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ChinaandtheMiddleEast

TherearecurrentlyfewsourcesofreferencefromaMiddleEasternstandpointonthe rolethatthePeople’sRepublicofChinaiscurrentlyplayingintheMiddleEastand NorthAfricaregion.Inthisbook,DrMuhamadOlimataimstoanalysedifferent perspectivesinordertodeepentheunderstandingofscholarsandstrategicplanners alike,inordertoofferacompleteeconomicandpoliticaloverviewofthesituation. ChinaandMiddleEasternrelationsdatebackfromtheSilkRoadandstretchtothe current ‘ArabSpring’.China’srelationswiththeMiddleEastarehighlightedinterms ofenergy,trade,armssales,cultureandpoliticaltieswithkeycountriesintheregion: SaudiArabia,Iran,Israel,AlgeriaandtheUnitedArabEmirates.China’sbilateral relationswitheachofthesecountriesarebasedonaparticularlycriticalaspectthat determinesitsinterestintheregion.ThecoreofChina’srelationswithIsrael,for instance,isweaponssalesandadvancedtechnology,whilerelationswithSaudiArabia arebasedonoil.IranandChinaaretiedwithdeephistorical,civilizational,cultural andpoliticalbonds,althoughoilisalsotheprimaryfocusofChina’scurrentinterest inIran.China’snationalinterestsinandrelationsandstrategicpartnershipswiththe MiddleEastareonlyincreasing;thisbookaimstoanalyzeandinterprettheserelationsinthistimeofmajorchangeintheMiddleEast.

Thebookincludesdiscussionofandcommenton:

China’sdeepinvolvementintheMiddleEastsincetheSilkRoad

ThenewSilkRoadoftrade,oil,armssales,politicalandculturalrelations

China’soilinvestmentsintheMiddleEast

China’sreactiontotheArabSpring

MuhamadS.Olimat,isanAssistantProfessorofinternationalrelationsatKhalifa UniversityofScience,TechnologyandResearch(KUSTAR)inAbuDhabi,United ArabEmirates.PriortojoiningKUSTAR,DrOlimattaughtandconductedresearch attheUniversityofSouthFloridainStPetersburg,MissouriStateUniversityand severalotherUShighereducationalinstitutions.HisareaofexpertiseisMiddleEast politics,andhisresearchfocusesonChinaandtheMiddleEast,socio-politicaland economicdevelopmentintheMiddleEast,andUSforeignpolicytowardstheregion. HehaspublishedseveralarticlesandbookchaptersonChinaandtheMiddleEast, theArabSpring,transitiontodemocracy,womenandpoliticsintheMiddleEast,and theroleofIslaminthepoliticsoftheMiddleEast.

ChinaandtheMiddleEast

FromSilkRoadtoArabSpring

MuhamadS.Olimat

Inlovingmemoryofmyparents,SalemandEda Tomychildren,JennahandKasum

Illustrations

Figures

2.1IncreasingoilconsumptioninChinafrom1965to2020inmbd37

2.2Toptenoilimportersin2012

2.3China’soilproductionandconsumptionfrom1990to201241

2.4China’soilimportsfromtheMiddleEastasapercentageofits totalimportsfortheperiodfrom1993to2012 43

2.5Crudeoilpricesfrom1869to2010

2.6China’scrudeoilimportsbysourceinbd(000)in2010

2.7China’sarmsexportstotheMiddleEastandNorthAfricain millionsofUSdollarsfrom1987to2011

6.1China’scrudeoilimportsin2010(000bd)

9.1Algeria’stotaloilproductionandconsumptionfrom1992 to2011

Tables

2.1China’soilconsumptioninthousandbarrelsperday(000bd) from1965to2015

2.2Growthrates,oilproduction,consumption,netimportsandoil importpercentagesfromtheMiddleEast

2.3China–MiddleEasttradevolumeinmillionsofdollarsfrom 2001to2010

2.6ChinaarmsexportstotheMiddleEastandNorthAfricafor theyears1987–2011inmillionsofdollars

2.7ChinaandtheMiddleEast:country,dateofdiplomatic recognition,GDP,GNIPandGDPgrowthrate

4.1NumberofpeoplekilledintheSyrianRevolutionfromMarch 2011to5July2012

Acknowledgements

Iwouldliketoacknowledgethesupportandencouragementofmyfamily, especiallymybrothersAhmedandHmoud.Specialthankstomygoodfriend andeditorEmiliaGarofalo.Yourencouragement,editingskillsandsupport madeallthedifferenceinthecompletionofthebook.Iwouldalsoliketo thankmycolleaguesandfriendsattheInstituteforCivilandInternational SecurityatKhalifaUniversity,especiallyMichelineIshayforherencouragementandsupport,aswellasDavidGold fischerandMohamadZieneddin. ThankstocolleaguesatKUSTAR’slibraryespeciallyPatriciaandDorothy. ManythanksalsotoGregMoore,KenRutherford,FrankBiafora, ThomasSmith,HughLaFollette,BeatKernenandMargieBuechnerfortheir supportandencouragement.IamgratefultoDiWang,SangeetaSinha, HamidAliandRyadYemanyfortheirassistanceindatacollection.Finally, thanksalsotoCathyHartleyatRoutledgeforherenthusiasmfortheproject andhersupportthroughouttheprocessofsubmittingtheproposalandonto publication.

Abbreviations

ADNOCAbuDhabiNationalOilCompany

AEWAirborneEARLYWARNING

AUAfricanUnion

AWACSAirborneearlywarningandcontrolsystem

CCPChineseCommunistParty

CIACentralIntelligenceAgency

CNOOCChinaNationalOffshoreOilCorporation

CNPCChinaNationalPetroleumCorporation

CSCEChinaStateConstructionEngineeringCorpnLtd.

DRDongfengorEastWindMissilesCSS-2

EIAEnergyInformationAdministration,USA

FDIForeigndirectinvestment

FLNNationalLiberationFront

FOCACForumonChina–AfricaCooperation

FTZFreetradezone

GAGeneralAssembly

GCCGulfCooperationCouncil

GNPOCGreaterNilePetroleumOperatingCompany

IAEAInternationalAtomicEnergyAgency

IAIIsraelAerospaceIndustries

ICBCIndustrialandCommercialBankofChina

ICIIsrael–ChinaInstitute

IEAInternationalEnergyAgency

IMFInternationalMonetaryFund

IntifadaUprising

KPCKuwaitPetroleumCorporation

MENAMiddleEastandNorthAfrica

MTCRMissileTechnologyControlRegime

NPTNuclearNon-proliferationtreaty

OFFPOil-for-foodProgramme

OICOrganizationofIslamicCooperation

PFLPPopularFrontfortheLiberationofPalestine

PFOAGPopularFrontfortheLiberationofOccupiedArabianGulf

xii Abbreviations

PLOPalestinianLiberationOrganization

PNAPalestinianNationalAuthority

PRCPeople’sRepublicofChina

R&DResearchandDevelopment

ROCRepublicofChina(Taiwan)

SABICSaudiBasicIndustriesCorpn

SAVAKSazema - n-eEttela - ’ a - tvaAmniyat-eKeshvar,orOrganizationof IntelligenceandNationalSecurity(Iran)

SC SecurityCouncil

SCFStrategicCooperationForum

SinopecChinaPetrochemicalCorporation

SIPRIStockholmInternationalPeaceResearchInstitute

TheP5+1PermanentmembersoftheUNSecurityCouncilandGermany

UAEUnitedArabEmirates

UAVUnmannedaerialvehicle

US(A)UnitedStates(ofAmerica)

emergedtriumphantbutchosenottopursueanall-outconquestofChina, preferringtraderelationsandpeace.TheAbbasids,anenlightenedcivilization ledbyopen-mindedcaliphs,emphasizedmodernadministration,science, craftsmanship,agriculture,irrigationsystems,watercanalsandhighways,and developedanefficientpostalserviceinahugeempire.Theyweregreatly interestedinChina’sknowledgeofastronomyandagriculture,andfascinated byitscultureinparticular.Thereforetrade,culturalcontactsandthe exchangeofknowledgeweresourcesofmajorinteractionbetweenthetwo sides.

TheTangdynastywasalsoanenlightened,multiculturalcivilizationthat promotedsimilarvaluesoftraderelationsandculturalandscientificinteractionwiththeIslamicEmpireandotherneighbouringcivilizations.During China’syearsofturbulence,Muslimarmiescametoitsassistancetomaintain itsterritorialintegrityandunity.MuslimmerchantsandwarriorsfromPersia, ArabiaandCentralAsiawhoresidedinChinacametobeknownasHui,a referencetotheirMuslimreligiousaffiliation.Althoughtheylivedsidebyside withtheHanmajority,HuiMuslimspreservedtheirculturaldistinctiveness, buthavebeensubjectedtosomemajorepisodesofviolenceeversincethe ninthcentury.Sino–MiddleEasterncontactsweakenedbetweenthesixteenth andmid-twentiethcenturiesasboththeIslamicandtheChinesecivilizations declined.However,sinceWWII,China’sengagementwiththeMiddleEast hasintensi fiedtotheextentthatChinahasbecomeanintegralpartofMiddle Easterninternationalrelations.Currently,ChinaisheavilyinvolvedinMiddle EasternpoliticsdealingwithmajorissuessuchastheArabSpringandits subsequentrevolutions,theIraniannuclearstandoff andtheArab–Israeli conflict.

Bookorganization

ThisbookisdividedintoninechapterscoveringSino–MiddleEasternrelationsfromtheSilkRoadtotheArabSpring.The firstfourchaptersdiscuss Sino-multilateralrelationswiththeMiddleEastregion,whiletheremaining fivechaptersdealwithbilateralrelationswithkeyMiddleEasterncountries, eachofwhichischosenforstrategicelementsinitsbilateralrelationswith China.

InChapter1,IprovideanoverviewofSino–MiddleEasternrelations highlightingthemostsignificanteventsthathaveoccurredbetweenChina andtheMiddleEastfromtheemergenceoftheSilkRoadtothecurrentArab Spring.InChapter2,Ihavedevelopeda five-dimensionalapproachor five pillars:China’srelationswiththeregionareexaminedbylookingatenergy, armssales,trade,politicalco-operationandculturalties.Infact,inorderfor Chinatomaintainitscurrentgrowthratesandindustrialmomentum,the essenceofitsinvolvementintheMiddleEasthastodealwithitsquestfor energysecuritydefinedintermsofsecuringaccesstoMiddleEasternoil resources.China’sbilateraltraderelationswiththeregionarealsogrowing

andforgingstrategictradepartnerships.Chinaisheavilyinvolvedinpolitical developments,especiallywithintheparadigmoftheArabSpringintermsof itspolitics,repercussions,constraintsandopportunities.Chinaisanexporter ofarmsandamajorimporterofweaponsfromtheMiddleEast.ItspartnershipwithIsraelisbuiltondefenceco-operation,importinghigh-tech weaponryandexportinglightandmediumtypesofarmstotheregion.Chinese–MiddleEasternculturalrelationsarecharacterizedbyculturaleventssuchas festivals,NewYearcelebrations,educationalopportunitiesandcuisine.

Chapter3offersatridimensionalapproachtoSino–MiddleEasternrelationsviewedasanoutcomeofinteractionbetweenthreeactorsineachscenario.China’ seffortstomaintainitsinterestshaveprovedtobechallenging, especiallywhendealingwithcontendingregionalpowerhousesintheMiddle East.Thechapterdescribesscenariosandelementsthatbalance,forexample, China’srelationswithIranandSaudiArabia,tworivalsintheregion.Similarly,Chinahasbeensuccessfulindevelopingastrategicpartnershipwith IsraelwhilemaintainingitstraditionalsupportofthePalestinianpeople. Chapter4presentsananalysisofChina’sreactiontotheArabSpringandthe currentrevolutionsthatshaketheMiddleEast.Chinahasbeenstunnedas muchastheUnitedStates,FranceorBritainbytheeventsoccurringinthe region.ChinawasactingontheassumptionthatMiddleEasternauthoritarianregimeswere ‘changeproof,’ anassumptionthatprovedtobeinaccurate. Therefore,itsreactionsofarhasbeencharacterizedbyinconsistencyand confusionattimes,andproblematicandretroactivestatementsatothertimes. China’sleadershipcloselyfollowedtheeventsthatledtothedemiseofthe MubarakregimeinEgyptin2011.Tosomeextent,theswiftchangesin TunisiawerereassuringtoChinaandothercountriesconcernedaboutstabilityinpost-revolutionarysituationsintheMiddleEast.However,theLibyan, SyrianandYemenicaseswerecharacterizedbywidespreadviolence.China supportedinternationaleffortsattheUNSecurityCounciltopressure Gadhafi tohalttheviolence,butcontinuedtoshiparmstohisregimeuntil the finalstagesoftheconflictin2011.Chinasupportedthetransitionin Yemen,buthasvehementlyopposedanyinternationalmilitaryinterventionin Syriatostopthegenocidecurrentlyoccurringinthecountry.InclosecoordinationwithRussia,Chinaexercisedadoubleandunprecedentedvetoon 4February2012thatprolongedtheviolenceinSyria.Forthat,Chinaand RussiaearnedthedispleasureofArabpublicopinion.Forthe firsttime, ChineseandRussian flagswereburnttosubstituteforthetraditionalburning ofIsraeliandAmerican flags.Thechapteralsooffersanin-depthanalysis thatprovidesscenariostodiscernChina’sjusti ficationforitsstrongdefenceof theSyrianregime.Infact,SyriaservesasacasestudyforChina’sviewson theArabSpring.

Chapters5to9aredevotedtocasestudies.Chapter5dealswithSino–Israelirelations;themainthemeisChina’srenownedmilitarypartnership withIsraelthatstandsatoddsnotonlywithChina’straditionalallies,the Arabworld,butalsowithIsrael’smainsupporter,theUnitedStates.Israel

providesChinawithwhatothercountriesintheregionlack:advancedweaponssystemsdevelopedbyIsraelicorporationsthathaveaccesstoUSmilitary technology,andITknowhowespeciallyintheareaofagro-technology.Israel wasthe firstMiddleEasterncountrytorecognizethePeople’sRepublicof China(PRC)inearlyJanuary1950andthelastMiddleEasterncountryto establishdiplomaticrelationswithChinain1992.

Chapter6looksatSino–Saudirelations.Thecoreoftheirbilateraltiesis energyco-operation.SaudiArabiaisthemajorsourceofoilcurrentlysustainingChina’sindustrialenterprise,andisalsoheavilyinvolvedininvesting inChina.Fortheirpart,Chinesecorporationsaredevelopingsomeofthe mostambitiousexpansionprojectsinthekingdom,suchashighwaysand railways.Saudi–Chinesebilateraltiesshiftedfromextremeanimositybetween 1949and1980tocautiousrapprochementbetween1980and1990,toastrategicpartnershipin2006representedbythemilestonevisitmadebythecurrent Saudimonarch,KingAbdullah,toChinain2006.

Chapter7investigatesSino–Iranianrelations.Inadditiontooilasthecore oftheirbilateralties,thisliaisonischaracterizedbyhistoricallinksthatgo backtotheearlydaysoftheSilkRoad.PersiainfluencedChinaandmaintainedfamilial,culturalandtradetiesthroughouthistory.Thescopeofbilateralrelations,however,extendstoother fieldssuchmilitaryco-operation, naturalgasexploration,goodsandservicesandconstruction.Chinaisalso activeinresolvingthecurrentIraniannuclearprogrammecrisis,astandoff betweenIranandtheinternationalcommunitythatissoundinganalarm worldwide.Chapter8examinesSino–UAErelations.Thecoreoftheirbilateralrelationsistrade.TheUAEservesasaprimaryhubforChinesecorporationsnotonlyfortheGulforMiddleEastregions,butalsoforAfrica andtheworld.TheUAEisthehomeoftheDragonMart,thelargestChinese businesscomplexoutsidemainlandChina;UAE’srealestatecorporations andportmanagement firmsaremakingheadwayinChinesemarketsaswell.

Chapter9analysesChinese –Algerianrelations.Thecoreoftheirbilateral tiesispoliticalsupportandgenuinefriendshipandadmiration.ChinasupportedtheAlgerianNationalLiberationmovementduringitsWarofIndependencefrom1950to1964,andbecamethe firstnon-Arabcountryto recognizeAlgeria’sindependenceandtoestablishfulldiplomaticrelationsin 1958,fouryearsbeforeAlgeria’ sofficialindependence.Inreturn,in1971, Algeriaco-sponsoredtheresolutiontoreadmitChinatotheUnitedNations. Algerialobbiedbeforetheinternationalcommunityandheadedaglobalshift ofsupportfromtheRepublicofChina(Taiwan)tothePRC.Chinaisheavily involvedinAlgerianeconomicdevelopment.Infact,Chinesecorporations arebuildinghighways,airports,housing,bridges,roadsandeventheGrand MosqueofAlgeria.

ChinaisdeterminedtoenhanceitstieswiththeMiddleEast,butWestern countriesarealarmedbythemagnitudeofitsinvolvement.Chinaissimply followinginAmericanfootstepsandtheUS’sgradualinvolvementinthe MiddleEastintheaftermathoftheBritishdeparturefromtheregionbefore

1Sino–MiddleEastrelations

Anoverview

TheaimofthischapteristoexaminethedepthofChinese–MiddleEastern relationsandtohighlightsomeofthemajoreventsthathavetakenplacein thehistoryofthetworegionsoverthepastthreemillennia.Thereareseveral periodsthatcanbeidenti fied:theSilkRoad,theIslamic,theColonial,the post-WorldWarIIandthepost-Maoperiods.

TheSilkRoadperiod

Around300 BC,ChinahadstrongtraderelationswiththeMiddleEast throughanetworkofAsianmerchants.Themaintraderouteextendedfor 4,000milesfromthecityofXianinChinatoConstantinopleinTurkey.It wasknownastheSilkRoadandthecoreoftheexchangewassilk,aprecious Chinesecommoditythatplayedaleadingroleinthepromotionoftrade betweenChinaandtherestoftheworld.Silkwasinhighdemandespecially amongwealthymerchantsandrulingelitesfromCentralAsiatotheMiddle EasttoEurope.Inadditiontotradinginothercommoditiessuchasspices, amber,porcelainandivory,manycountriestookadvantageoftheSilkRoad: Indiaintroduceduniquespicestotheworld;Persiaexportedpreciousrugsin highdemand;andArabiatradeditshorsesandcamels,prizedfortheir strength,patience,abilitytotravellongjourneysandenduretheharshnessof theworld’smainthoroughfare.

RatherthanlookingattheSilkRoadasjustanothereconomicroute, Chinasawitasacorridorforspeedandmovementtoboostitsmilitarycapabilities.Forinstance,CentralAsiannations,especiallyKazakhstan,werethe very firsttodomesticatehorses.Foritsdefenceandexpansionwestward, Chinaneededthelightweight,swiftandstrongArabianhorsesthatfar exceededotherbreedsintheirspeedandendurance.Theywereingreat demandthroughouthistory,andcontinuetobe.Thesearethehorsesthat carriedArabsasfareastasChina,andasfarwestastheheartofEurope. ThepeakoftheSilkRoadperiodoccurredduringIslamicrule,inwhich MuslimsextendedtheirdomainfromWesternChinatoSouthernandWesternEurope.TheChineseTangDynasty,inparticular,strengthenedmutual traderelationswiththeIslamicempire.

Sino–Islamicrelations

TheadventofIslamontheArabianscenemarkedanewphaseintherelationshipbetweenChinaandtheMiddleEast.ProphetMuhammadoncesaid, ‘Seekknowledge,evenifit’sinChina’ withreferencetotheimportanceof seekingknowledgedespitethegeographicaldistance,andinreferencetoChina asasourceofenlightenmentandwisdom.RealizingChina’sstrategicimportance,hisfollowerstookdrasticstepstoestablishsoliddiplomaticandeconomic relationswithChineseemperorsandpeople.Intheseventhcentury,theswift triumphofIslambroughtthereligiontothebordersofChinainrecordtime, andattimesintoitsheartland.Infact,aconsiderablenumberofMuslims weretobefoundin ‘ChineseTurkistanabout AD 630’,thatisduringthelifetime oftheProphet(570–632).1 Clearly,IslamreachedChinabeforeitreached somepartsofArabiaandNorthAfricapreciselythroughMuslimmerchants ontheSilkRoad.TheArabconquestofthePersianEmpirespeededupthe arrivalofIslaminChinainamoresystematicwayand,sincethen,theconquestofCentralAsiahashadadramaticimpactonSino–Islamicrelations. WhenmilitaryclashesbetweenMuslimarmiesandPersiabeganinthe thirddecadeoftheseventhcentury, ‘PersianKingYazdegerdsentadelegationtoChinaseekingmilitaryassistanceinhisconflictwithMuslims,butthe replywasthatPersiawassofaraway,andChinacouldnotgivemilitary assistance.’2 ThePersianenvoyalarmedChineseemperorsabouttherising powerofIslamandpiquedtheircuriosity.Tai-tsung(Gaozong),thepowerful TangDynastyemperor,sentadiplomaticmissiontoMedinaintheyear651 tomeetwithCaliphOthman.Thegoalofthe ‘missionwastopresentthe causeofthePersians.’3 SomesourcesstatethatCaliphOthmansentareturn missioninthesameyear651ledbySa’adibnAbı - Waqqa - s,areveredmilitary generalandaskilleddiplomat,which ‘wasreceivedwitheverydistinction.’4 TheobjectiveoftheWaqqa - smissionwastoconveythemessageofIslamto Chinaandtotheemperorpersonally,andtoextendahandoffriendship. AlthoughEmperorGaozongdidnotconverttoIslam,heshowedunprecedentedadmirationtowardsthereligionandtowardsMuslims.Infact,to commemoratetheenvoyandtoexpresshisfriendship,heorderedthebuilding ofthe firstmosqueinthecapitalcityofChang’an,whichbecamethecentre ofIslamicpresenceintheempire.ChineseMuslimcommunitiesmaintainthat CommanderSa’adresidedanddiedinChina,buttheofficialannalsofthe TangDynastyandprominentMuslimhistorianssuchasIbnAlAthirhaveno recordsofthisnarrative.Atanyrate,theTangDynastywasanenlightened civilizationthatcelebrateddiversityandmulticulturalism;foreignerswere warmlywelcomed.Itscapitalanditsothermaincity,Luoyang,becameculturalandeconomiccentreswhosecitizensconsumedthefamedproductsof CentralAsia,ArabiaandPersia.ArabandMuslimmerchantstradedwith China,andsomeevenresidedinthecountrytoformthe firstMuslimcommunityinXian.Fromthatpointon,IslamhadastrongfollowinginChina thatalsospreadtoEastAsia.

Intheperiodbetween651and714,MuslimarmiesledbyKutibabin MuslimpushedtoconquerthehinterlandofCentralAsia,buildingonthe totalconquestandabsorptionofthePersianEmpire.CrownPrinceFiruz, sonofYazdegerd,thelastPersianking, fledtoChinawherehewaswell received;heresidedinXianin671.Kutiba’ssoldiersdefeatedCentralAsian armiesandmarchedintoKashgar,inChineseEastTurkistan,orwhatis currentlyXinjiang.Sincethen,anallianceformedbetweenMuslims,Uyghur andTibetans.AlthoughMuslimsconsideredCentralAsiaanextensionofthe Islamicworld,giventhatthepeoplehadacceptedIslamandbecamepartof theIslamic Ummah,Chinacontinuedtoconsidertheregiontobeunderits sphereofinfluenceandclashedwithMuslimsparticularlyatitsbordersata laterstage.

TheepicencounterbetweenChinaandtheUmayyadDynastyoccurredin 714 AD,96 Hijrah (Muslimcalendar),whenKutibabinMuslimmarched towardsKashgar,orShiinEastTurkistan(Xinjiang),whichwasunderChineseruleatthattime,andbegantheconquestofChina.Gaozongasked Kutibatohalthisadvanceandsenthimsomeofhisadviserstonegotiatefor peace.Kutibaagreedtothenegotiationsand,insodoing,hewasadheringto Islam’stheoryofwarandpeace:Muslimarmiesshouldgiveawarning,invite enemiestoacceptIslam,payatributeinexchangeforpeaceandprotectionor gotowar.EmperorGaozongoptedforthesecondoption:atributeanda peacetreaty.IbnAlAthir,thefamousMuslimhistorian,narratesthestoryin hisbook, AlKamil (TheCompleteHistory).Upontheemperor’srequest, Kutibasenttenofhismilitarycommandersandadvisersledbyaskilled diplomat,HubiraBenMushamrajAlKelaabie.Onthe firstday,theseten membersoftheMuslimdelegationworesoft,whiteattire.Theyalsosprayed themselveswithcologneandsatattheimperialcourtforseveralhours,but theemperordidnotspeaktothem,sotheyexcusedthemselvesandleft.The emperoraskedhisadviserswhattheysaw.Theyrepliedthattheysawmenas softaswomen.Thenextday,theMuslimdelegationhadasemi-rough appearanceandworesemi-roughattire.Theyworesilkturbansandcovered theirfacesexcepttheeyes,thenwalkedintothecourt,sat,againdidnot exchangeconversationandthenleft.Theemperorthenaskedhisadvisers whattheysaw,andtheyrepliedthattheysaw ‘sortofmen.’ Onthethirdday, theMuslimdelegationmarchedtowardsthecourtonhorseback,withfull battleuniform,swords,shieldsandarrows.Theemperoraskedthemtoleave buttosendhimbackHubira,theheadofthediplomaticmission.Inthe meantime,theemperoraskedhisadviserswhattheysaw.Theyrepliedthat theysawwarriorssuchastheyhadneverseenbefore.Theemperorasked Hubiratoexplaintohimthemeaningoftheattire.Hecompliedbyexplainingthatonthe firstdaytheyworesoftclothasifamongfamilyandfriends. Onthesecondday,theyworesemi-roughclothingaswhentheyfeelsafe amongtheirleaders,andonthethirdday,theydressedasiftheywerefacing theenemy.Theemperorlikedwhatheheard.Hetoldthediplomattoinform Kutibatoleaveorheandhisarmywouldbedestroyed.Hubirarepliedthat

TheAbbasidsandtheTangs

WhentheAbbasidstookovertheUmayyadDynastyin750,militarytension betweenChinaandtheIslamicEmpirewasreduced,withoneexception:the aforementionedTalasBattle.Ittookplaceatajunctureoftimeinwhichthe Abbasidswereintheprocessofconsolidatingpower;therefore,alimited confrontationwithChinawasunavoidableasthelatterpursueditsterritorial interestsinCentralAsiaaftertheKutiba–Tangagreementin714.However, afterTalas,relationsbetweentheAbbasidsandTangsimprovedsignificantly. ThemulticulturalnatureofboththeTangandtheAbbasidempiresfacilitatedopenimmigrationofArabsandMuslimstoChina,welcomedand encouragedbytheTangEmperors.TheMuslimcommunityenhanced China’sinternationaltradeandstrengtheneditsalliancewiththeAbbasids. WhentheTangsneededMuslimhelptosuppressinternalrevolutions,the Abbasidsneverhesitatedtointervene.Between755and763, ‘aTartarnamed AnLusan,ageneralstationedattheborder,rebelledagainstemperor Hsuang-tsungandproclaimedhimselflordofChina.Theemperorhanded overthethronetoSu-tsung,whowiththehelpoftheArabsdefeatedthe Tartar.The4,000Arabswhohadgivenhimthisassistanceweregivenpermissiontosettlewithintheborderoftheempire.’9 TheChineseemperors foundinArabsandPersiansanindustriouscommunity,endowedwitha strongworkethicandknowledgeofscience,mathematics,astronomyand geography;theyemployedthemintheimperialcourtandinkeygovernment positions,especiallyinmanagement.

TheAbbasidsweretradeandscienceoriented.Theypromotedtraderelationswiththeentireworld,translatedworldliteratureintoArabic,tooka majorinterestinarchitectureandmusicandrelaxedtensionswithconquered nationalitiesthroughdecentralizationoftheiradministration.Politicaland economicmissionstoChinacontinued,andintensifiedduringtheAbbasid rule,from750to1257,duringwhichtimetraderelationswerethecentrepiece betweenthetwosides.TheAbbasids’ ultimategoalwasaforeignpolicythat promotedtheestablishmentofanenduringcivilization.Theprocessof buildingsuchacivilizationpeakedduringthereignofHarounAlRashidand hissons,AmeenandMamoun,intheeighthandninthcenturies.Theypromotedtradeandscience,builtmonumentsandpalacesandtranslatedwritten worldheritageliteratureandpreviouscivilizationalcontributions.

TheAbbasidsacknowledgedChinesecontributions,especiallyinpapermaking,astrology,irrigationandother fields.ChinesemethodsofmanufacturingpaperwereintroducedinthecapitalcitiesofCentralAsia,spreadto Baghdad,andfromtheretoSpain,Europeandeventuallytotheentire knownworld.TheAbbasidsutilizedpaperverywell.Infact,theyembarked ontheambitiousprojectofdocumentingworldcivilizations.Tothatend,they establishedtheHouseofWisdominBaghdad.MajorChinese,Greek,Indian andotherworkswerehousedthereandtranslatedintoArabic.Thisprocess continueduntilthesavageryoftheMongolinvasiondestroyedthebulkofthe

populationinnorthandwestChina.Millionswerekilledintheterrible fighting.PeacecameonlywhentheadventurousChieftainYakoobBeg hadgainedsupremepowerandformedMohammadanskingdomupin EastTurkistan.Unfortunatelyhewasremovedbydeathasearlyas1877. Athisdeathallcrumbledandafteranincredibleamountofbloodshed cameundertheruleofChinaoncemore.12

TheSilkRoadcontinueditsprimaryroleinworldtradeuntilsearoutesgraduallybegantoshifttradepracticesfromtheeighthcenturyonward.The advantagesofoceanrouteswerespeed,reducedtaxes,safetyandsecurityand bypassingtheharshweatherconditionsacrossCentralAsiainparticular. Arabdominanceacrosstheseaslasteduntilthethirteenthcenturywhen EuropebeganitsriseandMiddleEasternpowerandinfluencewaned.China pursuednavaldominanceforover300years,betweenthethirteenthandsixteenthcenturies,butChineseemperorsconcludedthatitwasintheirbest intereststoconcentrateontheirinternalaffairsanddefendtheempire’sbordersfromtheescalatingattacksofrisingregionalpowers.Inaddition,China determinedthattherewasnotthatmuchtolearnfromtheexistingworldat thetime,asthecountrywasfarmoreadvancedthantherisingEuropean powersintermsofship-building,navalstrength,agricultureandpapermaking.Thispolicyofisolationismlasteduntilthe1840swhenitwasbroken byBritishforces.

TherisingWestandthedecliningEast

BoththeIslamicempireandChinawentthroughepisodesofcivilizational riseanddecline. ‘Duringthechaoticcenturyfrom860to960followingthe disintegrationoftheTangdynasty,politicalandmilitarypowersdevolvedto thelocallevel. … theeffectsoffragmentationwerelessbenigninthenorth. ManyoftheregionalwarlordstherewerenotChinesebutTurksfromthe garrisonarmies.’13 Fragmentationcontinued,andChinafellunderthecontrol ofMongols,TibetansandJurchens,TangutsandKhitans.Asmentioned earlier,theMongolinvasionwasmostdevastatingtobothChineseandIslamic civilizations. ‘Mongolarmies firstsweptacrossthenorthChinaplainin1212–13, theyleftninety-oddcitiesinrubble.WhentheysackedtheJurchen’snorthern capitalatBeijingin1215,itburnedformorethanamonth.’14 TheMongol waveofdestructioncontinuedwestward,anditswrathreachedBukharaand SamarkandinCentralAsiain1219,withadestructiveforceofover200,000 troopswholevelledcitiesintheirpath.ThedevastationextendedtoBaghdad in1257,theseatoftheAbbasidsandofIslam,andcontinuedtoRussiaand CentralEurope.

Beyondthebrutalityandviolenceexercisedagainstconquerednations,the Mongolslackedtheskillstomanagethelandandthepeopleundertheirrule. Theylearnedhowtorecruitandrewardloyalsubjectsandarmies.They recruitedtheTurkicarmiesto fightontheirside,especiallyagainstRussia

andCentralEurope.Khubilai,thegrandsonofGenghisKhan,movedthe MongolcapitalfromKarakoruminMongoliatoBeijing.Inhisbattles againsttheSongDynastyinCentralandSouthernChina,heemployed advisersfromallnationalitiesincludingChineseandCentralAsians. ‘The MongolsemployedChinese,Korean,Jurchen,Uighur,andPersianexpertsin navalsiegewarfare.Muslimengineersdesignedartillerythatsentabarrageof rocksweighinguptoahundredpoundseach.’15 Their ‘invasionmarkedthe closureoftheSongperiod,andledtotheestablishmentoftheYuanDynasty (1279–1368)andtheincorporationofmostofChinaintotheMongolEmpire. Itwastoprovetraumatic,withtheChinese findingthemselvesunderalien ruleandreducedtolowlystatus.’16 Muslimartisansandlabourerswere movedbyforcefromCentralAsiainparticulartoMongoliaandChinato workasslavesforMongolwarlordsandforthestate.Thisexplainsthe increasingnumberofMuslimsinChinaunderMongolrule.However,upper classMuslimsandCentralAsiansofUyghur,TurkandPersianbackgrounds wereprivilegedastheycollaboratedwiththeMongoloccupation – something theChineseneverforgave.Muslimco-operationwasfacilitatedbythefact thattheMongolsembracedIslamandbecameco-religionist.SomeMuslim communitiesfeltthattheyrelatedtotheMongolsmorethantheHan,given thattheHanhadmassacredMuslimsinethnictensionsearlier.Atthisjuncture,thepureimageofMuslimsinChinabegantochange.Theirassociation withtheMongolinvadersprovedtobedevastatingtoIslamandMuslimsin China.Theycametobeviewedasbarbarians,traitors,savagesandoppressive taxcollectors.TheMongolshadcreatedasystemwherebymerchants,mostly MuslimsfromCentralAsia,bidagainsteachotheroncontractsfromthe Mongolrulerstocollecttaxes.Thisfurtherstainedtheemergingnegative imageofMuslimsasgreedytraitors.

Underforeignrule,lifewasdifficultfortheChinese,butasacivilization andasapeople,theymanagedtosurviveand finallytoliberatethemselves fromtheMongols.Chinesecultureandcivilizationlearnedresistancetoforeignrule,attemptedtoassimilateforeigners,sharpenedandstrengthened itselfandnurturedaspiritofresistancetoaliendomination.TheMing Dynasty(1368–1644)cametorestoreChina’sdignity.TheriseoftheMing DynastycoincidedwiththecontinueddeclineoftheIslamiccivilization,and theriseofEuropeanconquest.Severalcompetingtendenciesvis-à-visChina’ s foreignpolicycanbeidentifiedintheearlyMingDynasty’srule.Therewasa momentumforreinstatingthetributarysystem,extendingChina’straditional influenceintoCentralAsiaandpursuingnavalexploration.Itwasalsointhis periodthattheconceptoftheHuiwithreferencetoMuslimsbegantotake shape. ‘ThetermofIslamwasthereligionoftheHui(Huijiao),andtocall oneselfaHuipersona(Huimin)wastostateareligiousaffiliation.Yetwhile Huimeans “Muslim” forseveralcenturiesafterIslam’sentryintoChina,the conceptalsocontainedaracialcomponent.’17

Asforbuildinganavalpower,theMing’sthirdemperor,Chengzu,sentout aseriesofemissariestovisitpotentialtributarystates.Thegrandestofthese

weretheoverseasvoyagesof1405to1433ledbyoneofhismosttrusted servants,aMuslimadmiralnamedZhengHe,whosailedtoArabia,Africa andEastAsia.18 Chinawasunsurpassedbyanyexistingpowerintermsof ship-buildingandmaritimeknowledge.Chinesenavaldominanceonthehigh seaswasatestamenttoChina’ssuperiorship-buildingskills,navigational knowledgeandscienti ficadvancement.However,Chinadecidedtoisolate itselffromtheworldandfocusonitsinternalaffairsuntiltheadventofthe Britishencroachmentinthe1840s.HadChinapursuedthenavalexploration voyages,itcouldhavebeenaglobal–imperialpowerwithterritorialpossessionsintheAmericas,inAfrica,intheMiddleEastandinAsia.Chinacould havebeenricherthanEngland,Spain,France,theNetherlandsorPortugal. Instead,itwassubjugatedbyrisingWesternnavalpowersforoveracentury, thecenturyofhumiliation.

MartinJacquesattributestheMingpolicyofisolationism,China’sfailure tocontinueZhengHe’svoyagesorpursueitsnavalcapabilitiestoseveral factors.Hehighlightsthefactthat,becauseofsensitivitiesaboutthenorthern borders,theMingDynastymovedtheimperialcapitalfromNanjingtoBeijing,whichreducedinterestinoceanicvoyages.Thecostofthesevoyageswas aconcern,whiletheprioritywastoprotectChina’sterritoryandassimilate thenewlyannexedlandsafterthedefeatoftheMongols.Inaddition,China believedinitscivilizationalsuperiorityandfeltithadnothingtolearnfrom theoutsideworld.AllthesefactorsencouragedChinatoshrinkitsnaval ambitions.19

DuringtheManchu-controlledQingDynasty,Chinaembarkedonthe mostambitiousprocessofexpansionwestward, ‘from1644tolate18thcentury,whentheterritoryunderChineserulemorethandoubled.Thisinvolved theconquestoflandstothenorth,notablythoseoccupiedbytheMongols, andtothenorth-west,thehomelandofdiverseMuslimpopulationsofTurkistan.Manyoftheconqueredpeople,particularlyinCentralAsiaandTibet, hadlittleornothingincommonwiththeHanChinese.’20 Jacquesaffirmsthat ‘theselandsbecamecolonialpossessionsofChina,andChinausedacombinationofmilitaryandculturalmeanstoassimilatenewlyannexedlands, especiallyinCentralandsouthernChinaandthesteppeland.’21 However,he notesthat ‘theQingconquestofthenorth-westandthewestwasdifferent, beingachievedbytheuseofparticularforceandbrutality.MostoftheZungharsforexample,aMuslimpeoplewhooccupiedmuchofwhatweknow nowasXinjiang,wereexterminated.’22 Theviolentincorporationoftheborderinglandsandthesubjugationofthepeoplecameasareactiontothe Hans’ humiliationbytheMongols.Chinaalsoconsolidateditscontrolover theterritoryandthenewlyannexedlands,andshieldeditselffrompotential ‘barbarian’ invasions.ThesemeasuresneverrelievedChinafromthe encroachmentoftherisingWesternthreat,whichhumiliatedChinaasmuch ifnotworsethanthesavageryoftheMongolinvasion.

Inthepost-Mongolera,tradewithCentralAsiaandTurkiclandscontinuedasChinafranticallyembarkedonaprocessofexploitingitsimperial

The Project Gutenberg eBook of Index of the Project Gutenberg Works of Pelham Grenville Wodehouse

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Title: Index of the Project Gutenberg Works of Pelham Grenville Wodehouse

Author: P. G. Wodehouse

Editor: David Widger

Release date: December 21, 2018 [eBook #58508] Most recently updated: July 8, 2019

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INDEX OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG WORKS OF PELHAM GRENVILLE WODEHOUSE ***

INDEX OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG WORKS

OF PELHAM GRENVILLE WODEHOUSE

Compiled by David Widger

## THE WHITE FEATHER

## THE PRINCE AND BETTY

## TALES OF ST. AUSTIN'S

## THE POTHUNTERS

## A PREFECT'S UNCLE

## CLICKING OF CUTHBERT

## HOW CLARENCE SAVED ENGLAND

## NOT GEORGE WASHINGTON

## MIKE

## THE ADVENTURES OF SALLY

## THE MAN WITH TWO LEFT FEET

## MY MAN JEEVES

## THE POLITENESS OF PRINCES

## A WODEHOUSE MISCELLANY

## A MAN OF MEANS

## MIKE AND PSMITH

## LOVE AMONG THE CHICKENS

## JILL THE RECKLESS

## THE GIRL ON THE BOAT

EBOOKSWITHOUTLINKEDCONTENTS:

SOMETHING NEW

A DAMSEL IN DISTRESS

THE LITTLE NUGGET

UNEASY MONEY

THREE MEN AND A MAID

THE LITTLE WARRIOR

THE GOLD BAT

WILLIAM TELL TOLD AGAIN

THE GEM COLLECTOR

RIGHT HO, JEEVES