Social problems a down to earth approach 12th edition henslin solutions manual

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Chapter 6

Crime and Criminal Justice A. CHAPTER OVERVIEW This chapter explores the essential nature of crime, and what groups in a society have the power to write and enforce laws. We analyze the criminal justice system, its biases in regard to race–ethnicity, gender, geography, and the disparity in sentencing, as well as how this current system fails to prevent crime. We examine different insights into the problem of criminal violence from all three theoretical perspectives, specifically looking at juvenile delinquency, white-collar crime, and organized crime. We also consider the role of deterrence, evaluate rehabilitation programs, and look at the debate over incapacitation. Finally, we discuss social policies and the need for fundamental changes based on sound sociological research.

B. LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, the student should be able to: 6.1 Explain what crime is, why crime is relative, and how something becomes a crime.

6.2 Explain why both crime and the criminal justice system are social problems and why crime is universal.

6.3 Explain how symbols (labels) affected the lives of the Saints and the Roughnecks, their role in police discretion, and why this makes us cautious about crime statistics.

6.4 Explain how core social values produce crime and how crime is related to the “opportunity structure.”

6.5 Explain how power and social class are related to social inequality in the legal system.

6.6 Explain how juvenile delinquency developed, the extent of juvenile crime, the delinquent career, neutralization techniques, and how education is related to delinquency.

6.7 Be familiar with criminogenic cultures, lethal white-collar crime, embezzlement, theft, and the relationship of gender and social class to white-collar crime.

6.8 Know what professional crime is and how professional criminals maintain their secrecy and values.

6.9 Know what organized crime is and reasons for the Mafia’s success.

6.10 Explain why plea bargaining, bias, recidivism, the death penalty, and the prison experience are part of the criminal justice system as a social problem.

6.11 Discuss retribution, deterrence, rehabilitation, and incapacitation as goals of social policy.

6.12 Explain the likely future of crime and criminal justice.

1 Copyright © 2018, 2014 by Pearson Education

C. CHAPTER OUTLINE I.

The Problem in Sociological Perspective a. What Is Crime? i.

The essential nature of crime: The law—Crime is a violation of a law that at one point in history may have been legal, but now is not. ii. The relativity of crime—Laws differ from one society to another and so does crime, so what may be illegal can become encouraged as a virtue. iii. Making something criminal: A political process—Determining which behavior is criminal is a political process; therefore, groups in a society that have power write laws that protect them.

II.

The Scope of the Problem—The criminal justice system is made up of police, courts, jails, and prisons to deal with crime that the public believes threatens their safety, peace, or quality of life. But the system itself perhaps fails to prevent crime or rehabilitate offenders, and discriminates against some citizens. a. Crime as a Social Problem i.

Why is crime a social problem?—Although crime rates have been dropping, there are over 13,000 Americans murdered each year, up to 200,000 Americans raped, another 350,000 robbed, 700,000 have their car stolen, and another 2 million have their homes broken into. Both men and women have fears about their personal safety, equating to crime being a social problem. (See Short Assignments 1) ii. Why is crime universal?—Each society passes laws against behaviors that it considers a threat to its well-being, so passing a law never eliminates a behavior, but it does identify it as illegal.

III.

Looking at the Problem Theoretically a. Symbolic Interactionism—Examine the social class bias of police enforcement and why we must view crime statistics with caution. Among the symbols that affect our perception and behavior are social class, reputation, and demeanor. (See Lecture Starters 1)

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IV.

i.

The saints and the roughnecks: Social class and labeling— Research by Chambliss (1973/2014) observed that the saints were some of the most delinquent boys in a school. But they were viewed as “saints headed for success” because they were from upper-middle-class, stable white families. While the roughnecks committed fewer criminal acts than the saints, they were considered by teachers to be headed for “serious trouble.” The difference in the police interrogating and arresting these two groups were due to the styles of interaction, the visibility of each group, and the labeling that affected people’s perceptions of delinquent behaviors.

ii.

Police discretion—Research shows that different styles of interaction affect outcomes with the police and proves the significance of how they viewed respect. The more a suspect matches the police’s idea of a criminal, the more likely they are to arrest that person.

iii.

Caution about crime statistics—Social class influences the reactions of authorities, affecting who shows up in official statistics.

Functionalism—Functionalists see crime as an adaptation to a society’s core values. Therefore, they view property crime as inherent in societies that socialize people of all social classes to desire material success, when the legitimate means to achieve success are limited. a.

Crime and Society’s Core Values—Our society has to fill many positions that require different levels of ability and diligence, but we motivate everyone to strive for success. This provokes an intense competition that allows some of the talented to emerge as victors, and a strain is created for those without resources. People react to this strain in four primary ways—innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion—usually in illegitimate ways.

b. Social class and illegitimate opportunities—Poor children usually attend schools that are inferior, which creates barriers to success and high dropout rates among working-class students. This opens the door to illegitimate opportunity structures woven into urban slums, such as robbery, burglary, drug dealing, prostitution, and other income-producing crimes. The middle and upper classes are also attracted to these different illegitimate opportunities but are more likely to commit white-collar crimes such as tax evasion, fraud, securities violations, and Ponzi schemes.

3 Copyright © 2018, 2014 by Pearson Education

V.

Conflict Theory—This theory examines how the law comes down hardest on the poor while providing leniency toward the wealthy. a.

VI.

Power and Social Class: Inequality in the Legal System—Conflict theorists regard the criminal justice system not as a system, but as a device used by the powerful to keep them in power. They use law enforcement to control workers, mask injustice, and prevent revolt.

Types of Crime a. Juvenile Delinquency i.

The origin of juvenile delinquency: A perceptual shift— Historically children who committed crimes were treated as adults, but over the years, laws were passed to consider them as juveniles, with a separate criminal justice system for those under age 18. ii. Extent of juvenile crime—Some juveniles commit status crimes, which is illegal behavior only for those of a specific age, such as drinking, running away, or violating a curfew. But the public is most concerned with more serious crimes. (See Discussion Questions 2) iii.

The “delinquent career”—Patterns have been identified that propel some juveniles into continued involvement in crimes, even though 59 percent of youths who are arrested never return to juvenile court. Juveniles with a first arrest for underage drinking, running away, or shoplifting are least likely to return to juvenile court.

Girls are less likely than boys to be rearrested. Research confirms an extraordinary drop in juvenile crime, but a greater involvement of juvenile girls in crime. The following are patterns of career juveniles: 1. The return of juveniles to the court after the first arrest only occurs in 49 percent of these youth.

2. Juveniles most likely to continue delinquent behavior are those arrested a second time prior to the age of 16.

3. Juveniles who are charged with a violent crime are likely to have already committed many crimes.

4. Those juveniles charged at age 13 are twice as likely to be arrested for a later offense as those first charged at age 16.

5. Juveniles who are less likely to be rearrested are those whose first charge was for burglary, truancy, motor vehicle theft, or robbery.

6. Juveniles who are the least likely to be rearrested are those whose first charge was underage drinking, running away, or shoplifting.

7. Girls are less likely to be rearrested. iv.

Neutralizing deviance—Sociologists Sykes and Matza (1957) concluded that juveniles used five main techniques to neutralize their crimes to commit them with a minimum amount of guilt or 4 Copyright © 2018, 2014 by Pearson Education

v. vi.

VII.

shame.

1. Denial of responsibility—They were pushed by forces beyond their control.

2. Denial of injury—The acts were seen as pranks or just having a little fun.

3. Denial of a victim—The person they hurt was not really a victim, they were just getting even.

4. Condemnation of the condemners—They attack others to deflect attention away from their own behavior.

5. Appeal to higher loyalties—The law pulled them one way, but loyalty to friends was stronger.

Delinquent subcultures—These are groups in which criminal activities are a normal part of every life.

Education and delinquency—Sociological research shows that those who graduate from high school are less likely to commit crimes. Although it may be costly to educate high school students, it costs more to society to let them drop out of school.

White-Collar Crime—Crimes committed by people of respectable and high social status in the course of their occupations. a. Criminogenic Subcultures—Work environments that encourage and support the commission of crimes and result in “ethical numbness,” in which it becomes okay to violate the law to gain profits and personal success. (See Classroom Activities 2) b. White-Collar Crimes that Kill—Corporations calculate profit over safety and are powerful enough to manipulate the legal system and usually escape punishment for their crimes. Some companies are accused of serial manslaughter but receive easy and light sentences. This type of treatment shows large differences in the criminal justice system in comparison to street crimes. (See Lecture Starters 3) c. Embezzlement—Some embezzlers have financial problems, so they borrow money through unauthorized loans to tide them over during their financial emergency. Others do it on impulse, are greedy or do it for the thrill of the act or to gain a more prominent place in the community. They still consider themselves to be respectable, law-abiding citizens. d. Employee Theft—This type of theft can come in many forms, including employees who steal company secrets such as formulas, manufacturing processes, or even marketing plans. It’s difficult to prove theft by an employee who begins working for a competitor and whose knowledge is inside his or her head. e. Social Class and Crime—White-collar criminals enjoy a privileged position within the criminal justice system, where their cases are more likely to be dismissed, or they’re less likely to have to put up bail. If convicted, they are more likely to be placed on probation than serve time in jail, and they get shorter sentences. f. Gender in White-Collar Crime—As women have joined the corporate 5 Copyright © 2018, 2014 by Pearson Education

world, we see that there have been increased numbers of them arrested for embezzlement.

(See Lecture Starters 2) (See Long Assignments 3) VIII.

Professional Crime a. Crime as Work—Typically people who consider crime to be their occupation pride themselves on their skills and successes. Unlike amateurs, professional criminals are not troubled by their criminality.

IX.

Organized Crime—Organization of criminals who are part of a larger network, often on a national or international scale. a. The Mafia: Origins and Characteristics—The Mafia originated in Sicily to protect local families and communities from bandits. They collected taxes in return for those protections. There are now several ethnic successions of families that are linked to each other by understandings and “treaties.” The Mafia continues to flourish and has a major business of loan-sharking, making private and illegal loans at high rates of interest. (See Discussion Questions 1) i. Reasons for the Mafia’s success—Members within these organizations live on two principles: They see themselves as family, and they have taken vows of secrecy. Various versions of organized crime will continue as these groups adapt to changing circumstances. Although they have weakened in recent years, the Mafia remains successful for the following reasons: 1. They are well organized, with full-time “experts” in different crimes.

2. Their illegal services are in high demand.

3. They wield influence through political corruption.

4. Violence and intimidation is used to control victims and its members.

X.

The Criminal Justice System a. Plea Bargaining—A plea bargain is when the state offers a reduced sentence or a lesser charge in exchange for a guilty plea. i. Following a case—In examining cases, researchers found the following principles in the criminal justice system. (See Classroom Activities 1) 1. The poor spend months behind bars awaiting a trial.

2. Defense attorneys encourage plea bargaining, whether or not the individual is guilty.

3. Prosecutors use threats of longer sentences to get guilty pleas.

4. Judges dislike unnecessary trials and impose harsher sentences on those who want trials.

5. Age, employment, and the number of previous arrests affect sentencing.

6. The number of arrests influences a sentence regardless of the seriousness of the charges.

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ii.

Assembly-line justice—Although the Constitution guarantees a person accused of a crime the right to be judged by their peers and have a speedy, public trial, in almost all cases, arrangements and bargains are made behind the scenes to avoid trials. Judges and juries only hear about 6 percent of criminal cases. There is an implicit understanding that public defenders are team players who produce assembly-line justice for the poor.

b. Bias in the Criminal Justice System—Sociologists differ in their conclusions about the judicial system discriminating along racial–ethnic lines. By using comparisons between arrest rates and crime victim reports, we end up with mixed results. For some offenses, African Americans are arrested at higher rates than what the victims report, and for other offenses, whites are arrested at higher rates than what the victims report.

The evidence of bias for or against minorities or whites is mixed and not conclusive. (See Long Assignments 2) c. Recidivism i. The revolving door of America’s prisons—Although the goal of prisons is to rehabilitate, there are high numbers of former prisoners who commit crimes and return to prison. Those who have been in prison the most often have the greater chances of going back to prison.

(See Long Assignments 1) ii. Why do our prisons fail to rehabilitate?—There are many reasons why prisons fail to rehabilitate. One reason is that prisons are socializing agents for criminal behavior. Another reason is that once a prisoner is released, he or she goes back to his or her old environment with no new skills to lead a straight life.

1. When prisoners are released, they go back to their old environments without having new skills that would help them lead a straight life. And they are in areas that offer even fewer legitimate opportunities than before. d. The Death Penalty i. Race–ethnicity—Historically, the best predictor of whether a man would be sentenced to death was knowing if the victim was white and the accused was black. In 1972, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that capital punishment was being applied unconstitutionally and was discriminatory. ii. Gender—A strong gender bias exists, since a mere 0.09 percent of women have been executed in comparison to men. This may be due to bias or real differences in the crimes men and women commit, and more research is needed to find out. iii. Geography—This makes a huge difference in a person’s chance of being executed, since 32 states have the death penalty and 18 do not.

The highest rates of executions have been found in Texas and 7 Copyright © 2018, 2014 by Pearson Education

Oklahoma.

e. The Prison Experience i. The Zimbardo experiment—A social psychologist conducted an experiment in the basement of Stanford University, in which he recruited 24 college students to participate in a makeshift prison as either guards or inmates. Within hours the prisoners felt a loss of power and personal identity and began to rebel, while the guards felt an increase in social power and status and reacted brutally to the prisoners. The experiment was stopped within six days, and today could not be duplicated due to strict guidelines for research on human subjects. This experiment did illustrate two important sociological principles: 1. A person’s sense of self was tied to the group to which he or she belonged.

2. The way that prison is organized led the guards to see their job as maintaining order and upholding authority.

XI.

Social Policy—Two Overarching Principles—In order to have social policies that will be effective, we need fair laws whose enforcement is evenhanded, regardless of people’s race–ethnicity, gender, social class, or any other characteristics.

Further, since street crime is linked to poverty, the best policy would be to reduce poverty. a. Retribution: Paying for the Crime—The basic idea is to punish criminals by having offenders compensate their victims for the harm they have done. b. Deterrence: Frightening People Away from Crime—The purpose is to make people afraid of punishment so they won’t commit crimes. i. Two principles of deterrence—Researchers have discovered two significant principles. First, the longer the interval between a crime and its punishment, the less the deterrence or fear of punishment becomes. Second, the more uncertain the penalty, the less deterrence works. Therefore, some propose uniform sentencing given to everyone convicted of the same crime. ii. Irrationality: Impulse and taking chances—Critics of deterrence point out that offenders are not always rational about committing crime, but rather act on impulse, so punishment is not a deterrent. iii. “Scared Straight: A program that backfired” —This program involved delinquents going through prison tours, with the expectation that a close-up look at the prison would scare them straight. However, the research suggested that boys were impressed by the macho performance of hyper masculine inmates and committed crimes to show their peers that the talks didn’t frighten them. iv. The need of research—The failure of “Scared Straight” doesn’t mean that deterrence programs can’t work. However, there is a need for sociological research to find the programs that will work. c. Rehabilitation: Racializing Offenders—The goal is to re-socialize offenders, to help them stop committing crimes, and become conforming citizens. One approach is to use diversion programs that would divert 8 Copyright © 2018, 2014 by Pearson Education

offenders away from the criminal justice system. This would help avoid stigmatizing offenders and keep them out of the crime schools where they are socialized into committing more crimes. Here are six rehabilitation programs currently used: 1. Probation—Offenders are in the community under the supervision of a probation officer. To improve the success of these programs, it must be limited to convicts with the most promise, who receive follow-up counseling from trained officers who have small caseloads.

2. Imprisonment—Confining prisoners to teach them useful skills or educating them with high school or college courses.

3. Honor farms—Prisoners with good behavior work and live on stateowned farms, where they are supervised.

4. Furloughs—Convicts adjust gradually to nonprison life by allowing them freedom for limited time.

5. Parole—Releasing prisoners early as a reward for good behavior and supervised by a parole officer. Any violations can return them to prison.

6. Halfway houses—Releasing convicts to live in supervised settings outside of prison and reporting to parole officers. d. Incapacitation: Removing Offenders from Society—With the perception that nothing works, the public wants to remove offenders from circulation by putting them in jails and prisons. However, new technology offers other techniques, such as electronic monitoring through ankle bracelets. i.

The debate—Some sociologists are in favor of increasing a sentence each time a person is convicted of a crime, because it has shown to decrease crime rates. Others believe that factors such as drops in abortion and drug use, higher employment, and less use of heroin and crack are responsible for lower crime rates. These sociologists support better rehabilitation programs, but the public supports more incapacitation. (See Short Assignments 2) ii. Extreme incapacitation: Capital punishment—Proponents believe that death is an appropriate punishment for heinous crimes, and most Americans favor it. Opponents do not believe that killing is ever justified, nor does it deter others from killing. They argue that judges are irrational in applying the death penalty and many innocent people have been executed. States have also grown more reluctant to execute prisoners; the number of executions has dropped. e. Goals and Principles of Sound Social Policy—The United States has various approaches to solve its crime problem, but the solutions are inconsistent. Therefore, reforming the criminal justice system requires clear goals and principles such as: 1. Laws based on broader consensus rather than on the interests or morals of small groups.

2. Swift justice in which plea bargaining would be eliminated and everyone would be guaranteed a speedy trial.

3. More rehabilitation programs whose goal would be to integrate firsttime, low-level offenders into the community.

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4. Harsher penalties for violent offenders every time they are convicted of a crime.

5. Task forces to investigate organized and white-collar crimes.

6. Prison reforms by privatizing positions in the prison, training guards rigorously and paying them well, giving prisoners the right to continue their education, allowing conjugal visits, and giving nonviolent offenders the right to visit family and friends on the outside.

7. Unbiased research to determine what prevents crime and changes lawbreakers.

XII.

The Future of the Problem a) Changes in Crime—Violent crime rates have been dropping for 20 years, but experts disagree on the causes. As women take paid jobs, crimes by women will continue to increase. Since white-collar crimes are mainly undiscovered, it will be difficult to determine if it increases or decreases.

Organized crime will continue, and we can expect it to have greater involvement in computer crimes such as identity theft. b) The Criminal Justice System—Changes in this system will be slow since it’s entrenched in power by the ruling elite, who tend to focus on street crimes and overlook crimes of the powerful. c) Need for Fundamental Change—Serious changes mean that the poor need more open doors to legitimate ways of achieving success by providing quality education and training people for jobs with living wages. Therefore, to increase equality and opportunity, radical change of the social system is needed.

D. LECTURE SUGGESTIONS i.

Lecture Starters: 1. Ask students to describe television shows that deal with crime. What types of crimes are committed? Who are the criminals? Who are the victims? What are the reasons for the crimes? Ask them to describe the sex, age, race–ethnicity, and social class of both the perpetrators and the victims. How does the legal system play a role? What general impressions do the shows give of the crime problems? Start a discussion about the research findings presented in the text. (L.O.6.3) (See Chapter Outline III.a) 2. There has been an increase in crimes committed by women. Ask students to discuss why there has been an increase in these crimes. What are the types of crimes? Is women’s punishment the same as men’s? Are they aware of any woman being convicted and executed for her crime? Does social class play a role in women committing crimes today? (L.O.6.7) (See Chapter Outline VII.f) 3. In regard to white-collar crimes, the instructor can begin by showing students two photos, one of a Ford Pinto that you would find in a commercial, and a second one of a Pinto blown up in flames. This can begin the discussion about the Ford Pinto incident of people being burned alive because the company did not want to do a recall. This would visually explain how corporations decide the fate of a large number of people based on 10 Copyright © 2018, 2014 by Pearson Education

profit and not safety. (L.O.6.7) (See Chapter Outline VII.b) ii.

Classroom Activities: 1. With the help of someone in the criminal justice/justice studies department at your institution or someone involved in the criminal justice system in your community, invite an ex-convict to class. Have this person describe his or her personal history, crime committed, arrest and conviction, experiences in prison, and reasons he or she feels that this offense will not be repeated. Students could then write a brief paper in which they describe the type of crime the person committed, an explanation of the person’s behavior from a theoretical perspective, the type of sentence the person received, and what the person learned from the experience. (L.O.6.10) (See Chapter Outline X.a.i) 2. Prior to the class, have students compile some information on recent white-collar crimes from news sources. The class can discuss white-collar versus street crimes, including how they are handled through the judicial system. Students can also discuss why the public seems more concerned with street crimes than white-collar crimes.

(L.O.6.7) (See Chapter Outline VII.a)

iii.

Discussion Questions: 1. The discussion of the Mafia or organized crime is an interesting one. Have students prepare ahead of time for this discussion by bringing in information about a group they researched ahead of time. They can share patterns of those groups with their classmates.

Information should include where the organization is located, member recruitment, types of crimes committed, and any other pertinent information. A general discussion can consist of why organized crime is still evident today. (L.O.6.9) (See Chapter Outline IX.a) 2. Some believe that juveniles should not be tried as adults, while others feel that they are responsible for the crimes that they commit and should be tried for violent offenses.

Divide your students into groups of two to four to discuss why they think there are more juveniles in the legal system. Do they have friends who have been arrested? Why did they or others pursue a life of crime? What are their suggestions in regard to eliminating or reducing juvenile delinquency? (L.O.6.6) (See Chapter Outline VI.a.ii)

E. SUGGESTED ASSIGNMENTS Short Assignments: 1. Students can better relate to statistics on crime if they examine them “close to home.”

Ask them to examine the Uniform Crime Reports or other sources on the Internet that show the frequency and type of crimes committed in their home communities (or a community nearby). The local police department may be willing to provide a computer printout of types of crimes, block by block, within various precincts. Students can report their findings in the form of a chart of graph. Accompanying the figure should be a citation of where they got their information, an explanation for the patterns revealed in the figure, their own experiences with crime, how they felt after the crime occurred, and what is being done in their city or community to help prevent crime (Neighborhood Watch groups, etc.). (L.O.6.1I) (See Chapter Outline II.a.i) 11 Copyright © 2018, 2014 by Pearson Education

2. Given the nation’s “war on crime,” there continues to be a great deal of attention paid to punishment, including speculation about the deterrent value of the death penalty.

Have your students take one side of the debate, either for or against the death penalty, and argue for the position that they take. This can be a three- to four-page position paper for either one side or the other. Or it can become a classroom presentation for a group project, or individual students could create PowerPoint or poster presentations to show their evidence. (L.O.6.11) (See Chapter Outline XI.d.i) Long Assignments: 1. Students could go on a field trip to a correctional facility or local juvenile facility.

Students should write field notes about their observations, describing the surroundings in detail and recording their reactions while in the institution. One possible focus might be their observation of verbal and nonverbal symbols and behaviors that reflect the relationships between correctional officers and prisoners. If possible, allow students to interview a correctional officer or prisoner and write a report based on their views or their experience in recidivism, and what in their views are the causes and solutions. The final report could include a comparison between the two views or just each view alone.

(L.O.6.10) (See Chapter Outline X.c.i) 2. Students can conduct a content analysis of crimes reported in online newspapers from several cities throughout the United States. The students should choose from a variety of cities, both geographically and in terms of size. They should also look at several issues of the same publication, mainly focusing on bias in the criminal justice system by race, sex, or social class. They can use a coding device to record the type of crime, the social characteristics of the person(s) who committed the crime, and how the crime was resolved. To compare with these journalistic reports, students can then look up crime statistics for the cities they chose (Uniform Crime Reports) and explain if they found gaps between the groups. (L.O.6.10) (See Chapter Outline X.b) 3. Women have been more prominent in the commission of crimes in the past few decades. Speculating about the reasons for this and what it implies poses an interesting topic for a research paper. A good source of information is Ngaire Naffine’s book, Female Crime: The Construction of Women in Criminology (Boston: Allen and Irwin, 1987), which provides a feminist critique of the sociological analysis of women and crime. Naffine argues that male sociologists have been studying male criminals and assuming that everything they learn applies to female crime also. This is an excellent opportunity to emphasize the importance of perspectives in sociology and for students to find research on the types of crimes women commit today. Are women criminals found in white-collar occupations, or mainly street crimes? Any recent changes in the types of crimes? (L.O.6.7) (See Chapter Outline VII.f) F. ANNOTATED SUGGESTED FILMS/TV SHOWS Against the Grain: Deviance, 30 min. (Insight Media, 2008). In this program, sociologists question whether deviant behavior can absolutely be defined. The program looks at 12 Copyright © 2018, 2014 by Pearson Education

differing views of sexuality and violent crime. The moral, religious, and psychological factors that may influence deviance are also explored.

The Second City: Inside the World’s Largest Jail, 60 min. (Films for the Humanities and Sciences). This presentation focuses on the Los Angeles County Jail, where over 200,000 inmates are processed every year—700 on an average night. The culture of the jail is examined, along with the various problems encountered behind the walls, including institutionalized racism, brutality, and recidivism.

Beyond Conviction, 97 min. (Insight Media, 2006). Restorative justice is a new approach to criminal justice. In this program, victims of violent crimes or their family members meet face-to-face with their perpetrators. These groups are followed as they participate in Pennsylvania’s Victim–Offender Mediation.

Death Row Kids, 27 min. (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2005). This program was filmed prior to the March 2005 Supreme Court ruling barring execution for underage offenses. The story of confused, frightened young people awaiting the death penalty is told.

American History X, 119 min. (DVD, 1998). This racially charged masterpiece evokes fear and disgust from almost every person who watches it, most notably at its famously gruesome curb-stomping scene. This movie perfectly explores the racial aspect of prison, and opens viewers up to this heinous and occult world.

G. ANNOTATED SUGGESTED BOOK/JOURNAL ARTICLES 1. Why Should Law Enforcement Use Social Media to Promote Crime Prevention?

International Association of Chief of Police (December 2012), Bureau of Justice Assistance, US Department of Justice. Citizens who are engaged and empowered to be responsible for their communities are valuable assets to the work of any police department. As the popularity of social media rises, these tools provide opportunities for law enforcement agencies to proactively reach out and connect with citizens and promote crime prevention in their communities. http://www.iacpsocialmedia.org/Portals/1/documents/Fact%20Sheets/Crime%20Preventi on%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf 2. Technology-enabled Crime, Policing and Security, by Marvin I. Saraping and Mihaela Vorvoreanu, Journal of Technology Studies (2005, Vol. 32). As criminals compete with security and policing officials for technological advantage, the result is relatively confusing and therefore unmanageable threats to society. New, adaptive, and ordinary crimes emerge over time to create technology crime waves, the magnitude of which can theoretically be measured, compared, and predicted. http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JOTS/v32/v32n1/mcquade.html 3. Mistrial: An Inside Look at How the Criminal Justice System Works and Sometimes Doesn’t, by Mark Geragos and Pat Harris (April 2013). From the rise of the Internet and the 24-hour news cycle to the television ratings bonanza of the O.J. Simpson trial, a 13 Copyright © 2018, 2014 by Pearson Education

perfect storm of media coverage has given the public an unprecedented look inside the courtroom, kicking off popular courtroom shows and TV legal commentary that further illuminate how the criminal justice system operates. Or has it? Mark Geragos and Pat Harris debunk the myths of judges as Solomon-like figures, jurors as impartial arbiters of the truth, and prosecutors as super-ethical heroes.

4. Understanding “Criminogenic” Corporate Culture: What White-Collar Crime Researchers Can Learn from Studies of the Adolescent Employment–Crime Relationship,

by Robert Apel and Raymond Paternoster, The Criminology of White-Collar Crime (2009, p.15–33). This explanation purports to account for why college-educated, relatively affluent, and seemingly conventional persons can commit crimes when they are employed in white-collar occupations. The vexing paradox of “why good people do dirty work” can be resolved by positing that some organizations turn a blind eye to ethical and legal infractions if it benefits the firm, thereby creating a culture of rule breaking, which is learned just as any other business practice is learned.

5. How Does Community Context Matter? Social Mechanisms and the Explanation of Crime Rates, by R.J. Sampson, The Explanation of Crime: Context, Mechanisms and Development (2006, p.31–60, New York: Cambridge University Press). The idea of “community” is at once compelling and frustrating. Indeed, few would disagree that at some fundamental level a community’s social context matters for crime. Yet the concept is sufficiently vague that it risks becoming meaningless—if community context is all things to all people then it is simply a metaphor with no real explanatory power. What is a community? Neighborhood? Even if we can agree on the unit of analysis, what exactly about the community is doing the explaining? Do communities act? What is the mechanism at work?

H. ANNOTATED SUGGESTED WEB SITES 1. http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/investigate/organizedcrime Today, organized crime comes at us from every corner of the globe. The FBI works to cripple these national and transnational syndicates with every capability and tool they’ve got: undercover operations; confidential sources; surveillance; intelligence analysis and sharing; forensic accounting; multi-agency investigations; and the power of racketeering statutes that help them take down entire enterprises. They also work closely with international partners in some cases, swapping personnel to build cases and disrupt groups with global ties.

2. http://www.nij.gov/nij/topics/crime/welcome.htm The National Institute of Justice Web site of the US Department of Justice is dedicated to improving knowledge and understanding of crime and justice issues through science. NIJ provides objective and independent knowledge and tools to reduce crime and promote justice, particularly at the state and local levels.

3. http://www.prisonexp.org/ The official Web site of the Stanford Prison Experiment of 1971.

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4. http://www.nw3c.org/ The National White-Collar Crime Center’s training sections provide instruction in all areas of economic and cyber crime investigation and prosecution.

5. http://www.justice.gov/criminal/ocgs/ The Criminal Division’s Organized Crime and Gang Section (OCGS) is a specialized group of prosecutors charged with developing and implementing strategies to disrupt and dismantle the most significant regional, national, and international gangs and organized crime groups.

15 Copyright © 2018, 2014 by Pearson Education