Ripples in the Pond

1

About the Authors Nicole Emilia Delgadillo Nicole Emilia Delgadillo is the Evaluation and Development Manager at the Petey Greene Program. She holds an MPhil in Criminological Research with distinction from the University of Cambridge and a BA in Hispanic Studies and Psychology from Columbia University. Her interest is in applied interdisciplinary research that is participatory, inclusive, and responsive that can be mobilized by practitioners to better serve their target populations. Her master’s dissertation was an exploratory, qualitative impact study of Inside Criminal Justice, a collaborative educational program that brings incarcerated students and prosecutors together inside correctional facilities to discuss issues of criminal justice and learn from one another. In addition to her research experience, Nicole spent over three years at the Center for Justice at Columbia University implementing educational programming and support programs for incarcerated and formerly incarcerated youth and adults in the New York City area, before coming to the Petey Greene Program. She first served as the Demonstration Program Manager, a new role designing and implementing pilot programs for scale. She has also served as PGP’s Regional Manager in New York, overseeing all programming and strategic growth in the region, before transitioning to her current role at the end of 2024. She can be reached at ndelgadillo@peteygreene.org with any questions about the methodology or findings.

Chiara Benetollo, PhD Chiara Benetollo, PhD, is the Executive Director of the Puttkammer Center for Educational Justice at the Petey Greene Program. Chiara holds a PhD from Princeton University and, prior to joining the Petey Greene Program, she served as a Visiting Assistant Professor at Bryn Mawr College and as the BA Coordinator at Princeton University Prison Teaching Initiative. Chiara’s research explores the simultaneous creation of model bodies and national identities through rhetoric and narrative, with a focus on the history of carceral education in the US, and on the Italian and Russian political and literary traditions. Her articles have appeared in numerous Italian, Russian, and American publications, including Cases on Academic Program Redesign for Greater Racial and Social Justice, Diacritica, and Modern Language Notes.

2

Summary While several studies have highlighted the benefits of volunteering for individuals and communities, there is a very limited body of research focused on the experiences of volunteers working within the carceral system, with even more minimal study on volunteers in correctional educational programs. Addressing this gap, this study investigates the experience of volunteer tutors operating inside carceral facilities as part of the Petey Greene Program, a nonprofit organization with the dual mission of fostering the academic goals of incarcerated and formerly incarcerated students, while educating volunteers and the broader public on the injustice manifest in the carceral system. Through the analysis of survey data from almost 250 volunteers in seven states, we found that volunteer tutors, particularly those who did not come from system-impacted communities, increasingly participated in change-making activities, engaged their communities in conversation about broader issues within the criminal-legal system, and had an increased belief in their ability to advocate for others. This also suggests that the PGP experience—and by extension, volunteering in carceral spaces more generally—transforms volunteers into advocates for change that can mobilize their communities and create bridges for formerly incarcerated people upon their release.

Through a meaningful volunteering experience, a single individual can go on to activate and impact their networks, amplifying one person’s experience to encourage others around them to raise awareness and take action for change.

3

The Petey Greene Program and its Volunteers The Petey Greene Program (PGP) is a non-profit organization that supports the academic and career goals of incarcerated and formerly incarcerated people through high-quality tutoring and other academic programs, while educating volunteers and the public on the manifest injustice in our carceral system. The organization is the largest multi-state provider of individualized educational support services for incarcerated and formerly incarcerated students. Since its founding in 2008, it has supported over 20,000 students in 130 correctional facilities.

The PGP’s direct services are provided entirely by trained community volunteers with staff support and oversight. The organization mobilizes volunteers from a wide range of life experiences and backgrounds, both academic and professional. Founded by Princeton University alumni, the PGP initially engaged primarily Princeton students. The organization has since expanded to welcome volunteers from a variety of university partners and academic backgrounds at the undergraduate, graduate, and professorial level across the Northeast.

Volunteers also include recent graduates, young professionals, mid-career employees, and retirees across a variety of industries including consulting, tech, education, finance, and non-profit organizations, to name a few. They spend approximately 5 hours per week teaching or tutoring, preparing for their session, and traveling to correctional facilities, and they remain engaged in the program for three semesters on average.

While the PGP offers a variety of services, from tutoring and college readiness programs to out-of-school-time recreational activities, the majority of its volunteers are engaged as tutors. Volunteer tutors offer targeted, consistent academic support in one-on-one and small group tutoring sessions both inside correctional facilities and in reentry and community programs for a broad range of academic subjects, from foundational literacy to pre-college and college-level work. The use of volunteers allows the PGP to meet a wide variety of academic needs, ensuring that students receive a tailored and supportive experience and benefit from an array of academic interests and experiences. Volunteers also multiply the number of learners the PGP is able to serve and ensure that they receive individualized, one-on-one or small group support on a scale that would otherwise not be possible: since its founding, the organization has placed more than 6,000 volunteers. Finally, this model enables the PGP to engage volunteers in the struggle for educational justice through the collaborative experience of working alongside and learning from system-impacted scholars, creating advocates for students beyond the classroom.

4

The PGP envisions a world where all incarcerated people have access to highquality academic programs and strives to inspire all program alumni—both students and tutors alike—to become advocates for structural change and to take on leadership roles that move towards reimagining the criminal-legal system. The PGP believes in the transformative power of education and colearning: tutors are partners to the students that they work with and gain as much knowledge from the people they interact with as they share.

The PGP’s Definition of High-Quality Tutoring High-quality tutoring sessions are consistent, student-centered, and customized to students’ preferences, needs, strengths, interests, and goals.

High-quality tutors are knowledgeable, enthusiastic about tutoring, and equipped with a variety of tutoring strategies to confidently guide work with students during and across sessions. The PGP commits to leading a highquality tutoring program by providing centralized, consistent support for a collaborative community of tutors through training and diverse tutoring resources.

A Commitment to High-Quality Education The PGP is committed to providing high-quality education. Volunteers are rigorously vetted through a multi-pronged selection process, and they receive at least ten hours of training during their first semester of service. After completing an application, prospective volunteers participate in a short interview assessing both tutoring skills via a mock tutoring session and motivations for volunteering (i.e., evaluating beliefs about incarcerated people, structural inequality, and saviorism). Selected volunteers participate in a five-hour national training session designed to provide them with an overview of mass incarceration and the carceral state in the US, to enhance their understanding of the challenges faced by incarcerated and reentering learners, and to educate them on ethical volunteerism. They also participate in separate training specific to their placement that includes logistics, subject matter specific resources, student profiles, and any information relevant to their volunteer site. During the semester, tutors have access to additional training sessions on tutoring strategies related to specific subject areas and pedagogy, including writing and math. Finally, tutors also participate in the Justice Education Series (JES), a series of webinars featuring prominent activists and scholars, dedicated to understanding the challenges that system-impacted people face during incarceration and after they are released.

5

Measuring the Impact of the Volunteer Experience The PGP’s model has been proven to be highly effective in supporting the academic progress of system impacted learners: a 2013 study found that students progressed more than 1 full grade level per semester in both reading and math, and passed the GED at a higher rate than the facility average (Kowalski, 2013). A more recent study showed that the students who completed the PGP’s College Bridge program significantly improved their academic writing skills and gained a more nuanced understanding of effective argumentative writing; engagement with tutors boosted assignment completion rates by more than 10% (Benetollo, 2021). But what about the impact on volunteers themselves? In 2022, the PGP set out to answer this question by designing a new survey that is now administered to all volunteers on an annual basis.

The survey is designed to provide programmatic feedback and to assess the impact of the volunteer experience on volunteer tutors’ lives beyond the classroom. Volunteers complete the survey at the end of their first semester of tutoring, and subsequently every two semesters for the duration of their engagement with the PGP. The volunteer experience survey includes 51 questions, focused on three key domains: preparation (i.e., general tutoring strategies/training, placement-specific information, and logistics), participation (experience of tutoring itself), and impact (personal and community effect of volunteer experience outside of tutoring). It utilizes a mixed methods approach primarily using a 5-point Likert design and includes four open-ended responses corresponding to each major domain, and one catchall open response for additional thoughts that may not have been covered by the survey. The survey is also integrated with the PGP’s volunteer database on Salesforce. Thanks to this integration, metadata on volunteer demographics and program placement are incorporated in the survey results, which are then shared in anonymized form.

1

The survey was developed in 2022 by the PGP team through conversation with regional program teams and the national leadership team, including the Director of Curriculum and Training, who oversees tutor training, as well as the Director of Equity, Inclusion, and Justice Education, who was responsible for elevating and supporting Black volunteers, increasing their representation in the PGP’s volunteer pool. Once their feedback had been incorporated, the survey was sent to a member of the PGP’s advisory board with extensive evaluation experience in the criminal justice field to establish face validity.

1

This survey builds on a previous survey developed in 2021 by Drs. Sarah Trocchio and Joanna Kubik at Rider University.

6

The survey was designed to gather both quantitative and qualitative data about various facets of the volunteer experience. In early spring 2023, the design team launched an initial pilot phase of a small group of testers, including two regular testers and one “supertester” from each of the PGP’s regional offices. Regular testers completed the survey and, at the end of each section, were prompted to identify any issues with language, clarity, format, etc. “Super-testers” were invited to take the survey via Zoom in real-time with the design team to assess the experience of the survey as well as the language and clarity of each of the 51 questions for validity and reliability. All testers who participated received a $20 Visa gift card. Both groups of testers were also used to evaluate the comprehensiveness of the survey overall to ensure that the questions covered the breadth of the volunteer experience.

This study focuses on responses received between the Spring 2023 and the Summer 2024 semesters. During this time, there were a total of 1,463 volunteers that were placed across 5 semesters. The survey was distributed 733 times to 678 unique people, ultimately yielding a 35% response rate, with 259 responses from 245 unique respondents who had completed over 2,780 hours of service in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Washington, DC.

Survey Participation Criteria For the purpose of this study, the survey was distributed to volunteers who: 1. were in their first or third semester of volunteering; 2 2. had tutored for at least two sessions during the semester; and 3. had served as tutors (rather than instructors).3

Demographics of the PGP Tutors The majority of the tutor respondents identify as white (54%), with another 16% as Asian, 10% as Black or African-American, 9% multiracial, 6% Hispanic, 2% Middle Eastern, 2% choosing to self-describe and 1% declining to respond. he majority of respondents were also women at 69%, with men at 27%, and 3% as non-binary. This demographic profile is consistent with a systematic review of 2

Thirty-two volunteers in this sample were sent the survey twice: 12 (37.5%) received it and did not respond to either request, 12 (37.5%) received it twice and completed it once, and 8 (25%) received it twice and completed it twice.

3

In its inaugural distribution, the survey was sent to all current volunteers (those who had volunteered for at least two sessions in Spring 2023). The first/third semester criteria was added in the second round for Summer 2023, and was also sent to those who had previously volunteered in Spring 2023, but did not complete the survey request during the first distribution. All subsequent semesters use the criteria above.

7

of the literature about prison volunteering that found that most volunteers in carceral spaces are white women (Wu et al., 2023). Of the volunteers surveyed, 69% were affiliated with a university, either as a current undergraduate or graduate student or faculty member, while 31% came from the broader community (i.e., early career professionals, educators, retirees, etc.). Seventy-nine percent of respondents were not impacted directly by the criminal legal system while 3% chose not to respond. Forty-two of the 245 respondents identified as being impacted by the criminal legal system. Of those 42, the majority were impacted by familial system involvement (23 respondents or 55%), 21% by both family and community impaction, 12% directly themselves, 7% by community, and 2% by familial, communal, and self impaction.4 Self-Describe Hispanic 2% 6% Multiracial 9%

Black or African American 10%

White 54%

Asian 16%

Seventy-seven percent of respondents volunteered in traditional carceral settings (prisons, jails, youth detention facilities), while 21% worked in reentry, diversion, or other community program settings, with just 1% in both settings, reflecting a similar distribution of the PGP’s programming across the Northeast. Eighty-seven percent of tutoring occurred in-person, 11% working online only, and 5% working in a hybrid of both.

4

Twenty-three respondents for family, 9 for family/community, 5 for self, 3 for community, and 1 for family/community/self.

8

The PGP is continually diversifying its tutoring base, so that its volunteers increasingly reflect the experiences and backgrounds of the students served both inside and in the community. As a leading provider of education for incarcerated people, the PGP seeks to center incarcerated, formerly incarcerated, and system-impacted people (those with family history of incarceration) in its work. The PGP makes a concerted effort to recruit formerly incarcerated, system-impacted people, and people of color more generally as both tutors and staff, given the inordinate impact of the carceral system on Black men and women. Currently, 40% of the PGP’s staff identify as systemimpacted, either through their own experience or4 through that of a family member, loved one, or community. The PGP also recognizes that recruiting more system-impacted tutors and/or tutors of color requires specialized and targeted support and consideration, given the endemic 2racism of the US carceral state. That commitment is reflected in the HBCU Forward Initiative in 3 collaboration with Howard University. As part of the PGP’s latest strategic plan, the organization is working to implement recommendations from this initiative to predominantly white institutions that constitute the majority of university partners in its network as well as more broadly continuing this diversification of the PGP’s volunteer base over the next four years.

The Impact of Volunteering Research shows that volunteering can help an individual gain insight into themselves and their place in the world to form a sense of self that is respectable, that promotes social belonging and positive change (Tierney et al., 2021). Volunteering has also been shown to have favorable impacts on depression, life satisfaction, and wellbeing, though the mechanisms through which this occurs need further study (Jenkinson et al., 2013). While there is a wealth of research on the impact of volunteering in general, there are comparatively few empirical studies focused specifically on those who volunteer in carceral settings: a meta-analysis in 2023 by Wu et al. found just 8 studies that focused on the motivations and experiences of prison volunteers, with a greater focus on those who provided religious services inside. Some applicable literature also comes from evaluations of the Inside-Out program which uses a related model to the PGP in that it emphasizes co-learning between traditional college students and incarcerated students. Scholarship on the Inside-Out program includes the value of the program to challenge assumptions about incarcerated people through shared intellectual inquiry and shifting perspectives on larger policy issues (Arthur, 2017) and the responsibility towards civic engagement that outside students felt as a result of their experience (Allred et al., 2019).

9

Allport’s contact hypothesis posits that prejudicial attitudes can be reduced through contact with stigmatized groups through structured interactions in environments that do not reproduce hierarchical structures with four primary conditions: equal status, intergroup collaboration, common goals and institutional support (Allport, 1979). Acquaintanceship or friendship has also been studied as part of a successful contact encounter (Cook, 1985; Pettigrew, 1998). The contact hypothesis has been demonstrated to reduce intergroup prejudice both in racial and ethnic groups, as well as other prejudices such as those toward the LGBTQ community, or those with intellectual disabilities (Pettigrew and Tropp, 2006; Paluck et al., 2018). The contact hypothesis has also increasingly been used in broader policy discussions and works well both as a theoretical framework and political tool (Paluck et al., 2018). Part of the PGP model can be understood as in conversation with the contact hypothesis: while volunteers in the program come to this experience recognizing incarcerated students’ humanity, forging individual relationships and gaining increased proximity to the realities of the carceral state outside of popular media narratives deepens their understanding of the carceral state and the real stigma faced by system-impacted people. The volunteer experience also meets Allport’s proposed conditions: the PGP emphasizes a non-hierarchical co-learning approach to tackle a shared goal of educational progress (working on a piece of homework, studying for a test) and mutual learning. In line with Allport and supporting research on the contact hypothesis, the PGP volunteer experience decreases stigma and strengthens advocacy around reducing broader prejudicial attitudes towards incarcerated individuals.

The PGP Volunteer Experience The PGP’s volunteers experienced impact across several major domains: in their actions related to engaging in change-making activities, their self-perception as advocates, and a resulting increasing belief in the value of system-impacted leadership and the value of education.

In particular, a high percentage of volunteers (86%) reported that they planned to engage in change-making efforts as a result of their PGP experience—a deepening of their commitment to social change. Volunteers reported both an increasing awareness of injustice (72% strongly agree) as well as an increasing belief in the value of education (83% strongly agree). Working directly with incarcerated and formerly incarcerated students—gaining a firsthand perspective on the issue of incarceration, and critically, on the importance of educational justice—bolsters volunteers’ commitment. Planning is a measure of intent to engage, but how much of this intent then manifests into concrete

10

action? The survey included two proxy metrics to assess the translation of this increased awareness into change-making efforts: confirmation of engagement in change-making, and increase in conversations with family, friends, and community members around the criminal legal system.

Eighty-seven percent of volunteers reported an increase in engaging in conversations around issues of mass incarceration with friends, family, and community members as a result of their volunteer experience. Engaging in conversation with others is also of note: because the vast majority of this survey population (79%) did not identify as system-impacted, their ability to engage with and educate others who may not be as familiar with carceral issues is high.

Mass incarceration and surveillance disproportionately impact more marginalized groups like people of color (fwd.us, 2018, pp. 16, 26), low-income families (Justice Policy Institute and Prison Policy Initiative, 2015; Looney and Turner, 2018), and queer and trans folks (Stammen and Ghandnoosh, 2022), and tend to cluster around geographic areas (Widra and Encalada-Malinowski, 2022; Monaghan et al., 2023 pp. 26–27), many of which are the result of redlining policies (Justice Policy Institute and Prison Policy Initiative, 2015), white flight, and other discriminatory policies designed to isolate and contain these groups (examined in depth by Richard Rothstein’s Color of Law). A 2022 study also found that the majority of Americans’ friendship networks tend to be racially, politically, religiously homogeneous, particularly for white people, as well as highly interconnected (Public Religion Research Institute, 2024). Thus, because the PGP’s volunteer pool contains a majority of individuals untouched by mass incarceration, it can be extrapolated out that their communities may also not have the same direct proximity with the criminal legal system. In this way, one can conceptualize a PGP volunteer’s experience as a ripple in a pond, radiating out to others in their lives armed both with their personal experience of working directly with students as well as with theoretical and academic knowledge through programming like the Justice Education Series. Volunteers may find themselves in spaces that are not as accessible to students impacted by incarceration, both physically as free people as well as due to life experiences, racial or class privilege, material resource disparities, and other societallymanufactured barriers, but can advocate for them in absentia.

Furthermore, 93% of volunteers shared that tutoring with the PGP strengthened their beliefs in the importance of system-impacted leadership—that is to say, they realize the value in not just opening the door for system-impacted students but allowing them to lead the way. Growing scholarship has increasingly affirmed the need for proximate leadership to make effective change:

11

“Importantly, proximate leaders also can recognize and leverage assets within communities that are often overlooked or misunderstood when viewed through a dominant culture lens” (Jackson et al., 2020). In this way, volunteers function as bidirectional opportunity-makers: they both raise awareness through their own experience and the experiences of students with people and spaces that are not exposed to that lived reality (disrupting stereotypes and harmful narratives) while also paving the way for the students they advocate for to lead the conversation. These conversations contribute to reducing stigma around histories of criminal legal involvement through education about what that experience is like, who truly is inside prisons and jails, and what challenges they 4 face when they come home. Ensuring reentry success relies on providing individuals with tangible skills certainly, as well as creating opportunity and community for them.

Eighty-three percent of the PGP volunteers also believe that they are effective advocates for change. Transforming all participants, both students and tutors alike, into advocates for both themselves and broader system change has long been part of the PGP vision. Engaging in conversation with others is certainly beneficial, but having those same conversations from the mindset of an advocate is even better. Self-conception as an advocate lends efficacy to the advocacy work more broadly. Believing in one’s own ability to make change can aid in the persuasiveness and commitment needed to actualize the desired outcome.

If contact with incarcerated students is the main driver of the changes in the volunteer behaviors and beliefs, the PGP’s tutor training provides crucial context for the experience. Indeed, the PGP program model includes training and engagement opportunities that equip tutors with adequate theoretical knowledge and frameworks to ground their discussions, advocacy, and further exploration. Framing the volunteer experience as an ongoing educational practice, both in the classroom with the student, and outside with familiarizing themselves with current issues in the field, allows volunteers to continually evolve and harness tools for improved advocacy. It also situates volunteers in the evolving carceral scholarship landscape, providing them access to a field that is ever growing, and bringing them into contact with new perspectives.

12

Remarkably, the PGP’s tutor training and tutoring experience increased the self-confidence and self-advocacy of incarcerated scholars, too. In 2024, the PGP piloted a new initiative, training incarcerated scholars in two correctional facilities to serve as tutors for a college readiness program. Preliminary data from the first cohort of incarcerated scholars trained by the PGP showed that, out of 194 respondents, 136 (80%) agreed that their participation in the PGP’s programming made them more confident in their ability to succeed in the goals they set for themselves. Measures of confidence related to self-belief have been found to have high correlations with academic achievement (Stankov, 2013). These important gains in self-confidence around their own 4 ability to reach success is a key ingredient in building advocacy: believing that one has the power to achieve something helps to guide 2meaningful steps towards that goal, and provides resiliency in the face of inevitable challenges or setbacks. Building self-efficacy and confidence 3 in students, particularly those inside correctional facilities, also has powerful implications for the environments around them and the ripple effects for educational success and culture change. If the same phenomenon that occurs with tutors is replicated among the students the PGP serves, then these programs are not just serving to provide academic stepping stones for people, but transforming them similarly into advocates both for the value of education and for achieving equity for those around them.

Conclusion At its heart, the PGP experience is about the power of individual connection and support. The PGP experience is defined by high-quality academic support as well as fostering a space of humanity, freedom, dreams, and collaboration. The oneon-one relationships built by mutual learning and support leave lasting impressions on volunteers that deepen their commitment to being change agents. To embark on a learning journey is to continually find commonalities, to know that we are more alike than different, and to seek truth together. To volunteer with the PGP is to support a student’s growth and to be subsequently changed as a person. Advocating for a collaborative learning approach also works to disrupt the traditional hierarchies of teacher and student, as well as the valuation of particular kinds of knowledge over others.

Lessons learned from the PGP’s success are applicable beyond the field of carceral education. In a time of increasing division and polarization in politics (see for example Brenan, 2025) and media, the value of conversation and

13

exposure to those unlike us or those who are unfamiliar with our lived realities has become increasingly salient. While it is increasingly easy to become siloed from issues that impact communities beyond our own, the experience of the PGP’s volunteers highlights the potential of a model that relies on one-on-one encounters and human relationships to activate advocates and change makers.

As tutors become advocates for educational justice in communities that would otherwise be far removed from the carceral system, an initial service-focused engagement becomes a stepping stone towards systems change. The PGP’s volunteer experience is the initial pebble in the pond, generating ripple effects beyond the participants.

Works Cited Allport, G. W. (1979). The Nature of Prejudice (3rd ed.). Basic Books.

Allred, S. L., Boyd, C., Cotton, T., & Perry, P. (2019). Participatory evaluation in a prison education program: Meaning & community building within inside-out think tanks. Corrections: Policy, Practice, and Research, 5(1), 6–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/23774657.2019.1604193 Allred, S. L., Harrison, L. D., & O’Connell, D. J. (2013). Self-Efficacy: An Important Aspect of Prison-Based Learning. The Prison Journal, 93(2), 211–233. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032885512472964 Arthur, D. S. (2017). Bridges to a brighter future: University-corrections partnerships as a sustainability issue.

In B. D. Wortham-Galvin, J. H. Allen, & J. D. B. Sherman (Eds.), University-Community Partnerships (pp. 75– 88). Routledge. Retrieved January 31, 2025, from https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5e7b8978d189ac46cb02828e/t/65f0600bcf3a0961b1bee03b/1710252047 154/Bridges+to+a+Brighter+Future.pdf.

Brenan, M. (2025, January 16). U.S. political parties historically polarized ideologically. Gallup News. https://news.gallup.com/poll/655190/political-parties-historically-polarized-ideologically.aspx Brenan, M. (2024, October 9). Economy most important issue to 2024 presidential vote. Gallup News. https://news.gallup.com/poll/651719/economy-important-issue-2024-presidential-vote.aspx Cook, S. W. (1985). Experimenting on social issues: The case of school desegregation. American Psychologist, 40(4), 452–460. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.40.4.452 Faniel, M. L., Muhammad, B., & Dhanaraj, N. (2021). (rep.). Elevating and Supporting Black Volunteer Tutors In Partnership with HBCUs: HBCU Forward Initiative at Howard University Phase 1 Report - Spring/Summer 2021. The Petey Greene Program. Retrieved December 2, 2024, from https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5345d0c1e4b0b2e29e338463/t/6166b42ce75b0c485a11829d/1634120751 975/Phase_1_Report_HBCU_Forward_Initiative_at_Howard_University.pdf. fwd.us. (2018). (rep.). Every Second: The Impact of the Incarceration Crisis on America’s Families. Retrieved December 3, 2025, from https://everysecond.fwd.us/downloads/everysecond.fwd.us.pdf.

Jackson, A., Kania, J., & Montgomery, T. (2020, October 2). Effective change requires proximate leaders.

Stanford Social Innovation Review. Retrieved December 5, 2024, from https://ssir.org/articles/entry/effective_change_requires_proximate_leaders#.

14

Jenkinson, C. E., Dickens, A. P., Jones, K., Thompson-Coon, J., Taylor, R. S., Rogers, M., Bambra, C. L., Lang, I., & Richards, S. H. (2013). Is volunteering a public health intervention? A systematic review and meta-analysis of the Health and survival of volunteers. BMC Public Health, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-773 Justice Policy Institute, & Prison Policy Initiative. (2015). (rep.). The Right Investment?: Corrections Spending in Baltimore City. Prison Policy Initiative. Retrieved January 28, 2025, from https://www.prisonpolicy.org/origin/md/report.html.

Kowalski, D. J. (2013). (rep.). Evaluating the Impact of the Petey Greene Prisoner Assistance Program. New Jersey Department of Corrections. Retrieved December 5, 2024, from https://bit.ly/3Lx9SgZ Looney, A., & Turner, N. (2018). (rep.). Work and opportunity before and after incarceration. The Brookings Institution. Retrieved January 29, 2025, from https://www.brookings.edu/wpcontent/uploads/2018/03/es_20180314_looneyincarceration_final.pdf.

Monaghan, S., Rempel, M., & Lin, T. (2023). (rep.). Racial Disparities in the Use of Jail Across New York City, 2016-2021. John Jay College of Criminal Justice. Retrieved December 2, 2024, from https://datacollaborativeforjustice.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/DisparitiesReport-27.pdf.

Paluck, E. L., Green, S.A., & Green, D.P. (2018). The contact hypothesis re-evaluated. Behavioural Public Policy, 3(02), 129–158. https://doi.org/10.1017/bpp.2018.25 Pettigrew, T. F. (1998). Intergroup contact theory. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 65–85. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.65 Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2006). A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(5), 751–783. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.751 Public Religion Research Institute. (2024, May 24). PRRI Survey: Friendship Networks of White Americans Continue to Be 90% White. Retrieved December 6, 2024, from https://www.prri.org/press-release/prri-surveyfriendship-networks-of-white-americans-continue-to-be-90-white/.

Stammen, E., & Ghandnoosh, N. (2022). (rep.). Incarcerated LGBTQ+ Adults and Youth. The Sentencing Project. Retrieved December 12, 2025, from https://www.sentencingproject.org/app/uploads/2022/10/Incarcerated-LGBTQ-Youth-and-Adults.pdf.

Stankov, L. (2013). Noncognitive predictors of intelligence and academic achievement: An important role of confidence. Personality and Individual Differences, 55(7), 727–732. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.07.006 Tierney, S., Mahtani, K. R., Wong, G., Todd, J., Roberts, N., Akinyemi, O., Howes, S., & Turk, A. (2022). The role of volunteering in supporting well-being – What might this mean for social prescribing? A best-fit framework synthesis of qualitative research. Health & Social Care in the Community, 30, e325–e346. https://doi.org/10.1111/hsc.13516 Widra, E., & Encalada-Malinowski, N. (2022). (rep.). Where people in prison come from: The geography of mass incarceration in New York. Prison Policy Institute. Retrieved December 1, 2024, from https://www.prisonpolicy.org/origin/ny/2020/report.html.