MYSTERIES OF THE NON-SCIENCE DARK ENERGY v. HIGGS & GRAVITATIONAL FIELDS & 2 COSMIC EXPANSIONS

By Benjamin Gal-Or, All Rights Reserved

MYSTERIES OF NON-SCIENCE Dark-Energy HIGGS and Gravitational Fields Prof.-Dr. Benjamin Gal-Or

v.

E

Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or.

PREFACE

THE NEW GRAVITISM CLEARS MOST MYSTERIES ABOUT THE GRAVITATIONAL FIELD, (GRAVITY), THE UNIVERSAL BUILDER OF STRUCTURES, WHICH GENERATES, LEADS TO AND CONTROLS:

1)

GALAXIES,

2)

STARS,

3)

STELLAR EVOLUTION,

4)

BLACK HOLES,

5)

GALACTIC-STELLAR "RADIATION-WINDS" HITING US, [FIG. 3, PAGE 36],

6)

OBSERVED COMPACTING AND CLUSTERING OF MOST COLD (270 C BELOW ZERO) EXPANDING DARK-VOIDS, [NASA RECORD, FIG. 1 PAGE 34],

7)

SUPERNOVA STELLAR EXPLOSIONS SPREADING ELEMENTS OF LIFE (H, C, O, N, ETC.) INTO INTERSTELLAR SPACE, [FIGS. 2 & 3 PAGES 35, 36],

8)

GRAVITY-BASED PLANETS, E.G. THE SOLAR SYSTEM, Id.

9)

EARTH STRUCTURING (layers according to "specific gravity", e.g. land-seas v. air.),

10) EARTH-SUN-BIOLOGICAL-CLOCKS, CLIMATE, SEASONS, SUN CYCLES, SUN FLARES; 11) BIO-GRAVITY-CHEMISTRY STRUCTURING AMINO ACIDS, RNA, DNA, VIRUSES, BACTERIA,

HIGHER

STRUCTURES,

REPRODUCTION,

DIVERSITY,

BIOSYSTEMS, AXSONS-DENDRITES, CHEMO-ELECTO-SIGNAL-TRANSFER2

Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or.

SYSTEM, NERVES SYSTEM, BRAINS, OXYGEN BREATING SYSTEM, DIGESTIVE ENERGY-INTAKE-SYSTEM, CIRCULATING BLOOD-OXIGEN SYSTEM, BONES, SKELETONS, BALANCING v. GRAVITY SYSTEMS, [VERTIGO, ETC. ], 12) EARLY "FISH", TREES, ANIMALS, HOMINIDS, EARLY HUMANS, HUNTING GROUPS, 13) TERRITORIAL CONFLICTS, TRIBAL SOCIAL DISCRIMINATION, LEADERS, RULERS, 14) AGRICULTURE, CITY & VILLAGE STRUCTURING BY GRAVITY/GRAVITY-BASED RIVERS, (eg FIRST CIVILIZATION EMERGING IN UR & EGYPT), 15) STRUCTURING HIGH-RISE STRUCTURES, PROTECTING WALLS, EARLY ARMIES, PAGAN-PRIESTS-KINGS, CLAY TOKENS, INVENTING COUNTING, NUMBERS, DEGREES, ETC. 16) DARK SKY DEGREES-SCALING, HEAVEN CONCEPTS, EARLY IDEAS ON COSMIC CREATOR- GOD, DIETIES, RELIGIONS, HIGH PRIESTS, HOLINESS, PRIORITY, RIVALRY, RELIGIOUS DISCRIMINATION/RACISM, MURDERING-KILLING UNBELIEVERS, WARS, INVASIONS, DESTRUCTIONS, KINGS' CULTURES, 17) SECTERIAN LAWS, BOOKS, PHILOSOPHIES, FUTURE V. PAST IDEAS, FAMILIES, MINORS AND WOMEN EARLY RIGHTS, MORALITY, EARLY TRADE, EARLY WEAPONS, JUDGES, 18) EARLY LINGUISTIC SPACE-TIME LOCATIO-ORIENTATION VIA GRAVITATION [ THE "UNIVERSAL GRAVITY VECTOR"] ORDERING SYMBOLS-TOKENS: UP, DOWN, LEFT, RIGHT UNDER EARLYN RULES OF COMPOSING WORDS, SENTENCES, CHAPTERS AND BOOK-STRUCTURES, NUMBERED-TIMING, EARLY-LATER, CLAY RECORDS FOR LATER TRADING, COMMON-MONTH-YEAR-ROYALGRAVITY-FIXING, GRAVES, CEMETERIES, AFTER-LIFE IDEAS, 19) SOCIAL AND INDIVIDUAL HEALTH CARE, MEDICAL CARE, EARLY EDUCATION leading to schools, universities, academies, ranking, reputation, links, funding, protection, tenure, pension, relative-secured-freedom, 20) invented and PUBLISHED NEWTON'S GRAVITY PHYSICS, 3

Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or.

21) Invented and PUBLISHED EINSTEIN'S GRAVITY PHYSICS, [SPECIAL & GENERAL RELATIVITY], UNITING: TIME & SPACE, MASS & ENERGY, NEWTON'S WITH EINSTEIN'S GRAVITY PHYSICS, BASED ON FIXED MAX SPEED OF LIGHT, PREDICTING THE (UNWANTED AT THAT TIME) EXPANSION OF THE UNIVERSE (THUS OUR WORLD HARBORS A BEGINNING ABOUT 18 BILLION YEARS AGO, ( as had also been predicted thousands years earlier by the first sentence of the Hebrew Bible.).

22) THE EMERGENCE of non-deterministic QUANTUM STANDARD MODEL - ATOMS, electrons, proton, neurtrons and a host of other subatomic particles vis-àvis multi-atom-MOLECULES, THE SCIENCE OF BIO-GRAVITY-CHEMISTRY, MEDICINE, MEDICAL COMPANIES/SERVICES v. REGULATORS, HEALTH INSURANCES, ETC. 23) THE USE OF SCIENCE TO DEVELOP (CONVENTIONAL OR ATOMIC) FALLING GROUND, NAVAL, AIR AND SPACE WEAPONS, 24) CONFUSION OF PERFECT WEAPON GOALS, REGIMES, RELIGIONS, POLITICS, "UNITED NATIONS", EDUCATION, MEDIA, FOUNDATIONS, ACADEMIA, AWARDS, SCIENCE GATE KEEPERS, JOURNALISTS, EDITORS, COMPANIES, PARLIAMENTS v. GLOBAL PROTESTERS.

Cf., e.g., author's online booklet "THE CURSE OF NUMBERS (AND OF THE "HOLY MAJORITY RULE") VIS-À-VIS VERIFIED FACTS RE "IMPROVED SOCIETY" AND the 500+pages paper-book Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy, CPP, whose TABLE OF

CONTENTS AND 2 dozen Published Reviews are provided below.

The CPP-book, and deduced shorter online booklets, refute unverifiable, unti-gravity, mysterious, dark-energy speculations and unbased claims that Einstein Physics is wrong, that his physics should be replaced by unverifiable dark-enegy speculations-modifications.

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Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or.

In contract we compare these non-scientific claims with the currently partly verified Higgs field, as explained by Theoretical Physicist Prof. Matt Strassler:

Why the Higgs Field Matters

July 2, 2012, https://profmattstrassler.com/articles-and-posts/the-higgs-particle/why-the-higgs-particle-matters/

EMPHASIZE BY COLOR ETC. AND BY NUMBERED SECTIONS ARE ADDED.

1.

"Most of us learned in school, or from books, that all the materials around us — everything we eat, drink and breathe, all living creatures, and the very earth itself — are made from atoms.

2. These come in about 100 types, called “the chemical elements”, and are typically found arranged into molecules, as letters can be arranged into words.

3. Such facts about the world we take almost for granted, but they were still hotly debated late into the 19th century.

4. Only around 1900, when the actual size of atoms could finally be inferred from multiple lines of reasoning, and the electron, the subatomic particle that inhabits the outskirts of atoms, was discovered, did the atomic picture of the world come into focus.

5. But even today, some lines in this picture are still fuzzy. Puzzles dating back a century still remain unresolved.

6. And the “Higgs boson” hullabaloo that you’ve been hearing about has everything to do with these deep questions at the heart of our own existence.

7. Some of these blurry areas may soon become clearer, revealing details about the world that we cannot yet discern.

8. We learned in school that the mass of an atom comes mostly from its tiny nucleus; the electrons that form a broad cloud around the nucleus contribute less than a thousand of an atom’s mass.

9. But what most of us didn’t learn, unless we took a college class in physics, is that an atom’s size — the distance across it — depends mainly on the electron’s mass.

10. If you managed somehow to decrease the mass of the electron, you’d find atoms would grow larger, and much more fragile.

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Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or.

11. Reduce the electron’s mass by more than a factor of a thousand or so, and atoms would be so delicate that even the leftover heat from the Big Bang that launched our universe could break them apart.

12. And so the very structure and survival of ordinary materials is tied to a seemingly esoteric question: why does the electron have a mass at all?

13. The mass of the electron, and its origin, has puzzled and troubled physicists since it was first measured.

14. Complicating and enriching the puzzle are the many discoveries, over the past century, of other apparently elementary particles.

15. First it was learned that light is made from particles too, called photons, that have no mass at all; 16. then it was learned that atomic nuclei are made from particles, called quarks, that do have mass; 17. and recently we found strong indications that neutrinos, elusive particles that stream from the sun in droves, have masses too, albeit very small ones.

18. And so the question about the electron became subsumed in larger questions: Why do particles like electrons, quarks and neutrinos have mass, while photons do not?

19. In the middle of the last century, physicists learned how to write equations that predicted and described how electrons behaved.

20. Even though they didn’t know where the electron’s mass came from, they found it easy to put the mass, by hand, into their equations, figuring that a full explanation of its origin would turn up later.

21. But as they began to learn more about the weak nuclear force, one of the four known forces of nature, a serious problem emerged.

22. The physicists already knew that electric forces are related to photons, and then they realized further that the weak nuclear force is related, similarly, to so-called “W” and “Z” particles.

23. However, the W and Z differ from the photon, in that they do have a mass — they are as massive as an atom of tin, over a hundred thousand times heavier than are electrons.

24. Unfortunately, the physicists found they could not put masses for the W and Z particles by hand into their equations; the resulting equations gave nonsensical predictions.

25. And when they looked at how the weak nuclear force affected electrons and quarks and neutrinos, they discovered that the old way of putting in the 6

Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or.

electron mass by hand wouldn’t work anymore; it too would break the equations.

26. To explain how the known elementary particles could possibly have mass at all required fresh ideas.

27. This conundrum emerged gradually in the late 1950s and early 1960s.

28. Already in the early 1960s a possible solution emerged — and here we meet Peter Higgs, and the others (Brout, Englert, Guralnik, Hagen and Kibble.)

29. They suggested what we now call the “Higgs mechanism.”

30. Suppose, they said, there is an as yet unknown field of nature — like all fields, a sort of substance present everywhere in space — that is not zero, and uniform across all of space and time.

31. If this field — now called the Higgs field — were of the right type, its presence would then cause the W and Z particles to develop masses, and also would allow physicists to put the electron mass back into their equations — still putting off the question of why the electron’s mass is what it is, but at least allowing equations to be written down in which the electron’s mass isn’t zero!

32. Over the ensuing decades the idea of the Higgs mechanism was tested in many different ways.

33. We know, today, through exhaustive studies of the W and Z particles, among other things, that something like this is the right solution to the conundrum posed by the weak nuclear force.

34. But the details? We don’t know them at all.

What is the Higgs field, and how should we conceive of it?

1. It is as invisible to us, and as unnoticed by us, as air is to a child, or water to a fish; in fact even more so, because although we learn, as we grow up, to become conscious of the flow of air over our bodies, as detected by our sense of touch, none of our senses provide us with any access to the Higgs field.

2. Not only do we lack a means to detect it with our senses, it proves impossible to detect directly with scientific instruments.

3. So how can we hope to tell for sure that it is there? And how can we hope to learn anything about it?

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Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or.

4. There is one additional way in which the analogy between air and the Higgs field works well: if you disturb either of them, they will vibrate, forming waves.

5. In the case of air, it’s easy to make these waves — just shout, or clap your hands — and our ears can easily detect these waves, in the form of sound.

6. In the case of the Higgs field, it’s harder to create the waves, and harder to observe them.

7. To make them requires a giant particle accelerator, called the Large Hadron Collider or LHC, at the CERN laboratory outside Geneva, Switzerland; and to detect them demands the use of building-sized scientific instruments, which go by the names of ATLAS and CMS.

How is it done?

1. Clapping your hands will reliably make loud sound waves.

2. Smashing two very energetic protons together, using the LHC, can make very quiet Higgs waves, and very unreliably — only about one in every ten billion collisions will do this.

3. The wave that emerges is the quietest possible wave in the Higgs field (technically, a single “quantum” of this type of wave.)

4. We call this quietest possible wave a “Higgs particle”, or “Higgs boson”.

5. Sometimes you will see the media call this the “God particle”. This term was invented by a publisher to sell a book, and thus has its origin in advertising, not in science or religion.

Scientists do not use the term [JOURNALISTS AND LAYMEN DO]

1. Making a Higgs particle is the relatively easy half of the process; 2. detecting the Higgs particle is the hard part.

3. While a sound wave will travel freely from your clapping hands across a room to someone else’s ear, a Higgs particle disintegrates into other particles faster than you can say “Higgs boson”… in fact, in less time than it takes for light to travel across an atom.

4. All that ATLAS and CMS can do is measure the debris from the exploding Higgs particle as carefully as possible, and try to work backwards, like detectives using clues to solve a crime, to determine whether a Higgs particle could have been the source of that debris.

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Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or.

5. It’s even harder than this. It’s not enough to make one Higgs particle, because its debris isn’t sufficiently distinctive; often a collision of two protons will in some other way create debris that resembles what might emerge from a fragmenting Higgs particle.

So how can we hope to determine that Higgs particles have been formed?

1. The key is that Higgs particles are rare but their debris is relatively regular in appearance, while the other processes are common but more random; and just as your ear can gradually pick out the singing tone of a human voice even above heavy static on a radio, so experimenters can pick out the regular ringing of the Higgs field amid the random cacophony created by the other similar-looking processes.

2. Carrying this out is extremely complex and difficult.

3. But in a triumph of collective human ingenuity, it has been done.

Why was this Herculean task even attempted?

1. Because the profound importance of the Higgs field for our very existence is matched by our profound ignorance of its origin and properties.

2. We do not even know that there is only one such field; there may be several.

3. The Higgs field may itself be a complicated thing, built somehow out of other fields.

4. We do not know why it is not zero, and we do not know why it interacts differently with different particles, giving the electron a very different mass from, say, the type of quark we call the “top quark”.

5. Given the importance of mass not only in determining the size of atoms but in a whole host of other properties of nature, our understanding of our universe and ourselves cannot be complete and satisfactory while the Higgs field remains so mysterious.

6. Studying the Higgs particle — the waves in the Higgs field — will give us our first profound insights into the nature of this field, just as one can learn about air from its sound waves, about rock by studying earthquakes, and about the sea by watching waves upon the beach.

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Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or.

7. Some of you will inevitably (and fairly) ask: This may be inspirational, but what good is all this to society, in a practical sense?

8. You may not like the answer, but you should.

9. History shows that the societal benefits of research into fundamental questions often do not emerge for decades, even a century.

10. I suspect you used a computer today; I doubt that, when Thompsondiscovered the electron in 1897, anyone around him could have guessed at the huge change in society that electronics would bring about.

11. We cannot hope to imagine the technology of the next century, or to envision how seemingly esoteric knowledge gained today may impact the distant future.

12. An investment into fundamental research is always a bit of an educated gamble.

13. But at worst, we are very likely to learn something about nature that is deep, and has many unforeseen implications.

14. Such knowledge, though without clear monetary value, is (in both senses) priceless.

15. In the interest of brevity, I have oversimplified; things needn’t have turned out quite this way.

16. It was possible that the waves in the Higgs field wouldn’t have been discoverable, much as an attempt to make waves in a lake of asphalt or thick syrup will end in failure, for the waves will die away before they ever really form.

17. But we know enough about the particles of nature to know this could only have happened if there were other particles and forces as yet undiscovered, and some of these would have been accessible to the LHC. 18. Alternatively, even though the Higgs particle (or particles) existed, they might have been somewhat harder to produce than expected, or might have typically disintegrated in somewhat unexpected ways.

19. In all of these cases, it might have been several more years before the Higgs field began to reveal its secrets.

20. So we were prepared to be patient, though hoping we wouldn’t have to explain these complexities to the media. But we needn’t have worried.

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Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or.

The discovery of the Higgs particle represents a historic turning point

— a triumph for those who proposed the Higgs mechanism, and for those who operate the LHC and the ATLAS and CMS detectors.

• Yet it does not represent the end to our puzzles about the masses of the known particles, only the beginning of our hope of solving them.

• As the energy and collision rate at the LHC increase over the coming years, ATLAS and CMS will be pursuing exhaustive and systematic studies of the Higgs particle.

• What they learn may allow us to resolve the mysteries of this mass-giving ocean in which we swim, and will propel us forward on our epic journey begun over a century ago, whose end may yet lie decades, perhaps centuries, beyond our current horizon."

RESPONSES TO “WHY THE HIGGS PARTICLE MATTERS” Pingback: Excitement at Fever Pitch | Of Particular Significance

1. amarashiki | July 2, 2012 at 3:35 PM | Reply Higgs field is a contemporary and likely real version of the old-fashioned ether…Not like it, however, in the sense the Higgs field is in some sense “relativistic” and “quantum”…

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Jay carlson | July 2, 2012 at 8:01 PM | Reply Matt, Jay Carlson here, simon’s rocker and ex husband of Caitlin. Hey, congratulations on the discovery I am reading about today. I know that this is a huge deal in your field, and I believe that you have done some work relating to CERN during your own career. Anyway, I thought of you when I read the articles, and I thought I would reach out and say well done.

4.

Joey | July 2, 2012 at 11:39 PM | Reply “The key is that Higgs particles are rare but their debris is relatively regular in appearance, while the other processes are common but more random; and just as your ear can gradually pick out the singing tone of a human voice even above heavy static on a radio, so experimenters can pick out the regular ringing of the Higgs field amid the random cacophony created by the other similar-looking processes.”

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Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or. Phenomenal metaphor btw. Thanks for all the hard work you do to help us explain this process to our laymen friends and family-members.

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Bob Anderson (@doubledodge) | July 3, 2012 at 11:17 AM | Reply In “Putting the Higgs Boson in its place” http://gu.com/p/2zftz/tw John Butterworth quoted Ian Sample that “the Higgs is only responsible for about 1% of the mass of everyday stuff. The rest comes from the binding energy of the strong nuclear force. So

there”. On the same subject (although not directly commenting on that particular statement) you told Tim Preece in a reply to your Higgs FAQ on January 12, 2012 that ” … in fact there is an important quantum mechanical effect that this leaves out. And if you account for it, the Higgs field contributes almost all of the mass (of a basketball)”. Assuming there is nothing special fundamental physics-wise about basketballs, I would love to get you and John together for a panel discussion on the subject. Have I missed anything more recent in your blogs about this important quantum mechanical effect or is this an explanation challenge you have yet to tackle?

Giovanni | July 3, 2012 at 1:11 PM | Reply Matt, this effect you quoted. Did you mean the ’empowerment’ of the strong nuclear force by the Higgs Field? If not, what is it? o

Bob Anderson (@doubledodge) | July 6, 2012 at 8:59 AM | Reply Hi Matt, Thanks for the on-line response on the Nature live Q&A this week. For the record I am putting our discourse in-line here. Hopefully to be expanded upon later?

Me: Prof. John Butterworth (ATLAS and UCL) said “the Higgs is only responsible for about 1% of the mass of everyday stuff” true or false?

Matt Strassler: This is a great question — because the answer is true and false! Butterworth is absolutely right that in an ordinary atom, only the electrons get their mass completely from the Higgs; the proton’s mass comes from effects of the strong nuclear force (long story).

BUT — if you really think about it carefully, the Higgs gives mass to many particles, and indirectly, if you were to turn off the Higgs field (it’s the field, not the particle, that provides the mass, by the way) it would change the strength of the strong nuclear force — and would indirectly change the proton mass. o

Matt Strassler | July 9, 2012 at 2:06 AM | Reply Definitely will write a post on this someday. But I have to explain it a how particle masses can indirectly affect the strength of the strong nuclear force, which is not a short article and requires some real thought. §

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Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or.

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DR | July 3, 2012 at 8:14 PM | Reply A small comment: using the word ‘massive’, which has a specific technical meaning for physicists–non-zero mass–is not helpful in a colloquial essay such as this, as it can be very easily misconstrued in the sense ‘enormous’. As such, phrases like “massive particles called quarks” look like they mean ‘really big particles called quarks, when in fact they are ‘very small’ (though heavy) – speaking loosely here.

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Dan | July 3, 2012 at 10:39 PM | Reply Nice piece. Certainly something I’d expect to read in Wired or Discover.

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Mike | July 4, 2012 at 10:10 AM | Reply It seems to me that ‘mass’ is a measure of the effect of gravity. If we wish to understand mass, I think we need to fully understand gravity. My reading suggests that we know hardly more about the force of gravity than we do about the Higgs boson. To me, gravity is the big mystery.

pauljaylucas | July 4, 2012 at 11:31 AM | Reply “Mass” isn’t a measure of gravity: it’s a measure of inertia. The more massive an object is, the “harder” gravity has to pull to accelerate said object, or the harder you have to work to lift said object off the ground. Conversely, gravity is a measure of mass because the more massive an object is, the more it warps space-time, i.e., what we colloquially call “gravity.”

o

Allan Douglas | July 4, 2012 at 1:30 PM | Reply You need to consider that mass is also related to inertia, the inertial mass, which is seems to be the same as the gravitational mass. So you don’t necessarily need gravity to understand mass. o

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Alex | July 4, 2012 at 10:50 AM | Reply Is there a non-zero energy density or momentum associated with the Higgs field? If there is what are implications for gravity? If there isn’t- why not? Do the equations allow for it?

Another question – is the mechanism of an electron acquiring mass in the Higgs field in any way similar to how an electron gets an effective mass in a semiconductor? I.e. getting “dressed” in excitations of the field caused by electron-field coupling?

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Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or. Thank you! Cannot express how much I appreciate your postsx

13. fred backer | July 4, 2012 at 11:17 AM | Reply Mike, if gravity doesn’t exist without mass, then you can state that mass is THE causative effect of gravity, correct? So by studying mass you are studying gravity by default since the one does not exist without the other. I’ll bet my 8th grade education on it! Please feel free to correct me as I realize the limits of my educational upbringing. Anyone?… Bueller?

14. fred backer | July 4, 2012 at 11:21 AM | Reply As a layperson, I really enjoyed this article. My love for Science brought me here.

Tomorrow it’s back to Waly-Mart where I’m living the dream…

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Pooja | July 4, 2012 at 11:36 AM | Reply I am not familiar with this field except what little I learned years ago in school. This might be a basic question but I’m going to ask anyway: why is “why does an electron have mass at all” a question? I don’t understand why an electron having mass is so difficult to reconcile with. Also, how does one modify the mass of an electron so that the atom grows larger? If this isn’t practically possible then the issue does not exist at all.

I hope to get some understanding here of concepts that have changed since I went to school. This probably isn’t a forum for curious laypeople but no one I know in real life can answer my questions. I have more questions but i’ve started with the first one that occurred me while reading this article. Thanks!!

Matt Strassler | July 6, 2012 at 8:34 AM | Reply This is most definitely a forum for curious laypeople!

The issue is this: It is **impossible** to write equations that both give the electron a mass AND allow it to behave as it does when affected by the weak nuclear force… unless there is a Higgs field, or something like it, added to the equations.

In short, what cannot be reconciled is two facts about nature obtained from data: (a) an electron having mass, and (b) electrons and neutrinos interacting as they do with the weak nuclear force — unless a third fact is true — that (c) something like a Higgs field (and possibly a Higgs particle, too) exists.

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Mike | July 4, 2012 at 5:04 PM | Reply I believe this one is pretty easy. I’ll be the first to admit I have the mathematical prowess of a broken sliderule, but E=mc^2 is what this is all about. As you add (copious quantities of) energy to an electron (which by some theories is just a convergence of various undulating fields – consonant resonance), its mass increases 14

Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or. ever so slightly. If you go back to the equation, C is a constant, so if you increase E(energy), m(mass) must also increase. There are some really good texts written by folks like the guy who writes this blog. May I suggest reading Michio Kaku, John Gribbin, Lawrence Krauss, everything ever written by Richard Feynman (RIP), and of course, Stephen Hawking.

David Schaich | July 7, 2012 at 12:38 AM | Reply Allow me to refer you to https://profmattstrassler.com/articles-and-posts/particle-physics-basics/massenergy-matter-etc/mass-and-energy/

from which I quote (emphasis in the original): this relation E=mc2 does not mean that energy is always equal to mass times c2; only for an object that is not moving (and therefore has zero momentum) is this true. o

18. judiwth | July 4, 2012 at 5:21 PM | Reply This is the best scientific article I have ever read. Some of the questions and responses make my head spin. But the article, so clearly written and filled with humility and humanity, is a work of art.

pegaman | July 5, 2012 at 7:18 AM | Reply Was just about to write exactly that. Not too often you get goosebumps when reading texts about science. o

Matt Strassler | July 5, 2012 at 2:58 PM | Reply thank you both for these kind words!

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20. judiwth | July 5, 2012 at 9:46 AM | Reply I have read it three times, and got goosebumps every time. The content is thrilling, and the execution is flawless.

21. judiwth | July 5, 2012 at 3:32 PM | Reply Kind? Hardly. Just the simple truth. Thank you.

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Mathematician | July 6, 2012 at 8:10 AM | Reply 15

Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or. Thanks so much for the wonderful blog. It’s the best place on the internet to read this material. Crystal clear exposition and a great pleasure every time. Compelling, understandable and inspiring. A dramatic improvement on the dry and boring majority of articles that I just can’t get through.

Matt Strassler | July 6, 2012 at 8:11 AM | Reply thanks, Lisa — glad to know you’re a reader! Please pass the article along to your friends… o

Mathematician | July 7, 2012 at 4:19 AM | Reply Will do Matt! Hope to hear you give some talks and looking forward to your book!

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Jo | July 10, 2012 at 11:55 AM | Reply Very clear and concise explanation. Thanks very much!

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Sammy | July 10, 2012 at 1:07 PM | Reply Absent the Higgs, the gauge theory of radioactive decay is all wet. Do you have smoke detectors at home ? Have you had a PET scan or a SPECT scan?

35.

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Particle matters | July 16, 2012 at 1:13 PM | Reply Thanks – well explained on a difficult subject – Matty (Particle Matters) 16

Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or. 43.

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Leo Vuyk | August 2, 2012 at 7:00 AM | Reply Could it be that “the massgiving ocean in which we swim” has a Higgs system based on the opposite oscillations of TWIN ( massless but energetic) Higgs particles making the ocean not massive for motion, but giving mass to Fermions by the relativistic production rate of gravitons?

47.

John Ko | August 20, 2012 at 1:41 AM | Reply

Thank you for this article! This is the best explanation of the Higgs Field/Particle I’ve read so far! I try to stay informed on science developments but I find that I have to do a lot of work reading from multiple sources and translating everything into layman terms that my brain can get a handle on. Good visuals & metaphors are always useful, and your metaphor of homing in on a singer’s voice over background noise is highly instructive & elegant.

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51. zooz | January 7, 2013 at 9:19 AM | Reply thanks very much …

I want to understand more about higgs fields when the mass is zero and non-zero please … kindly help me more ….

Matt Strassler | January 7, 2013 at 9:21 AM | Reply the mass of which type of particle? Also, knowing how much math and physics you have learned in the past will help me guide you to the correct articles…

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Marvin Purser | March 21, 2013 at 6:42 AM | Reply One might eventually want to know what is the gene map of the Higgs particle. One day most people will understand that the universe is not one, but eternal. It has neither a beginning, nor an end. Imagine everything were the size of a tennis ball.

Now imagine the ball. It cannot be done. Because if you did imagine the ball, it would 17

Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or. be inside of something else and that could not be if the ball were everything or the universe. Uni means one and verse from the Greek Logos means Word. So it is One Word and in religion The Word of God. Hence, the opening statement of the Gospel of John. In the beginning was The Word and The Word was God. Notice ‘in the beginning” is not “at the beginning. That particular gospel was written for the Greeks while the Gospel of Mark witj a vocabulary of around 2,000 or less was written for simple fishermen and other town folk .

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Veronica | June 22, 2013 at 1:28 PM | Reply

Bravo! Thank you so much for taking the time to write this article in a clear and simple way. This article will change the way I look at the world. I’m sure it has done the same for many.

59.

Tony Rotz | July 3, 2013 at 9:07 PM | Reply I thought it was a very good explanation, however, I did not get goose bumps. Is something wrong with me? So, the Higgs is a little like molasses increased force is met with increased resistance? Is it like fish swimming up steam in a river, small fish meet with less resistance and large fish more. What is it about the particles themselves, why do some interact with the Higgs more than others and some not at all?

o

Matt Strassler | July 4, 2013 at 12:06 PM | Reply

No, nothing’s wrong with you. Aside from the fact that different people get goosebumps about different things, I do think you’ve identified that one problem with my article is that it doesn’t let you see where the goosebumps really come from for scientists like me. They don’t come from the Higgs field anyway — the Higgs field is really, really important, but it isn’t the thing that drives me. The goosebumps come from the larger context in which the Higgs field arises, and that I didn’t have time to explain in such a short article. Maybe I should think about revising it so that this becomes clearer. I was aiming at a good explanation, not so much at a goosebump generator But I think I did a better job of bringing out the “goosebumps” aspects of nature in my recent class and in my recent one-hour-long public talk. If you do have the time, give it 18

Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or. a shot.https://profmattstrassler.com/2013/07/03/my-public-talk-on-the-higgsnow-online/ The Higgs field is not like molasses, however, and not like fish swimming upstream.

Those analogies are just wrong; if they were right, the Higgs field wouldn’t affect anything that is standing still, whereas in fact the electron has its mass no matter what it is doing. The right way to think about the Higgs field is not familiar from everyday life, but not that complicated either. And I did explain in my public talk, so you might find that useful.

As to why some particles interact more strongly with the Higgs field than others — we have no idea. Or more accurately, we have dozens of ideas, and no clue as to which idea is right, or whether we’ve thought of the right idea yet. Talk about goosebumps —

that’s one of the most important unsolved mysteries in particle physics. We’re hoping the LHC will help us figure this out, though we also know that it may not do so. So finding the Higgs particle isn’t the end of this story; it’s maybe the “end of the beginning”, at best.

60.

Tony Rotz | July 5, 2013 at 10:33 AM | Reply Thanks, I’m trying to get a grasp of, somewhat anyways, of what this universe entails as well as trying to learn a little of the Magyar language my parents often used when they didn’t want us to know what they were talking about, neither of which is an easy task. Köszönöm 61.

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Frederic Eagle Nam | December 18, 2015 at 12:14 AM | Reply The questions of Higgs field should be remained hypothetically until the human brain being transformed by the Creator In our universes, there is a divine forces which scientiests could’nt materialize unless the Higgs creator permit them to see it’s forces. There is no time limits for Higgs. It is not a kind of particles but a divine forces.

__________ PUBLISHED REVIEWS OF CPP "Evokes a person heart. Has generated a large number of responses from around the world, some declaring that it has turned them into “Gal-Orians”. Since the thought presented by this book is so rich, translators of our country should recommend this book with all their intellectual power." Chinese Academy of Science "A Master Piece. The well-known author bases his philosophy on a very sound knowledge of present-day scientific theories. " Indian Journal of Physics 21

Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or.

"We are all Gal-Orians ! " Editor, Foundations of Physics

"I do not know a better modern expression of science, philosophy and classical humanism than that of Gal-Or’s book." HaAretz Daily

"This is a great book, and an exciting book; readable, worth reading and enlightening." Sir Karl Popper, one of the Greatest Philosophers of Science

"Gal-Or’s Beauty: "has always been the object of science, which, he lyrically observes as “a most fundamental aesthetic frame of mind, a longing for the runaway horizons of truth and symmetry that we always try to reach.”

Order Amidst Chaos, Enlightenment Aesthetics

"This is one of the most beautiful books that I have read."

Outstanding Books List

"Tour de force. A magnificent and sustained piece of work!

Gal-Or’s net is widely cast – it reaches as far as science policy and political philosophy." A. Cottrell, Vice Chancellor, Cambridge University

"Appeals to scientists of all disciplines who are prepared to open their minds.

Shines a welcome light in some dark corners of science. Sir Karl Popper, in a Foreword, correctly describes it “a great book”. New Scientist Magazine

"The works of scientists like Gal-Or, Bohm, and (Noble Prize-Winner) Prigogine provide important resources. Prigogine's formalisms do not really tell us how irreversible change emerges from reversible [mathematics]. (in this Gal-Or is superior)." The Crisis of the Sciences

We know how Prigogine fooled the Swedish Nobel Prize System. We warned him twice, in 4 eyes, about his 'smuggling the results wanted without declaring his stealth mathematical contraband', as the sole reason for rejecting his paper to the International conference on Relativistic and Classical Thermodynamics, 1969, Pittsburgh, that I chaired. And again, for same, post his lecture, 7 years 22

Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or.

later, at the University of New York at Buffalo. Twice he did not defend his "math", just asked, in Buffalo, if the same Pittsburgh conclusion is maintaind.

See also letter from Prof. John Wheeler, Inst. of Advanced Studies, Princeton University, below

"Gal-Or launches a new spirit of inquiry by his excellent and thought provoking writings. I would recommend awarding a prize and would hope that this would serve to focus attention on a most important subject.”

Award by N.Y. Academy of Science Gold (a rival article by S. Hawking did not make it.)

"Einstein's time-symmetric tensor was elevated by Gal-Or’s “New Astronomical School of Unified Thermodynamics” to the status of the source of “Master Asymmetry” controlling not only irreversible thermodynamics, but all physical and biological phenomena!

Gal-Or calls “GRAVITISM” (his philosophy) that gravitation is the prime cause of structures, irreversibility, time, geo-chemical and biological evolution -- that the expansion of the universe is the cause of the second law of thermodynamics -- that microscopic physics, and thermodynamics in particular, cannot be understood without reference to cosmology.

He ties “irreversibility” to the “expansion of space itself”, i.e. as far as space is expanding, the contribution of all kinds of radiation in space is weakened “irreversibly” due to the expansion phenomenon itself.

Such loss, or “degradation” of energy in the depth of inter-cluster expanding space, may then be considered as a universal sink for all the radiation flowing out of the material bodies in the expanding universe.” Advancement of Physics

“Gal-Or's remarkable book sees and seizes the world whole.He emphasizes that all scientists operate under some set of philosophical prejudices, and that failure to acknowledge this is self-delusion. Furthermore, he argues that a failure to attend to the philosophical base of physics leads to an empty scientism.

His work is challenging on many levels, constituting a review 'with derivations' of general relativity 'as applied to cosmology', thermodynamics, the current state of theoretical particle physics, astrophysics, as well as a summary history of western philosophy, 23

Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or.

'especially the philosophies of time and mind' and critiques of western society, the intelligentsia and the relationship between academic science and government.

One 'and perhaps the central' theme explored, is that of the interplay between symmetry and asymmetry.

His primary interest is not in the recent progress in the unification of forces in gauge theory, although he finds support in it for his Einsteinian outlook, but is rather time, time's arrow, and the asymmetry between past and future. Around time are accumulated discussions, both mathematical and philosophical, of thermodynamic reversibility, time reversibility, the nature of causality, and the use of advanced and retarded solutions to wave equations.

The second major theme is that of gravity and its overwhelming domination of the actual form of the universe, at all scales.

The combination of these themes is not accidental; they are point and counterpoint to his thesis that the time asymmetries are connectable to and perhaps even determined by the master asymmetry given by the gravity of general relativity: the remorseless cosmological expansion.

He argues that only the expansion can provide the unification of time asymmetries.

The expansion provides, among other things, an unsaturable sink for radiation, which, in turn, permits the establishment of gradients in temperature and density, which provide the basis for the physical process that leads to life.

He also criticizes the sloppy and improper use of the concepts of entropy 'and the related notions in information theory' and quantum indeterminism, especially as covers for an inadequate understanding of temporal asymmetries.

Taking an Einsteinian position on the interpretation of quantum mechanics, he looks forward to revitalization of Einstein's quest for a deterministic interpretation of quantum events.

The value of this book lies in the challenging combination of ideas which GalOr presents, which goes far beyond what can be sensibly described in a review.

[This] work may be too large to digest as a text in these days of the decline of academic institutions "as Gal-Or describes them", but that will be the loss of both the faculty and the students.� AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICS

24

Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or.

LETTER: “I have in the meantime studied your book, with great interest, and made pages of notes on it.

I feel as if I had been on numerous walks and talks with you on the great questions, and know that would be great to go on with them!

Who cannot be impressed by your love for the great men of all times and all countries, by your phrase “working back and forth between theory and fact”, by your belief that philosophy is too important to be left to the philosophers, by your concern for where thought and language lie in the scheme of things – and by so much more!

I continue to reflect, again and again, on your central thesis that expansion is the origin of all asymmetry in time.

What an ingenious phrase is your “smuggle irreversibility in without declaring the contraband”!

I regard your book as seeking to accomplish two tasks – and being two books – at the very least One is the exposition of your central thesis, with clarity, and careful mustering of every argument pro and con that can lead to testable consequences.

I don’t see how it is possible to do proper justice to a thesis of such importance by mixing it in with the other great task.

That is to give students an appreciation of the unity of philosophy and modern physics. You do both tasks far better than I could hope to.

I give you my personal thanks for putting the two books into a pacackage that I personally have found most thought-provoking.”

Prof. John Wheeler, Inst. of Advanced Studies, Princeton University

“One of the best books on the totality of the sciences & the universe.

It was one of the favorite books of Sir Karl Popper.

It looks at physics and the universe as a totality of the mathematical philosophical understanding. It also combines the physical concept of time with human psychological perception and brain understanding of languages.”

Robin forumhub.com/expr/@202.54.92.222

Recommended by Encyclopedia Britannica, "Nature, Philosophy of"

In Genesis the ancient HEBREW COSMOLOGY has been approved today RE: ‘In the beginning’ [of our universe as verified by Einstein Verified Gravity 25

Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or.

Physics [General Relativity], and all astronomial observations], ‘voids’, ‘light’ and ‘structure-less’ state, "are uncannily close to the verified evidence with which modern science has already supplied us.”

Quotating CPP by Christian Apologetics Journal

"Most astrophysicists, cosmologists and astronomers agree: The biblical account of cosmic evolution, in stressing `a beginning´ and the initial roles of `void,´ `light´ and a `structure-less´ state, may be uncannily close to the verified evidence with which modern science has already supplied us" Professor Weisskopf, MIT, quotes CPP in Scientific American

CPP TABLE OF Contents Preface SIR KARL POPPER, Foreword ……………….………..……..… xx SIR ALAN COTTRELL, Foreword ………………….……......... xxi Preface ……………………………………..….……….…..….... xxii

Introduction 1.1 The Revival of Relativistic Cosmology vs. Modified Concepts and Order in Physics and Philosophy 1.1.1 Science Order: Cosmology to Quantum or in Reverse?... 3 1.1.2 How did all start? v. Science teaching of that Order….....5 1.1.3 The first seven stages v. tradition ……….....…............... 7 1.1.4 The present matter-dominated era by Astronomy........... 11 2.1 The Einsteinian Methodology: A Preliminary Remark ..... 11 19, 2012

From Terrestrial Gravitational Structures to Black Holes and Neutrinos in Astrophysics 26

Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or.

1.1 Gravitation, Asymmetry and Structure of Earth v. Cosmos ..80 A fallacy associated with current Education ...………...........80 1.1.2 Gravity-induced sedimentary structures …………............. 81 1.2 Stars and the Hertzsprung-Russel Central Diagram ……….. 88 1.3 Supernova, Gravitational Collapse, Neutron Stars, Pulsars …………………………………….......…92 1.4 X-Ray Astronomy, Binary X-Ray Systems, and...

Gravitational Clocks ……………………………………......... . 100 1.5 Black Holes …………………….…………………….….… 106 1.6 Gas, Dust and the Formation of Stars in Our Galaxy ............113 1.7 How Are Cosmic Distances Measured? ……………….….. 116 1.8 Neutrino Astronomy and Astrophysics ………………….... 130 1.9 The Emergence of Gamma-Ray Astronomy ………….…... 132 1.10 Exploration of Extra-Solar Space

by Unmanned Spacecraft ……………………….………..…… 134

From Old Physics to Particle Physics-I 2.1 Aim and Scope ……………………………………………. 138 2.2 Limitations of Theory ……………………………….….… 140 2.3 The General Macroscopic Equation ………………….….... 142 2.4 Continuity Equation (Total Mass Conservation) ………..... 146 2.5 Conservation of Linear Momentum and Gravity.…………. 147 2.6 The Navier-Stokes Equations and Gravity ……………….. 149 2.7 Kinetic-Energy Equation and Dissipation Function in Gravitational Fields ……………......... 152 2.8 First Law of Thermodynamics or Energy Conservation Equation ………………………………….......… 154 2.9 First Law and Enthalpy ………………………………….... 156 2.10 First Law In Terms of Temperature Field …………….…. 157 2.11 Entropy Balance Equation ……………………………….. 159 2.12 Beyond Classical Physics:...............…………………...…. 160 2.13 Neutrinos and the Powerful Role Conservation Equations Play in Subatomic Processes (Addendum) …...…… 163

General Relativity and Relativistic Cosmology Should Rule Particle-Quantum Physics, Not the Other Way, Not by Quantum Axioms 3.1 Introduction …………………………………………………....... 167 27

Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or.

3.1.1 Einstein’s field equations in general relativity ………..…….… 169 3.1.2 Confirmation of Einstein’s Theory of Gravitation …………..... 172 3.2 Principles and Formulations of General Relativity and Relativistic Cosmology ………………...……….………………....... 191 3.3 Observations, The “Age” of the Universe.

And “Equivalent Local Cells” …………………….……….….......... 200 3.4 Timekeeping, Accelerated Observers and the Principle of Equivalence ………………………….……………........ 204 3.5 From General Relativity to Unified Field Theories ………….…. 205

From Physics to Philosophical Crossroads and Back The Arrows of Time 4.1 Time and The Arrow of Time: The Most Distorted of All Ideas? ..215 4.2 Asymmetry-Symmetry-Space-Time and The Unification of the Laws of Physics …………………….............. 216 4.3 Methodology, Aim and Scope ………………………………....... 217 4.4 Confusing Concepts of Time and Time Asymmetries ………...... 219 4.5 The Entropic Arrow of Time ……………………………….....… 222 4.6 Causality, Causation and Time Asymmetries ………………........ 226 4.7 Causation and Determinism in Relativistic Theories ……..............227 4.8 Cosmological Arrows of Time and Cosmic Time ……….…….... 230 4.9 A Few Concluding Remarks ………………….……...………...... 232 4.10 Time-Reversal Invariance and Irreversibility …………….……. 236 4.10 Microscopic Time Asymmetries in “Elementary Particles” … .. 240 4.11 Death of Scale-Based Physics….......….………….……….......... 242 4.12 “Dual” Quantum-Geometrodynamical School and “Superspace” 243 4.13 Tachyons and Causal Violations …………………….………. ....246 4.14 Macrocausality and Microcausality in Quantum Mechanics …... 247 4.15 Fading Memory in Classical Physics …………………………... 247 4.16 Doubts as to the Universality of Entropy ……………………..... 249 4.17 Entropy-Free Thermodynamic Arrows of Time ………….…... . 250

Crisis in the Standard Quantum Model Gravitation & Cosmology v. Quantum Model 5.1 Preliminary Review …………………………………….……...... 255 5.1.1 The three main schools of thought ……………………............. 261 5.2 Einstein’s Objections to the Uncertainty Principle ………........... 262 5.3 The Heresy of a Few Skeptics ………………………….…......... 265 5.4 Mythologized Concepts of Quantum Physics …………...…....... 265 5.5 The Failure of Classical and Quantal Statistical Mechanics to Deduce Irreversibility and Time Asymmetries .............267 28

Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or.

5.6 The Emergence of Quantum Chromodynamics and Super-Symmetry …………………………………….................. 272 5.6.1 Spatio-Temporal Approach to Quantum Physics ……….......... 272 5.6.2 From Weinberg-Salam Theory to Quantum Chromodynamics ………………………............................ 273 5.6.2.1 Conservation laws as symmetry principles; and vice versa ... 273 5.6.2.2 Global, exact, approximate, isotopic and SU(3) symmetries 274 5.6.2.3 From SU(3) to renormalizable gauge theories ……............... 276 5.6.2.4 Quark confinement asymptotic freedom in gauge theories 276-1 5.6.2.5 QCD and the search for higher symmetry principles ……... 276-2 5.6.3 Quantum Field Theories, Super-Symmetry & Super-Gravity... 276-3 5.6.3.1 Limits of quantum gravity and ‘Unified Field Theories’ .......276-4

From Physics to Cosmological Crossroads and Back Assessed by Physics and Philosophy 6.1 FIRST: Reduction of Thermodynamics to Gravitation ...,... 277 6.1.1 Intergalactic voids rule 2 Expansions of the Universe....,..277 6.1.2 Gravitation as super-structuring of matter and All Life.....279 6.2 The Earliest Observational Evidence. .…...………...........279 6.2.1 Which space expands and which does not? …...….......... 282 6.3 Gravitation-Asymmetry Principle of Equivalence …….......284 6.4 Can Inter-cluster Voids Be Saturated with Radiation? .........287 6.5 Derivation of the Master Asymmetry from our Gravitational School of Intergalactic Voids v. life........ 290 6.6 Irreversibility in the New Gravitational.

Cosmological Thermodynamics ………………................. 293 6.7 Origin of Dissipation in Newtonian Fluids ……..….......… 297 6.8 Terrestrial Thermodynamics ……………………..……..... 299 6.9 Connections with Classical and Continuum Thermodynamics …………………………..…..…........... 301 6.10 Electromagnetic Irreversibility v. Master Asymmetry..... 303

The Cosmological Base of Time Arrow 7.1 Time: The All-Embracing Concept …………………................. 309 7.2 Cosmological Origin of Time ……………………….................. 310 7.3 Cosmological Interpretations of Newton’s Laws of Motion …... 314 7.4 Gravitational Origin of Structure and Evolution .……................ 316 7.5 Gravitation and the Outflow of Energy Into Un-Saturable Space 322 7.6 Stellar Evolution …………………………………….................. 324 7.7 Terrestrial Evolution …………………………..............……...... 325 29

Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or.

Black Holes v. Unattainable Theory of Everything 8.1 Introduction ………………………………………...… 330 8.2 Observational Evidence ………………………….….....331 8.3 Schwarzschild Solution and Black Holes …………...... 332 8.4 Black Holes Mechanics and Entropy ………………..... 340 8.5 Can Black Holes “Evaporate”? ……………………...... 341 8.6 Primordial Black Holes? …………………………........ 341 8.7 Back to the Melting Pot of Unification? …………........ 341

Beyond Present Knowledge 9.1 The Futile Quest for Final Answers …………………...... 349 9.2 An Example in Havaism ……………………..….........… 350 9.3 From Cosmology to Irreversible Structures and Memory 365 9.4 The Skeptic Outlook ……………………………..…...… 415

VOLUME II Introduction ……………………………………………................... 420 A Few Historical Remarks on Time, Mind and Symmetry ………... 437 The Philosophy of Time & Change: Some Historical Notions …………………….……………….…...... 455 Structuralism and the Divided American Thought: A Short Glossary of Terms ………………………………..……….. 467 Policy and Publicity: A Critique ………………………………….... 483 Thought-Provoking and Thought-Depressing Quotations ………..... 495 Critique of Western Methodology ………………………………. ... 530

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Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or.

Einsteinian Herritage A 1987 Painting by E. Katz, by permission.

EINSTEIN: “It is the fundamental emotion which stands at the cradle of true art and true science. It was the experience of mystery -- even if mixed with fear -- that engendered religion.

A knowledge of the existence of something we cannot penetrate, of the manifestations of the profoundest reason and the most radiant beauty, which are only accessible to our reason in their most elementary forms -- it is this knowledge and this emotion that constitute the truly religious attitude; 31

Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or.

in this sense, and in this alone, I am a deeply religious man.”

“I cannot conceive of a God who rewards and punishes his creatures, or has a will of the type of which we are conscious in ourselves. An individual who should survive his physical death is also beyond my comprehension, nor do I wish it otherwise; such notions are for the fears or absurd egoism of feeble souls.”

“Enough for me the mystery of the eternity of life, and the inkling of the marvelous structure of reality, together with the single-hearted endeavor to comprehend a portion, be it never so tiny, of the reason that manifests itself in nature.”

“I gang my own gait and have never belonged to my country, my home, my friends, or even my immediate family, with my whole heart; in the face of all these ties I have never lost an obstinate sense of detachment, which increases with age.”.

“One is sharply conscious, yet without regret, of the limits to the possibility of mutual understanding and sympathy with one's fellow-creatures. Such a person no doubt loses something in the way of geniality and light-heartedness; on the other hand, he is largely independent of the opinions, habits, and judgments of his fellows.”

In lieu of the aforementioned personal-life and philosophy-faith, Einstein consistently selected to protect his privacy inside his room, in his house, working in maximized-freedom, undisturbed solitude; even sleeping naked in his room while his privacy has been strictly guarded by his devoted secretary Helen Dukas, who also screened his incoming mail, deleted nasty or anti-Semitic letters and politely blocking unwanted visitors. Einstein is also known for his subtle sarcasm.

Before Einstein left Hitler’s Germany to the United States, a professor in Berlin was extremely nasty in targeting him. One day Einstein was informed that Professor XXX just died. Einstein’s reaction: “Everyone does something good in his life, even Professor XXX; he died.

Einstein's "Anti-Pomposity"; Anti-"Politically Correct" As a younger man he used to play his beloved violin in the homes of some German women. One day, while he was playing there, they started knitting.

Einstein stopped playing, packed his violin to leave, and apologized: “I would not even dream to disturb you from your knitting work.

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Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or.

�On another occasion, as a celebrity living in his house near a lake outside Berlin, his wife urged him to change his simple, but comfortable home dress, to a formal one, for dignitaries are to arrive soon to visit him. His response:

let them meet me as I am dressed and work in my house.

If they come to see my formal dress please show them my closet.

Theoretical Physics at its Highest Historical Level

The higheest level of physics was reached post (i) The creation of the 1915 Einsteinian Gravity Physics (General Relativity) that predicts a strange, socially unwanted, world expansion (or contraction), (ii) That unwanted theory was first confirmed in1918 in correctly predicting the bending of light by gravitation in curved space-time, (iii) Reconfirmed before 1927 by the American astronomer Hubble: We all live in an expanding world that had "beginning", as the Bible states In its first Chapter. See more below.

Sitting, from left: I. Langmuir, M. Planck, Marie Curie, H.A. Lorentz, A. Einstein, P. Langevin, Ch.-E. Guye, C.T.R. Wilson, O.W. Richardson 2nd Sitting: P. Debye, M. Knudsen, W.L. Bragg, H.A. Kramers, P.A.M. Dirac, A.H. Compton, L. de Broglie, M. Born, N. Bohr; Standing: A. Piccard, E. Henriot, P. Ehrenfest, E. Herzen, Th. de Donder, E. SchrĂśdinger, J.E. Verschaffelt, W. Pauli, W. Heisenberg, R.H. Fowler, L. Brillouin.

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Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or.

Perfection of means and confusion of goals, seem – in my opinion – to characterize our age. ----- Albert Einstein Imagination is more important than knowledge. Knowledge is limited. Imagination encircles the world.----- Albert Einstein

The pursuit of knowledge for its own sake, an almost fanatical love of justice, and the desire for personal independence--these are the features of Jewish tradition which make me thank my stars that I belong to it. ----- Albert Einstein

Great spirits have always encountered violent opposition from mediocre minds ----- Albert Einstein

INFINITIES? -- the universe and human stupidity, and am not sure about the universe. (Einstein);

Anyone who has never made a mistake has never tried anything new.----- Albert Einstein

Do what you feel to be right, for you'll be criticized anyway ----- Eleanor Roosevelt

Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizens can change the world. Indeed, it is the only thing that ever has.

------ Margaret Mead

Nobel Laureate RICHARD FEYNMAN “The first principle is that you must not fool yourself – and you are the easiest person to fool.

So you have to be very careful about that. After you’ve not fooled yourself, it’s easy not to fool other scientists.

You just have to be honest in a conventional way.”

“You should not fool the layman when you’re talking as a scientist."

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Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or.

Figure 1: (NASA RECORDED) intergalactic, expanding, cold-dark VOIDS, ["universal energy cemeteries", or "universal thermodynamic "sinks''] are the coldest known in the entire visible, expanding universe. Collectively they expand and thus compact most NONEXPANDING, gravitationally-bounded galaxies, first INTO "CLUSTERS", Fig. 2, and, later, into the recorded "FILAMENTS" visible.

The compacting process was first predicted 3 decades ago by CPP, Fig. 2.

The compacting process is the sole universal root-cause of all structures that lead to life and are done by interstellar-galactic "winds" Fig. 3., which irreversibly dissipate for ever inside the voids and by, under momentum conservation rule of physic, their opposing 35

Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or.

radiation-pressures when stopped inside each and all voids, CAUSE THE 1958-DISCOVERED 2ND EXPANSION OF THE UNIVERSE., as explained below.

The first EXPANSION of the universe, extant since the 'big bang', Fig. 4, has been SLOWED BY all GRAVITATIONAL ENTITIES IN THE UNIVERSE.

Entering each void from directions [4 YELLOW arrows] the winds, Fig. 3 thrust and push back all voids away from each other, thereby, collectively, reversing the slowing down of the first expansion into the slightly accelerated expansion as verified since 1998.

Figure 2: Indicated, compacted, gravity-bounded, non-expanding "CLUSTER I" and "CLUSTER II" Figs. 6, 7, which had been compacted into the observed filaments, Fig. 1 by stellar and galactic winds, Fig. 3, entering each intergalactic void from all 3dimensional directions, yellow arrows in Fig. 1.

"RADIATION ENERGY DENSITY" vs. "DISTANCE" defines "DIRECTION OF NET RADIATION FLOW". It is the "3rd COSMOLOGICAL ARROW", which generate energydensity gradients, indicated, that lead to the "2nd COSMOLOGICAL ARROW", that 36

Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or.

represents the "EXPANDIND SPACE "1" [the collective, inter-connected, expanding galactic voids] CONFINED TO COLD-DARK, INTERGALACTIC VOIDS and NOT involving Spaces "2" and "3" inside the filaments, inside galaxies, inside stellar systems, inside planetary systems,

Figure 3: "SPACE-2", above,

wraps

all non-expanding galaxies [Figs.

1, 2],

and non-expanding SPACE"3" [right], where super-fast, interstellar radiation

"winds" flow out to "SPACE-2" and ending irreversibly [dissipating] in the COLDEST,

EXPANDING VOIDS THAT THUS COMPACT, galaxies, first into "CLUSTERS", Fig. 2, then into "FILAMENTS" Fig. 1.

"EXPANDING SPACE-1" [all intergalactic, interconnected voids, Fig. 1], is composed of all coldest VOIDS located between Super-Clusters-filaments of galaxies, [Figs. 1, 2], including ''OUR VIRGO FILAMENT" [Figs.1, 6, 7] inside which our "Local Group" of galaxies is located.

All images from author's Volume-I or Wikipedia.

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Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or.

How Voids-size Increases since 700m years post the Big Bang?

Fig. 4: (below) This diagram is important for education, but it does NOT show the verified compacted cluster-filaments, Fig. 1, caused by the stellar-galactic winds, Figs. 2, 3.

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Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or.

Figure 5: The earliest detected intergalactic voids (dark blue) vs. early "galaxies" that radiate winds into the early voids, which had first been expanding only the inertia of big-bang expansion, Fig. 4. Gradually, as number and intensities of the main emitters has increased, the stellar-galactic winds, Figs. 1, 2, 3, have generated a strong, independent, second, uniform, simultaneous expansion, of the universe that has gradually reversed the slowing down of the big-bang inertia expansion into the currently observed, slightly accelerating expansion of the universe. [Image Source: The cosmic background radiation records verified since 1964].

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Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or.

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Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or.

Figure 7: Zooming in conclusion to the indicated 1 Million light years scale, ly, reveals "Our Majestic, Non-Expanding Sub-filament Neighborhood� inside which we all live. But even at this scale our entire solar system, is less than a visible dot.

We live on earth inside the Solar System, Fig. 3.

It is located inside the Milky Way Galaxy, visible here, which is a component of the LOCAL GROUP, Fig. 6 and is composed of thousands of galaxies.

The familiar Ursa Major is marked. It is a group of galaxies.

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Higgs field, two expansions of the universe v. dark energy, All Rights Reserved to Benjamin Gal-Or.

Allthese large systems are gravity-bounded as non-expanding systems that include THE GIANT VIRGO CLUSTER OF GALAXIES, [Fig. 1]. the familiar Ursa Major Groups is marked.

§ Andromeda galaxy is marked yellow. § It is 2,200,000 light-years away and is almost similar to our galaxy. § It is also characterized by a spiral structure. § We see it today as it was when the earliest hominids left East Africa to arrive at the "promised land". § Both galaxies are the largest in our Local Group, which is about 10,000,000 light-years in its largest spatial ‘diameter’. § The "Local Group" includes M49, M58, M59, M60, M61, M84, M86, M87, M89 and M31 (Andromeda). § Andromeda’s system consists of § Cassiopeia Dwarf, Pegasus dSph, M32, M110, NGC 147, NGC195, AND I-V, etc. The Triangulum Galaxy, the 3rd largest galaxy in ‘our’ local group, also includes the Pisces Dwarf as a satellite. § ‘Our’ satellite galaxies consist of the Large and Small Magellanic Systems. § The space inside the filamets does not expand. BACK TO FIGURES 1, 2 AND 3.

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