Quanta Magazine Issue I 2023

Editors’ Note

Dear Readers,

As the end of the school year approaches, it is with mixed emotions that we prepare to publish our final issue of Quanta. For those of us who have been involved with, either writing for or reading, Quanta since middle school, it is bittersweet to see how the magazine has flourished and how this group of individuals has transformed. Over the years, we have had the privilege of working with some truly exceptional students, from talented writers and photographers to our fellow dedicated editors and graphic designers. It has been an honor to watch these young people grow and develop into confident and accomplished individuals, and we know that they will continue to make their mark on the world in whatever path they choose to follow. But as we prepare to say goodbye, we are also reminded of the importance of cherishing the time we have together and celebrating the many accomplishments and milestones that we have achieved along the way. Whether it is a successful issue launch, a productive meeting, or a thought-provoking article, we are proud of all that we have accomplished as a team and grateful for the opportunity to work with such talented and dedicated individuals.

For us editors, as seniors who had undergone the long and arduous college process during the compilation of this issue, times were challenging and stressful with the pressure only rising and our futures uncertain. Nonetheless, we have been able to persevere, and we can finally breathe easy in the second semester. We crafted this issue during one of the most hectic times of our lives, which only makes the publishing of this issue even more rewarding. However, what has really made this year and issue possible has been the teamwork and support given and received from all fields of the group.

Our collaboration has always been strong, but it was even more necessary to get things done this year. Everyone has been patient and kind with each other, and been able to lean on each other when things have gotten too much to handle sometimes, and because of that, we are able to release truly incredible work this year. Really, the trust and teamwork of this group has been incredible, and we couldn’t be more thankful. So as we, the editors, prepare to say goodbye, we do so with a sense of gratitude and appreciation for our community and this group of talented writers. We wish them all the best in their future endeavors, confident that they will continue to make us proud in all that they do. We hope you enjoy this edition of Quanta as much as we enjoyed editing it. From the entire team behind Quanta, thank you for reading, and enjoy.

Grace Sun, Katy Silva, Emma Myer Class of 2023

1 5 7 9

Genesis Galvanism

Music of the Heart - Grace Sun ‘23

Scientists at T2T Sequence the First Complete Human Genome - Katherine Ge ‘24

Ibuprofen - Emma Myer ‘23

The Success of Stents: How Coronary Stents Work to Save Lives - Audrey Lin ‘25

The James Webb Space Telescope: Exploring the Final Frontier - Mia Gover ‘25

Literature Review: Social Media Use on Misinformation and Discussion Heterogeneity - Emmie Kao ‘25

How Dogs Have Evolved - Leela Wainio ‘24

Coincidence? We Think Not - Serena Zhang ‘24

Cover Credit: Unsplash

Music of the Heart

The concert hall is silent and tense. A sudden sparkle draws the audience’s attention: the conductor’s silver baton as it rises. Like a shining herald, it comes down, causing a storming convergence of strings, percussion, and woodwinds to transform into the four ominous notes of Beethoven’s 5th Symphony. Symphony No. 5 marks the subtle nonuniformities in the tempo as it progresses, confusing every listener’s inner metronome. This bold style and inconsistent tempo is typical of Beethoven’s introductions which is perhaps inspired by his arrhythmia, or irregular heartbeat.

Arrhythmia, classified as “very common” with more than 3 million cases worldwide, is a cardiovascular phenomenon that ranges from an occasional skip to a chronic irregularity in heartbeat. Usually, a steady pattern of electrical zaps instructs the heart’s muscle cells to contract. Elizabeth Eaton, a writer from Science News for Students,

explains that “this creates their rhythmic pattern, known as the heartbeat. These contractions pump blood through the heart and throughout the rest of the body.” While people’s electrical zaps normally create a predictable heartbeat that dictates the score of daily life, sometimes this can be disrupted by outside factors, causing discomfort and anxiety.

An innovative diagnostic tool, however, is breaking the boundaries between health and music, creating a completely unexpected medley. By utilizing the shifting musical rhythms as a kind of musical heartbeat visualizer to replace the original paper heartbeat diagram, erratic music such as Symphony No. 5 may present a new hope of diagnosing arrhythmia earlier. A trial from the Centre of Digital Music (CDM) analyzes arrhythmic beat patterns by turning recorded heartbeats into classical music, much like Beethoven’s Symphony. By translating

Grace Sun ‘23

electrocardiogram measurements to music notation, doctors and musicians collaborate to create new medical music compositions. Orchestras can then play these concertos, creating beautiful melodies with a pulse hidden in the meter. Doctors can listen to these varying rhythms, making arrhythmia easier for them to detect.

ent stages of the disease through sound, they can decide if drugs or a cardiac procedure is better.

Arrhythmic music might even present a viable cure, separate from diagnosis. When played back to the patient, certain remedial music with hidden calming beats may regulate the heartbeat, a much

Doctors and musicians collaborate to create new medical music compositions

Dr. Elaine Chew from the CDM adds that “deep-diving into the temporal structure of the electrocardiogram – rather than current methods,” inherently ‘hearing’ the arrhythmia rather than seeing it on a flat page “reveals complexities hidden in frequency-based approaches.” In other words, the richer detail afforded by melodic representations of arrhythmia has the potential to enable doctors to target personalized treatments. By identifying patients at differ-

simpler solution than we have ever had before. Capturing the tones of arrhythmia through musical notation might just prove music is indeed medicine. In contrast to the 5th Symphony’s jarring notes and drawnout pauses in the midst of harmony, concertos for the core, as well as hundreds of new compositions, hold limitless potential for a solution to a health issue, truly the music of the heart.

National Cancer Institute: Red blood cells on an agar plate are used to diagnose infection. The plate on the left shows a positive staphyloccus infection. The plate on the right shows a positive streptococcus infection and with the halo effect shows specifically a beta-hemolytic group A.

Scientists at T2T Sequence the First Complete Human Genome

Katherine Ge ‘24

OnMarch 31st, 2022, scientists at the Telomere-to-Telomere (T2T) Consortium finally sequenced the first complete human genome –called T2TCHM13. In 2003, The Human Genome Project sequenced 92% of the human genome, which took 13 years, 3 billion US dollars, and the efforts of thousands of scientists around the globe. Now, after decoding the other 8%, T2T makes scientific history. “I think many people in the field didn’t expect this to ever happen,” remarked Benedict Paten, Associate Director at UCSC Genomics Institute. Now that humanity possesses the whole genetic blueprint of human life, what’s next?

First, what is a genome? A genome is a collection of genes in every cell that make up an organism, and also a set of instructions to build a human being. Genes are made of DNA, DNA is composed of pairs of Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, and Guanine (ATCG). The human genome contains over 6 billion letters of ATCG, all packed together like a ball of yarn. Scientists unravel and sort this ball of yarn to piece together an entire sequence.

“Of course, just reading the letters in the genome doesn’t tell us much. It’s

[kind of]kinda like looking through a book in a language you don’t speak,” Mark J. Kiel, Co-founder of genetic database Genomenon, told TEDEd. To decipher the genes’ meaning, scientists have to study the variation between different people’s genetic codes. “The sum of these differences is responsible for differences in how we look, what we like, how we act, and even how likely we are to get sick,” Kiel adds.

If sequencing an entire genome is as simple as unraveling a ball of yarn, why did it take 33 years of combined effort? Part of the reason lies in the repetition of certain genes. Professor Edwin Kirk from Australian Genomics compares genome sequencing to completing a jigsaw puzzle: “you needed the edge of one piece to work out where the next piece would go.” However, “there are some types of DNA where there’s a lot of repetition, where it’s quite hard to do that piecing together–a bit like a jigsaw puzzle that’s got a whole lot of blue sky in it,” he told ABC News Australia.

Now that the complete genome has been sequenced, “There’s quite a lot of excitement in the field,” says Professor Edwin Kirk. In 2000, it would

take 100 million dollars and two years to sequence one person’s genome. Now, it can take a week and a few thousand dollars. “It’s a huge change over these 20 years.” Kirk remarks.

Karen Miga, Co-founder of T2T, calls this project’s completion “a dream come true.” She says, “I had always fantasized about having these types of maps when I was a graduate student, and I always thought that they would arrive someday. I’m just so grateful to be part of the process.”

The 400 million newly-uncovered letters of ATCG turn out to be vital for adaptation and evolution. They contain immune response genes that help humans combat infections, plagues, and viruses. Some might even provide insight into the differences between humans and other primates–like chimpanzees–

to help us understand our evolution. “When the first complete human genome is published, it will be a landmark moment,” says Karen Miga.

“Our work is not done,” Miga continues. Scientists at T2T plan to expand their study across thousands of humans to complete a panel of genomes “that better represent genetic and genomic diversity around the world.” Furthermore, basic and translational researchers are already hard at work interpreting the already-completed genome. With the entire genetic blueprint of humanity in our hands, scientists can begin to study the role of genetics in aging, chronic disease, and even drug response. Miga concludes, “the next 10 years should be very exciting, and I look forward to the future discoveries in these newly revealed regions.”

The 400 million newly-uncovered leTTers of ATcG Turn ouT To be viTAl for AdApTATion And evoluTion.

Ibuprofen

How do pain relievers “know” where to go? Despite ibuprofen being the most popular over-the-counter (OTC) pain reliever, many do not know the basics and how it works. Ibuprofen can come in both liquid and tablet form and it is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that treats pain, swelling, and fever. It is especially effective in treating arthritis, joint pain, and muscle pain. It is available in a number of trade names including Motrin and Advil. Unlike prescription pain medications like opioids, OTC painkillers are more affordable, easier to find, not habit-forming, and typically will not cause one to feel groggy and dizzy after taking them. Ibuprofen reaches its peak level in the blood around one to two hours after taking it.

Ibuprofen’s role is to stop the production of prostaglandins before it starts. Ibuprofen works by blocking the activity of cyclooxygenase enzymes (COX-1 and COX-2).

The enzymes are responsible for producing prostaglandins, which are a group of chemical messengers that are involved in the inflammation process. Prostaglandins are produced in response to tissue injury or infection. They cause pain, swelling, and fever. By inhibiting the production of prostaglandins, ibuprofen can reduce pain and inflammation and lower fever.

COX-1 and COX-2 are two forms of cyclooxygenase enzymes and they play different roles in the body. COX-1 is present in most tissues and produces prostaglandins that protect the stomach lining, regulate blood flow to the kidneys, and promote platelet aggregation which means clotting. However, COX-2 is provoked in response to inflammation. It is responsible for producing prostaglandins that cause pain and inflammation. By selectively blocking COX-2, ibuprofen can reduce inflammation without affecting the protective functions of COX-1.

Medicines, like ibuprofen, are essentially chemicals. When it’s ingested, the digestive system absorbs the medicine’s chemicals into the individual’s bloodstream. After it reaches the bloodstream, it goes through the liver and then it can go to the intended organ and site of inflammation. The ibuprofen breaks down and is released back into the bloodstream, reaching all parts of the body

starts chemical reactions that result in relieving pain. Once it reaches the site of action, ibuprofen binds to the active site of COX enzymes, preventing them from producing prostaglandins. This inhibition is reversible, and the enzyme activity can be restored once ibuprofen is metabolized or eliminated from the body. Ibuprofen blocks the pain signal from reaching the nerves and blocking

because all organs and tissues are being supplied with blood. Despite this reaching all parts of the body, it does not act everywhere. Ibuprofen and other medicines are designed to only attach to receptors which are protein molecules in the body. Ibuprofen latches onto any pain receptor it comes across. After it binds, it can perform its job and relieve pain. It enters the cell and kick-

cell’s production of prostaglandins. Ibuprofen can be a very effective method of pain relief but there are many non-medical options for pain relief such as physical therapy or acupuncture. Overall, ibuprofen can be a valuable tool for managing pain and inflammation, but should be used responsibly and in conjunction with other health-promoting practices.

By inhibiting the production of prostaglandins, ibuprofen can reduce pain and inflammation and lower fever.

The Success of Stents: How

Coronary Stents Work to Save Lives

Audrey Lin ‘25

Afew years ago, my grandpa had a coronary stent implemented. It came as quite a shock to everyone, as the whole process felt rather quick. He has never been one to complain about pain or heartburn, nor did anyone ever suspect him having heart issues. So, why was it that he needed a coronary stent so suddenly? And why was a stent able to save his life?

WHY WOULD SOMEONE NEED A CORONARY STENT?

Arteries are vital to every human being’s life, as they help deliver oxygenated blood to various parts of our body. In order for there to be a smooth and consistent flow of blood, the artery has to be free of any sort of blockage. However, due to various factors, such as high blood pressure, diabetes, high cholesterol or triglyceride levels and more, there can be a buildup of cholesterol, fats, or other plaque-like substances in the artery. This is known as atherosclerosis, and causes the arteries to narrow, making it difficult for blood to flow through. While this build-up occurs over time, some patients experience symptoms that help signal a problem, while others have no symptoms at all. Some common symptoms of atherosclerosis include chest pain, cramping, fatigue, and even confusion,

because the plaque makes it difficult for vital nutrients to get to the brain. However, for the patients who have no symptoms at all, like my grandpa, it can be riskier, as patients may not know there’s an issue until it’s too late. The “breaking point” for symptom-less patients can be when the plaque finally ruptures or is so severe that it completely hinders the blood’s ability to flow through. Both scenarios place a patient at high risk for a heart attack or stroke, which is why it is urgent for the patient to immediately receive medical care (once a doctor has assessed the situation), which often comes in the form of a coronary stent.

HOW EXACTLY DOES A CORONARY STENT EVEN WORK?

In order for a surgeon to accurately place the stent where it’s most effective, they must be able to see it as clearly as possible. Angioplasty, the procedure where a stent is placed, most commonly starts through the wrist, partly to ensure there is hardly any scarring (a fact my grandpa bragged a lot about after his surgery), and the procedure remains minimally invasive. A catheter, a thin, bendy tube, is placed, kind of like a vessel carrying the package (the package being the stent that will go in).

During this procedure, there is an ongoing fluoroscopy, which is essentially a real-time x-ray that helps the surgeon see where they’re going. Once the catheter ends up in the afflicted artery, the coronary stent is “delivered” from inside the catheter. At this point, the stent is essentially a deflated balloon. The stent is then inflated, like a balloon. When the stent is being inflated, it simultaneously pushes the blockage on the walls of the artery. The blown-up stent helps flatten the plaque and widens the artery. This stent is inflated for approximately 2030 seconds, and then the catheter is removed, leaving the expanded stent in the artery.

A stent is made to be permanent, making it a rather simple yet effective procedure (a statement I have heard countless times from my grandpa reassuring my family). Stents are purposefully designed with materials that won’t deteriorate or damage the body, such as metal mesh, fabric, silicone, and others. Most patients are given a drug-eluting stent, a type of stent that slowly releases medication that can prevent future blood clots in the afflicted area.

The whole procedure is minimally invasive, a stark comparison to the more-invasive procedures patients risk (such as coronary artery bypass surgery) undergoing if a stent is not placed in time.

Being a process that can be done in under two hours, implementing a coronary stent can efficiently save countless lives.

THE FUTURE OF CORONARY STENTS

In all aspects of medicine, emerging changes and technologies are always being discovered and developed, and coronary stents are no stranger to them. One aspect of coronary stents scientists seek to improve lies within drug-eluting stents. Despite the benefits of the preventative drugs the stent releases, it is exactly what is causing doctors’ concerns. In order for those drugs to be released in a slow and gradual fashion, they are held in by a polymer coating. However, studies have come into light showing that the polymer coating is linked to inflammation in the procedure area and might even undo the benefits of the stent. In an effort to solve this problem, researchers have been evaluating different solutions, such as new types of polymer and even bioabsorbable polymer (material that can be dissolved and later absorbed into the body). Wherever the future of coronary stents leads the medical world, it is without a doubt that this medical invention and its uses carry the potential to save countless lives, including my grandpa’s.

NASA: The Clown-faced Nebula as seen by the Hubble Space Telescope.

The James Webb Space Telescope: Exploring the Final Frontier

Mia Gover ‘25

OnChristmas Day of 2021, the scientific community received a rather monumental present: the launch of the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), named after James E. Webb, the NASA administrator during the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo programs. With the first discussion of a new telescope brewing since 1989, this project has taken decades of work and cost 10 billion dollars. Stretching across 25 meters and weighing 1,555 pounds on Earth, the final product is the most advanced telescope to date, and despite hundreds of things that could have gone wrong, has been working perfectly thus far.

So, what is the purpose of the JWST?

The goals of the mission include looking for light left over from the Big Bang, understanding black holes, and discovering and studying new exoplanets, especially those that may be able to sustain life. According to NASA, the main goal of the telescope is to find the first galaxies and see how planetary systems are formed. In general, the JWST will continue the work of its predecessor, the Hubble Space Telescope, with improved capabilities and an observation point much farther from earth.

Although developed by NASA, ESA (European Space Agency), and CSA (Canadian Space Agency) for these goals, anyone can apply for observation time, and since proposals are stripped of names and institutions, a decent-sized number of first time users and students are accepted along with accredited scientists and astronomers.

As the latest telescope, the JWST utilizes various advanced technologies to help it achieve these goals. Firstly, it has the capability to “see” infrared light, allowing it to study phenomena that would otherwise be impossible to gain useful knowledge about if observed solely by the human eye. These include red dwarf stars, black holes, and exoplanets. It is also able to see through cosmic dust to distant objects that previous telescopes were unable to observe. To collect all of these light rays, the JWST utilizes a mirror, 6.5 meters in diameter, significantly larger than any other telescope in use. This combined with the telescope’s distant location allows the telescope to see farther into space than ever before, and thus discover more.

Just under a year since its launch, the JWST has already made significant contributions to our understanding of the universe. Its first released photographs, revealed in July 2022, showed the Southern Ring and Carina Nebulas, SMACS 0723 (a star cluster), and Stephan’s Quintet (a group of five galaxies). Referred to as an “astronomer feeding frenzy” by Garth Illingworth,

the Pillars of Creation. First seen by Hubble in 1995, the Pillars consist of gas and dust within the Eagle Nebula, and its images were regarded to be some of Hubble’s best. However, these images pale in comparison to the new ones taken by JWST, both in regards to their visual appeal and detail. Though the JWST is still relatively new, it has already shown its capabilities

a researcher at the University of California Santa Cruz, the quality and some never-before-seen components of these images have astounded both astronomers and the public. Since these first images, one of the biggest themes across all the JWST’s images has been new perspectives on already discovered objects. A major example of this is

as humanity’s most powerful telescope. In only 10 months, JWST has made immense discoveries, from the details of nebulas to discovering carbon dioxide in another solar system, and with a potential lifespan of 10 years, it is a sure fact that many more breathtaking images and discoveries are on their way.

It has already shown its capabilities as humanity’s most powerful telescope.

Social Media Use on Misinformation and Discussion Heterogeneity

Emmie Kao ‘25

Therole of social media has increased substantially in modern society, with people from all over the world interacting with each other. While social media platforms have many positive effects, they also exponentially increase the potential for misinformation to spread at a much faster rate. In this literature review, we define misinformation to be in accordance with “public attitudes that are in opposition to scientific consensus,” or anti-consensus opinions (Light et al., 2022). This article explores the relationship between social media use and factors such as exposure to misinformation and discussion heterogeneity.

We can first observe the correlation between social media use and the spread of harmful misinformation. Misinformation on social media platforms such as Facebook and Twitter often pertains to serious health-related issues such as vaccines, drugs/smoking, noncommunicable diseases, pandemics, eating disorders, and medical treatments (Suarez-Lledo et al., 2021). This type of misinformation is especially harmful because of the ways it can physically affect consumers. Health-related misinformation can prompt individuals to behave in ways that could potentially damage themselves. Additionally, it has been found that misinformation is more often spread than accurate information

(Wang et al., 2019). In fact, the top reasons for sharing misinformation on social media were the information’s appeal and interest, as well as self-expression and socializing. In contrast, factors such as accuracy or authoritativeness made minimal contributions to an individual’s decision to share it (Chen et al. 2015). It has also been found that those who disagree with scientists’ findings tend to know less than others but believe they know more (Light et al., 2022). This shows a correlation between misinformation and confidence, in which a misinformed person who believes incorrect information will be more confident in their knowledge than those who agree with scientists.

Unsurprisingly, social media use is positively associated with misinformation beliefs. This means that when an individual uses social media more often, they have a higher probability of agreeing with anti-consensus beliefs (Su, 2021). Here, we can bring in a third variable to find the effects of this misinformation: discussion heterogeneity. Discussion heterogeneity is essentially the willingness to converse with others who may not share your viewpoint on a topic. It has been found that discussion heterogeneity is negatively associated with beliefs in misinformation (Su, 2021).

This means that when a person is less likely to believe in misinformation, they will be more willing to interact with individuals whose opinions may differ from their own. Finally, we can also explore faith in experts, which moderates the relationship between discussion heterogeneity and misinformation (Su, 2021). In other words, if an individual has a high level of discussion heterogeneity and a high level of faith in experts, they are less likely to believe misinformation.

Through this exploration, we can conclude that social media use correlates with an individual’s belief in misinformation. As consumers of social media, it is important for us to be well-educated on current events and willing to learn from experts. Therefore, in order to maximize a student’s enthusiasm to participate in discussion with others, it is important for them to be correctly informed, either from more accurate elements of social media or outside resources.

David Clode: A garden like arrangement of beautiful glowing soft corals in a dark tank at the Cairns Aquarium.

How Dogs Have Evolved

Leela Wanio ‘24

Fromvaccines and cars to the internet and the ability to harness energy from the sun, humans have been shaping the world around us through innovative technologies. But by far, one of humans’ cutest inventions has been Canis lupus, or domesticated dogs. But dogs aren’t a device— they’re a distinct species that we’ve bred to live alongside us as conscious companions. Through selective breeding, mankind has been able to hone the traits they found most desirable, breed them with others who have those traits, and use those dogs to accomplish our goals–whether that be hunting, shed pulling, or just looking adorable. But even if we do have the power to create new species, should we use it?

Thousands of years ago, dogs didn’t exist. Instead, there were wolf-like creatures—proto-wolves. Dogs were thought to possibly be domesticated twice because seemingly different wolfdog evolution timelines were found in Asia and in Europe in a 2016 study. But, another study done in 2017 suggested that dogs were only domesticated once due to theorizing that European and Asian divergence occurred much earlier, suggesting that domestication happened at one time. No matter the case, humans’ discarded food and bones drew in a particular type of wolf to the camps: wolves with genes that

made them friendlier weren’t afraid to venture too close. They situated themselves near the nomadic camps because they provided wolves with food and safety. And, humans benefited from having wolves close by since wolves protected the camps. This symbiotic relationship led the friendly proto-wolves to stay close, causing them to breed with each other and pass on the traits that gave rise to hyper-sociability. Eventually, humans began to selectively breed their collection of dogs to specialize in different tasks. If humans wanted dogs that could hunt prey, they bred the fastest dogs with the keenest noses. If they wanted dogs that could pull sleds, they bred the biggest and strongest wolves. After thousands of years of selective breeding, dogs were distinguished as a separate species between 16,700 and 130,000 years ago. And from that point on, dogs’ and humans’ lives became intertwined.

When humans started to rely on farming, dogs were fed these new scraps. So, AMY2B, an enzyme that breaks down starch, can be found in the pancreas of dogs. This can help scientists track the agricultural revolution in hunter-gatherer societies. Dogs helped humans by herding other animals that were becoming domesticated, guarding resources against other tribes, and assisting hunters. But, dogs weren’t just used

for their labor. When theye died, they were respected and cared for similarly to humans. In a 9000-year-old Siberian cemetery, the remains of a dog were found buried, along with some other artifacts. This suggests that even thousands of years ago, humans and dogs had a very close relationship.

Within the last 400 years, dogs have been increasingly bred for their appearances rather than function. With the popularity of Victorian dog shows came a desire for dogs as status symbols. New industries were created for dog maintenance. And, dogs were bred based on the physical and emotional characteristics people found most desirable in a companion. If dogs with comically small legs gained popularity, dog breeders would breed the shortest-legged dogs together. This created a clear economic incentive to breed “popular” dog breeds; this left dog breeds which weren’t as confident of an investment to not be breaded. For example, the turnspit dog–a long-bodied dog resembling today’s dachshunds. Their use was to run on turnspit wheels that turned meat over fire. But with the invention of clockwork roasting jacks, these dogs weren’t needed anymore. As a result, they stopped being bred and went extinct. Humans have the power to create species but also end them.

Another problem arises when attempting to maintain specific traits. In order to ensure the features in certain species are maintained, humans breed those dogs with similar dogs. Due to the strict restrictions on which mates dogs could have, and due to the shallow gene pool of these new species, keeping a breed

“pure” often leads to inbreeding. Inbreeding can lead to various health complications since the gene that creates the illness normally would have been overridden by the other parent’s healthy gene; but, if both parents have a gene that invokes illness, there’s no gene to override it. That’s why, for example, huskies are prone to autoimmune diseases, and beagles are prone to epilepsy. Humans encode serious illnesses and deformities into the genomes of dogs when chasing cuteness above quality of life. For example, pugs (where all 10,000 British pugs originate from just 50 proto-pugs) face skin irritation and infections, breathing issues, and cancer due to their compressed faces. Fittingly, pugs are very popular among the royal family.

Throughout human evolution, dogs have always been humans’ best friends. Even though it’s obvious how much dogs love us (since we bred them that way), it’s important to remember to love them back and to adopt them as ethnically as one can (through adoption, the pound, or avoiding puppy mills).

Science in the Bishop’s classroom!

DNA necklaces

Food science poster

Sofi Verma ‘24 honors biology celll project

Mathematics modeling

Advanced honors biology research projects

3-D printed dinosaurs and coding class

Extracting dyes from food

Pre-Med

2022-2023

Ocean protection-themed shirts

club DNA activity

Letters and Papel Picado flags display in the library

Ms. Chrystal’s 3-D printed calculus projects

Coincidence? We Think Not

Serena Zhang ‘24

Teleportation: it’s in the movies. Just watch Star Trek, The Fly, Tomorrowland. During the 1930s, the contention over theories of quantum physics escalated as scientists sided with either Einstein or Bohr and Schroedinger. Ninety years later, the 2022 Nobel Prize in Physics would be awarded to three other physicists — John Clauser, Alan Aspect, and Anton Zeilinger — for their groundbreaking experiments in particle entanglement, which may prove teleportation to be possible after all. Entanglement between two particles describes when two particles that together form one quantum system, regardless of the distance between them. To understand what Einstein dubbed “‘spooky action at a distance,’” it is important to know the tenets of quantum mechanics, as well as the counterarguments. Einstein believed that objects have concrete, defined properties that are discovered by measuring them. Others like Bohr and Shcroedinger fought back against this, believing that particles do not possess certain properties until the moment of measurement or interaction. The most notorious thought experiment of this phenomenon was Schroedinger’s cat.

From this analogy, we can think of entanglement as one cat in California, and another cat sent to New York. If the cats are entangled, when their devices are activated simultaneously, they will 100% of the time be opposite to each other: one dead and the other alive. This stems from

the idea that there is an instantaneous signal between the two cats — or particles — that ensures the proper outcome at the time of measurement. Einstein contested this for a few reasons. First, it violates the central tenet of quantum, as information cannot travel faster than the speed of light. He also believed in the principle of locality, which states that an object can only be influenced by its immediate surroundings.

Enter John Bell: an Irish physicist who developed one of the most important theorems in quantum, Bell’s inequality. Bell used electron spin to measure the probability of naturally occurring correspondence between electrons. Spin is a property of electrons that can be either up or down, and is not determined until measured. (Counterintuitively, corresponding spins are actually opposites: one up, one down.)

Bell first followed Einstein’s properties, not entanglement. Let’s say there are three electrons along different axes. When all of the combinations of spin were analyzed, there should be a 66% probability that given any three electrons’ spins, another three will have exactly opposite spins. If quantum holds true, when the axes on which the spins of any two electrons are switched, the spins should correlate more often than previously thought.

Surprisingly, when Bell measured the experimental probability of corresponding spins in his experiment, he found about a 75% chance, which proved Einstein wrong

and vindicated entanglement theorists. Much more experimental data was needed to truly understand how Bell’s theorem and entanglement work. John Clauser used polarized photons shot at lenses positioned at different angles to mimic Bell’s experiment. He even bet two dollars that Einstein would end up being right, but to his disappointment, Einstein lost. Alan Aspect sought to improve Clauser’s experiment by eliminating any outside influence on the lenses before the measurement of the polarization of the photons. The orientation of the lenses were randomized during the billionths of a second when the photon was traveling to the lens. Zeilinger also built upon these experiments’ randomization by using photons from distant stars of the universe to determine the settings of the experiment.

Significantly, the work of these three Nobel laureates also supported the concept of teleportation. “Using… quantum entanglement, one can transfer the information from one object to another one without actually knowing the information,” says Zeilinger during his interview directly following the announcement of the prize. “It’s extremely beautiful.”

In his interview, Zeilinger also raised an important application of quantum mechanics in modern technology: quantum computing. It has been on the rise in recent years as a new, ultra-powerful way of supercomputing. Essentially, the information traveling between particles is classified as quantum bits, or qubits, that are able to transport themselves between

different computers. Whereas classical computing uses binary bits that only take on values of 0 or 1, qubits can take on any value between 0 and 1 during a state of superposition. Thus, quantum computers can carry out operations that would otherwise have overwhelmed classical computers. Other quantum properties like teleportation provide the basis of how different computers can communicate with each other. Even now, quantum databases are available to the public via the Cloud. The realm of particle physics seems out of our reach, but many of these principles can be explained with real-world scenarios. The discoveries of the newest Nobel laureates in physics have also expanded on the possibilities of quantum mechanics in technology and in our everyday lives. Entanglement is not a whole new discovery, but the prize was awarded to groundbreaking, evidence-yielding experiments that supported the fundamental theorems (like Bell’s inequalities). So, if you ever find yourself using quantum databases in the future, you can definitively say you’ve proved Einstein wrong.

“It’s extremely beautiful.”

- Alan Zeilinger

Deepmind: Artificial General Intelligence: “AI under the hood - AI creating liquid or gaseous simulations, this could represent how AGI could ‘look’ more organic than typical computerised processes. More flowing than rigid in nature.”

Artist: Domhnall Malone

Left and right photos: 6th grade engineering challenge

6th grade car prototypes

Rube Goldberg machine activity

Grace Sun ‘23 independent study presentation

Quanta Magazine

The Quanta Magazine is an entirely student-run science magazine for students to share their scientific passion with their peers. Since its founding in 2010, Quanta has periodically released to The Bishop’s School and the broader community through print issues as well as online articles through their website. Quanta features student-written articles about new and exciting scientific topics. All students are invited to write for Quanta as we are always looking for new writers!

Quanta Staff

Editors-in-Chief:

Grace Sun ‘23

Katy Silva ‘23

Emma Myer ‘23

Layout and Design Editors: Serena Zhang ‘24

Emmie Kao ‘25

Photo Credits: Dr. Lani Keller, Ms. Kelly Kleinertz, Ms. Cathy Morrison

The Bishop’s School Center for Creative Sciences

Unsplash

Special thanks to our faculty advisors for always giving us valuable advice and supporting us:

Dr. Pamela Reynolds

Ms. Rachel Ching

Ms. Laura Cummings

Mr. Ben Heldt