Preservation and Ethical Commercialization of Brazilian Indigenous Art by Juliana Abdanur

Preservation and Ethical Commercialization of Brazilian Indigenous Art

Juliana C. Abdanur Miami International University of Art and Design MA in Design and Media Management DMMA 640: Capstone 1 Professor Mariam Elias December 13, 2021

A GRADUATE THESIS PRESENTED TO THE DESIGN AND MEDIA MANAGEMENT PROGRAM WITH PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DECEMBER 2021

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Copyright: 2021, Juliana C. Abdanur All Rights Reserved

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Table of Contents

List of Tables and Figures ………………………………………………………………........ 4 Acknowledgements …………………………………………………………………………… 5 Abstract …………………………………………………………………………….………… 6 Chapter 1: Introduction ……………………………………………………………………… 7 Background …………………………………………………………………………….. 9 Statement of the Problem ………………………………………..…………………… 16 Purpose of the Study ………………………………………………………………….. 16 Chapter 2 Literature Review ………………………………………….…………………… 18 Overview ………………………………….……………………………..…………… 18 Sociopolitical and Economic Issues ………………………………….……………… 18 Environmental Issues ………………………………….………………..……………. 20 Preservation of Indigenous Knowledge and Arts ……………………….………….... 23 Marketing Indigenous Art ……………………………………………………………. 24 Chapter 3 Methodology …………………………………………………………………….. 29 Overview ……………………………………………………………………………… 30 Research Methodology ……………………………………………………………….. 31 Design of Study ………………………………………………………………………. 30 Quantitative Analysis ………………………………………………………… 31 Qualitative Analysis ………………………………………………………….. 32 Data Analysis …………………………………………………………………………. 34 Appendix 1 …………………………………………………………………………………… 36

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Appendix 2 …………………………………………………………………………………… 45 References …………………………………………………………………………………… 57

List of Tables and Figures Figure 1 – Map of Indigenous Territories in Brazil ………………...……………………….… 12 Figure 2 – Kayapó Painting ………………......................................………………………… 13 Figure 3 - Monkey Bench by Kamalurré Mehinako ………………...………………………… 15 Figure 4 – Main Waurá Motifs used in Pottery ………………...……………………...……… 16 Figure 5 – Karajá Ritxoko Doll ………………...…………………………………………...… 16

PRESERVATION OF BRAZILIAN INDIGENOUS ART Acknowledgments I would like to thank the participants of the interviews who were willing to share their experience and greatly contributed to this research. I would specially like to thank Bruna Sampaio, who introduced me to Brazilian indigenous arts, enabling my appreciation of their cultures and the desire to develop my knowledge on the subject. Finally, I want to express my gratitude to Professor Mariam Elias for her time, guidance and feedback throughout this study.

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Abstract Brazilian indigenous communities have long suffered from lack of government support and enforcement of laws that protect their culture and territories, resulting in various social and environmental consequences. Violations of their rights pose a significant threat to their development and habitat, most of which is located in protected natural areas (PNAs), mainly surrounded by the Amazon Rainforest. As a result, the preservation of Brazilian indigenous heritage is directly linked to the conservation of their environment. This study recognized indigenous communities as major contributors to the cultural heritage and history of humanity.

Therefore, it explored social, political, and economic issues that affect indigenous peoples in Brazil, consequently threatening the preservation of their traditional knowledge. Moreover, this paper proposed to determine what can be done to ethically preserve and promote the commercialization of Brazilian indigenous art as a means to raise awareness and provide economic sustainability for these cultures. The research was conducted through mixed methodology, which included an interpretive literary review and quantitative and qualitative analysis. For the quantitative analysis, a survey was designed to determine the public’s knowledge and interest on Brazilian indigenous issues and their motivation to purchase indigenous art. The qualitative analysis was conducted in the form of five interviews with professionals and experts on Brazilian indigenous peoples.

Keywords: Brazil; indigenous communities; indigenous art; traditional knowledge; indigenous territories; environmental issues; sociopolitical issues

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Chapter 1: Introduction “We don’t just fight for constitutional rights, we fight for the right to exist” (BBC, 2019). The quote by indigenous leader Sonia Guajajara referring to a public demonstration to free indigenous territories (ITs) echoes the sentiment of injustice against these populations in the current Bolsonaro administration in Brazil. The World Health Organization (WHO) terms indigenous populations as those who came from people who were present in the area before modern delimitation of countries and who identify themselves as belonging to a group separated from standard society (Angell, Muhunthan, Eades, Cunningham, Garvey, Cass, Howard, Ratcliffe, Eades and Jan, 2016). First, it is of utmost importance to state that there are over 255 Brazilian indigenous ethnicities distributed among 305 ethnic groups, with approximately 274 languages (Alcântara, 2020). Each of these ethnicities have their own language, culture, tradition, practices, beliefs, and political systems, which must be seen as unique and distinct from one another. ITs currently occupy 12.5% of Brazil’s territory, in which over 57% of the indigenous population resides (Alcântara, 2020). These lands are principally situated in the Amazon rainforest, where one of the world’s most important ecosystems is located. For this reason, indigenous populations have a significant relationship with the environment and its resources. According to Alzahrani (2012), they lack technology and infrastructure “to disassociate their members and their way of life from their natural environment, and thus they rely on the ecosystem for their subsistence and survival” (p. 1). However, the indigenous peoples of Brazil have long suffered from attacks and violation of their rights. The issues originated in the period of colonialism and persist until this day, with racist ideologies and the capitalist mindset being the primary causes (de Carvalho, Goyes and Weis, 2020). Although Brazilian governments have dealt with indigenous concerns in different ways, most have been criticized

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for political inaction or violation of human rights (de Carvalho et. al, 2020). Historically, public policies that protect indigenous peoples have been limited and poorly enforced, threatening their preservation and development.

Indigenous knowledge With the lack of government protection and inaction, Brazilian indigenous populations and their traditional knowledge is under threat. According to the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (2019), traditional knowledge of indigenous peoples is characterized as the “knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous peoples”, and is transmitted orally through generations. This knowledge is at the base of their culture and economic maintenance, and encompasses artistic expressions, proverbs, beliefs, and care for the environment (UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, 2019). Furthermore, as Campbell (2019) stated, indigenous knowledge (IK) systems greatly contribute to biological and cultural diversity. In fact, the Sustainable Development Goals agreed upon by the international community in 2015 recognized the importance of protecting indigenous knowledge and their territories to achieve sustainable development (Campbell, 2019).

The livelihood of indigenous peoples depends on traditional knowledge, and failing to provide protection for these communities could result in the loss of their cultural heritage. In addition, traditional knowledge and territories of the Brazilian indigenous population are largely linked to the preservation of the Amazon rainforest. Their reliance and connection with the environment is significant to solving the climate crisis. According to a statement by former UN reporter on indigenous rights Victoria Tauli-Corpuz at the UN Climate Change Conference 2021 (COP26), indigenous territories contain 80% of the world’s biodiversity, thus indigenous people are experts on living in harmony with nature (UN News, 2021). Moreover, an activist from the

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Arhuaco community of Colombia declared that climate change is a matter of life or death to her people, since it threatens them with the second annihilation of their cultural practices (UN News, 2021). Evidently, there is a global concern for the loss of indigenous cultural heritage, and an important relationship with environmental conservation and climate change.

Background Sociopolitical and environmental issues have long threatened the existence of indigenous communities, but lately they have been brought to greater scrutiny. Illegal land-seizure of indigenous territories and exploitation of their resources are a constant setback to efforts made by non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and the government-appointed institute for indigenous rights, National Indigenous Foundation (FUNAI). It is acknowledged by the Global Witness Report that Brazil is a country involved in violence against environmental and human rights activists. In fact, according to a Global Witness Report in 2016, Brazil was the country with the highest number of murders of environmental defenders, and these were linked to loggers and landowners in the Amazon (Global Witness, 2016). Only in 2020, twenty land and environmental defenders were murdered in Brazil, with many others having received death threats for working on sustainability projects that went against the interests of private organizations (Reverdosa, 2021). Documented as the most lethal country for environmental activists, Brazil does little to promote awareness and provide incentive to protect indigenous communities (Global Witness, 2017).

Sociopolitical and Environmental Concerns Although international and domestic policies concerning the protection of indigenous peoples and their territories have been introduced throughout the years, Brazilian governments have done little to enforce them (Alzahrani, 2012). As indicated by Alzahrani (2012), the

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question of whether politicians are more interested in protecting indigenous communities and their lands, or forcing them to develop and acculturate still remains. Particularly, the current Bolsonaro government has been in the international spotlight for its controversial policies against indigenous peoples and their land. ITs are located in protected areas and undergo constant monitoring; however, the Bolsonaro administration has cut down on budget that goes to protecting these communities and lifted environmental violation fines (Pearshouse and Werneck, 2020). Moreover, the government has aggressively pushed to legalize mining and other commercial projects in indigenous territories, many of which are located in the Amazon Rainforest (Canineu and Carvalho, 2020). This is an environmental issue of international importance which directly impacts the lives and resources of the indigenous communities.

Illegal Mining in Indigenous Territories As observed by Canineu and Carvalho (2020), the Yanomami tribe, which occupies the largest territory in Brazil, has been victim to high mercury level poisoning due to illegal mining practices in their land. The operations also facilitate the transmission of deadly diseases, such as malaria and measles, which are brought by the miners to the indigenous population (Survival, 2019). In addition to the risks posed on their health, the Yanomami have recently been victim to armed goldminer attacks, who use tear gas and ammunition to drive the population away from their own lands. While the Yanomami people dispute these practices, the Brazilian government has considered permitting mining in ITs. In addition, the indigenous community of the Xingu region is also affected by the use of cyanide to treat minerals in mining practices (Alcântara, 2020). This not only affects the health of the populations, but places the existence of these communities and their traditions under peril. Furthermore, the government has interfered in the

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Amazon Fund, which was set up to maintain the Amazon rainforest, indigenous populations and projects that promote traditional economic activities (Alcântara, 2020).

The destruction of indigenous land is a critical international concern. As noted by Wahab, Abdullah, Astuti and Rohaizad (2020), indigenous knowledge is a key aspect of indigenous heritage and includes the “principles, skills, practices, rituals and customs practiced by the elderly of a specific race or tribe” and passed on to generations (p.4137). Moreover, Twarog and Kapoor (2004) acknowledged the preservation, protection and promotion of traditional knowledge in native communities as being of crucial significance for developing countries. The UN Permanent Forum of Indigenous Issues (2019) addressed how indigenous knowledge of land and environmental management practices have been shown to improve and foster local biodiversity and support the maintenance of balanced ecosystems. Additionally, the visual arts and crafts of indigenous peoples play a role in economic, social and cultural aspects of a country.

While much has been discussed on politics, the environment, and indigenous victimization, there is little research to indicate how the lack of protection to Brazilian indigenous peoples and their territories directly affect their artistic traditional knowledge and economic development.

Brazilian Indigenous Arts The forests and their environment are the sole source of raw materials utilized in indigenous arts and crafts. Indigenous art has a spiritual meaning and function: it is used in rituals or in daily activities, and is not simply created for contemplation (Nunes, 2011).

Additionally, Nunes questioned the use of the term “art” when referring to indigenous arts and crafts. The research defined art as an object created for the sole purpose of contemplation for its aesthetic, and oftentimes seen in the context of museums or galleries. In contrast, indigenous art is created with a purpose – and although there is beauty and balance in its creation, it is not

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produced with the modern definition of art in mind. However, for the purpose of this study, the term ‘indigenous art’ will be used to identify the handcrafts and objects created by indigenous peoples for use in daily activities, hunting, and rituals. Because there are over 305 ethnic groups in Brazil, the focus of this study will be on the Kayapó, Mehinaku, Waurá and Karajá. The map on Figure 1 delimitates indigenous territories and shows where these communities are located.

With the exception of the Karajá, all are in the Xingu River Basin, which is a region broken into the Lower Xingu, Central Xingu, and Upper Xingu.

Figure 1 Map of Indigenous Territories in Brazil

Note. The light green areas demarcate all indigenous territories in Brazil.

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The Kayapó tribe is located in the state of Pará, in the Xingu basin, surrounded by the Amazon Rainforest. The Kayapó are known for their traditional art of body painting, created by women, to celebrate rituals. The style involves the use of geometric lines, typically in black or red paint, which symbolize social status and behavior (Funbio, 2021). An image of a traditional Kayapó painting on textile is shown in Figure 2. The paint is handmade by using the jenipapo and urucum fruits and seeds found in the Amazon rainforest (Funbio, 2021). This practice has been a source of income to the Kayapó community, which has recently innovated by painting on textiles that can be easily marketed. Furthermore, because the tradition of body painting is restricted to women, the art empowers them as the holders of traditional knowledge with the duty to pass it down to future generations. All Kayapó women are painters, and they present themselves with one black hand, which is the palette, and one white hand, or the hand that paints (Vidal, 1992).

Figure 2 Kayapó Painting

Note. Jenipapo and charcoal paint on textile

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Benches carved out of a sole piece of wood are the traditional woodwork of various indigenous communities, predominantly those surrounding the Xingu region, such as the Kayamurá, Mehinako and Waurá. In fact, benches made by these tribes were exhibited in 2018 in the Teien Museum in Tokyo, followed by an exhibition at the Japanese Pavilion in São Paulo.

The monkey bench previously displayed at these exhibitions, by the Mehinako artist Kamalurré, has recently been incorporated into an exposition that showcased the 90 years of Brazilian architecture at Serviço Social do Comércio, or Commercial Social Service (SESC), São Paulo.

The monkey bench is referenced in Figure 3. The importance of this craft comes from a myth of origin that tells the story of how the grandmother of the universe created men, animals, the Earth and waters as she sat on a quartz bench, and then handed it to the ancestors of the Tukano tribe (Barreto, 2021). These are sacred objects and a symbol of the power of creation; they are reserved for men, while women use straw mats (Barreto, 2021). Additionally, due to the material used and its duress, this type of art is also inherent to the men of the tribe. The benches are sculpted in different sizes, indicating the age and prestige of its owners, in the shape of animals found in the Amazon, and hand painted with natural pigments extracted from the pequi fruit (yellow), urucum or mawatan wood (red), and coal (black). Barreto (2021) noted that benches are “resistant” objects, for they have withstood the substitution of original indigenous articles to modern, more functional items that were introduced to their culture.

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Figure 3 Monkey Bench by Kamalurré Mehinako

Note. The bench was sculpted in 2000 and is a part of the private BEI Collection.

Pottery is also considered a traditional art of indigenous communities in Brazil. In particular, those of the Waurá are functional objects such as pots and pans, while the Iny-Karajá pottery is marked by their representation of animals and Ritxoko dolls. Waurá pans are classified into five categories: kamalupo, makura, héjé, tsaktsak and zoomorphic (Alves and Rauber, 2019). The Waurá mastery of pottery comes from a myth of Kamalu Hai, a snake that defecated large amounts of clay in the Batovi River, and gave the Waurá peoples exclusive knowledge on how to use it to make pottery. As noted in the study by Alves et. al, 2019, the Waurá have approximately 45 graphic motifs used in pottery, 13 of which can be observed in Figure 4. These motifs were created from observing their surroundings, and each have a meaning. Made from clay and wax, the Ritxoko dolls represent daily Iny-Karajá life and their traditions but also symbolize the imaginary (Grassi Museum, 2018). Figure 5 shows an example of Karajá Ritxoko dolls.

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Figure 4 Main Waurá Motifs used in Pottery

1. Kalupienê – fish motif 2. Kajujuto otopaka – macaw’s face motif 3. Kunye-Kunye jutogana – butterfly wings 4. Kupato-onabe – fish spine 5. Kutabo-onopula – ant’s path 6. Mepinyaku – aquatic plant 7. Mitseuenê – pirana teeth 8. Kupato – fish form 9. Ogama paakai – face painting 10. Sapalaku – women’s clothing piece 11. Temeipianá – boa constrictor 12. Wene-wene sucu – Wene-wene River 13. Walamá oneputaku – anaconda Figure 5 Karajá Ritxoko Dolls

Note. “Luta” – Traditional Ijesu fight in Karajá culture

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Statement of the Problem Brazilian indigenous communities face sociopolitical and economic threats that place their artistic heritage at risk of extinction. Indigenous peoples are a major contribution to cultural heritage and the history of humanity, and therefore, preserving and respecting their traditional knowledge is a critical matter. To enable these communities to thrive and to pass down their knowledge through generations, there is a need to protect and ethically promote their art.

Purpose of the Study Non-profit indigenous organizations such as the Protected Forest Association (PFA), Kabu Institute, and Raoni Institute were established to help raise awareness to indigenous issues, protect the interests of indigenous communities and some market their arts and crafts. However, there is no organized strategy to effectively market and sell these products. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to analyze how Brazilian indigenous groups are affected by current social, political and economic threats and what can be done to preserve their cultural knowledge and ethically commercialize their arts. The paper will research past and current issues that threaten Brazilian indigenous communities, what has been done to protect their rights, and attempt to understand the interest and motivation of the general population on preserving indigenous culture. Furthermore, an analysis of the marketability of Brazilian indigenous arts as an important source of economic development and sustainability of indigenous cultures will also be conducted.

Research Objectives 1. To examine how Brazilian indigenous communities are affected by current social, political and economic threats.

PRESERVATION OF BRAZILIAN INDIGENOUS ART 2. To investigate the importance of preserving indigenous knowledge.

3. To identify the challenges of ethical commercialization of indigenous traditional arts.

4. To analyze the market for indigenous arts.

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Chapter 2: Literature Review Overview The literature researched for this paper aimed to present the findings on current sociopolitical and environmental issues that involve the indigenous population in Brazil. Articles that define indigenous knowledge and its importance to the international and local communities were reviewed to support concerns over sociopolitical problems threatening the survival of indigenous heritage. Additionally, previous studies on indigenous art as a part of indigenous knowledge were examined, along with the ethical methods that have been used to promote and market these arts in other countries.

Sociopolitical and Economic Issues A study by de Carvalho et. al (2020) stresses the significance of the attacks on Brazilian indigenous cultures and exploitation of their land. The authors note that not only have governments violated the rights of the indigenous people, but land owners in the areas that surround their communities constantly assert their power through crime and threat. In fact, these land owners in the region are powerful to the extent that neither the government or the National Security Force are capable of intimidating them. These serious offenses on human rights are the focus of the study, which implicates that its negative impacts have been historically neglected by governments and legal systems (de Carvalho et. al, 2020). The paper highlights that both left and right wing governments are guilty of infringing the law on indigenous rights. The Brazilian Constitution states that indigenous peoples have the right to permanent possession of their lands and the usufruct of its natural resources (de Carvalho et. al, 2020). However, historically, governments have unlawfully approved projects of hydroelectric dams, mining, and installation of transmission lines that invaded these territories. These findings support the idea that there is a

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need to protect indigenous territories from devastation and cultural annihilation. The issue is especially pressing considering the current government’s determination to develop industries in these regions.

Additionally, as noted by Canineu and Carvalho (2020), the current Brazilian government has pushed for acculturation of indigenous people in Western civilization. This effectively violates the rights of indigenous Brazilians, in addition to contradicting the efforts of the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (2019) on their right to self-determination and development priorities. These findings support the subject of oppression of indigenous populations and demonstrate neglect and lack of government policy enforcement. In addition, de Carvalho et. al (2020) calls for the use of the term “social harm” as opposed to crime, encompassing all events that cause harm to a population throughout their lives. In this aspect, Bolsonaro’s threats and infliction of fear upon indigenous societies would effectively be considered social harm. According to de Carvalho et. al (2020), the following statement made by the president demonstrates his unwillingness to protect indigenous peoples: “They are outcasts and we must treat them like terrorists… Private property is sacred. We must criminalize the actions of those marginal people as terrorism. If they intrude into private lands, they’ll get lead [bullets]” (p. 261). The study by de Carvalho et. al (2020) generates awareness of indigenous issues through a political and social perspective, and shows that further action is necessary to protect these communities.

Moreover, Alzahrani (2012) identified a disconnection between Brazilian policies and laws and the reality of protecting ITs. Alzahrani (2012) argues that this is due to corruption, lack of resources to support laws, and the fact that the rule of law in Brazil favors economic interests as opposed to indigenous and environmental laws. The study conducted by O’Donnell (2018) is

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in agreement with these arguments, and states that “Brazil’s development model has and continues to have a human cost, specifically indigenous lives” (p. 8). O’Donnell elaborates on the government system, which is created to benefit modern organizations and businesses corporations as a form of increasing the country’s economic revenue. The study reasons that due to colonialist practices of cheap forced labor and the need for economic development and natural resources, Brazil’s government has carried on the mindset of prioritizing growth over indigenous rights.

Environmental Issues Indigenous Brazilians are intrinsically connected to their environment and its natural resources. The Amazon rainforest is home to the largest number of isolated tribes in the world, 77 of which have never been contacted (O’Donnell, 2018). In addition to harboring these tribes, the Amazon contains one of the world’s most important ecosystems, which helps regulate climate by balancing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere (The World Bank, 2019). A recent study (2020) on aboveground carbon storage in the Amazon, which is an important factor in regulating climate, identified that ITs and lands located in protected natural areas (PNAs) are less subject to carbon loss than those in unprotected areas (Walter, Gorelik, Baccini, Aragon-Osejo, Josse, Meyer, Macedo, Augusto, Rios, Catan, Souza, Cuellar, Llanos, Zager, Mirabal, Solvik, Farina, Moutinho, and Schwartzman). Deforestation and natural disturbances account for aboveground carbon storage gains and losses, and evidence shows that indigenous peoples act as buffers of large-scale carbon emissions in ITs and PNAs (Walter et. al, 2020). As a result, Walter et. al (2020) argue that protection of indigenous lands and rights is crucial for their existence and for efforts to solve the climate change crisis.

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Currently, the key environmental issue in the Amazon is deforestation. During Bolsonaro’s administration, the deforestation rate rose 34% only in 2019, and an additional 7% in 2020 (Reverdosa, 2021). According to this study, the sustainable development research group Imazon reported that 90% of all deforestation in the area was due to cattle farming. On an interview with ecologist and expert on matters of the Amazon rainforest, Thomas Lovejoy noted that indigenous peoples play a key role in protecting the rainforest and avoiding deforestation (World Bank, 2019). In addition, a 2019 assessment from the Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) stated that nature is declining at a slower rate in indigenous territories. As a result, sociopolitical issues involving indigenous territories (ITs) are directly connected to environmental concerns.

Moreover, research conducted by O’Donnell (2018) noted how the extraction of resources has decreased the number of indigenous tribes in Brazilian territories. The main purpose of the study was to investigate how governments, NGOs, and the international community can aid in the preservation and sustainability of indigenous tribes in Brazil without compromising the country’s economic development. O’Donnell (2018) compared indigenous Brazilians with other native populations in the world, such as Australian Aborigines and Native Americans, and outlined the common problems of poverty, limited access to education and healthcare, and violations against human rights. These parallels verify that indigenous communities worldwide need better representation and social equality. In contrast, O’Donnell (2018) discusses how protecting indigenous land conflicts with the country’s economic development. China and the European Union are two important sources of revenue for Brazilian exports. With a decrease in value of the Brazilian currency, the real, cattle farmers have been forced to clear more land to raise production (O’Donnell, 2018). From a government viewpoint,

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it is difficult to balance the country’s economic growth in favor of social and environmental policies. However, conservation is an urgent concern and the international community can benefit greatly from indigenous knowledge.

Preservation of Indigenous Knowledge and Art Definitions A study by Nunes (2011), questioned the use of the term “art” when referring to indigenous arts and crafts. It defined art as an object created for the sole purpose of contemplation for its aesthetic, and oftentimes seen in the context of museums or galleries. In contrast, indigenous art is created with a purpose – and although there is beauty and balance in its creation, it is not produced with the modern definition of art in mind. However, for the purpose of this study, the term ‘indigenous art’ will be used to identify the handcrafts and objects created by indigenous peoples for use in daily activities, hunting, and rituals. In addition, Orozco and Poonamallee (2013) discuss the definitions of traditional knowledge and indigenous knowledge, both seen in various peer-reviewed articles. Indigenous knowledge is a part of traditional knowledge, as both are related to an identifier that brings a community together.

However, Orozco et. al (2013) highlights the main difference between both terms, as indigenous knowledge relying on a sense of place and having a direct relationship to the environment. As a result, traditional knowledge is a broader idea, while indigenous knowledge is knowledge specifically linked to the environment.

Ethics and Cultural Appropriation When addressing indigenous arts and its ethical commercialization, it is important to mention the subject of cultural appropriation. Cotjí (2020) identified cultural appropriation as separating a creation from its original author, modifying the meaning of a creation, or the use of

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a creation to be marketed as a new or reinvented product for mass consumption without the consent of its creator. In consequence, the economic benefits remain solely with those who have appropriated the product, as opposed to its original author. The Guatemalan indigenous anthropologist and educator Sandra Xinico Batz discussed extractivism of indigenous culture at a University of Miami webinar (2021), in which the author participated. Batz identified the extractivist model as one imposed by those who hold political and economic power, which originated in colonialism and still exists to this day. When related to indigenous peoples, cultural appropriation includes forms of extractivism, as in the exploitation of their natural resources and cultural knowledge to for use in various industries (Cotjí, 2020). However, many indigenous communities are unaware of cultural appropriation due to the lack of international laws that regulate the practice. According to the study on the role of ethics in commercialization of indigenous knowledge, Orozco et. al (2013) mention that ethics provides a foundation for law.

In the United States, although indigenous knowledge is treated like other forms of capital, it is also considered as common knowledge, and therefore excluded from intellectual property rights (Orozco et. al, 2013). As a result, indigenous knowledge suffers a controversial issue regarding appropriation and commercialization. As Batz (2021) noted, in Guatemala, there is a collective admiration for indigenous arts, particularly weaving in her community, but there is no concern or credit for those behind its creation.

The Indigenous Art Market Studies have shown that the Ka’apor and Mebêngôkre-Kayapó indigenous communities have a desire to participate in projects that provide support and incentive for their traditional arts (Garcés, Pérez, da Silva, de Araujo, Coelho-Ferreira, 2015). Additionally, according to Garcés

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et. al (2015), artisanal craft represents their culture, or their inherited knowledge, and making a profit out of their innate talents and abilities would be an ideal source of income.

Marketing indigenous art is not a novel practice. In Australia, the benefits of marketing and promoting aboriginal art are seen in the economic, social, and cultural sectors (Parliament of Australia, 2014). According to the study, the benefits must not only be measured with economic statistics, but through non-quantifiable data which indicate the values of maintenance and transmission of culture, recognition from the media, inter-generational learning, financial independence and empowerment within indigenous communities, particularly for women (Parliament of Australia, 2014). Furthermore, the development of the aboriginal art market is investigated in the study by Jones, Booth, and Acker (2016). The authors paralleled the growth of aboriginal art fairs in Australia with a change in the fine arts market by analyzing the outcome of purchasing “relational goods”, or items that are acquired on the basis of social interactions and relations (Jones et. al, 2016). Additionally, as Jones et. al (2016) noted, the commodification of indigenous culture and the interest in marketing goods has a prospective of either being “unethical and exclusionary, or progressive and inclusive” (p.108).

Indigenous knowledge is held by the senior members of their societies. According to Draho (2014), indigenous knowledge is part of an ancestral cosmos, where the land and its ancestors remain present as active forces. The elderly are the holders of this knowledge, and they control how it will be used and conditionally learned – either through rituals, songs, designs or sacred objects (Draho, 2014). The study emphasizes that societies have “a stock of knowledge, experience, and skills”, also described by economists as human capital (Draho, 2014, p. 59). It is argued that when a society is constantly under threat, human capital declines significantly. In connection to the previous literature on environmental and sociopolitical issues, indigenous

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communities in Brazil have constantly been threatened, and therefore, face decline of human capital. In return, indigenous knowledge systems are lost in the process. Many tribes that were driven into the Atlantic region of Brazil during the colonial period have lost their traditional knowledge. According to Rossi (2021), there are over 680 judicial actions to delimitate indigenous territories that were once taken by force. Many of these expulsions occurred during the Brazilian dictatorship in 1964, and the communities were left devastated and vulnerable, without any support from the government. Some were forced to live in coastal areas, facing extreme poverty and drug and alcohol-related issues. These communities have lost their ancestral knowledge almost entirely because their elderly did not survive. Therefore, the literature defends that protecting indigenous groups is directly related to preserving and transferring their traditional heritage.

Marketing Indigenous Art Studies related to the marketing of indigenous arts in Australia show that art fairs are a popular method for showcasing and trading indigenous goods. Specifically, Australian aboriginal art fairs have shifted the fine arts market and state policies (Jones et. al, 2016). Jones et. al further examines the opportunities created by these fairs, and how they can help personal and policy engagement with indigenous issues and culture. The art fair model also aids in the development of interpersonal experiences allowing for audiences and artists to have a more personal connection. Particularly, the authors discuss art fairs as manifestations of ‘relational goods’, which are goods that are purchased around social interactions and relations. In art fairs, these interactions are formed between Aboriginal art, artists, arts workers and audiences, and Aboriginal art industry insiders. “Relational goods comprise not just the consumption object in question, but also the sets of relations that object holds in place” (Jones et. al, 2016, p. 107).

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In contrast, another study on the Aboriginal art market conducted by the Parliament of Australia (2015), investigates the export market for indigenous arts. The indigenous art market is largely supported by the Australian government, but also dependent on the constant supply of the art, the cultivation of new artists, and financial and professional support for the artists. In addition, the government has funding programs that assist indigenous art sellers. The international marketplace for Aboriginal art generates significant activity for the Australian government. However, the study points out that there is insufficient data to quantify the economic activity, and perhaps more detailed records of the art that is taken overseas, either by tourists or through exportation, is necessary (Parliament of Australia, 2015). The committee recommends the compilation of industry statistics to record international exhibitions, sales and exports of indigenous crafts.

Gaps The literature addresses different subjects on indigenous issues, commercialization of indigenous art, and the importance of preserving indigenous knowledge. However, previous literature does not make a substantial analysis of how sociopolitical and economic issues affect the preservation of indigenous knowledge. Additionally, peer-reviewed articles on the commercialization of indigenous art and the art market in Brazil are limited. There is a substantial amount of investigative research on the indigenous art market in Australia, and yet, there is still insufficient measurable evidence on the economic development of these arts.

Additionally, there is much to be studied in other countries. These findings are of value to this study because as there is no substantial data to indicate the size and scale of the Brazilian indigenous art market currently, there is a need to develop a plan to understand the potential for

PRESERVATION OF BRAZILIAN INDIGENOUS ART this market. Most of the available research classifies and identifies Brazilian indigenous arts from various ethnicities, from a narrative standpoint.

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Chapter 3: Methodology Overview The minority indigenous population has faced various issues throughout its history, including land theft, cultural extinction, genocide, ethnocide, and constant sociopolitical threats (University of Miami, 2021). However, issues affecting indigenous groups and their culture are often unknown to the general population. Indigenous communities have a rich cultural heritage, experience and skills that can be contributed to societies’ preservation of history and further knowledge on environmental conservation. Moreover, it is hypothesized that by actively contributing and participating in society at the social, economic and political level, indigenous communities can achieve a level of sovereignty and preservation of their culture and arts. As a result, this study aimed to find the level of education of the population concerning Brazilian indigenous issues, and consequently, if the ethical promotion of Brazilian indigenous art objects would lead to an effective economic for indigenous communities. The results were then analyzed by using a framework of social marketing principles introduced by Philip Kotler and Gerald Zaltman in 1971 (Lauri, 2015) and the motivation, opportunity and awareness (MOA) model.

Research Questions 1. To examine how Brazilian indigenous communities are affected by current social, political and economic threats.

2. To investigate the importance of preserving indigenous knowledge.

3. To identify the challenges of ethical commercialization of indigenous traditional arts.

4. To analyze the market for indigenous arts.

5. To determine how the social marketing approach and the motivation, opportunity and ability (MOA) model can be applied to ethically promote Brazilian indigenous art.

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Research Methodology A mixed methodology was used for this study in a quantitative and qualitative analysis.

The quantitative analysis consisted of a survey which generated insight concerning the general public, while the qualitative analysis consisted of an interpretive literature review and five interviews to gain an understanding of personal experiences from participants who were either directly involved with indigenous communities or experts on the subject. Furthermore, an analysis of previous literature on the social marketing and MOA framework was used to compare the findings of this research.

Design of Study This investigative research was conducted to identify how Brazilian indigenous tribes are affected by current social, political and economic threats and what can be done to preserve and ethically commercialize their arts. The research used mixed methodologies: a quantitative analysis conducted in the form of a survey, in which there were 54 respondents, and a qualitative analysis which consisted of an interpretive study of the literature review and five interviews with various professionals who have had experience with Brazilian indigenous communities. The proposed design was selected to gain insight on the knowledge and interest of the public on indigenous culture and to understand how to create awareness and ethically promote Brazilian indigenous arts. As a result, findings from the quantitative analysis provided insight from the general population, while the qualitative analysis resulted in an understanding focused on the indigenous perspective. The survey questions were formulated to determine the level of interest and motivation of the general population on preserving indigenous heritage, in addition to identifying which problems were well-known and which were considered most important.

Furthermore, the objective of understanding the marketability of Brazilian indigenous arts as a

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source of economic development for indigenous communities was applied to the research questions with images of indigenous arts, and on the specific interview questions conducted with the indigenous art gallery owner.

Quantitative Analysis: Survey The quantitative analysis was designed to collect information pertinent to Brazilian indigenous communities and the preservation and ethical promotion of their artistic culture. The analysis consisted of a 20-question survey in English, and a translated version in Portuguese, which collected 54 responses. The questions were designed in varied formats: multiple choice, Likert scales, rating scales, ranking questions, image choice questions, and demographics. The first set of questions (Q1 through Q4) were directed toward understanding the level of awareness and information on issues that threaten indigenous communities in Brazil. It was hypothesized that the general population has limited knowledge on the topics, and promoting awareness and understanding of indigenous heritage would lead to an increased interest in preserving indigenous cultures. In addition, the survey aimed to determine the respondents’ concern for supporting social and environmental causes, which directly relate to indigenous peoples living in the Amazon rainforest and surrounding regions. It was believed that the majority of the respondents would be more inclined to support environmental causes. As a result, the study inferred that respondents who were more likely to actively support social causes would consequently find greater value in preserving and ethically purchasing Brazilian indigenous art.

The third set of questions concentrated on Brazilian indigenous art, and were designed to determine if the level of knowledge on the subject influenced the motivation to purchase these arts. It was deduced that the motivation to purchase Brazilian indigenous art would directly correlate with the respondent’s level of education on indigenous issues. And finally,

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demographic questions such as age, level of education, income, race, and location were included as a means to determine the population that was most likely to purchase or take interest in indigenous issues and arts.

The quantitative method used was random sampling. However, the survey in Portuguese was considered clustered sampling, because it was directed toward Brazilian nationals. This type of sampling was significant for the study to understand local and international awareness of indigenous issues. Furthermore, it is an effective method to identify market opportunities for Brazilian indigenous art. The survey was created on Survey Monkey, and all responses were collected anonymously. The data will be kept on the platform and with the researcher for the extent of at least one year.

Qualitative Analysis: Interviews The qualitative method used to gain insight on the interest of Brazilian indigenous communities in marketing and selling their art was by conducting five semi-structured and structured interviews. The first interview was conducted with Evandro Kelmer, an indigenous art gallery owner and curator, who has had direct contact with various indigenous ethnicities for over 30 years. The gallery is located in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil, and exhibits and sells various indigenous art pieces. This was a structured interview, conducted by email, and consisted of 11 questions designed to discuss the ethical promotion of Brazilian indigenous art and the current art market. The second interview was conducted with with T.F., a Brazilian PhD student on sustainable development, former FUNAI employee, and indigenous expert. The interview was structured, in the form of an email, and consisted of 13 questions concerning ethics, the threats and issues involving indigenous communities in the Amazon region, and their culture. The third interview was done with Monica Neves, a Brazilian fine artist who has worked with minority

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groups in Brazil, including the impoverished communities living in slums and Northeastern Brazilian folkloric artists. This was a semi-structured phone interview, in which there were 10 questions directed toward providing an understanding of how promoting art can help raise awareness to issues surrounding minority populations, and her perception on how art can be ethically promoted. The fourth interview was conducted with T.G., a government employee, musician and social worker. She has worked with the indigenous community Fulni-ô, located in the northeast of the state of Bahia, for over eight years to develop their music and language in an effort to keep their indigenous knowledge alive. The interview was semi-structured and conducted by phone, with eight questions. And finally, the fifth interviewee was with an indigenous volunteer worker and former employee of an indigenous art gallery, Charlotte Cochrane, who has had contact with an indigenous tribe living in conditions extreme poverty and almost complete loss of cultural heritage. The aim of this interview was to gain insight on the severe outcome of sociopolitical threats to indigenous communities, and was also conducted in a semi-structured format, with eight interview questions. The qualitative analysis was designed to define the main sociopolitical issues involving Brazilian indigenous communities and how these issues are being addressed by the government. In addition, the interviews were conducted to provide data concerning the main sources of economic development for these communities, how Brazilian indigenous art is being marketed, the ethical issues behind promoting these arts, the motivation of indigenous peoples to participate and promote their art, and to provide insight on what has been done to preserve this knowledge.

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Data Analysis The quantitative research survey resulted in 54 responses, which will be clustered by common themes for analysis. These will then be compared to the Motivation, Opportunity and Ability model to establish a framework for motivating consumers to purchase indigenous art.

The qualitative research was applied in the form of an interpretive analysis of the literature review, which examined previous literature on social, political and economic issues that affect indigenous peoples in Brazil, in addition to ways of preserving indigenous knowledge and the arts. Studies on the international indigenous art market were also reviewed. The findings show that indigenous people are historically affected by sociopolitical and economic issues, which in turn, affect their way of living and threaten their indigenous knowledge. While there are NGOs and governmental organizations that protect the rights of indigenous populations, there is little research on structured methods to preserve and ethically commercialize Brazilian indigenous art. A comparative analysis will be done to connect the findings on the interviews, which determined that sociopolitical and economic issues that affect indigenous communities have a direct impact on the preservation of their culture.

Social Marketing and the Motivation, Opportunity and Ability (MOA) Model One of the first definitions of social marketing is “the design and implementation of a program to influence the acceptability of social ideas” (Lauri, 2015). Since then, the concept has been used as a means to change behavior within society and to promote social change. It is argued by Lauri (2015) that to start a plan for social change, there must be an understanding of the social representations that the public has of the issue being promoted. The results of the survey were used to determine the populations’ awareness of Brazilian indigenous issues.

Additionally, the interviews with experts on the subject was critical to gain knowledge from an

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insider perspective. Consequently, the interviews were designed to collect information from various sources by approaching the topics of background knowledge on indigenous culture, sociopolitical and economic issues affecting the indigenous population, the motivation and willingness of indigenous peoples to sell their art, and promoting art through ethical practices.

The motivation, opportunity and ability model (MOA) as mentioned in the study by Latip, Rasoolimanesh, Jaafar, Marzuki and Umar (2018) will be used as a framework to compare the findings on the motivation of indigenous communities to participate in the sale and promotion of their art. The MOA model was originally developed my McInnis and Jaoworski to understand consumer behavior (Latip et. al, 2018). The model implies that motivation, opportunity and ability are the basis for decision making, and states that individuals need motivation to go forward, opportunity to be involved in the process, and ability to proceed.

Additionally, according to Binney, Hall, and Oppenheim (2006), one of the theoretical concepts of motivation is self-determination, which is the primary motive in humans. Binney et. al argued that by identifying the needs, interests, preferences and aspirations of individuals, meaningful opportunities for initiative and taking personal responsibility for their goals arise (2006). In the context of this study, motivation will be defined by the desire of indigenous communities to sell and promote their art as a means of economic development and the desire to participate in such activity. Additionally, it can also be applied to the motivation of consumers to purchase these arts, and as determined from the findings in this study, basic education on indigenous peoples and issues that affect them can be a motivator for purchase.

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Appendix 2 Interview Questions Interview 1 – Evandro Kelmer, curator and owner of Brazilian indigenous art gallery Moitará, located in Brazil Method: structured interview by email 1) What is your name?

Evandro Baccara Kelmer 2) What is your field of work?

I am the curator of the Brazilian Cultural Center of Indigenous Art (Centro Cultural de Arte Indígena Brasileira) and the owner of an indigenous art gallery, Moitará. We are dedicated to the research, preservation, and promotion of Brazilian indigenous culture. I have also been the curator of various exhibitions in the country, destined to serve society by preserving Brazilian history.

3) How long have you been working with indigenous communities?

For over 30 years.

4) Which indigenous communities do you have direct contact with?

I have contact with over 50 ethnicities in Brazil. The main ones are Mehinako, Waura, Kalapalo, Kaiapó, Karajá, Tapirapé, and Enawene-Nawe from Mato Grosso, and Waiana-Apalai and Wai Wai from Pará.

5) What is your relationship with the indigenous communities?

My process of establishing a relationship with indigenous communities started in 1985. It was carefully and slowly founded through trust, transparency, honesty and respect. This is the base for coexistence and receptiveness. The access to these communities is not easy. The

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distance and environment make it difficult, but we also need authorization from the community leader and from the Indigenous Foundation (FUNAI). Besides the physical barriers, there are also linguistic barriers. There are over 140 spoken languages between them, but Portuguese has been established as a second language, facilitating our communication. There is a cultural barrier as well, but everything is a matter of getting used to, and by building a foundation of trust and respect, that barrier is dissolved. I have often participated in indigenous rituals and accompanied their lifestyle, which helped build a stronger relationship between us.

6) In general, are indigenous communities willing to sell their art?

Yes. 7) Is the sale of indigenous art a significant source of income for these communities?

Many of the pieces are made to be used as utilitarian objects on a daily basis; for hunting, cooking, or rituals. They are passed down from generation to generation, but currently, due to external contact and influence, many of these techniques have suffered alterations or been completely lost. But the sale of artifacts, either those that have been used or made solely for commercial purposes, is an important complementary source of income for many ethnicities, which motivates them to continue using traditional techniques.

8) What type of art is the most sold in you store? From which ethnicity?

We work with over 50 ethnicities and have a variety of artifacts, but the pieces that are sold the most are the framed pieces, such as masks, rows, and biju-shovels, from Mehinako, Kalapalo, Kayapó, and Tapirapé.

9) Which communities produce the most art and artifacts?

Every community produces artifacts which are used on a daily basis, which then transform into art. Each has its own characteristic and technique. However, some have a larger

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variety of items. The Mehinako which produces masks, biju-shovels, rows, benches, baskets, and musical instruments. The Karajá produce baskets, rows, ceramics, and objects for children to play. The Yanomami and Baniwa produce baskets, the Waurá produce ceramics, and the Guarani are known for their woodwork.

8) In your perception, what is the biggest challenge to sell and buy art from indigenous communities?

The biggest difficulty is the cost of transportation, including some restrictions from transportation companies. We work with some indigenous associations to buy art.

9) Does the majority of your clients have an interest in knowing about the significance of the art piece they are purchasing?

90% of our pieces have a descriptive label. Even so, most of our clients are interested in knowing not only about the piece, but about the culture, our work, and my relationship with indigenous peoples.

10. Do you believe sociopolitical and economic issues affect indigenous cultural heritage, or the possibility of passing down knowledge from generation to generation?

Knowledge has always been passed on to generations orally. Political and economic problems will always affect not only their artistic heritage, but culture, identity, dignity, health and lifestyle. But the progress and contact with new objects transform the culture.

11. In your perception, how does selling or exhibiting indigenous art help promote awareness to Brazilian indigenous culture and issues that affect their communities?

In over 30 years of working with indigenous communities, I am sure that the sale, exhibition and promotion of indigenous art not only motivates society’s awareness of indigenous culture, but motivates the indigenous population to keep their art and traditions alive.

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Interview 2 – T.F., Brazilian PhD student on sustainable development, former FUNAI employee, currently working in the Brazilian Ministry of Economy, and indigenous expert Method: structured email interview 1. What is your name? (Qual é o seu nome?)

2. What is your field of work? (Qual é o seu campo de trabalho?) - Atuei como indigenista especializado na Fundação Nacional do Índio - Agência Brasileira responsável pela implementação da política indigenista.

3. How long have you worked with indigenous communities? (Há quanto tempo você trabalha com aldeias indígenas?) - 11 anos 4. Which indigenous communities have you worked with? Can you describe key differences or cultural practices between them? (Com quais etnias você já trabalhou? Você pode falar um pouco das principais diferenças ou práticas culturais importantes entre elas?) - Em Minas Gerais e Espírito Santo trabalhei com cerca de 21 etnias que vivem nesses estados da federação: MG: Maxakali, Xakriabá, Krenak, Aranã, Mukuriñ, Pataxó, Pataxó hã-hã-hãe, Catu-Awá-Arachás, Kaxixó, Puris, Xukuru-Kariri, Tuxá, Kiriri, Canoeiros, Kamakã, Karajá, Guarani e Pankararu. No Espírito Santo os Guarani e os Tupiniquim. Cada etnia ou povo indígena tem sua forma própria de organização social e cultural, por isso ao trabalhar com cada uma das etnias é necessário conhecer sua história, seus mitos de origem, sua língua, suas crenças, tradições, o histórico de sua relação com a sociedade envolvente e com a colonização e como resistiram a esse processo, para compreender suas características atuais. Importante ter em mente que a cultura é um conceito dinâmico e complexo que se constrói e reconstrói nas relações e no tempo.

O importante é ter empatia para conhecer e aprender com cada uma dessas culturas diferentes e compreender que o Brasil tem mais de 305 povos indígenas falantes de 274 línguas diferentes,

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daí já começamos ter noção da nossa diversidade cultural. Posteriormente, de 2018 a 2021, atuei em nível nacional na Funai como Ouvidor e Coordenador de Acompanhamento de Saúde Indígena, atendendo a diversas etnias do Brasil.

5. What are the main social or environmental issues that affect the communities you have worked with? (Quais são os principais problemas sociais ou ambientais que afetam estas aldeias?)

Na minha percepção, os principais problemas sociais vividos pelos povos indígenas decorrem da falta de conhecimento e empatia por parte da sociedade não indígena, da nossa sociedade envolvente, gerando preconceito e usurpação dos seus direitos sociais e ambientais, e da falta de interesse e compromisso do governo com a garantia dos direitos desses povos. Por conta disso, os indígenas sofrem com falta de acesso à serviços de saúde e educação diferenciados e interculturais a que tem direito, gerando piores indicadores de saúde/doença e de escolaridade em suas populações. Dificuldade de acesso à renda. dentre outros. As políticas públicas sociais, de modo geral, não são desenhadas com recortes que atendam as especificidades dos povos indígenas. Quanto aos problemas ambientais esses, na minha opinião, decorrem da pressão por agentes privados aos territórios indígenas (agronegócio, mineração, especulação imobiliária, garimpo ilegal, exploração ilegal de madeira -desmatamento) e da falta de ação efetiva do estado, por conta das políticas e posições de governo, para garantia da proteção (monitoramento e fiscalização) desses territórios. Disso resulta territórios devastados ambientalmente em relação a vegetação, com poluição das águas, pouca caça, poucas áreas aptas ao plantio (poluição e degradação do solo), ocorrência de desastres ambientais como o de Mariana e Brumadinho que impactaram fortemente os territórios indígenas Krenak e Pataxó, respectivamente, em MG nos anos de 2015 e 2019. Ou seja, os elementos ambientais necessários para a reprodução física e

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cultural dos povos indígenas em seus territórios tradicionais, como está posto na constituição, estão sempre sob ameaça em vários aspectos. Ainda há grande demanda e necessidade de demarcação de terras indígenas no Brasil o que agrava os problemas sociais e ambientais, visto as demarcações estarem paralisadas há alguns anos.

6. How have socio-political and economic issues developed in the current government? (Os problemas sociopolíticos e econômicos mudaram no governo atual? Como?)

Sim. O discurso político de campanha do atual governo já dizia que não demarcaria nenhum centímetro de terra indígena. Os incentivos em discursos e normativos ao desmatamento, garimpo, invasões de terras, enfraquecimento de mecanismos de proteção ambiental - como o licenciamento ambiental-, dentre outros, foram e são a marca dessa gestão. O corte de recursos e o aparelhamento das instituições de estado com pessoas declaradamente em prol de políticas contrarias aos interesses ambientais e dos povos indígenas aconteceu durante todo o governo.

Servidores de carreira de órgãos ambientais e indigenistas foram impedidos de ocupar cargos de gestão e direção e inclusive foram e são perseguidos politicamente. Tais ações, algumas vezes, foram operadas pela cooptação de um ou outro indígena ou grupo de indígenas que era(m)colocado9s) em notícias de mídia para legitimar as atitudes e discursos, sempre faciosos, sugerindo que tais ações seriam para libertar e emancipar os indígenas da pobreza, quando, na verdade, o principal interesse é tomar seus territórios, o que pode ser observado quando se analisa o pano de fundo das principais iniciativas ou (falta delas) praticadas pelo atual governo (legalização de arrendamento, garimpo em terra indígena, não demarcação de terras) todas de alguma forma tiram o usufruto exclusivo do território indígenas pelos povos indígenas, garantido na Constituição Brasileira de 1988.

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7. What are the main sources of income of these communities? (Quais são as principais fontes de renda destas aldeias?)

Depende de cada território, do bioma em que se encontra a terra indígena, da aptidão daquele povo. De modo geral poderíamos dizer que o artesanato está presente de alguma maneira na composição da renda da grande maioria; produtos da agricultura, do extrativismo também. Os empregos em cargos de saúde e educação são também uma parcela importante da composição da renda familiar indígena. O etnoturismo tem se mostrado como importante fonte de renda em muitos territórios.

8. In your experience, how do you think they can diversify their activities to reach economic sustainability? (Na sua experiência, como os indígenas poderiam se diversificar para alcançar uma sustentabilidade econômica?)

Não consigo opinar sobre esse assunto. Tal proposta deve partir da construção de projetos COM cada povo indígena que se pretenda trabalhar, eles é quem devem decidir como construir sua sustentabilidade econômica, assim como os demais assuntos que dizem respeito ao seu presente e futuro. Essa é a premissa básica. Não é possível levar soluções prontas, principal erro na elaboração de projetos e de políticas públicas. Sei que um grande problema que eles enfrentam para os seus projetos é a falta de financiamento. Então, se nós quiséssemos começar de algum lugar seria criando carteiras de investimento e financiamento para os povos indígenas financiarem seus projetos de sustentabilidade econômica e ambiental. Por exemplo, os bancos tem linhas de créditos específicas para diversos segmentos como para os agricultores, subsidiados com dinheiro público; se fossem criadas linhas de créditos para financiamentos de projetos de sustentabilidade econômica e ambiental indígena, acredito que os ganhos seriam enormes para eles e para o país como um todo; isso por enquanto não existe.

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9. Is traditional indigenous art an important source of income for the indigenous population? (A arte tradicional indígena é uma importante fonte de renda para a população indígena?). Sim. 10. In your experience, do you believe the indigenous population would like to have better opportunities for their work to be ethically marketed? (Na sua experiência, você acredita que os indígenas gostariam de ter mais oportunidade para que seus trabalhos artísticos fossem eticamente vendidos e promovidos?) Sim. Essa seria na minha opinião uma alternativa muito interessante e sustentável ambientalmente, economicamente e culturalmente. Mas, de novo, cada povo deve ser consultado, como, quando, onde, sob quais circunstâncias, gostariam de utilizar seus trabalhos artísticos como fonte de renda.

11. Have you observed unethical practices concerning the trade of indigenous objects? (Você já observou alguma prática antiética na venda de objetos indígenas?) Sim. Sobretudo a compra por preços muito baratos nas aldeias e vendas por preços exorbitantes na internet ou em mercados distantes (a maior parte fica com o atravessador e não com o artesão).

Outra prática é a não identificação da etnia origem.

12. In your perception of indigenous cultures, do you believe most are receptive to visitation or contact with non-indigenous people? Which communities are more or less receptive? (Na sua percepção de culturas indígenas, você acredita que a maioria das aldeias são receptivas com contatos externos? Você consegue identificar quais povos tem mais ou menos receptividade?). Sim, a maioria das que tive contato são receptivas. Mas sempre depende da forma do contato do visitante. Sempre deve se respeitar a autonomia, a etiqueta daquele povo, ou seja, buscar antes compreender como deve ser feito o contato prévio para ter autorização de contatos mais próximos. Isso pode ser buscado com representantes desses povos que são os

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interlocutores com a sociedade envolvente ou com outros pesquisadores, apoiadores, parceiros que já tem relação prévia com esses povos, ou mesmo com a Fundação Nacional do Índio.

Alguns povos desenvolvem por exemplo projetos de turismo, como no Xingu, no Rio Negro, os Pataxó no Sul da Bahia, dentre outros.

13. What do you think is the most effective method to raise global awareness to preserve Brazilian indigenous culture? (Qual seria a forma mais eficaz para aumentar a conscientização mundial da cultura dos povos indígenas brasileiros?). Educação, Arte, promoção da cultura.

Mudar bases curriculares do ensino da história e cultura indígena. Elucidar a grande contribuição dos povos e terras indígenas na proteção ambiental. Promover encontros por meio de debates, cinemas, teatros, visitas as aldeias. Aumentar as possibilidades de acesso a indígenas a universidades, concursos públicos, mídia, etc, promover encontros éticos e empáticos entre as diversas culturas que temos, como disposição de reconhecimento de outros valores, de reparação de erros passados e de construção de um futuro comum, mais justo e ético.

Interview 3 – Monica Mendes, MA in Fine Art, focuses on representing minorities, Brazilian residing in Miami Method: semi-structured video call Duration: 27:27 1. What is your name? Monica Mendes 2. What are the social issues that you have previously addressed in your artwork? Favela, Katopê 3. In your experience, how do you perceive the Brazilian population’s concern with social issues? And the non-Brazilian population?

4. How do you think portraying these issues helped raise awareness to the general population?

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5. What was the level of receptiveness toward being portrayed in artwork of the minority groups you have previously worked with? Favela – receptive to an extent. Katopê – very receptive, knew contact 6. What is your knowledge on Brazilian indigenous communities? Have you worked with any before?

7. Do you think providing potential buyers with background information on social issues help promote your art? YES 8. In your experience, what is the most effective method of promoting and selling your art?

Exhibitions, art fairs Interview 4 – T. G., government employee, musician and social worker, works with Funil-ô tribe Method: semi-structured phone interview Duration: Interview 5 – Charlotte Cochrane, social worker and former indigenous gallery employee Method: semi-structured phone interview Duration: 44:34 1. What is your name?

Charlotte Cochrane 2. What is your direct experience with indigenous communities?

I have worked with a very impoverished indigenous group in São Paulo, which has been neglected by the government and indigenous protection. They deal with drug and alcohol abuse issues. The land was taken away from this community, and they were forced to move from their

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forest environment to the coast. The community has lost about 90% of their traditional knowledge. They still have one traditional ritual, but suffered a great loss of heritage.

3. What are the main sociopolitical or economic issues that affect the communities you have worked with?

This community currently has no economic incentive, and they depend on the government for support.

4. Which indigenous ethnicities produce more art pieces?

From my knowledge, indigenous ethnicities with the most decorative objects are the Mehinako, Kayapó, Waurá, and Karajá. The Yanomami produce baskets, which can also be considered decorative. There are many ethnicities that produce wearable objects, such as necklaces made from seeds, beaded bracelets, earrings, and purses. A woman-based community named the Yawanawá produce many beaded pieces. The Tupari and Parakana produce bags, Kamayurá, Xipaya and Kayapó also produce necklaces.

5. In your perception, how would you rate indigenous communities’ motivation or willingness to sell their artwork?

I believe they are very motivated to sell their work. Seeing people’s appreciation for their art makes them more motivated to promote it.

6. Have you experienced any unethical practices in the business of buying and selling indigenous art?

Not particularly. The shop I work for has always had a very transparent approach with the communities, and they give them 40% of the profits.

7. What do you think is the most effective way to ethically promote indigenous art?

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I believe that as long as there is transparency and agreement with the indigenous communities, besides respect for their culture and proper evaluation of their work, there is an ethical sale of their artwork.

8. In what ways do you believe that selling artwork impacts these communities (either positively or negatively)?

I believe it impacts them positively because it promotes their art in society, and makes people more aware of indigenous cultures and aesthetics. It also creates motivation for indigenous peoples to continue their tradition. It could impact them negatively when merchants that don’t have ethical practices buy these arts for an insignificant price and later sells them on the market for their own profit.

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