporary NZ artists express and challenge cultural identity, I decided to do some case studies on New Zealand contemporary artists. The first person I decided to do Jenny Mehrtens. Case Study - Jenny Mehrtens Jenny Mehrtens is an Arrowtown based artist, primarily a painter, she has had several group and solo exhibitions and her work can be found in private collections worldwide. I chose four of her exhibitions, including her current one, 'Making Their Mark'.
‘Local Letterboxes’ "I’ve been intrigued when going around the Wakatipu Basin that there are at intervals beside the road, groupings of letterboxes that exhibit both local colour and character. Some are pristine, others are faded. I wanted to capture that, so I’ve done this Local Letterbox series” she says. In New Zealand, many people have their own individual style of letterbox that reflects their character and personality. Some letterboxes are made by DIY or they are made out of objects that could otherwise be considered pieces of junk. Others are ones that were bought from the hardware store and aren’t unique. In this environment that we live in here in New Zealand, some letterboxes are rusty, faded and ignored. Other letterboxes are bright and cheerful though. Jenny’s paintings on oil canvases have portrayed the character of the individual and unique letterboxes in her neighbourhood.
‘Miners’ Gold’
“Living and working as I do near the historic Chinese miners village snuggled along the rugged yet beautiful Arrow River into Arrowtown, I became interested in what it would have been like for the miners and others involved in gold mining here 150 years ago. The plight and look of the Chinese miners fascinated me, so far from home in such a tough and hostile environment. Their expressions and clothing are a compelling subject. I had to paint them to better get to know them” Jenny says. Jenny Mehrtens has studied some very historic photographs and read books about the lives of the miners to create a series of characters (mostly fictional) that were from the area of Arrowtown. Using these characters, she created a series of paintings of which she called ‘Miners’ Gold’. Her paintings she did throughout the series were oil paintings. The ones with the characters were put in front of a gold ‘leaf’ brick wall. These bricks represented the blocks that were used for building in the area, especially in the 1860s when the gold rush happened. The Chinese people played a big part in in the gold rushes and
surviving in the places that the gold rushes were happening in. The Chinese always brought the colour and character, even though they weren’t always treated fairly.
‘Making Their Mark’ “This painting was done by using charcoal, acrylic, golden soft gel, gold leaf size, gold leaf (metal alloy) and golden gloss varnish on sealed oak veneer (a coating consisting of a thin layer of superior wood glued to a base of sub-standard wood). As a 5th generation Pakeha, there is a part of me that questions if I even have a right to be ‘making their mark’. But I find that tension interesting. I am from this country and it is part of my heritage too. At the heart of this journey there is a desire to better understand and appreciate Māori culture. My interpretation of Māori patterning comes from studying early carving and rafter patterns and moko. I have tried to paint this series with integrity and reverence. Just as in early religious paintings gold leaf was used, and I have used it in these paintings. This is a dynamic work. The viewer sees changes in the Māori woman’s face and the gold markings as they move around the painting. I developed this technique, after many years of using gold leaf in my art.
I have sourced mainly from the National Library archives early photos of Māori woman. The charcoaled and painted image is adapted from the photo. Everyone has a story of one’s own; I’m trying to imagine that story. The original photo is referenced on the back of the painting. Patterning in most cultures has ancient beginnings. I have studied the carvings and rafter patterns on the Māori meeting houses and Pataka at Te Papa and Dowse, and read books by Hamilton and studied Robley and Māori patterning. In this painting I have mainly used the koiri, which means to flourish. •
'Making Their Mark' Written by Jenny Mehrtens
‘Skiers’
Skiing and ski fields give us that newfound freedom that we would not feel otherwise. Jenny Mehrtens has used that feeling to create her take on a retro ski poster. I was able to interview Jenny Mehrtens (via email) and asked what interested her about art, and more specifically, painting. She said, “Making art for me has always been about conveying an idea. It is a way of telling a story. I think some people naturally work more creatively than others….I started out designing and making clothes and I think working the way I do now is a more channelled form of creativity. I have always been interested in art, I grew up in a family where there were artist and we were taken to galleries from an early age. I suppose painting is the medium I have chosen because I am largely self-taught and the other mediums look so difficult!”
I then asked if there was anybody or anything that inspired her to be an artist. She replied, “I think if I had to say what inspired me the most to be an artist was the challenge of it. Early on I found it really difficult to paint anything I liked and then as I progressed I felt encouraged by the people who bought my art, to keep going. It is a journey, almost a quest. I think the desire to do really good work is what keeps me going. You are never entirely happy with what you produce, yet I know that I am producing better work now than I was 5 years ago.” Answering the question, what inspires your artwork, she responded, “Since I started I have done several series, all about different things, so it is difficult to say one thing that inspires me. I am currently painting the Making Their Mark series, so I will talk about what inspired that. This series is about embracing the beauty of this country’s Maori heritage. I had wanted to paint in this style for a while and the catalyst to get me going was when the NZ photographer, Jono Rotman’s Mongrel Mob portraits came out in 2014. http://citygallery.org.nz/exhibitions/jonorotman-mongrel-mob-portraits He is a very clever photographer, but I was incensed by that particular portrayal of Maori. I feel there is too much of the bad in the media about Maori.” She paints paintings of Europeans with Maori tattoos and sources the images from old photos taken in the late 1800’s that are in the National Library. It fascinated her that for the most part, the name of the person hadn’t been recorded. She would not deign to say that she does Maori tattoos (or a Moko) in her paintings….She is a 5th generation Pakeha and the patterning in her paintings has been inspired by Moko, rafter patterns and carving patterns. Only a Maori artist would be able to say they were painting Maori tattoos. It is this tension, with her not being Maori that she finds interesting. Should she even be painting this subject matter? She feels that if she does it with integrity and respect then she can. It is a part of her culture as well as she was born in New Zealand, and has been exposed to the beautiful patterns all her life. She doesn't always base her artworks on New Zealand culture, she says she thinks we have to think globally. In her series Icons, she is interested in that time in history that each person represents. What they saw and what we can learn from them. She said that she lives in a beautiful part of New Zealand, near Arrowtown. She feels that she constantly draws in energy from her surroundings and that it creates the right environment for her to work in, but she does not paint landscapes. "It is almost too beautiful here. I have this line in my head, “how can I do it justice?”"
Jenny says she hopes that she helps express values or views of New Zealand's cultural identity through her art. She wants people who are looking at her Making Their Mark series to embrace and respect Maori culture, and to be proud that it is a part of what makes us New Zealanders. She specifically chose to do patterning in gold leaf, because historically it was used in religious icon paintings to show reverence. Even though it wasn't what she set out to do, Jenny does think that she challenges New Zealand's cultural identity. She thinks that it is quite a unique perspective that a 5th generation European New Zealander is painting in this style. Jenny also thinks that New Zealand artist Dick Frizzell is the most obvious person who challenges our cultural identity. He has turned common symbols of New Zealand life into Kiwiana.