A complex dynamic systems approach to lasting positive change The Synergistic Change Model

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A complex dynamic systems approach to lasting positive change: The Synergistic Change Model Reuben D. Rusk, Dianne A. Vella-Brodrick & Lea Waters To cite this article: Reuben D. Rusk, Dianne A. Vella-Brodrick & Lea Waters (2018) A complex dynamic systems approach to lasting positive change: The Synergistic Change Model, The Journal of Positive Psychology, 13:4, 406-418, DOI: 10.1080/17439760.2017.1291853 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2017.1291853

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The Journal of Positive Psychology, 2018 VOL. 13, NO. 4, 406–418 https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2017.1291853

A complex dynamic systems approach to lasting positive change: The Synergistic Change Model Reuben D. Ruska,b, Dianne A. Vella-Brodricka and Lea Watersa a

Centre for Positive Psychology, Melbourne Graduate School of Education, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia; bMindquip Limited, Christchurch, New Zealand

ABSTRACT

This paper argues that psychological and social functioning is fundamentally complex, and that this complexity is critical to understanding how lasting positive changes can be achieved. Principles from complex systems theory are integrated into an empirical positive psychological framework to propose a domain-based systems model of positive change called the Synergistic Change Model. This model proposes that enduring positive change depends on the formation of mutually supportive interactions across multiple domains of psychological and social functioning. The paper uses the model to explore three types of response to intervention – relapse, spill-over, and synergy – which have been supported in the existing positive psychology literature. Three practical intervention strategies arising from the model are outlined to inform the design of future positive interventions. The model challenges reductionistic approaches to positive change and offers several approaches to embrace the complexities of lasting positive change in future theory and research.

Research in the field of positive psychology (PP) indicates that positive psychological interventions (PPIs) can boost well-being (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009), but the mechanisms by which lasting change can occur have remained unclear. The present article seeks to provide a guiding model of positive psychological change using a complex dynamic systems framework. It attempts to meet the call of Mongrain and Anselmo-Matthews (2012, p. 389) to provide a ‘guiding theory of psychological growth’ that can inform PPI design to cultivate lasting positive changes.

The need for theoretical insight into positive psychological change has already received some attention from positive psychology researchers who have put forward some models to explain changes in well-being; three of which are now described. Sheldon, Boehm, and Lyubomirsky’s (2013) Hedonic Adaptation Model is a temporal model that draws on the principle of hedonic adaptation to explain how an initial boost in well-being arising from a positive change in life circumstances (or an activity) can be maintained at a later point. It suggests several moderating factors that make benefits more likely to be maintained: intrinsic motivation, greater variety, and greater appreciation. However, the model does not articulate how these factors can be increased and sustained by an individual to maintain positive changes in well-being.

CONTACT Reuben D. Rusk

reuben.d.rusk@mindquip.com

© 2017 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group

ARTICLE HISTORY

Received 6 April 2016 Accepted 27 January 2017 KEYWORDS

Positive psychology; intervention; change theory; complex systems theory; sustained well-being; enduring change; synergy

Lyubomirsky and Layous (2013) proposed the PositiveActivity Model (PAM), which identifies several factors that influence the effectiveness of PPIs. Specifically, the PAM articulates four aspects through which positive activities can improve well-being: emotions, thoughts, behaviours, and need satisfaction. In this model, the degree to which positive activities increase well-being is moderated by features of the activity (e.g. dosage and variety) and attributes of the person (e.g. motivation, beliefs, personality, and demographic). According to the PAM, higher well-being is maintained by continuing to engage in a variety of activities that support well-being. Lyubomirsky and Layous (2013) identify three factors that vary across individuals and influence their persistence in such activities: individual motivation; endorsement by family and social groups; and resources such as available time. Yet, the PAM does not provide guidance on how to increase the likelihood that particular individuals will persist with particular activities to maintain increases in their well-being.

Quoidbach, Mikolajczak, and Gross (2015) have put forward emotion regulation theory as a framework for understanding positive change. The theory describes five strategies to shape emotional experiences: situation selection (e.g. choosing to go on a date); situation modification (e.g. sitting by the open fire); attentional deployment (e.g.

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savouring the food); cognitive change (e.g. realising how fortunate you are); and response modulation (e.g. expressing enjoyment). These strategies can be engaged before, during, and after an event. Quoidbach et al. (2015) found evidence from a wide range of studies that employing these strategies can benefit well-being. However, their theory does not explain why certain individuals might persist with these strategies after learning them to maintain higher well-being, while others might not persist.

Although these three models provide valuable insights into what creates a change in well-being, they have not adequately answered the larger, perhaps more important, question: ‘How can changes in how people function be maintained so that increases in their well-being can be sustained?’ A better understanding of why some change efforts to increase well-being are successfully sustained over time, while others are not, is critical if the field of positive psychology is to evolve.

The present paper addresses this key question: ‘What is it that makes an effort to increase and sustain well-being ultimately successful rather than unsuccessful?’ It will begin by arguing that psychological change is fundamentally complex and involves the interplay between many dynamic elements. The authors will then put forward a model of positive psychological change that is based in complex dynamic systems theory, the Synergistic Change Model (SCM). The model will then be used to explore characteristic ways in which individuals respond to intervention to help explain what creates lasting change in well-being and what does not. We will explore how and why relapse occurs and how interactions between various change elements may enable more permanent changes in well-being. Three strategies for positive interventions derived from the model will be outlined. Finally, some of the challenges and limitations of this approach to change will be highlighted to help guide future research.

Complex systems approaches to psychological change The view that psychological change is fundamentally complex is not new. Systems approaches to psychology have embraced this idea of complexity for over 50 years.

In Family Therapy and other forms of Systemic Therapy, for example, the individual is viewed within a broader relational system (Bütz, Chamberlain, & McCown, 1996; Prochaska & Norcross, 2009). Within developmental psychology, Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1977, 1979) has been an influential approach. Since that time, the theoretical understanding of complexity has progressed significantly. Research devoted to understanding complex dynamic systems has identified a number of common principles encapsulated by complexity theory

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(Thelen & Smith, 1996). These principles have been applied to many scientific disciples, including engineering, meteorology, economics, biology, and ecology.

Recent decades have seen this knowledge applied within psychology to understand groups and organisations (e.g. Thietart & Forgues, 1995). Complex systems theory has been used to understand the resolution of intractable conflict (Vallacher, Coleman, Nowak, & BuiWrzosinska, 2010), family transformation (Bütz et al., 1996; Koopmans, 1998), organisational change (Boyatzis, 2008; Dooley, 1997), and career path development (Garmon, 2004). It has been applied in social psychology (Goldstein, 1997; Wiese, Vallacher, & Strawinska, 2010) and used to explain why organisational change often fails (Svyantek & DeShon, 1993).

Over the last two decades, complex systems approaches have been adopted more broadly to address both intra-personal and inter-personal change. Lonie (1991) pioneered this approach as a ‘new paradigm’ for counselling. Several books applying complex systems theory to psychology have now been published (e.g. Guastello, Koopmans, & Pincus, 2008; Molenaar, Lerner, & Newell, 2014a; Thelen & Smith, 1996). According to Vallacher et al. (2010, p. 263), ‘… the dynamical perspective has emerged as a primary paradigm for the investigation of psychological processes at different levels of personal and social reality.’

At an individual level, complex systems approaches have been used to understand therapeutic change (Coburn, 2002; Hayes & Strauss, 1998; Iwakabe, 1999; Stones, Rattenbury, & Kozma, 1994). Anchin (2008) has argued that a complex systems approach provides a unifying paradigm for psychotherapy. Indeed, Hayes and Strauss (1998) found support for several principles postulated by systems theory in an experimental study of therapeutic change. Bütz (1997) reviewed the application of complex systems to psychology and argued that the consideration of temporal dynamics was important for therapy. Ward (2001) used the systems approach to highlight the importance of time as a variable in dynamic cognitive change. The ideas within complexity theory have also been used to understand behavioural change (Heath, 2000; Resnicow & Page, 2008; Resnicow & Vaughan, 2006), life transitions counselling (Bussolari & Goodell, 2009), motivation (Juarrero, 2002), psychological development (Smith, 2005; Thelen & Smith, 2007), and personality variation (Nowak, Vallacher, & Zochowski, 2005).

Several researchers have argued that complex systems approaches are appropriate as a guiding theoretical view of psychological change (Hayes & Strauss, 1998; Thelen, 2005). The Boston Change Process Study Group (2010) presented the complexity perspective as a unifying paradigm for change. An edited volume on psychological change

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The Synergistic Change Model

Figure 1. The complex dynamic systems-based Synergistic Change Model.

(a)

(b)

5 domains of positive functioning

Direction of desired change

n Intervention

Single-domai

Relapse

(c)

(d)

(e) (f)

Multi-domain

Intervention

Non-linear Interaction

Stabilisation

Figure 2. The tipping tray analogy of the SCM for interventioninduced change, showing five marbles that represent five key domains of psycho-social functioning.

upheld complex systems principles ‘as most efficacious for explaining the vagaries and complexities of change, especially in human systems.’ (Perna & Masterpasqua, 1997, pp. 299–300). This previous research thus provides a rich platform upon which a theory of positive psycho-social change can be developed.

To build a complex dynamic system model of change specifically for well-being, a compatible framework is needed.

The Domains of Positive Functioning (DPF-5) framework of Rusk and Waters (2015) is an empirical framework based on the PP literature that is suitable for this purpose. Rusk and Waters (2015) used an empirical approach to study over 3000 key terms relating to positive psychological and social functioning from a corpus of over 18,000 PP-related documents. They then analysed the literature using co-term analysis and cluster analysis to identify underlying themes pertaining to positive psycho-social functioning.

Here, the broad term psycho-social functioning refers to all aspects of mental and social activity. The DPF-5 covers the five major domains of psycho-social functioning identified by the analysis: (1) Attention and Awareness, (2) Comprehension and Coping, (3) Emotions, (4) Goals and Habits, and (5) Relationships and Virtues. Rusk and Waters (2015) also recognised the importance of environmental factors and biological/physiological factors, and Rickard and Vella-Brodrick (2014) have argued the latter are critical for sustained changes in well-being.

The SCM is a new model put forward in the current paper for creating lasting changes in well-being based on the domains of the DPF-5 framework. The five core domains, plus environmental and physiological influences, represent the major ‘parts’ of a complex dynamic system of psycho-social functioning. The psychological and social processes, states, and tendencies in these domains represent what changes as a result of an effective intervention.

The fundamental principle in the SCM is that each domain influences psycho-social functioning in every other domain, as illustrated in Figure 1. This principle of interaction is a foundational aspect of complexity theory.

These interactions form a dynamic system that is capable of both stability and change. In other words, changes in how a person functions in one domain (e.g. Attention and Awareness) can, in turn, change how that person functions in other domains (e.g. Emotions). Indeed, the analysis by Rusk and Waters (2015) showed that the concepts in a given domain have many links to the concepts in the other domains. For example, one’s mindset (in the Comprehension and Coping domain) could influence multiple elements within other DPF-5 domains, including (a) that person’s social relationships in the Relationships and Virtues domain, (b) their goals and perseverance in the Goals and Habits domain, (c) their tendency toward rumination in the Attention and Awareness domain, and (d) their mood in the Emotions domain. The inter-linkages between PP research topics provide evidence that the domains function inter-dependently (Rusk & Waters, 2015).

The environmental and biological/physiological domains

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influence functioning in the other five domains, and may also be influenced by them, but these interactions have not been shown explicitly in Figure 1 for clarity.

Since the SCM is a complex systems model, the principles that generally hold true of complex systems apply.

One of these principles is that the effects of changing one element depend on the current state of the system. This means that the relationships between the domains are dynamic, time-dependent, and non-linear. Complex system theory also suggests that non-linear outcomes are to be expected.

The complex nature of these interactions means that any attempt to specify a particular causal sequence to describe the overall process of change would be inadequate. Indeed, specifying only one such sequence would also be inappropriate, since complex systems display multiple pathways for change. Moreover, the SCM suggests that the sequence in which changes occur to create new stable behaviours may vary between individuals and groups.

The interactions between domains may either reinforce or undermine the changes in a given domain, and they have important implications for intervention. The SCM implies three distinguishable types of dynamic processes that may arise from intervention: relapse, spill-over, and synergy. All three dynamic processes are consequences of the principle that the functioning within one given domain influences the functioning in others.

Consider the first of these processes: relapse. Here, interactions between domains undermine the changes within a given domain. From a complex systems perspective, the changes in the system are unstable and inadequate to cause the system to develop a new dynamically stable pattern of functioning. The changes made in one domain are ‘undone’ because they are not supported by the other domains. Relapse is more likely when changes occur within only one or two domains, since isolated changes are less likely to change the overall dynamic stability of the psycho-social system.

Interactions between domains can also work positively in the case of spill-over. If functioning within one domain is increased through intervention, the effects may, at least temporarily, ‘spill over’ into other domains and increase the functioning in them. For example, a gratitude intervention that increases attention to good aspects of one’s life (Attention and Awareness) may have a spill-over effect on one’s explanatory style and expectations for good in the future, thus assisting their ability to cope (Comprehension and Coping).

Synergy occurs when interactions between multiple domains are mutually reinforcing and sufficiently strong to create a new stable pattern of behaviour. An imperfect analogy to understand synergy is a tipping tray with five marbles placed inside it as shown in Figure 2. The five

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marbles represent aspects of psycho-social functioning within each of five domains of positive functioning, positioned on a tray with a central pivot. From an initial state of undesired functioning represented at the left of the tray (a), an intervention cultivates desired functioning in one domain (b). However, when the intervention ends, relapse occurs as the marble rolls back to the initial state (c). In contrast, an intervention could cultivate positive functioning across multiple domains (d), which may be aided by spill-over effects. By doing so, the intervention may cause the tray to tip (e), causing a non-linear change in the system and stabilising the marbles at the end that represents desired functioning (f ). This idea of ‘tipping the system’ is the key principle of the SCM. Making changes within any single domain may fail to tip the system into a new dynamically stable state, yet changes within multiple domains may have a synergistic effect. When synergy occurs, the system ‘tips’ into a new dynamically stable pattern of behaviour, which stabilises the changes. For example, an intervention encouraging acts of kindness (Relationships and Virtues) could be reinforced by experiencing positive emotions from kindness (Emotions), beliefs about kindness (Comprehension and Coping), planning regular acts of kindness (Goals and Habits), and becoming mindful of opportunities for kindness (Attention and Awareness). The concept of synergy is the primary insight of the SCM. It suggests an important principle: lasting change will be more likely when reinforcing changes occur within most or all DPF-5 domains.

Support from existing literature The domains of the SCM and the inter-linkages between them are supported by the analysis of PP literature by Rusk and Waters (2015). This section provides further support for the SCM by reviewing evidence within the PP literature for the three types of dynamic interactions it predicts: relapse, spill-over, and synergy.

Relapse In some PPIs, participants have relapsed to pre-intervention levels of functioning after the PPI has ended. For example, the benefits of the ‘gratitude visit’ PPI tested by Seligman, Steen, Park, and Peterson (2005) did not last at three and six month follow-up measurements. Another example comes from Tricarico (2012), who conducted a two-week gratitude intervention which showed improvements at post-test, but those improvements did not endure to follow-up.

Many researchers have noted the tendency for wellbeing to return to a baseline level after a PPI, which has prompted discussion about whether lasting increases in

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well-being above a ‘set-point’ are even possible (Sheldon et al., 2013). Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, and Schkade (2005) have proposed that for sustained changes in well-being, individuals need to continue to engage in activities that promote well-being. Growing evidence supports this view.

For example, a mindfulness intervention study by Morgan, Graham, Hayes-Skelton, Orsillo, and Roemer (2014) showed a clear link between continued mindfulness practice and sustained benefits. Such findings imply that sustained increases in well-being require sustained changes in how a person functions, which may include an ongoing variety of activities to combat hedonic adaptation.

The SCM provides a theoretical perspective to understand why some intervention-induced changes in psycho-social functioning are not sustained. It suggests that in the absence of the creation of a stable set of synergistic changes, the psycho-social system is unstable, and will tend to relapse to the previous mode of functioning. For example, an intervention could train individuals to adopt an optimistic explanatory style. If it were to do this by targeting only the Comprehension and Coping domain, the functioning in the other domains may undermine the attempted change in explanatory style. For example, an individual may not make a habit of using an optimistic explanatory style (Goals and Habits domain), or may be overwhelmed by negative emotions that counter optimism (Emotions domain), or may socialise with pessimistic friends (Relationships and Virtues domain). The model suggests that relapse to old patterns of thought and behaviour could occur in this scenario as a consequence of interactions between domains, which tend to restore the dynamic stability of the system.

Spill-over Spill-over effects can occur as a result of PPIs. For example, Landsman-Dijkstra, van Wijck, and Groothoff (2006) conducted a body awareness program, and qualitatively assessed the changes experienced by participants.

Participants who experienced more notable changes in body awareness reported changes within other domains of positive functioning. For example, one reported: ‘The training made me more calm and more aware of myself and my priorities in life.’ This statement shows that increases in bodily awareness (Attention and Awareness) were associated with improvements in the Emotions domain and the Goals and Habits domain. Another participant reported: ‘I have more energy and creativity to do the things I want to,’ indicating that the effects of the training spilled over to influence creativity (Comprehension and Coping) and self-directed behaviours (Goals and Habits). A third person reported: ‘I now trust my feelings more when it comes to interactions and communication with important persons

in my life.’ This report suggests the awareness training was associated with changes in self-efficacy beliefs (Comprehension and Coping) and social interactions (Relationships and Virtues).

With the recent interest in identifying ‘mechanisms’ by which PPIs work, many studies are now finding mediation effects. For example, Toussaint and Friedman (2009) found that the influences of forgiveness and gratitude on well-being are mediated by affect and belief states. From the perspective of SCM, some mediation effects may be evidence of spill-over between different domains.

One consequence of the spill-over effect is that similar changes may be accomplished through multiple pathways, which is consistent with complexity principles (Thelen, 2005). One empirical example of the existence of multiple pathways comes from Oman, Richards, Hedberg, and Thoresen (2008), who investigated the effects of a mindfulness intervention on caregiving self-efficacy among health professionals. Their qualitative analysis showed 15 different ‘pathways’ of influence, whereby changes in one element (e.g. one-point attention) influenced functioning in other domains (e.g. task prioritisation and slowing down), all of which ultimately increased caregiving self-efficacy.

Support for spill-over effects also comes from beyond the field of PP. For example, Jacobson et al. (1996) investigated the separate effects of different components of cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT). One group was administered a treatment focusing exclusively on the behavioural activation component of CBT, a second group received that treatment plus training to modify automatic thoughts, and a third group was administered full CBT treatment. No significant differences in outcome were found between groups, either post-treatment or at 6-month follow-up. Moreover, the behavioural activation treatment was equally effective as the other treatments that included cognitive components in altering negative thinking and dysfunctional attributional styles. This result is evidence of a spill-over effect, in which changes in the Goals and Habits domain produced by behavioural activation influenced functioning in the Comprehension and Coping domain. This finding is consistent with the data presented by Prochaska and Norcross (2009) showing that despite sometimes large differences between many psychotherapy systems, they have comparable efficacy in treating several disorders, including depression. To explain these similarities in effectiveness, Prochaska and Norcross (2009) put forward the common factor hypothesis, which holds that the majority of change is created by factors common to all therapies (e.g. therapeutic relationship, positive expectancy). The SCM presents an alternative explanation, whereby the different therapies may target different aspects of psycho-social functioning, but through interaction effects, more widespread changes occur. This

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theory is consistent with the multiple-pathways axiom of complexity theory (Thelen, 2005).

Beneficial, positive functioning traits are often correlated with one another, which is consistent with the spillover effects and tendency toward dynamic stability posited by the SCM. For example, gratitude has been shown to correlate with positive reinterpretation, coping and planning (Wood, Joseph, & Linley, 2007). Froh, Yurkewicz, and Kashdan (2009) found gratitude is associated with positive affect, optimism, social support, and prosocial behaviour, with most associations remaining significant even after controlling for positive affect. Quoidbach, Berry, Hansenne, and Mikolajczak (2010) found correlations between several domains of positive functioning. For example, positive mental time travel was positively correlated with behavioural display, capitalizing, and being present. Conversely, fault finding was positively correlated with negative mental time travel and negatively correlated with being present. These correlations support the idea that cognitive functions do not operate independently and they would be expected if interactions create dynamic stability in the system comprised of the domains of positive functioning, as suggested by the SCM.

Synergy Synergy occurs when different elements of psycho-social functioning interact in ways that reinforce each other to stabilise changes. These synergistic interactions have been discussed in PP literature for some time, but they have been referred to as upward or positive spirals. The concept of a positive spiral dates back to at least the ideas of Ryff and Singer (1998), who argued that positive mind-body spirals should be investigated in addition to the negative spirals that have been observed in depression (Fredrickson, 2004; Seligman, Rashid, & Parks, 2006).

At the individual level, Bandura (1997) suggested that mastery experiences and self-efficacy influence each other reciprocally. Several researchers have suggested that gratitude may form part of a positive spiral (Crawford & Caltabiano, 2011; Gudan, 2010; Lyubomirsky & Layous, 2013). Froh et al. (2009) suggested that creativity, intrinsic motivation and purposefulness may participate in upward spirals with gratitude. Wood, Maltby, Gillett, Linley, and Joseph (2008) showed that gratitude interacts with social support, and suggested that the two reciprocally promote each other. A longitudinal study

by Froh, Bono, and Emmons (2010) also found evidence that gratitude initiated positive upward spirals involving prosocial behaviour and life satisfaction. Lambert, Graham, Fincham, and Stillman (2009) found that gratitude may also have a reciprocally supportive interaction with a sense of coherence. Kauffman and Linley (2007) have

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suggested another positive spiral, whereby increased hardiness and hope reduce stress, which enhances flow, which increases self-efficacy, which in turn may increase hardiness and hope. Another reciprocal upward spiral between humour and positive emotions has been demonstrated by Crawford and Caltabiano (2011).

In relationships, Kubacka, Finkenauer, Rusbult, and Keijsers (2011) found evidence that gratitude contributes to a reciprocal process of relationship maintenance, prompting further gratitude and creating an upward spiral. Compassion and kindness have also been suggested as elements of upward spirals. Sin, Della Porta, and Lyubomirsky (2011) suggested that upward spirals may form between acts of kindness, self-efficacy, and relationships, and Canevello and Crocker (2010) argued that compassionate goals and responsiveness reinforce each other to benefit relationships.

In organisational research, reinforcing cycles have been discussed for decades. Locke and Latham (1990) proposed the ‘high performance cycle’, in which goals, self-efficacy, effort, rewards, and satisfaction interact in a performance-enhancing spiral. This hypothesised spiral between happiness and work-place productivity has also been discussed by Boehm and Lyubomirsky (2008) and Fisher (2010).

Salanova, Bakker, and Llorens (2006) showed positive spirals exist between work-place flow (engagement) and personal and organisational resources, as Schueller and Seligman (2010) have also suggested. Sheldon and Houser-Marko (2001) and Judge, Bono, Erez, and Locke (2005) suggested that self-concordance and goal attainment may participate in an upward spiral to cultivate well-being.

Virtues have been also construed as elements that contribute to upward spirals. For example, Cameron, Bright, and Caza (2004) wrote of the ‘amplifying effect’ of organisational virtuousness, whereby virtuousness interacts with positive emotions, social capital and prosocial behaviour to create an upwards spiral. The results of Vianello, Galliani, and Haidt (2010) indicate that virtuous leadership can indeed promote positive spirals within organisations.

Fredrickson and Dutton (2008) noted that these positive spirals can also spread outwards to energise whole social networks and organisations. Thus, they can create a synergistic effect between individuals and the group. Luthans and Youssef (2007) suggested authentic leadership could form part of upward spirals within organisations.

The PP literature has typically discussed these upward spirals as mechanisms through which PPIs can improve well-being. However, Cohn and Fredrickson (2010) have speculated that such feedback cycles might help to sustain the benefits of PPIs. The SCM provides a theoretical basis for this speculation, and implies that the formation of these synergistic spirals is indeed a powerful means by which the effect of a PPI can be made enduring.

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Moderation effects provide further support for the SCM, since they show that effects of certain elements of psycho-social functioning can be enhanced or weakened through the influence of other elements. Moderators interact with the outcome but are uncorrelated with the treatment. The SCM suggests that moderators of change will be the rule rather than the exception. For example, Chen, Chen, and Tsai (2012) found that ambivalence over expressing emotion moderated the effects of a gratitude PPI. McIntosh (2007) found that empathy moderated the benefits of a gratitude intervention. Chan (2011) also found that a meaningful life orientation moderated the benefits of a gratitude intervention. In another example of cross-domain interaction, Wieber, Odenthal, and Gollwitzer (2010) found that feelings of self-efficacy (in the Comprehension of Coping domain) moderate the effects of implementation intentions (Goals and Habits). Sheldon and Lyubomirsky (2006) demonstrated that the effects of a gratitude intervention were moderated by self-concordant motivation (Goals and Habits).

Moderation effects between domains can also be non-linear. For example, Lopes and Cunha (2008) showed that hope moderates passive coping among pessimists.

However, among optimists, hope did not impact coping, demonstrating a non-linear interaction between optimism and coping. Such results provide further evidence of the kind of nonlinearities typical of complex systems, and the SCM suggests that such nonlinearities are likely to be common.

Implications for positive interventions This paper is interested in helping researchers to answer a key question: ‘What is it that makes an effort to increase and sustain well-being ultimately successful rather than unsuccessful?’ The SCM model proposes that synergistic interactions, in which there is mutual reinforcement between many elements of psycho-social functioning, are needed to ‘tip’ the system into a new stable set-point.

Consequently, we propose that PPIs will be more effective if they are designed to produce synergistic change. To this end, we use the SCM to suggest three possible intervention approaches that can create synergistic changes in psycho-social functioning, which will now be discussed: (a) targeting single, yet pivotal, elements; (b) leveraging existing strengths; and (c) targeting mutually reinforcing elements.

Intervention strategy 1: Target pivotal elements Certain elements of psycho-social functioning may be more potent than others, whereby changing them may trigger synergistic changes within other domains. Such

elements are termed pivotal, in the sense that they can initiate synergistic changes that tip the system into a new stable mode of functioning.

Positive emotions may provide one example of these pivotal elements of psycho-social functioning. Fredrickson and Joiner (2002) and Fredrickson (2004) have suggested that positive emotions help to create ‘upward spirals’, since they can broaden thought-action repertoires and build psychological and social resources and thereby foster more positive emotions. According to Garland et al.

(2010), there is now compelling evidence that positive emotions form part of such upward spirals. Consequently, PPIs that cultivate positive emotions may trigger synergistic changes within a range of psycho-social domains that increase their potency and sustained impact.

Positive expectancy provides another example of a potential pivotal target. Karademas, Kafetsios, and Sideridis (2007) showed that positive expectancy (in the Comprehension and Coping domain) influences the Attention and Awareness domain, in that it biases people toward positive stimuli rather than threat-related stimuli.

This positive attentional bias is likely to then reinforce the positive expectancy. There is evidence that positive expectancy influences the Virtues and Relationships domain. For example, Deptula, Cohen, Phillipsen, and Ey (2006) showed cross-sectionally that it was associated with social outcomes among children. Srivastava, McGonigal, Richards, Butler, and Gross (2006) showed in a longitudinal survey that positive expectancies predicted more positive romantic relationships. The famous Pygmalion Study by Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) also showed the powerful effect of positive expectancy on the Goals and Habits domain, in this case for academic achievement.

Consequently, by targeting positive expectancy, interventions may be able to trigger synergistic changes to enhance and sustain benefits to well-being.

Intervention strategy 2: Leverage existing strengths and values There is evidence that PPIs can have synergistic effects with an individual’s existing traits or strengths. This evidence comes from Lyubomirsky and Layous’s (2013) finding that some interventions ‘fit’ individuals more than others.

From an SCM perspective, this fit can be understood as a greater likelihood that synergies will be created between the intervention changes and an individual’s existing traits or strengths.

Several researchers have proposed synergies involving existing character strengths (such as compassion, forgiveness, hope, or courage). For example, Niemiec, Rashid, and Spinella (2012) proposed a ‘synergy of mutual benefit’ between mindfulness (Attention and Awareness) and

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character strengths that create an upwards spiral. They suggested that these possible synergistic effects deserve empirical research. Similarly, Oman et al. (2008) proposed that positive spirals may arise between character strengths, coping, and relationships.

Self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000) suggests that new behaviours cultivated through a PPI are more likely to be sustained if they are intrinsically motivating.

Indeed, Sheldon et al. (2010) found that intrinsically motivated (self-concordant) goals can participate in upward spirals of positive change. Signature strengths are more likely to be intrinsically motivating (Peterson & Seligman, 2004) and supported by existing values, goals and habits.

Hence, they provide an avenue for PPIs to engage with existing values to make the desired changes in psycho-social functioning more intrinsically motivating. By engaging with existing strengths, PPIs can also support the need for autonomy, and research shows that autonomy-supportive interventions are more successful in cultivating behaviour change (e.g. Gardner & Lally, 2012; Rouse, Ntoumanis, Duda, Jolly, & Williams, 2011; Williams, Niemiec, Patrick, Ryan, & Deci, 2009).

From an SCM perspective, character strengths and intrinsic motivations are likely to have become strengths and values because they mutually support each other.

Hence, interventions may be able to leverage existing character strengths and values to support the desired change through synergistic interactions. Such an approach suggests that PPIs on a given topic could be tailored to an individual’s character strength profile or value system.

in isolation. For example, Flinchbaugh, Moore, Chang, and May (2012) found that a PPI targeting both gratitude and stress management was more effective than either in isolation, and North, Pai, Hixon, and Holahan (2011) showed that a combination of expressive writing with cognitive reappraisal was more effective than either alone.

These findings are consistent with the idea of cultivating synergies between several elements of psycho-social functioning.

Support for the principle of synergistic change also comes from the work on savouring by Quoidbach et al.

(2010). Quoidbach et al. found that the wider the range of savouring strategies participants typically used, the happier they reported being, independently of their total savouring score. Therefore, it was suggested that increased diversity may benefit PPI effectiveness. From an SCM perspective, diverse savouring strategies that span multiple DPF-5 domains may help to establish a self-reinforcing set of changes.

Finally, the SCM suggests that synergistic interactions may be cultivated among common PPI target elements (e.g. gratitude, optimism, or mindfulness) and elements of behavioural change. Consequently, PPIs may be more effective if they target elements of psycho-social functioning from the behaviour change literature (e.g. implementation intentions, self-efficacy) in addition to particular elements from the PP literature (e.g. gratitude, optimism, or mindfulness). The SCM suggests that incorporating factors from existing behavioural change theories into PPIs may help to improve their efficacy.

Intervention strategy 3: Target mutually reinforcing elements

Implications and future directions

The SCM suggests that PPI-induced change within a given element of psycho-social functioning will be more successful when it is accompanied by supportive changes across the other domains. Hence, PPIs could target multiple, mutually reinforcing elements to foster synergistic changes that ‘tip’ the system. For example, perhaps greater attention to positive outcomes (Attention and Awareness) could be used to support a more optimistic explanatory style (Comprehension and Coping), which could, in turn, help the individual to notice further positive outcomes. This approach may be particularly suitable for non-pivotal elements of psycho-social functioning that may not be potent enough to initiate synergistic changes by themselves. Another advantage of this approach is that it requires only one variant of a PPI, rather than creating a range of PPIs tailored to particular sets of character strengths or values.

Some research suggests that interventions targeting two domains may be more effective than targeting either

The SCM offers several directions for measurement, analysis, experimental design, and theory when it comes to supporting the aim of the field of PP to sustainably increase the well-being of individuals, groups, and organizations. The complex systems perspective suggests that interdependence between psycho-social elements is fundamental to lasting positive change in functioning. As such, it highlights a limitation of traditional reductionistic approaches taken by modern science. This approach has generated many insights, yet by isolating the elements of psycho-social functioning, it overlooks their interdependence (King, 2016). Approaching change through a complex systems lens presents challenges for psychological science, but the need to experimentally validate complex systems models such as the SCM is essential.

Complex system models involve many variables. Hence, measurement is one of the key challenges for their experimental validation, as noted by Vallacher, Geert, and Nowak (2015). There is a limit to the number of variables that can be measured in typical studies to prevent excessive burden

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on participants. To overcome this measurement challenge, a collaborative analytic approach may be required. As research in the field of PP uses more standardised measures and procedures, it will allow results to be increasingly integrated. One way to support this is through open access science data made available to researchers for the purpose of collaborative analysis. Individual studies may be able to test particular interactions proposed by the SCM and the results could be combined within the SCM framework.

Houben, Van Den Noortgate, and Kuppens (2015) have demonstrated the potential of this approach through a meta-analysis of emotion dynamics.

Complex systems approaches to positive functioning not only challenge what needs to be measured, they also challenge the kinds of analyses that are required (Vallacher et al., 2015). If psycho-social functioning is indeed fundamentally complex as this paper has argued, new analytical techniques may be needed. Some work has already been done in this area within developmental psychology, and several suitable mathematical and statistical approaches have recently been developed (for an overview of several, see Molenaar & Newell, 2010). Complex system approaches are also being used in specialist areas such as the learning of language (Dörnyei, Henry, & MacIntyre, 2015). Positive psychology researchers could build on such existing work.

The SCM opens the door for PP researchers to use dynamic mathematical modelling and network modelling (see van Geert & van Dijk, 2015). Predictions from mathematical SCM models could then be compared against empirical time-series data, as done by Roppolo, Kunnen, van Geert, Mulasso, and Rabaglietti (2015) for a complex systems model. Time-series data could also be used in state-space analyses to identify dynamically stable (or unstable) patterns of functioning (‘attractors’). Such time-series data are often intensive (Molenaar, Lerner, & Newell, 2014b). However, as Hofmann, Curtiss, and McNally (2016) have noted, methodologies enabled by new technologies such as ecological momentary assessment (Stone & Shiffman, 1994) could facilitate analyses of complex dynamic system models.

The model proposed here also has implications for experimental design. It suggests that experiments could be devised to test the predictions of dynamic models.

Factorial designs are also appropriate, since they are more efficient than traditional control-group designs for testing many variables simultaneously (Collins, Dziak, & Li, 2009; Collins, MacKinnon, & Reeve, 2013). They would allow first-order and higher-order interactions between domains to be tested efficiently.

Finally, the SCM can assist in bringing the wealth of knowledge captured within existing behavioural change theories to bear in creating positive psychological change.

The study of behavioural change has a long history within psychology. The domains of the SCM provide common

ground to integrate the factors of behavioural change theories with PP concepts. Consider the Goals and Habits domain, for example. Many PPIs involve routinely engaging in new behaviours (e.g. gratitude journalling, mindfulness practice), which is the primary concern of behavioural change theories. In the Comprehension and Coping domain, PP literature on optimism highlights the importance of expectations for well-being, but several behavioural theories posit that expectations also play a role in change (e.g. Ajzen, 1991). In the Attention and Awareness domain, mindfulness PPIs cultivate greater awareness, and Prochaska and DiClemente (1982) identified increasing awareness as a process linked with behavioural change.

The SCM provides a bridge between PP literature and behavioural change literature to explore the roles that common PP concepts may play in making and sustaining increases in well-being.

Conclusions The current paper has aimed to help PP researchers answer a key question: ‘What is it that makes an effort to increase and sustain well-being successful?’ It has proposed a new complex dynamic systems model of positive psychological change, the SCM, which is based on the five major domains of positive functioning present in the PP literature. A key principle of the SCM is that lasting well-being will be more likely when synergistic changes occur within and between most or all domains of psycho-social functioning. The SCM provides pathways forward for the field of PP in terms of theory, research methods and analytical approaches. In addition, the model leads to three practical intervention strategies that can be used to design PPIs in ways that create synergy, thus enhancing intervention effectiveness and increasing the likelihood of sustained changes in well-being: (a) targeting single, yet pivotal, elements; (b) leveraging existing strengths; and (c) targeting mutually reinforcing elements.

If positive psychology is to truly achieve its aim of lifting and sustaining flourishing states in individuals, groups, and organisations, a complex and dynamic understanding of how change occurs needs to be more fully embraced by the field. We hope that this paper is a contribution in this direction and that the SCM inspires future research.

Disclosure statement No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

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