Sculpting Landscape In Fleurhof, Water Sensitive Urban Design Strategies For Post-Mining Site.

Volume 2

Sculpting Landscape In Fleurhof Water Sensitive Urban Design Strategies For Post-Mining Site Individual Thesis presented to obtain the Degree of Master of Urbanism and Spatial Planning (MUSP), 2019-2020

Pranit Ravindra Nevrekar KU Leuven, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Urbanism Master (of Science) of Urbanism and Strategic Planning

Promoted by: Prof. Kelly Shannon and Prof. Bruno de Meulder

Sculpting Landscape In Fleurhof Water Sensitive urban design strategies for post-mining site Pranit Ravindra Nevrekar KU Leuven, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Urbanism Master (of Science) of Urbanism and Strategic Planning pranitnevrekar@gmail.com

Promoter

Prof. Kelly Shannon Prof. Bruno de Meulder Local Promoter

Ludwig Hansen

Readers

Tanzeem Razak Viviana D’Auria

Š Copyright by Katholieke Universiteit Leuven. All rights reserved.

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Permissions should be addressed to Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Faculty of Engineering - Kasteelpark Arenberg 1, B3001 Heverlee (Belgium).

Telephone +32 16 32 13 50 and Fax +32 16 32 19 82.

A written permission is also required to use methods, products, schematics and programs described in this work for industrial or commercial use, and for submitting this publication in scientific contests. All images and maps are by author unless otherwise stated.

All images in this booklet are, unless credits are given, made or drawn by the authors

Acknowledgements

First and foremost, I owe my deepest gratitude to my promoters professor Kelly Shannon, her unwavering guidance and immense knowledge that contributed to the delivery of the best possible result and professor Bruno de Meulder for important advice and suggestions, which helped me to successfully complete my design research. I would like to thank both of you for the regular skype meetings, your constructive criticism and for keeping me motivated during this journey.

My deep and sincere gratitude to my family for their continuous and unparalleled love, help, sacrifices and support. I am forever indebted to both of my parents for giving me the opportunities and experiences that have made me who I am. To my brother for being so supportive of my Dreams. Special thanks to Vrushali for her love, psychological support, patience and for believing in me the days that I didn’t.

I would like to extend my sincere thanks to Architect Ludwig Hansen for his initial guidance and practical suggestions during the fieldwork in Johannesburg. I must also thank Architect Tahira Toffah for encouraging me to work on this particular site and assisting me with technical documents.

I would also like to extend my deepest gratitude to Parag Munot for the guidance, encouragement, and support he provided during my master’s study.

I am extremely grateful to Abhinand Pulijala for collaborating with me for the thesis. It was a pleasure working with him.

Rebecca Hung, I couldn’t have asked for a better friend than you. I would like to thank you for your invaluable advice,feedbacks and several discussions throughout the course and for always being so supportive of my work.

Many thanks to my Indian Family in Belgium; Zeba, Meera, Abhishek, Mohak and Abhinand, the Journey at KU Leuven would not have been possible without support, encouragement and food you provided.

Finally, thank you to my MaHS/ MaUSP friends and colleagues. It was a pleasure knowing you all and hope we will continue collaborating in future. It has been a life-changing journey.

Contents

PART 1 | Preface 1 – Abstract 08 2 – Introduction 14 3 – Research Objective 20 4 – Methodology 22

PART 2 | Origin 5 – Post-mining City 30 6 – Fleurhof and Mine-belt 36 7 – Fleurhof Custer Urban Development Framework 44

PART 3 | Tracing and reading 8 – Urban Aquatic Ecosystem 52 9 –Vegetal Structure 58 10 –Urban Fabric 62

PART 3 | Design investigation 11 – Vison 70 12 –Living by the Valley 84 13 –Reclaiming the Open Space 100

Epilogue 109

References 110

“In Johannesburg . . . the backdrop is always man made. We have planted the forest the birds endorse. For hills we have mine dumps covered with grass.

We do not wait for time and elements to weather us, we change the scenery ourselves, to suit our moods. Nature is for other people, in other places.�

- Ivan Vladislavic

8



PART 1

Preface Abstract

Introduction

Research Objective

MethodologyÂ

9

Preface

1 – Abstract

Johannesburg, unlike other cities in South Africa, did not originate as an agricultural centre or colonial establishment. it was founded in the middle of nowhere, as a result of the discovery of huge gold reserves in 1886. It sustained the mining industry until the late 1960s, when many of the mines started closing down and left behind a landscape of The tailings storage facilities (TSF), a landscape which is toxic and is polluting both above and below ground. The mine industry has now moved further south and west regions from the Witwatersrand ridge and a huge Mine Belt it left behind has become an identity of the city. In apartheid era the mine belt was actively used to segregate The black townships from the more affluent and formerly white neighbourhoods in the north which stand in sharp contrast with each other. At the same time, the geographic constrains makes Johannesburg vulnerable to ever-increasing droughts and water scarcity situation. The negative externalities of it affect more to the less privilege people and create a new “Environmental Injustice” The tailings storage facilities formed an altered and manmade topography, in this section of land that was limited with regards to development due to pollution and future opportunities to re-mine the tailings. However, in recent time, the area is deemed fit for suburban development thus opening up new opportunities. Fleurhof one of such cluster situated in the middle of mining belt and was considered as a possible link to connect Florida in the north to Soweto in the south and address the social divide.

This thesis thinks of mine landscape as an opportunity to create environmentally more just city. the vision constructs on the idea of natural rehabilitation of mine landscape can reimagine post-mining landscape as common space that drives spatial transformation. At the same time, the thesis recognizes the challenges of the climate crisis to provide design solutions for water scarcity and urban floods. This is an urban design exploration focused on how water sensitive urban Design can be embedded within the neighbourhoods in and around new development in Fleurhof, Johannesburg.

Keywords - Water Sensitive Urbanism, Mine dumps, Urban Aquatic ecosystem

10

asd

11

Abstract

Ekhurleni Metropolitan

Population - 3.8 million

City of Johannesburg

Population - 2 million

Johannesburg Metropolitan

Population - 5.8 million

Gauteng Province

Pretoria

Population - 15.2 Million

1

+

2 3

Vereeniging

Ridges Fig. 1.1  Map of Gauteng region indicating the study area in relation with natural terrine

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Urban Footprint

Mine Residue Areas

20km

10km

Johannesburg inner city area area

Frame

+ Fleurhof Cluster

2 – Introduction

Fleurhof cluster is located in the west part of the Witwatersrand mine belt at approximately 15 kilometres from the Johannesburg city. The area is on the intersection of a unique ecological and hydrological system formed by Fleurhof lake in the north-south direction and manmade Geological projection of the Witwatersrand basin that forms the Gold Reef mining belt. The area is bordered by Florida in the north, a rich neighbourhood located around Florida lake; Soweto / Meadowlands in the South, one of the black township from the apartheid era. Together with Florida, Fleurhof is part of Roodeport, a suburb of Johannesburg city.

The mining belt is now considered as a strategic place for the future development and The West Mining Belt Strategic Area Framework (SAF) is such attempt to create new housing, industries along the western part of mine belt and Fleurhof is considered one of the prime locations to develop.

The mines around Fleurhof are owned by two companies namely Consolidated Main Reef Gold Mine and Rand Leases Gold Mine. Even though the mines were abandoned, huge mine tailings still form a dominant feature of the landscape. After the discovery of gold many The settlement grew into a patchwork of districts in which differences of orientation and spacing of the streets reflected the irregular shapes of the original farms, as well as the lack of a coordinated plan to orchestrate these tracts into a coherent city (Foster, 2009). Florida was one of such settlements, it was initially dormitory town where white employees of the mines resided. situated around Florida Lake, it is now one of the sought after area in the city. The growing population in Florida saw the establishment of Fleurhof situated around Fleurhof lake.

During the apartheid era, the socioeconomic, demographic and political geographies of Johannesburg were significantly altered, with implications for spatial patterns in the urban landscape (Knight, 2018).

Johannesburg became ‘‘prototypical apartheid city’’ that had separated north and south by a central strip of territory containing inner city, mining lands and associated industrial uses (Foster, 2009). During this time Florida was declared white colony and towns of Orlando, meadowlands became part of Soweto, a Black Township in the south of the Fleurhof. This social divide still exists and new development in Fleurhof is seen as possible linkup between two areas.

14

FLORIDA LAKE Maraisburg

Florida Lake

Florida

Rand Leases

Robertville

LEA GLEN

Rand Leases Gold Mine

Main Reef Road Fleurhof Lake

Fleurhof Con. Main Reef Gold Mine

Meadowlands / Soweto

Pennyville

00

15

Introduction

0.5

01 KM

Today, Florida is home to around thirty thousand people. The growing population saw the establishment of Fleurhof. The initial settlements of Old Fleurhof have around 464 household units. And recently developed The new Fleurhof area has 10,386 units that can house 30,000 people.

At present, the area has a total population of 16,440 according to the 2011 Census data and dominated by coloured people. As per census data, more than 30 per cent of people are unemployed and this section of people are continuously increasing (City of Johannesburg and Johannesburg Development Agency, 2017).

With all driving forces for the development, Fleurhof sits on a fragile wetland ecosystem of the tributary of the Klip River. Two lakes Florida and Fleurhof and surrounding area make up the hydrological system.

Florida Lake is a recreational hotspot that also has a small bird sanctuary. At the same time, Fleurhof lake constructed as a water source for mine remains a neglected lake. The Klip wetlands also have been strongly negatively affected by acid water drainage from mines, peat extraction, pollution from sewage works leading to eutrophication, and a dropping water table because of groundwater extraction (Knight, 2018). The increasing urban development is eating up the wetlands thus making the area vulnerable to flash floods. As mentioned in Volume 1, the presence of the mine tailings causes air pollution, as the wind carries fine dust particles (with heavy metal ions) that can cause serious health hazards in the neighbouring area.

Yet, Fleurhof is exemplary of the current suburban development strategies of the City of Johannesburg. The site responds to the national call for infill projects that literally fill in the space that have been leftover by the older policies of apartheid and local call for more housing (Harris and Lehrer 2018). For most of the 20th century, planning theories embraced the notion that human activities should be classified by type (i.e., residential, commercial, industrial), designated as compatible uses and kept apart through strict zoning (Ackerman 2016). However, with the effects of climate Crisis are getting evident, the approach of making blanket zoning plans is no more appropriate and the disrupting environment can no longer be ignored.

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Fig. 2.5 Fragile River System; the residential construction is eating up the riparian edge of the riverscape near Fleurhof lake.

Fig. 2.6 Unoccupied Housing Cluster; the wetlands are in continuous threat because of new development and pollution at Fleurhof.

Fig. 2.3 Fenestration; an inevitable component of urban clusters in Fleurhof as well as all over the city.

Fig. 2.4 Nuclear Family Housing; Spread out Single story units are prominent typology for affordable housing.

Fig. 2.1 Native Housing; Typical Residential unit found Soweto and other townships

Fig. 2.2 Man-made Forest; the View of Florida town from Florida Lake and park.

17

Introduction

Fleurfof New Housing

Soweto Township

Fleurfof old Settlement

Fleurfof Lake

Mine Tailings Storage Areal photograph of Fleurhof Lake and wetland system. (Source - Fleurhof Cluster Urban Development Framework)

3 – Research Objective

With the climate crisis, the city of Johannesburg is forecasted to have higher temperatures, more irregular rainfall with extreme thunderstorms, followed by long dry periods. This will result in urban flooding followed by drought on both surface and underground water sources—translating to severe water scarcity. Thus it is important to rethink the development strategy to save and protect the water resources and to create vegetal filters to mitigate pollution and address the heat island effect.

The specific design research questions to be addressed in this thesis include: - How can water harvesting and recycling be integrated into urbanism strategies to provide alternatives to imported drinking water, particularly during the increasingly irregular dry seasons?

- Which water sensitive urban development strategies can be used to minimize disturbance to urban aquatic ecosystems and simultaneously create opportunities for comprehensive urban growth while preserving landscape quality?

- In the context of the climate crisis, can the afforestation of mine tailings provide new ecologies and recreational spaces while mitigating pollution?

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ďťż

Fig. 3.1  plan

21

Research Objective

4 – Methodology

This thesis uses “design by research” approach as method for data gathering and site understanding that will help in making a vision and Strategic projects for the site. The process is initiated by a penetrating reading of the site, in which its history, characteristics, the structural grounding of the site in the urban morphology and the problems and opportunities of the given urban site are analysed (De Meulder et al., 2004).

The process started with joint fieldwork of the Johannesburg city surrounding, along with Abhinand Pulijala. It consisted of Visiting Libraries and local architecture offices ( Ludwig Hansen Architects, IYER Urban Design Studio) for gathering more information about possible sites to work on, followed by a photographic survey of those sites along with mining areas, wetland areas, agriculture hub and informal settlements. The interviews with practising architects and urbanist helped in finalizing the focus area of the research.

The Literature Review included studying Climate Crisis reports; impacts and adaptation plans for the city of Johannesburg; gold mining and its effects on the environment; theory and case studies regarding water security; water sensitive urban design; wastewater recycling and urban safeguarding. the review of local government policy documents and urban development frameworks, existing research and technical reports (heritage, social divide and injustice, urban aquatic Ecosystems, survey of natural resources, etc.). The review also included former thesis collection by KU Leuven Alumni.

Mapping of both city and study area was carried out. It included physical aspects such as history, topography, urban morphology, mobility and ecological aspects such as soil, landscape, hydrology etc. The maps were developed with the help of GIS database provided by the City of Johannesburg This helped in exploring the identity of the study area and creatively speculating upon the possibilities to reorganise or develop the site with qualitative urban spaces and urban activities (De Meulder et al., 2004).

22

23

Methodology

A small stream Runs down from Fleurhof lake, forms a big wetland system largely ignored and in decline.

26



PART 2

Origin Post-mining City

Fleurhof And Mine-belt

West Mine-Belt Development Framework

27

Origin

Fig. 4.1  1916 Plan of the Witwatersrand gold fields - farm portions and mining properties overlaid. [Jeppe 1946, p35]

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ďťż

29

Origin

5 – Post- Mining City

Gold mining gave Johannesburg a reason to exist, the century-old mining has given stability to the urban grown and people while also creating parallel devastating impacts on local ecologies. After the discovery of gold, the formal settlement of Johannesburg was simply proclaimed on a triangular piece of leftover state-owned land – uitvalgrond – immediately north of the mining belt. The settlement was not considered to be permanent, but rather a temporary mining camp crudely laid out on a tight grid with small blocks (Beavon, 2004). As the mining Flourished the city expanded and soon Johannesburg became the central node in a string of settlements in a nearly 50km east-west belt along the gold-bearing reefs (Toffah, 2012).

During the apartheid era, the socioeconomic, demographic and political geographies of Johannesburg were significantly altered, with implications for spatial patterns in the urban landscape (Knight, 2018). Johannesburg became ‘prototypical apartheid city’ that had separated and south by a central strip of territory containing inner city, mining lands and associated industrial uses (Foster, 2009). Apartheid’s aggressive re-organization of the city created numerous buffer strips of open land at least thirty meters wide to restrict social and racial contact between so-called group areas (Foster, 2009). The Arterial roads from these townships would only provide access to commonly used parts like the central business district and industrial areas.

Contemporary Johannesburg can be viewed as a ‘neo-apartheid’ city, despite some racial desegregation, the white population of Johannesburg is still concentrated in the northern suburbs, the same areas that are characterized by higher household incomes, access to better infrastructures, employment etc. (Beavon, 2004). The mining belt, however, occupies a ‘third’ space between these two areas. There are several ways in which this space is conceived of today, one of which remains as segregating buffer space and a powerful symbol of apartheid segregationist policies (Toffah, 2012).

30



At the same time, the mining and subsequent wasteland have become an identity of the city. Today the tailings and mine dumps are again going through the process of Reclamation to extract remaining gold. The reprocessing is considered as an option, as it removes the hazardous tailings from the area. But at the same time, new mega tailing dams are created to dispose it. The new process is hydro intensive. Methods used to reprocess these waste sites are extremely unsustainable, as clean municipal grade water is commonly used (Toffah, 2012) which renders the reclamation process unsustainable.

Most of the mining in the Witwatersrand was underground and now abandoned mine shafts have created a void that is filling with polluted water also known as Acid Mine Drainage (AMD). Mining working area such as dumps, void shaft or tunnel provides passage for the rain and groundwater to seep inside. During the operational period, this water used to pump out of the shaft. But as the mines have abandoned and so as the pumping this void is filled with water contaminating it in the process. The overflow of AMD in the surface water is a big environmental hazard faced by most of Witwatersrand basin. AMD contaminates local water system and it is important to treat the water before releasing to the water system.

Fig. 5.1  Witwatersrand Gold Fields and series of lakes developed for mining activities with Florida Lake and settlement (Source - bibliopolis.com)

31

Post- Mining City

Fig. 5.2 Witwatersrand Mining-belt (Toffah,1012)

32 

Johannesburg

Parktown

Braamfontein

Auckland Park

Roodepoort

Krugersdorp

Boksburg

Germiston

Yeoville

Witwatersrand Ridges

Main Reef

1886 Main Reef Road

1890 Railway

1902 Old order mining rights

Klipriviersberg Ridges

33

Post- Mining City

The river streams are polluted because of the AMD runoff and Rainwater that flows from the tailings. The risk of AMD water decanting from the mine shafts is increasing that can result in loss of aquatic ecology. The loss of Wetlands also affects the natural cleaning ability of the river.

6 – Fleurhof and Mine- belt

Fleurhof is a suburb in Roodepoort region of Johannesburg, situated in the central region of the West Mining Belt. Fleurhof dam, one of the many dams constructed initially to provide water to mining activity in winters characterised by dry weather. The initial housing clusters began to settle between consolidated main reef gold mine and rand leases gold mine in the 1930s as a shantytown to house workers from the mines of the area (Ackerman, 2016). Fleurhof and its northern suburbs remained white areas under apartheid until 1976. After Soweto uprising, the white residents moved up north and the coloured communities were relocated to the suburb (City of Johannesburg, 2002). Fleurhof was seen as the ‘no man’s land’ between Johannesburg- Soweto, resulting in an area lacking public amenities and facilities (Sexwale, 2013).

The development of Robertsville and Lea Glen industrial parks along the main reef road added another source of employment for the people.

However, mining remains a prominent activity until the early 1990s. The mine dumps in early 2000 Fleurhof was seen as the solution for the housing crisis and social divide, Soweto was going through, and in 2012, the Minister of Housing launched the first development phase of the Fleurhof Integrated Human Settlement Development. The project gave a sudden boost to the residential development in the area and giving rise to the influx of people to the area. This rapid transition in urban morphology is failing to address issues regarding the mine dumps, industries and ecosystem within the area.

36

Fig. 6.1  Close proximity of mine dumps and urban tissue. (Source - Fleurhof Cluster Urban Development Framework)

Fig. 6.2  View of mine tailings and new housing development in Fleurhof. (Source - Fleurhof Cluster Urban Development Framework)

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Fleurhof and Mine- belt

1901

1938

1952

1901

1938

1952

Historical analysis

Mapping exercise of the historical development from year 1903 to 2019 provides a better understanding about the spatial development and impact of the mining industry on the aquatic ecosystem in Fleurhof. The map demonstrates the huge growth in urban tissue induced by the gold rush in the area. In the year 1903, the town of Florida was established along with the many original small farms with very little mine activity.

From the year 1938 to 1976, we can see a surge in mining activities in the area, triggering a massive increase in built area. In 1976, the apartheid resulted in the establishment of Soweto. All these have seriously damaged the ecosystem in the area. The agriculture has disappeared; there is an increase in the urban forest but a decrease in the natural forest area. Wetland areas have disappeared decreasing permeability of the soil.

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ďťż

1976

1991

2019

1976

1991

2019

River

Lake

Polluted Water

39

Fleurhof and Mine- belt

Wetlands

Urban Fabric

Mining Activity

Threatened Area

0

1km

Areal photograph of Fleurhof taken in year1938. The map on the right is a digital representation of the 1938 map showing different layers of the landscapes and early stage of mining and urban development.

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ďťż

Tailing Storage Facility

Water bodies

Open Space

Trees

Plots

Mine Residue

River

Wetlands

Agriculture

Vacant Land

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Fleurhof and Mine- belt

00

0.5

01 KM

Johannesburg Old CBD (Inner City) with mine tailings in the background

7 – Fleurhof Urban Development Framework

The urban development policies in Johannesburg operates on different scales and often very hierarchical. The Fleurhof cluster Urban Development Framework (UDF) is a precinct plan drafted within the regional spatial development plan. This plan responds to spatial development plan and The Growth and Development Strategy which are applied at a city level. The 2040 Growth and Development Strategy (2011 highlights the significance of addressing spatial, social and economic issues of fragmentation and segregation (City of Johannesburg, 2011). It proposes a shift to a more efficient and inclusive urban logic of compact polycentric city (City of Johannesburg and Johannesburg Development Agency, 2017). It identifies mine belt as a transformation zone where the city will promote densification, diversification and intensification through capital infrastructure investment, increased density allowances and other incentives (City of Johannesburg and Johannesburg Development Agency, 2017). Thus, Fleurhof Cluster UDF, the proposed UDF supports the economic transformation priorities to improve upon and promote bulk infrastructure development.

Community Engagement Program Community and shareholder engagement was a major initiative taken by the authorities while developing the UDF. Community engagement campaign under the tag line “what’s up Fleurhof?” was run by Architecture firm Counterspace in which around 350 residents participated. Many issues came out of this engagement regarding what is lacking in the area including dominant pedestrian routes, informal sporting and recreational facilities used by the youth clubs and others (City of Johannesburg and Johannesburg Development Agency, 2017).

The City of Johannesburg and Johannesburg Development Agency (2017) in Fleurhof cluster UDF states that “Fleurhof is a diverse community, reflected through their history, religious practices, cultural backgrounds, needs and priorities. A community that is facing real challenges in terms of livelihoods and is threatened by organized and opportunistic crime. The unifying theme and desire are to build a “BEAUTIFUL FLEURHOF”; safe for children to walk and play on the street, nurturing the youth so that families can provide a future for them and build a better place for everyone”.

44

Fig. 7.1 Public Participation meeting and the Co-Production Workshop (Source- counterspacestudio.com)

Fig. 7.2 Mapping of the suggestion and issues during “What’s up, Fleurhof (Source- counterspacestudio.com)

Fig. 7.3 Issues and suggestions raised by people during the community engagement sessions highlights key aspects regarding lack of public transport, health facilities and amenities (Source Fleurhof Cluster Urban Development Framework)

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Fleurhof Urban Development Framework

Proposal under UDF

Fleurhof UDF proposes to connect, revitalize & repair a fragment of the city affected by mining and apartheid planning and to integrate existing initiatives, where ‘connect’ is related to connecting relates to the linkages, movement network and block structure; ‘revitalize’ relates to the promotion, repairing and enhancement of the area; and ‘repair’ relates to the stitching of neighbourhoods, incorporation of land uses and the repurposing and rehabilitation of redundant mining land (City of Johannesburg and Johannesburg Development Agency, 2017).

The UDF responds to the findings of the public engagement program.

Even though the residential development is a priority in the plan, the UDF also proposes amenities and public spaces which are lacking in the area. It is estimated that 25,200 units can be developed (City of Johannesburg and Johannesburg Development Agency, 2017), subjected to tailings rehabilitation. However, the development plans are based on the area zoning layout that results in fragmentation of the activities in the area. The plan responds to a lack of connections and many key projects that are currently in execution deals with road infrastructure development. UDF fails to respond to environmental factors and climate change effects such as Water Scarcity. The thesis aims to learn from the UDF and responds to environmental problems that are overlooked in the Fleurhof Urban Development Framework.

Fig. 7.4 Opportunity areas in the cluster as identified by the UDF (Source - Fleurhof Cluster Urban Development Framework).

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Fig. 7.5 Land use Distribution Proposal for Fleurhof by Fleurhof Cluster UDF, maojority of the land is mine tailings area and the development on it are subjected to tailings rehabilitation and environtal management plan (Source - Fleurhof Cluster Urban Development Framework)

Fig. 7.6 Proposed Lake front development as a key project. (Source - Fleurhof Cluster Urban Development Framework).

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Fleurhof Urban Development Framework

Fig. 7.7 Proposed Public park lies far from the residents in the south. (Source - Fleurhof Cluster Urban Development Framework)

Fig. 7.8 Informal Shops and restaurants in the area and there is an opportunity for placemaking in the new development to grow such shops within the community. (Source - Fleurhof Cluster Urban Development Framework).

Fig. 7.9 Community driven Urban Agriculture initiative, there is potential to undertake more such initiatives within urban tissue rather than using leftover space (Source - Fleurhof Cluster Urban Development Framework).

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49

Fleurhof Urban Development Framework

50



PART 3

Tracing and reading Urban Aquatic Ecosystems

Vegetal Structure

Urban Fabric

51

Tracing and reading

8 – Urban Aquatic Ecosystems

Urban Aquatic Ecosystem provides us with many ‘ecosystem services’ in an urban environment such as flood mitigation, erosion control, the protection of property & human life, wastewater treatment, and the creation of habitat. However, to continue gaining these benefits, it has become of utmost importance to maintain these ecosystems.

Urban Aquatic Ecosystem is however been subjected to exploitation and degradation due to increasing urbanization. Urbanization has transformed the hydrological cycle of cities as a result of changed land cover, presence of impermeable surfaces, and modified microclimates (Ferguson, 2016), thus resulting in loss of flora and fauna on which the ecosystem thrives on.

The extreme manipulation of urban aquatic ecosystems (e.g., damming, discharge of contaminated water to waterways), coupled with the increase of impervious surfaces and ageing or inadequate watersanitation infrastructure, results in the degraded ecological functioning of waterways and increases the risk to human life through flooding, water contamination, and so on (Larson, et al., 2013).

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Fragile riparian edge, Photograph from Fleurhof Dam

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Urban Aquatic Ecosystems

In Fleurhof, the series of lakes and surrounding Riparian wetlands form the aquatic ecosystem, home to many birds. The river is tributary to the Klip River and the wetland forms a smaller part of the Klip wetlands.

Due to burst in urbanization during the apartheid period, as the Klip wetlands were considered as poor places to live and the townships were constructed within these areas that were higher flood and disease risk.

The trend is still there with large informal settlements such as Diepsloot is situated within these wetlands. The rivers in semiarid regions show drastic hydrological fluxes, where heat and evaporation in dry periods reduces water availability, followed by floods due to high rainfall in wet seasons. Hydrological fluxes along with ever-increasing Built tissue results in loss of ecology in the case of Fleurhof it is wetlands around the river. The pollution due to AMD runoff and Greywater runoff from the settlements is major concern responsible to increase the acidity of water and adds up to ecological disturbance.

The loss of ecological quality contributes to the loss of an integrated cultural knowledge; conversely, the ongoing cultural transformation furthers the ecological degradation (Margolis. 2015, p.148). The condition results in developing mere technical solutions (such as increasing stormwater drain pipe capacity) to problems which are ecological. The solutions lack a comprehensive approach and vernacular practices to manage floods. However, as mentioned by Liat Margolis in her book Out of Water - Design Solutions for Arid Region (2014), it is important to recognize that urbanization has capacity alter natural hydrology and exacerbate water scarcity, urban effluent maintains a constant flow into otherwise dry natural water systems. Thus, it is important to think of wastewater recycling and rainwater harvesting solution integrated within the new urban tissue.

Wetland Ecosystem in Fleurhof is degrading because of pollution from AMD runoff and wastewater runoff, as well as increasing built environment within the wetland. At the same time, it provides an opportunity to reuse water that will benefit both ecology and urban environment.

Informal settlements

New social Housing Shrinking of the Riparian Edge due to new construction

Wastewater runoff

Old housing

Mine tailing Storage Plantation Program Without Activity

Wetlands

Groundwater and Soil Contamination Groundwater Recharge Fig. 8.1  Schematic Section showing cause of disturbance to the aquatic Ecosystems

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Tailing Storage Facility

Water bodies

Open Space

Trees

Plots

Polluted Water Bodies

Mine Residue

Marshes

Wetland area

Vacant Land

River

Polluted Water-flow

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Urban Aquatic Ecosystems

+

Vulnerable Areas

00

0.5

01 KM

Pedestrian trails in the wetlands are used extensively by the people.

Fig. 8.2  asd

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ďťż

57

Urban Aquatic Ecosystems

9 – Vegetal Structure

The City of Johannesburg is commonly reported to be, “one of the most street tree-lined cities in the world, with the appearance, in satellite images, of a tropical (human)-made forest” (Johannesburg City Parks and Zoo, 2017). For white settlers, permanent life in Gauteng required, above all, the planting of trees. […] place-making in South Africa could seldom rely on the foil of natural woodland (Foster, 2009). This includes 10 million trees planted within the city boundaries, in parks, open spaces, and 1.3 million trees along roads alone (Knight, 2018). As described in volume one, Johannesburg’s plantations were, however, only the forefront of a mass of non-native trees that would eventually be planted throughout the white city, giving rise to the contemporary urban forest (Foster, 2009). These exotic trees introduced a sense of alive yet fixed landscape and were responsible to alter microclimate in northern suburbs and regional weather patterns.

The City of Johannesburg, region periodically suffers from droughts, particularly in the spring, which impacts local water supply (City of Johannesburg,2009). Climate model projections for the City of Johannesburg, indicate that the local climate is likely to become both significantly hotter and more humid in future with a prediction of increase by around 2.3 degrees C by the near future (2056 - 2065) and by around 4.4 degrees C by the far future (2081 - 2100) (CDP, 2014), which will also increase in the droughts events and dry periods in the area giving rise to less availability of the water. The existing vegetal framework of the city comprises a large number of exotic trees such a Eucalyptus; that consumes a large quantity of water and grows aggressively. The water being the most precious resource in the semiarid region such as Johannesburg, it is important to rethink about the vegetal structure.

Fig. 9.1 Typical section showing street section and typical arrangement in the residential plots in Florida

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Fig. 9.2  Stark difference between streets of Soweto in the South and Florida in the North.

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Vegetal Structure

Green and open areas within cities are known to have positive impacts on air and noise pollution; human health and well-being; urban microclimates; and humidity can buffer flood response and encourage groundwater recharge along soakaways (Viljoen and Booysen, 2006).

However, the legacy from apartheid-era planning is still visible in poorer areas as well as newly planned social housing complexes. Florida, a previous white township has dense vegetation cover. But the historically disadvantaged townships in Soweto in the south are deprived of this vegetal structure; the same is applicable for Fleurhof. The open spaces are often leftover spaces which are occupied by informal shacks and shops. The environmental injustice is visible with the lack of parks; recreation areas and tree cover that result in unfair microclimate for the people.

The Mine Dumps adds to the injustice, as the mine dumps are not properly covered with the plantation, and the loose polluted soil is vulnerable to collapse into the lake and river system. The mine dumps present with the opportunity to afforestation. The existence of bird sanctuary near Florida lake adds up to the prospect of increasing bird habitat in the south by afforestation on mine dumps.

Formal Residential

Bird Century

Lake

Park

Formal Residential

Non-Native Tree Species

Groundwater Recharge

Fig. 9.3  Schematic Section through Florida lake and surrounding.

60

ďťż

Excessive Groundwater Usage

Tailing Storage Facility

Water bodies

Mine Residue

Vacant Land 61

Vegetal Structure

Open Space

+

Trees

Afforestation potential

Plots

[ ]

Bird Sanctuary

River

00

0.5

01 KM

10 – Urban Fabric Proliferated Urban footprint far away from the city centre is an identity of Johannesburg. The city’s boundary is forever shifting due to the huge sprawling squatter settlements that have grown up around the city in the south, where thousands seeking to survive in the richest city on the continent live at extraordinarily high densities in settlements without basic services (Foster, 2009; Murray, 2008). The huge suburbia has no means of employment whatsoever and people tend to go to the city for work or employed in the informal economy. The public transport system is underdeveloped to cater to such a huge sprawl and mostly depends on informal taxi transport or car for mobility.

As described earlier, Fleurhof was the void that was filled with huge housing program in the late 2000s. However, it remained disconnected with means of public transport and north-south connections. There are new public transport modes such as Bus Rapid Transit, and old metro rail that operates in the area. But they are disconnected from the Fleurhof because of the lack of river crossings for pedestrians.

The lack of safe soft mobility routes combined with the absence of necessary amenities in the settlements results in increased use of the individual car. Absence of markets in vicinities has resulted in an urban food desert and people from Fleurhof will have to go to either Florida of Soweto for buying Fresh vegetables.

The new projects proposed under the Fleurhof SDF focuses on making road connections, but less attention is given on pedestrian connections.

The Urban Fabric also have overly built road infrastructure that is spread with the urban footprint ensuring door to door connectivity for cars.

These overbuilt Asphalt surfaces can repurpose to be pedestrian and permeable surfaces to enhance the walkability.

Fig. 10.1 Monotonous single story affordable housing units in Fleurhof (Source - calgrom3.com)

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Fig. 10.2 View of skyline of Johannesburg city from industrial park of Robertville and new housing units in Fleurhof. (Source - calgrom3.com)

Tailing Storage Facility

Water bodies

Open Space

Plots

River

Metro Train

Urban Footprint

Mine Residue

Marshes

Wetland area

Vacant Land

BRT

Metro Bus

Hard plans

63

Urban Fabric

00

0.5

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Fig. 10.3 Individual villas in Florida with large landscapes, backyard gardens, swimming pool

Fig. 10.4 Multi family housing units in Fleurhof

Fig. 10.5 Rental housing complex in Fleurhof

Fig. 10.6 Spread out affordable housing in Fleurhof

The huge urban fabric contains different types of domains each comes with their set of opportunities and deficiency. Houses in the north in Florida are defined by single-family villas with backyard gardens and leisure facilities. Florida is also home to some multifamily housing units along the lake. Newly developed affordable housing domain in Fleurhof has monotonous small single-family typologies. There are less opens spaces and recreation parks in the domain. The site also has an interesting case of backyard dwellings where backyards of formal houses are encroached to make smaller housing units. Along with informal settlements, Most of these housings lack proper sanitation facilities. Bigger factory spaces in the area have the potential for large water harvesting programs due to the size and parking plots around them.

64

Fig. 10.7 Backyard dwellings in Soweto

Fig. 10.8 Typical Urban Cluster in Sowetow without open spaces

Fig. 10.9 nformal Settlements

Fig. 10.10 Large Warehouses and Industrial tissue

65

Urban Fabric

68



PART 4

Design Investigation Vision

Living By The New Valley

Reclaiming The Open Space

69

Design Investigation

11 – Vision

The objective of this design research is to find a way to develop a water sensitive urbanism that builds on the existing aquatic ecosystem and protects it while providing a solution for water security in the future.

The design looks at mine tailings as a void, and naturalization of it can restore environmental injustice faced by people living in Fleurhof and Soweto at the same time use it a collective space for people from Florida, Fleurhof, and Soweto and make Fleurhof a social link between two segregated areas. The intention is to introduce recycling and harvesting culture in Fleurhof and surrounding urban fabric with the help of different types of urban interventions that work on a different scale. The intention is to create a new landscape framework that emphasises on five methodological strategies.

1. Clean and Recycle: The polluted water mainly from settlements and AMD runoff from mines can be used as a new source of water for domestic usage other than drinking. The strategy makes use of different natural and artificial cleaning mechanisms to purify the wastewater. ‘Bioremediation Ponds’ are integrated within the new built structure are used for the cleaning of AMD runoff as well as wastewater runoff. The aim is to revive the natural river system by taking out the main sources of pollution. Decentralized natural wastewater treatment ponds are integrated into collective landscape space to purify water and store in tanks to reduce water loss due to evaporation. Apart from water, the soil is also contaminated and Phytoremediation techniques are used to natural cleaning of soil as well as stabilization of the mine dumps. The stabilisation of the topsoil on mine dumps will decrease air pollution caused by free-flowing fine dust particles.

2. New Vegetal Structure: The new vegetal structure aims at using vacant lands and open spaces as an opportunity for urban afforestation patches that can be ‘productive’, ‘recreational’ or ‘ecological’ typologies.

The plantation along with existing road network then will act as connectors green corridors. ‘Phytoremediation’ of mine dumps will form the core of the new vegetal structure. Native trees that have productive values are used in phytoremediation process will reintroduce productivity to the wasteland that was productive for centuries. The protection and rebuilding of the river and wetland system will create an ecological corridor that connects Florida bird sanctuary, Florida lake, and Fleurhof lake.

70



3. Delay and Store: The heavy rains characterised by thunderstorm causes Flash flood in low lying areas. The Aim here is to avoid such condition by conveying water with the use of sustainable drainage system. The intention is to increasing permeable surfaces and employing micro-interventions in public vacant lands that will help to slow down the water and refill the groundwater. The new greenblue infrastructure made up of ‘Bioswale’ networks will further help in groundwater recharge and mitigating urban floods.

4. Collective Living: The new urban fabric aims at developing a communal way of living as opposed to individualist way, which is preferred now. Given the fact that urbanisation is inevitable in the area, the aim is to restrict smaller built footprint with the help of compact multilevel housing, increase the permeability of the ground and improve walkability. Introduction of courtyards in built creates a second layer of collective space used for pleasure, recreation and urban agriculture.

New BRT routes will be implemented to enhance public transport that can be aided by the soft mobility routs to enhance reachability.

5. Renewable Energy: Given the fact of large sunny days, the land of mine dumps can be used for energy production. Solar Farm is integrated with the new landscape on the top of the tailings. Rather than using conventional solar panels, elevated solar panels will not hamper the grass vegetation below them. Solar energy and biomass from the trees can be used to create a renewable source of energy for the surrounding areas.

These strategic operations are intertwined and interdependent and work as a toolbox, which is employed in four scales in the territory namely The Riverscape, The New Valley, The Tailings and The Third Nature.

The Tailings

The New Valley

The Third Nature

The Riverscape

71

Vision

The Riverscape The Riverscape responds to the broken ecologies in the area and works on a larger scale. The Riverscape emphasises to restore the river system and Fleurhof lake surroundings by creating riparian vegetation edge, which will support the aquatic ecosystem and return the selfcleaning capacity of rivers and floodplains. Native species of trees and grass will provide necessary habitat for different birds in the area and expand the borders of a bird sanctuary in the north to south. The river flow is slow down by creating check dams and series of small ponds for attenuating water flow thus water retention; thus, increasing water infiltration and establishing vegetation. The second strategy is to provide access to the river to enhance the interaction of people. The idea is to change the front of the built from the road to the river. A soft mobility corridor along River edge will provide safe walking and bike path and cross-river connections to the other side of the river will connect Soweto with the Fleurhof.

Upland zone (woody vegetation) Shrub zone Marsh Zone River

Fig. 11.1 Reformed Reparian Edge

SideWalks steps Deck River

Fig. 11.2 Access to the River

72

Exisitng Built

Wetlands

73

Vision

New Vegetal Structure

Lakes

River

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The New Valley Mine dumps and tailings have altered the topography since last century and have created new ridges and valley that is contaminated. As a part of naturalising this new valley, afforestation and constructed wetlands are deployed to retain and capture rainwater runoff from the tailings as well as retaining soil moisture that will increase the survival rate of plantings. Constructed wetlands are combined with bioremediation facilities that purify the toxic AMD water as well as wastewater runoff.

After removal of the toxic elements, the water then can be stored in underground tanks to use for domestic usages and the overflow can go into the river. The New Valley redefines the topography and establishes a new framework for the urban development in ‘in-between’ areas.

Case Study : Wadi Hanifa Bioremediation Facility Riyadh, Saudi Arabia Located in the middle of the Najd Plateau of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, the Wadi Hanifa (or Hanifa valley) is the longest and most important valley near Riyadh (Aga Khan Development Network, 2010).

In order to provide solution for the pollution within the valley, a new state of the art Bioremediation facility was designed by Moriyama and teshima with Buro Happold. The bioremediation facility incorporates a series of weirs. Riddles, pools, aerating pumps, bioremediation cells, artificial periphyton and riparian planting (Margolis, 2015). The facility is primarily composed of 134 bioremediation cells organized into 3 main groups. These cells are responsible for the bulk of nutrient assimilation.[…] The biocells currently process an average of 92 million gallons of wastewater per day (Riyadh Bioremediation Facility, 2015). The water is used for non-potable uses such as irrigation of urban parks and agriculture and reduces the regional water deficit and environmental degradation of the valley (Margolis, 2015). The Wadi Hanifa is good example of natural wastewater treatment systeme that integrated in recreational area and its helps in conceptualizing the wastewater treatment system in project

74



Fig. 11.3 The Project provides water treatment while creating a natural facility and open-space public attraction (Source - Aga Khan Award for Architecture / Arriyadh Development Authority).

Fig. 11.4 view of outlet channels and fountains at Bio-remediation Facility (Source - Aga Khan Award for Architecture / Arriyadh Development Authority)

Fig. 11.5 A typical Biocell design to oxygenate water and support micro-organism that degrade contaminants (Source - Moriyama & Teshima Planners).

Fig. 11.6 The Areal View of e Bio-remediation Facility (Source - Moriyama & Teshima Planners).

Exisitng Built

Wetlands

75

Vision

New Vegetal Structure

Constructed Wetlands

Bioremediation tanks

Lakes

River

00

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The Ridge Just as the Valley, the tailings form new ridge/ hilltop in the area. The huge footprint of these tailings is not suitable for new development and requires unsustainable and expensive processing to do so. Thus, the idea is to deploy ‘Phytoremediation’ process to start rehabilitation and stabilisation of the soil with the native species of plants. Many plants of productive usage can also be planted in phases to further enhance land value and create new forms of employment that are related to gardening nurseries, orchards etc. the ridge will also function as a public park lying in the heart of the Fleurhof; thus, forming a new communal space for people from everywhere. The park will host walking and biking trails along with the series of evocating landscapes in the terrine and will provide a view of the Johannesburg city from the top. The landscape is also integrated with solar farms, where elevated solar panels that will give energy to surrounding neighbourhoods and enhance the production value further. This reforestation will create a green lung within the area that will work with the wetland ecosystem and can act as an extension of the existing bird sanctuary while also retaining and preserving the memory of the tailings landscape.

Case Study : Freshkills Park New York, USA The masterplan was designed by James Corner Field Operation to convert a landfill site to park. The park is owned and operated by the NYC Department of Parks & Recreation (Field Operations - project details, n.d.).The basic framework of the plan integrates 2,200 acres of open grasslands, waterways and engineered structures into one cohesive and dynamic unit (The Park Plan, n.d.).

The landfill site has been transformed into a public park nearly three times the size of Central Park. It has effectively restored parts of the tidal marshes and creeks, contains 64km of pathways and trails, and contains recreational, cultural and educational amenities (Freshkills_ NL, n.d.). The project has managed to change to polluted landfill in to a much needed open space. That functions as natural habitat as well as a public park.

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Fig. 11.7 The Masterplan for freshkill Park (Source - Field Opperations).

Fig. 11.8 View over Freshkills to New York Skyline. (Source Jo Cavollo, 2017) .

Fig. 11.9 The Masterplan for freshkill Park (Source - Field Opperations).

Fig. 11.10 View over Freshkills to New York Skyline. (Source - Jo Cavollo, 2017) .

Exisitng Built

Wetlands

Lakes

River 77

Vision

New Vegetal Structure

Constructed Wetlands

Bioremediation tanks

Phytoremediation

Solar Farm

00

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Cleaning system Bio Remediation The AMD water and tailing surface runoff is acidic and contains heavy metals and sulphates. This is responsible for increasing the Ph value of natural water bodies. Enhanced aerobic bioremediation technologies help in the natural cleaning of the water as well as is less expensive.

Bioremediation uses naturally occurring bacteria and fungi or plants to degrade or detoxify substances hazardous to human health or the environment (Cheng 2014). For heavy metal contaminated water, the bioremediation facilities contain microorganisms that have the capability to absorb heavy metal ions which is sometimes better than chemical absorbent. The facility is based on the facilities designed at ‘Wadi Hanifa Bioremediation Facility’ in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and ‘Hiriya Landfill Recycling Facility’ in Tel Aviv, Israel.

Phytoremediation Same as Bioremediation, phytoremediation is used for natural decontamination of soil however, with the help of Plants.

Phytoremediation of heavy metal contamination means to transfer metal contamination into a certain place of plants in the form of ions, then fixing it in a certain environmental room by plants to prevent it from further spreading (Cheng 2014). There are three types of phytoremediation namely, Phytoextraction, Phytodegradation, and Phytostabilizations that can apply in combination to reduce the contamination in the soil on mine dump. The process will also create a clean topsoil layer, thus reducing the contamination of rainwater runoff from the surface

78

Collection Pond

Low Marsh area for pretreatment

Walkway

High Marsh area

Small organism Aquatic Environment

Outflow Channel

Marshes

River

back to river Storage Tank Fig. 11.11 Typical section through Bioremediation Tanks used for NAtural Water Purification process.

Fig. 11.12 Native trees and shrub species used in ‘Phytoremediation’ process to purify contaminated soil on mine dumps. The species can also combined with fruit trees or bamboo to increase productive value of the land

79

Vision

The Third Nature

The Third nature term is taken from Jeremy Foster’s ‘From Socio-nature to Spectral Presence: Re-imagining the Once and Future Landscape of Johannesburg’ (2009) essay. He describes it as a part of “three natures” scheme, where third nature is the highly-manipulated gardens in an urban environment. In Fleurhof, the third nature is the landscape framework that dictates urban environment. The Landscape figure is made up of public parks, open spaces accompanied by two soft mobility corridor that runs along with contours. The soft mobility routes are interwoven with public amenities in the collective landscape. The vacant places created surrounding valley are used for the development of housing, institutions, public space and infrastructure as per demands.

The buildings will have an interactive edge of shops, restaurants facing the pedestrian boulevards. As a part of Third nature, open spaces and vacant land in existing settlements are fitted with public functions, parks, collective water storage and cleaning facilities along with new developments to give them a new identity.

Case Study : Park Towers Copenhagen, Denmark The local neighbourhood, Park Kvarteret, is planned to embrace urban activities at eye level height to encourage a new street life, making playfulness and social communities among residents the nave of an attractive everyday life (Park Towers – ADEPT, n.d.). The architecture form of a combination of towers and row houses create a blend of different typologies. the courtyards joined by internal paths and low landscapes present a pleasant atmosphere while keeping the visual connection intact.

Fig. 11.13 a street in the neighbourhood (source adept.dk)

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Fig. 11.14 Recreational area voerlooked by the towers (source - adept.dk).

Exisitng Built

Wetlands

New Vegetal Structure

Constructed Wetlands

Bioremediation tanks

Phytoremediation

Solar Farm

Open Space

New Built

Permeable surfaces

Soft Mobility corridors

Bus Rapid Transit

Lakes

River

81

Vision

00

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Site 2 Site 1

82



Site 2 Site 1

83

Vision

84



12 – Living By The New Valley

85

Living By The New Valley

A-A’ B-B’

C-C’

Urban Agriculture

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Collection Tank

Community Centre

Wetland Park

Bioremediation Ponds

Pedestrian Avenue

Green Soine

Living By The New Valley

The site for new development is located next to the Fleurhof new housing complex and presents an interesting set of existing ecological system and variety of urban fabric. Living by the new valley explores a robust landscape structure made up of public spaces to strengthen the interactions between the available natural landscape (the riverfront) and artificial landscape (mine dumps). Design strategies for the new development emphasis on reducing the built footprint by compact high raise building typologies and provide collective safe spaces of assorted identities within them. Another aim is to shrink the overbuilt hard infrastructure and create blue-green infrastructure along soft mobility corridors.

The design is guided by a dominant green figure that forms the urban green spine and is sandwiched by the urban fabric. This creates two fronts for the urban tissue; one facing ‘Natural’ riverine landscape while other faces the urban landscape. The green spin is a big public park entwined with amenities and civic buildings such as schools, markets etc. and the soft mobility lines that runs along with the riverine front and urban front to bind them together and creates safe walking and cycling path. The main vehicular road run parallel to the green spine; however, car movement is controlled within the newly built cluster.

A big Wetland park designed in the riverfront area that helps in restoring the ecosystem. Series of trails within the park that leads to the bordering pedestrian avenue and further north to the tailings landscape area. The big pedestrian avenue the connects new residential cluster with the old Fleurhof cluster and stretches all the way to Fleurhof lake in the north; while, many river crossings for pedestrians ensures connection between the Fleurhof and Soweto.

The riparian vegetation in wetland parks restore the natural cleaning capacity of the river and is aided by bioremediation ponds that clean wastewater and AMD water before releasing it into the river. Pedestrian and bike trails connect the tailings with the wetland park that goes through diverse landscape features that are juxtaposed together.

Keeping in mind the “Eyes on the street” phrase by Jane Jacobs from her The Death and Life of Great American Cities (1961), the design principals are centred on the ideas described by Jane Jacobs for crime reductions. This is achieved by diversity in activities on the ground floor that faces pedestrian avenue.

Series of wide-open areas between buildings aided by well-lit pathways ensures safe passage for pedestrian movement.

00 The New Valley

Phytoremediation with park

87

Living By The New Valley

100

200m

The new housing typologies have courtyards. The courtyards create a pores layer of urban voids inside built that can be used as semi-public, collective spaces. The collective space is a multifunctional space that can accommodate different functions as per the size of the courtyard. Large green spaces can be used

as a playground or urban farms, while, smaller courtyards can be used for recreational purposes. The courtyards also provide space for natural wastewater recycling units. The façade made up of balconies can further enhance the human interactions with the street that will help in crime reduction.

Urban Water System The other main design strategy is to integrate rainwater harvesting and wastewater recycling system in the design as a framework.

The Johannesburg receives around 700mm annual rainfall, which is predicted to increase in future. However, most of this water from surface drain ends up in a stormwater drain that is combined with the sewage lines. The wastewater forms the second water source and can be used to decrease water deficit. Around 196 to 294 litres of water per household of five people (Veiga, 2017) is consumed in Fleurhof and surrounding area. This means that 39.2 to 58.8 litres of water is used per person per day. 75% of it ends up as wastewater in municipal sewers, that is then treated at the central water treatment facility and released in the river.

As demonstrated in figure 12.5 the rainwater harvesting is developed in two layers, first is the local network of rainwater storage tanks that store water from roof runoff. The second is a larger framework of bioswale networks along the main streets, rain gardens, retention ponds and increased permeable surface that helps in slowing down

surface runoff as well as water infiltration. The principle is used to design new housing clusters, while a grass-route level water-harvesting program has been developed with the aid of local NGOs at the existing settlements, where individual rainwater harvesting tanks will be installed in houses followed up by series of communal water storage tanks that leads to overflow in bioswale network. The use of sustainable drainage system focuses on increasing ground permeability and that is achieved by large green areas and permeable pavements. In the existing settlements, the tar roads are redesigned with green spaces and bioswales.

The second strategy is to recycle the wastewater with the help of natural treatment plants that can use for non-potable use. As figure 12.6 shows, the new housings units are cluster and the courtyard in one unit can have horizontal wetlands for water treatment as demonstrated in figure 12.7. Horizontal flow treatment wetlands can also be established as two or three consecutive treatment beds (filters) with filter material of different granulation and different plants (Rozkošný et al. 2014).

The wetlands can design with other recreational activities or urban farming. In existing settlements, new communal toilets are developed for the backyard dwellings and the wastewater is collected in common pre-treatment tanks. The water from the tank then can go in the bioremediation facility developed on the river edge. The bioremediation facilities also used for treating water from mine dumps. The purified water then can be stored in a tank and is fit for non-potable use and overflow is released in the river system.

Case Study : LSLA Urbana, Mexico City, Mexico Isla Urbana project in Mexico City consists of low cost, low maintenance rainwater harvesting system that can install in individual household level in no time started in the year 2009. The system was developed by the NGO Isla Urbana in response to the staggering number of people that suffer from the inadequate water supply in Mexico City (36% of households) (Margolis, 2015). Currently, Isla Urbana has installed more than 9,000 systems, which means that more than 50,000 people have been involved in the solution process (Isla Urbana using design as a tool for community empowerment, 2018). Given the bottom up approach of the project and cost efficiency similar strategies can be used in the existing settlements in the study area combined with awareness program the program can develop skills regarding water harvesting and can generate employment.

Fig. 12.1 Low-cost materials such as plastic pipes, rain barrels and mesh filters are used in the system to form an assembly that can be retrofitted in any housing structure (Source - islaurbana.org)

Fig. 12.2 Community awareness is also major factor catering towards success of the program (Source islaurbana.org)

Fig. 12.3 The traditional stormwater drainage system. The water directly goes into river, increases flood risk factors (Source - www.thames21.org.uk)

Fig. 12.4 Increased permeability of the ground because of Sustainable Urban Drainage System increases aquifer recharge. (Source - www.thames21.org.uk)

Sustainable Urban Drainage System (SUDS) The primary goal of SUDS is to switch from pipe-engineered system to practices and systems that use and enhance natural processes, i.e. infiltration, evapotranspiration, filtration and re-use. While conventional drainage systems focus only on the stormwater quantity, SUDS pay attention to all three aspects of quantity, quality and amenity/biodiversity (Uvini Srishantha and Upaka Rathnayake, 2017).

The concept is used as the first layer of Rainwater harvesting in Fleurhof.

88

River

Bioremediation

Permeable surface

Bioswales

Rainwater Harvesting

00

100

200M

00

100

200M

Fig. 12.5  Rainwater harvesting scheme for the study area

River

Bioremediation

Permeable surface

Fig. 12.6  Wastewater recycling scheme for the study area

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Living By The New Valley

Local Network

Greywater Aerobic Treatment

Rainwater Collection

Wastewater collection

Wastewat collection

Wastewater collection network within cluster

Overflow in rainwater storage tank

Overflow to outside bioswale network

Purified water tank

Polishing Bed

Treatment Bed

Filtration Bed

Machenised Pretreatment

Rainwater filtration and storage tank

Fig. 12.7 Decentralised Wastewater recycling (horizontal flow constructed wetlands) and rainwater harvesting systems in new built tissue.

Community rainwater Harvesting Tank

Over Flow in Bioswale Network

Permeable Pavement

Permeable Pavement Surface Drain

Bioswale Overflow

Water Collectors Rainwater infiltration Individual rainwater Harvesting

Community Toilets Wastewater outflow Wastewater Collection Network Community Wastewater Pretreatment Tank

Fig. 12.8 Decentralised Wastewater recycling and rainwater harvesting systems in existing settlements

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Inflow Channel

ter n

Rainwater Collection

Living By The New Va lley Case Study : Hiriya Landfill Recycling Park Tel Aviv, Israel Hiriya Landfill was in function till the year 1988 as Tel Aviv Metropolitan area’s main disposal site for solid waste. In the year 2004 landscape Architecture firm Latz + Partners developed a masterplan for the public park on the site.

A new recycling facility and constructed wetland system for treating contaminated effluents on site were also developed. Constructed wetlands are engineered systems that have been designed to utilize natural processes involving wetland vegetation, soil and associated assemblages to treat wastewater (Margolis, 2015).

The facility consists of five rectangular horizontal wetlands ponds arranged along a 5% slope. The ponds are equipped with aggregates, microphytes for the removal of contaminants. each carrying aggregate in decreasing incrementally size from 50mm in first to 5mm in last. The wastewater flows through each chamber in a cycle of 3.5 days to purify and can be used in irrigation in the park.

Due to Size of the system a hybrid version of this can be used for decentralised waste water treatment in new development.

Rainwater filtration and storage tank

Walkways

River

Overflow to River To Storage Tank

Low Marsh area for pretreatment

High Marsh area

Small organism Aquatic Environment

5-10 Days Cycle

91

Living By The New Valley

Outflow Channel

Fig. 12.9 horizontal constructed wetland systeme at hiriya landfill recycling park. (Source- freshkillspark.wordpress.com)

Fig. 12.10 Hiriya LAndfill Park(Source-Ariel Sharon Park Company / Duby Tal, Albatros)

Playground

Outdoor Amphitheatre

Recreation Community Centre

Rain Water Storage

Water collection and delaying Purified Water storage

Filtration mechanism

Treatment bed /Second Purification Bed

Rainwater storage

Part Section A - Rain Garden introduced in the landscape around the community centre that can use as an amphitheatre. Rain-garden will help surface runoff to slow down and also harvest the rain.

A-A’

Key plan

A

Fig. 12.12 Section A-A’

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Part Section B - Collective Courtyards within New h decentralised natural Wastewater recycling Unit

nal Area

Collective Courtyard Soft Mobility

Hard Mobility

Bioswale

Filtration bed / First Purification Bed

Mechanical pretreatment tank Wide shade covered and well-lit walkways

Multifunctional ground Floor

Rainwater Filtration and Collection along the road

Part Section C - Roadside bioswale network will filter stormwater runoff from streets and pedestrian surfaces.

housing types can Accommodate many purposes such as urban farming, recreation and

C

B

00

93

Living By The New Valley

50

100M

Cross River Connections

Elevated pathway along with existing trails wetland park Shrubs

Marshland River

Part Section D - A large wetland park along the river will reform the dilapidated river ecosystem. Reinforced wetlands will give back the self-cleaning capacity of the river. Walkways are carefully designed and well lit to enhance walkability and provide recreational spaces.

A-A’

Key plan

E

Fig. 12.13 Section A-A’

94

Bioswale Woody vegetation Marshland

Decks and sit out areas along the river

Well-lit pedestrian routes

Well-lit and shaded pedestrian routes

Rainwater harvesting

Part Section E - Existing settlements with backyard dwellings are retrofitted with public sanitation facility, pedestrian pathways and grass-rout level water recycling and harvesting program

D

00

95

Living By The New Valley

50

100M

Examples of elevated solar panels

Soft Mobility

Bioswale Wide shade covered and well-lit walkways

Fig. 12.16 The ‘Supertrees’ at Gardens by the bay in Singapore is a good example of elevated, recreational solar panels, the man-made trees act as vertical garden but also can generate electricity, collect rainwater and act as air venting ducts for nearby conservatories. (Source - bbc.com).

Part Section F - Wide shade covered and well-lit pedestrian avenue integrated with mixed-used function at the ground floor to enhance safety

Fig. 12.17 Aesthetically pleasing elevated solar panels in Austin, USA designed by Mags Harris & Lajos Héder. (Source harriesheder.com).

F

Fig. 12.14 Section B-B’

B-B’ C-C’

Fig. 12.15 Section C-C’

Key plan

96



Multifunctional ground Floor

Rainwater Filtration and Collection along the road

Solar Farm

Well-lit and shaded pedestrian routes

AMD water collection pond.

plantations for phytoremediation

Part Section G - Collection and treatment ponds with wetlands for AMD runoff

Well-lit and shaded pedestrian routes

plantations for phytoremediation

Elevated Solar Panels

Part Section H - Recreation Activities and Solar Farm integrated into the Phytoremediation on the top of the Mine dumps. Elevated solar panels (examples in fig12.16 and 12.17) can be used to ensure vegetation on the ground

H

G

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Living By The New Valley

00

50

100M

00

50

100M

Wetland Park; Redefined river front with pedestrian Avenue

98

ďťż

Urban Void; Multi Functional courtyards between new residential cluster.

99

Living By The New Valley

100



13 – Reclaiming The Open Space

101

Reclaiming The Open Space

Church

Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) Route

102

ďťż

Orchards

New Development

Market Multipurpose space

Urban Agriculture Sports centre

Reclaiming The Open Space

The repurposing of the open space in existing urban fabric is a key in developing the new landscape framework. The site presents with interesting set of existing activates and waste open space that is unused or encroached by informal settlements or used as parking space and is in close proximity with the proposed Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) route that makes it perfect to envision the new landscape framework. The aim here is to use BRT as a catalyst to create a network of pedestrian routes with the help of vacant land. The intention here is to use pedestrian routs as a link that connects the existing activities on the land and support them with new activities to redefine the vacant land.

Seeking to reinvent these vacant open spaces in the urban fabric, the ambition is to make a series of hybrid parks combining different qualities of the landscape such as an urban park, ecological space, orchards and urban farming.

The big central space around the church in the area is used as a key intervention that impasses all existing activities such as schools, church and markets as one park connected by a pedestrian path that follows the existing trails.

A-A’

Using the existing raw landscape feature, the idea is to create a rain garden and flood retention areas surrounded by gravel pits, marshes that interact with humans on a different level. The inbetween areas between schools will be aided by common sports facilities and public library.

The park can be broken down in three parts, the urban park that connects schools; library markets; the ecological park with a rain garden; and open space that can be used for urban agriculture, orchards or just grassland. These vacant lands are used as a starting point for afforestation in the area.

Alternate streets adjoining the park can be turned into pedestrian ways and changing asphalt surface to accommodate more trees and bioswales. The small streets connect to the big avenues that are planted with trees in a linear fashion. This network will connect other such vacant lands and compounds of schools to make the new landscape framework for the area.

The afforestation will use native species that require less water to support the water cycle and recycled water can be used for irrigation.

00 Public Library

Community Centre

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Reclaiming The Open Space

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200m

New Landscape Framework; the open spaces are designed as hybrid parks connected by the linear plantations along the street network.

Tailing Landscape Area forms the heart of the system as all the networks originated from it.

A-A’

Key plan

Fig. 13.1 asd

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105

Reclaiming The Open Space

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100M

“There must be eyes upon the street, eyes belonging to those we might call the natural proprietors of the street.

The buildings on a street equipped to handle strangers and to insure the safety of both residents and strangers, must be oriented to the street. They cannot turn their backs or blank sides on it and leave it blind.”

-Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities

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Epilogue

The Climate Crisis has produced a greater challenge before cities around the world. The effects have been already started to felt in different cities. In the case of South Africa, the recent Drought of Cape Town almost left city without water and on the blink of “Day Zero”. Johannesburg on the other hand, does have large amount of groundwater resource, but the future is equally difficult for the city and managing available water has become necessary to sustain the city, which does not have any surface water source nearby.

In conclusion, this thesis projects a vision to re-envision the urbanism strategies in semi-arid regions by re-embedding water harvesting and recycling systems within urban fabric. The thesis also tries to balance the “environmental injustice” faced by less effluent societies by rethinking ways of conceiving wastelands produced by Gold mine industries for last centuries. By doing this, the thesis looks at for the design solutions that are beyond the current approach of providing engineering solutions for the mining problem.

The design works towards providing people with the quality of life and health through pollution free environment, enriching community projects, dignified public spaces and a connection with the nature, while doing so, the design proposal also finds way by which water sensitive design solutions can be applied to new as well as existing urban tissue to ensure water security in the region.

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Epilogue

References Text

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Knight, J. (2018). Chapter 8 - Transforming the Physical Geography of a City: An Example of Johannesburg, South Africa. In M. J. Thornbush & C. D. Allen (Eds.), Urban Geomorphology (pp. 129–147). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12811951-8.00008-4 Knight, J., & School of Geography, Archaeology and Environmental Studies, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa. (2017). Issues of water quality in stormwater harvesting: Comments on Fisher-Jeffes et al. (2017). South African Journal of Science, 113(5/6). https://doi.org/10.17159/sajs.2017/a0207 Larson, E. K., Earl, S., Hagen, E. M., Hale, R., Hartnett, H., McCrackin, M., McHale, M., & Grimm, N. B. (2013). Beyond Restoration and into Design: Hydrologic Alterations in Aridland Cities. In S. T. A. Pickett, M. L. Cadenasso, & B. McGrath (Eds.), Resilience in Ecology and Urban Design (Vol. 3, pp. 183–210). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-5341-9_9

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Website References Aga Khan Development Network. (2010). Wadi Hanifa Wetlands. https://www. akdn.org/architecture/project/wadi-hanifa-wetlands Field Operations—Project_details. (n.d.). Retrieved June 10, 2020, from https:// www.fieldoperations.net/project-details/project/freshkills-park.html Freshkills_NL. (n.d.). POWER PLANTS PHYTOREMEDIATION. Retrieved June 10, 2020, from https://powerplantsphytoremediation.com/urban-outfitters Isla Urbana using design as a tool for community empowerment. (2018). https:// wdo.org/isla-urbana/ Johannesburg City Parks and Zoo,. (2017). A quick history of Joburg’s trees. https://www.jhbcityparks.com/index.php/tree-planting/tree-planting-updates/1288-a-quick-history-of-joburgs-trees Park Towers – ADEPT. (n.d.). Retrieved June 21, 2020, from https://adept.dk/ project/park-towers

Riyadh Bioremediation Facility. (2015, October 15). Landscape Performance Series. https://www.landscapeperformance.org/case-study-briefs/riyadh-bioremediation-facility

Fig. 6.1, Fig. 6.2 – Aerial photograph from City of Johannesburg, & Johannesburg Development Agency. (2017). Fleurhof Cluster Urban Development Framework. https://www.knowyourjozi.org.za/

Sexwale, T. (2013). Gigantic effort needed to de-racialise residential spaces. https://www.politicsweb.co.za/documents/gigantic-effort-needed-to-deracialise-residential-

Fig. 7.1, Fig. 7.2, Fig. 7.3, Fig. 7.4, Fig. 7.5, Fig. 7.6, Fig. 7.7, Fig. 7.8, Fig. 7.9 – Images from City of Johannesburg, & Johannesburg Development Agency. (2017). Fleurhof Cluster Urban Development Framework. https://www.knowyourjozi.org.za/

The Park Plan. (n.d.). Freshkills Park. Retrieved June 10, 2020, from https://freshkillspark.org/the-park/the-park-plan Urban Systems. (2019, October 17). Isla Urbana. http://islaurbana.org/english/ urban-systems-2/

Site Images The photographs taken by the author in Feb 2020 during fieldworkpp.6-7, p.11, p.17, pp.20-21, pp.24-25, p.53, pp.56-57, p.59, pp.66-67, p.106 Historic Maps + Images Fig. 4.1 - C BICCARD JEPPE, ‘Gold mining Witwatersrand’ (1946).

Fig. 5.1 - Pictorial Map of the Witwatersrand Gold Fields by SOUTH AFRICA JOHANNESBURG VICINITY GOLD MINES MAP on oldimprints.com Retrieved May 19, 2020, from https://www.oldimprints.com/pages/books/53695/south-africa-johannesburg-vicinity-gold-mines-map/pictorial-map-of-the-witwatersrand-gold-fields Pp.38-39, p.40 - Archives from the Department of Architecture and Planning, University of WITS Pp.42-43 - Archives from the Department of Architecture and Planning, University of WITS Gis Data And Aerials

Fig. 11.3, Fig. 11.4 - Aga Khan Development Network. (2010). Wadi Hanifa Wetlands. https://www.akdn.org/architecture/project/wadi-hanifa-wetlands Fig. 11.5, Fig. 11.6 - Riyadh Bioremediation Facility. (2015, October 15).

Landscape Performance Series. https://www.landscapeperformance. org/case-study-briefs/riyadh-bioremediation-facility Fig. 11.7, Fig. 11.9 - Field Operations—Project_details. (n.d.). Retrieved June 10, 2020, from https://www.fieldoperations.net/project-details/ project/freshkills-park.html Fig. 11.8, Fig. 11.10 - Freshkills_NL. (n.d.). POWER PLANTS PHYTOREMEDIATION. Retrieved June 10, 2020, from https://powerplantsphytoremediation.com/urban-outfitters Fig. 11.14 - Adapted from thesis of Spay Putri A, V. (2014). A New Productive Landscape, Regenerating The Post-Mining Landscape West Rand, South Africa.

Fig. 11.15, Fig. 11.16 - Park Towers – ADEPT. (n.d.). Retrieved June 21, 2020, from https://adept.dk/project/park-towers Fig. 12.1, Fig. 12.2 - Urban Systems. (2019, October 17). Isla Urbana. http://islaurbana.org/english/urban-systems-2/

GIS database used for base mapping is provided by IYER Design Studio, South Africa

Fig. 12.3, Fig. 12.4 - Sustainable Drainage Systems—Thames21. (n.d.).

Retrieved June 10, 2020, from https://www.thames21.org.uk/sustainable-drainage-systems/

P.13, p.15, pp.34-35, pp.82-83, pp.98-99, pp.104-105, Fig. 10.3, Fig. 10.4, Fig. 10.5, Fig. 10.6, Fig. 10.7, Fig. 10.8, Fig. 10.9, Fig. 10.10, - aerial images taken from ESRI, Digital Globe, GeoEye, i-cubed, USDA FSA, USGS, AEX, Getmapping, Aerogrid, IGN, IGP, swisstopo, and the GIS User Community, (2019). “World Imagery” [base map].

Fig. 12.9 - sustainability, E. C. on, December 9, phytoremediation « F. P. B. |, & Reply, 2009 |. (2009, December 2). Next Freshkills Park Talk: Monday, December 7th. Freshkills Park Blog. https://freshkillspark. wordpress.com/2009/12/02/next-freshkills-park-talk-monday-december-7th/

Images

Fig. 12.10 - The Hiriya Landfill, Tel Aviv, IL. (n.d.). Retrieved June 21, 2020, from https://www.latzundpartner.de/en/projekte/postindustrielle-landschaften/hiriya-tel-aviv-il/

Fig.1.1 - Adapted from the thesis of Tahira Toffah ‘Mines of Gold, Mounds of Dust: Resurrecting the Witwatersrand’ (2012) pp.18-19 – Aerial photograph from City of Johannesburg, & Johannesburg Development Agency. (2017). Fleurhof Cluster Urban Development Framework. https://www.knowyourjozi.org.za/ Fig. 5.2 - Adapted from the thesis of Tahira Toffah ‘Mines of Gold, Mounds of Dust: Resurrecting the Witwatersrand’ (2012)

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Fig. 10.1, Fig. 10.2 – Arial Photographs from Fleurhof. (n.d.). Retrieved June 21, 2020, from https://www.calgrom3.com/index.php/fleurhof

References

Fig. 12.16 - The Making of a Wonder, Garden of wonders (n.d) Retrieved June 21, 2020, from http://www.bbc.com/storyworks/travel/garden-of-wonders/gardens-by-the-bay Fig. 12.17 - Sunflowers, An Electric Garden: Solar Powered Public Art. (n.d.). Harries Heder. Retrieved June 21, 2020, from http://harriesheder. com/project/sunflowers/

Sculpting Landscape In Fleurhof Water Sensitive urban design strategies for post-mining site Pranit Ravindra Nevrekar KU Leuven, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Urbanism Master (of Science) of Urbanism and Strategic Planning pranitnevrekar@gmail.com