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Functional Foods and

Biotechnology

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FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Editorial Advisory Board Gustavo V. Barbosa-Cánovas Washington State University–Pullman P. Michael Davidson University of Tennessee–Knoxville Mark Dreher McNeil Nutritionals, New Brunswick, NJ Richard W. Hartel University of Wisconsin–Madison Lekh R. Juneja Taiyo Kagaku Company, Japan Marcus Karel Massachusetts Institute of Technology Ronald G. Labbe University of Massachusetts–Amherst Daryl B. Lund University of Wisconsin–Madison David B. Min The Ohio State University Leo M. L. Nollet Hogeschool Gent, Belgium Seppo Salminen University of Turku, Finland John H. Thorngate III Allied Domecq Technical Services, Napa, CA Pieter Walstra Wageningen University, The Netherlands John R. Whitaker University of California–Davis Rickey Y. Yada University of Guelph, Canada

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Functional Foods and

Biotechnology edited by

Kalidas Shetty Gopinadhan Paliyath Anthony L. Pometto Robert E. Levin

Boca Raton London New York

CRC is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

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The material was previously published in Food Biotechnology, Second Edition. © CRC Press LLC 2005.

CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487‑2742 © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid‑free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 International Standard Book Number‑10: 0‑8493‑7527‑4 (Hardcover) International Standard Book Number‑13: 978‑0‑8493‑7527‑9 (Hardcover) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use.

No part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any informa‑ tion storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.

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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data Functional foods and biotechnology / editors, Kalidas Shetty ... [et al.]. p. cm. ‑‑ (Food science and technology) Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN‑13: 978‑0‑8493‑7527‑9 (alk. paper) ISBN‑10: 0‑8493‑7527‑4 (alk. paper) ISBN‑10: 1‑4200‑0772‑6 1. Food‑‑Biotechnology. 2. Functional foods. I. Shetty, Kalidas. II. Series.

TP248.65.F66F84 2006 664‑‑dc22

2006012676

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com

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Preface The World Health Organization (WHO) has highlighted that the disease profile of the world is changing, and this is more so in low- and middle-income countries where there is a double burden of diet-related chronic disease along with infectious diseases. WHO further states that 80% of chronic disease deaths now occur in less developed countries.

Globally there are more than 1 billion overweight and obese adults, and since 2001 this figure is higher than the number of people (0.8 billion) on this planet who are malnourished. Obesity-related diseases seriously contribute to chronic disease and disability.

Therefore, major challenges facing the world today are not just of food production and quality for meeting protein, calorie, vitamin, and mineral needs but also of better health once the basic nutrient needs are met, for which additional protective food ingredients are essential. Clearly, significant challenges are from major oxidation-linked chronic disease epidemics from calorie sufficiency and excess calories in the developed world, and particularly in the newly industrialized countries such as China, Brazil, Mexico, and India, which have the most rapidly growing diet-related chronic disease problems in the world.

Chronic disease such as diabetes — which is linked to other oxidation-linked diseases such as CVD (cardiovascular diseases) — along with cancer, will place a tremendous burden on the current healthcare systems in both developing and developed countries. In developing countries, this will further strain the existing challenges of infectious diseases such as acquired immune deficiency (AIDS), tuberculosis, and food-borne illness among the lower income population. In the more developed countries, the continuous and steady development of obesity and its associated complications of diabetes, CVD, and perhaps cancer is already posing more challenges. All the major health challenges, whether excess calorie-linked chronic diseases or undernutrition-linked infectious diseases, are directly or indirectly diet- and environmental-linked diseases. Therefore technologies for chemoprevention through diet (reduced calories with more fruit and vegetables and novel ingredients from other food-grade biological/microbial systems) will be very important to help manage the current and emerging healthcare challenges.

With these critical issues in mind, a more focused edition of the book Functional Foods and Biotechnology has been developed from the recently published volume of Food Biotechnology (CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2005). This book focuses on those chapters (25 of the original 70 chapters) related to food biotechnology concepts that have the potential to contribute to advances in the areas of functional foods. Functional foods refers to the improvement of conventional foods with added health benefits. Biotechnology concepts related to advances in functional foods will be significant at a time when diet will play a major role in a global population that is projected to increase to 9 billion by 2050.

The topics in the book focus on molecular, biochemical, cellular, and bioprocessing concepts for designing ingredients for functional foods and cover major nutrients such as starch, lipids, minerals, and vitamins to specialty ingredients and their disease preventive

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role as in several phenolic metabolites of several well-known food botanical species.

Many chapters are focused on ingredient role in oxidation-linked disease, which is the basis of major chronic diseases. Several specialty topics such as phytochemicals and breast cancer, nonnutritive sweeteners, immune factors from eggs, passive immunity improvement through probiotics and role of prebiotics, phytochemicals as antimicrobials, and various potentials of microbial processing of ingredients have been highlighted. These concepts are by no means exhaustive but give a good conceptual insight to this emerging area of functional foods and point to the role of biotechnology in the development of this rapidly growing research area. Biotechnology has become an important tool in recent years and scientists around the world are investigating advanced and novel whole tissue, cellular, molecular and biochemical strategies for improving food production and processing, enhancing food safety and quality, and improving the organoleptic to the functional aspects of food and food ingredients for better human health. The strength of this book is the conceptual insights it provides in some key emerging areas of functional foods, where biotechnology principles will be key to new advances.

The editors thank all the contributors for their outstanding efforts to document and present their research and conceptual information on their current understanding of food biotechnology. Their efforts have particularly advanced the conceptual knowledge with regard to the use of biotechnology concepts and tools to develop functional food ingredients for better health.

The editors also thank the staff of Taylor & Francis for their help and support in the timely publication of this volume and in targeting an audience focused on research in functional foods. All these efforts have advanced the frontiers of both functional foods and biotechnology, and therefore the title of the book.

The Editorial Board

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Editors Kalidas Shetty, Ph.D. is a professor of food biotechnology in the Department of Food Science at the University of Massachusetts-Amherst. He earned his B.S. from the University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, India, majoring in applied microbiology, and his M.S./Ph.D. from the University of Idaho, Moscow, in microbiology. He then pursued postdoctoral studies in plant biotechnology at the National Institute of AgroBiological Sciences, Tsukuba Science City, Japan and at the University of Guelph, Canada, prior to joining the University of Massachusetts in 1993.

Dr. Shetty’s research interests focus on Proline and Redox pathway-linked biochemical regulation of phenolic phytochemicals in food botanicals using novel tissue culture, seed sprout, and fermentation systems. This focus contributes to innovative advances in the areas of nutraceuticals, functional foods, and food antimicrobial strategies.

The susceptibility of bacterial food pathogens to phenolic phytochemicals at low pH and the role of proline metabolism through redox-linked pathways for chemoprevention of diabetes and cardiovascular disease are his major interests in developing new food safety and disease chemoprevention strategies. He has published over 120 manuscripts in peerreviewed journals and over 25 as invited reviews and in conference proceedings. He holds four U.S. patents.

Dr. Shetty is the editor of the journal Food Biotechnology (Taylor & Francis). He is also on the editorial boards of three other journals in the areas of food and environmental sciences.

In 2004, Professor Shetty was selected by U.S. State Department as a Jefferson Science Fellow to advise the Bureau of Economic and Business Affairs on scientific issues as they relate to international diplomacy and international development. This program, administered by the U.S. National Academies, allowed Dr. Shetty to serve as science advisor at the U.S. State Department for one year in 2004–2005, and he will continue to serve in this position for 5 more years following his return to the University of Massachusetts.

Dr. Shetty has traveled widely and has been invited to present numerous lectures and seminars in the areas of food biotechnology, functional foods and dietary phytochemicals, and food safety in over 20 countries in Asia, Europe, and the Americas. In 1998 he was awarded the Asia-Pacific Clinical Nutrition Society Award for his contributions to the area of phytochemicals, functional foods, and human health based on his understanding of Asian food traditions. At the University of Massachusetts he has won the College of Food and Natural Resources Outstanding Teaching Award and the Certificate of Achievement for Outstanding Outreach Contributions.

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Gopinadhan Paliyath, Ph.D. is an associate professor with the Department of Plant Agriculture, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada. Dr. Paliyath is a plant biochemist and has an interest in various aspects of plant development. He obtained his B.Sc.Ed. (botany and chemistry) from the University of Mysore, M.Sc. (Botany) from the University of Calicut, and Ph.D. (biochemistry) from the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.

Subsequently, he did postdoctoral work at Washington State University, University of Waterloo, and the University of Guelph.

The focus of Dr. Paliyath’s current research is in the area of post-harvest biology and technology of fruits, vegetables, and flowers. He is investigating signal transduction events in response to ethylene and the role of phospholipase D in such events. Various aspects dealing with improvement in the shelf life and quality of highly perishable commodities are being investigated. Technologies and products have been developed for enhancing the shelf life and quality of fruits, vegetables, and flowers based on phospholipase D inhibition (US Patent #6,514,914). He is also investigating the nutraceutical properties of fruit polyphenols and their role in disease prevention. In this context, the mechanism behind the selectively cytotoxic action of grape polyphenols on breast cancer cell lines is being investigated.

Dr. Paliyath is the author of several peer-reviewed articles, book chapters, books, and research reports. He has also actively participated in conference presentations and several media events promoting fruit and vegetable consumption and its beneficial effects.

He is currently serving as associate editor of physiology and molecular biology of plants and is on the editorial board of Food Biotechnology.

Anthony L. Pometto III, Ph.D. is a professor of industrial microbiology in the Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition at Iowa State University. He earned his B.S. from George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia, in biology, and his M.S./Ph.D. from the University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho in bacteriology. Dr. Pometto worked as a full time scientific aide in the Department of Bacteriology and Biochemistry at the University of Idaho for twelve years. He joined the faculty at Iowa State University in 1988.

Dr. Pometto’s research focus is on microbial degradation of degradable plastics, bioconversion of agricultural commodities into value-added products via fermentation, development of novel bioreactors, production of enzymes for the food industry, and the utilization of food industrial wastes. He has co-authored over 60 peer-reviewed journal articles and over 25 articles as invited reviews, book chapters, and conference proceedings. He is a coinventor on three U.S. patents. He is also a member of the editorial board of the journal Food Biotechnology (Taylor & Francis), and coeditor of Food Biotechnology, Second Edition K. Shetty, G. Paliyath, A.L. Pometto, and R.E. Levin, Eds. (Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, 2005).

Dr. Pometto became director of the NASA Food Technology Commercial Space Center at Iowa State University in 2000. The center is associated with NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas, which manages all the food systems for the shuttle, International Space Center, and planetary exploration missions. The NASA Food Technology Commercial Space Center at Iowa State University was founded in August 1999 and completed February 2006. Its mission was to engage industry and academia to develop food products and processes which would benefit NASA and the public. The specific objectives were to develop food products that meet the shelf life requirements for shuttle, ISS, and planetary outposts (which are 9 months, 1 year, and 5 years, respectively); to develop equipment and process technologies to convert the proposed over 15 crops grown on planetary outposts, Moon, or Mars, into safe, edible foods; and to build

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partnerships with food companies to develop these new food products and processes to make them available for NASA utilization. The space food challenges addressed by the center’s commercial partners and affiliate faculty were development of new food products, development of new food processing equipment, extending the shelf life of foods, improving and monitoring food safety, packaging of foods, development of food waste management systems, and development of disinfection systems for space travel. For more information please see www.ag.iastate.edu/centers/ftcsc/.

In January 2006, Dr. Pometto was named the associate director of the Iowa State University Institute for Food Safety and Security, which was created in 2002 as one of six presidential academic initiatives. Dr. Pometto works with the institute’s director, Dr. Manjit Misra, to bring together the research, education, and outreach components of food safety and security at Iowa State University into one umbrella institute for the purpose of efficient teamwork that is well-positioned among government, industry, and producers.

For more information please see www.ifss.iastate.edu/.

Robert E. Levin, Ph.D. is a professor of food microbiology in the Department of Food Science at the University of Massachusetts-Amherst. He earned his B.S. degree in biology from the California State University, Los Angeles, his M.S. degree in bacteriology from the University of Southern California, and his Ph.D. from the University of California, Davis. Dr. Levin’s research interests involve toxicology, dietary modulators of mutagenesis, industrial fermentations, enzymology, and molecular methods of rapid detection and enumeration of bacterial pathogens in foods. He has authored over 150 peer-reviewed research publications and has served on the editorial boards of several journals dealing with food safety and food biochemistry and on U.S.D.A. and N.S.F study groups.

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Introduction Many parts of the world, especially low-income countries, are facing the double burden of diet-related chronic disease along with infectious diseases. Analysis by the World Health Organization states that 80% of chronic disease deaths now occur in low income and less developed countries. As indicated in the preface of this book, it is evident that globally there are more overweight and obese adults (1 billion) than those who are malnourished (0.8 billion), and obesity-related diseases seriously contribute to chronic disease and disability. As a result, significant challenges are linked to major oxidation-linked chronic disease from calorie sufficiency and excess calories in developing and developed countries, with a higher dual burden on less developed countries where people still have to deal with the higher burden of infectious diseases. Technologies for low-cost chemoprevention strategies and dietary means through design of “functional foods” will therefore be very important to help manage the emerging health care challenges, and in this regard tools of biotechnology will be important.

In light of the urgency of the health challenges linked to diet and chronic disease, Functional Foods and Biotechnology has been developed from the recently published volume of Food Biotechnology (CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2005) in order to highlight some of the challenges. This book focuses on those chapters (25 of the original 70 chapters) related to food biotechnology concepts that have the potential to contribute to advances in the area of functional foods. Functional foods refers to the improvement of conventional foods with added health benefits. The topics focus on biochemical and bioprocessing concepts for designing ingredients for functional foods, and cover improvement of major nutrient sources such as starch, lipids, minerals, and vitamins to specialty ingredients and their disease prevention role, as in several phenolic metabolites of some well-known food botanical species. Many chapters focus on ingredient role in oxidation-linked disease, which is the core basis of major chronic diseases. Several specialty topics such as phytochemicals and breast cancer, nonnutritive sweetners, immune factors from eggs, passive immunity improvement through probiotics and role of prebiotics, phytochemicals as antimicrobials, and various potentials of microbial processing of ingredients have been highlighted. These concepts are by no means exhaustive but provide a good conceptual insight to this emerging area of functional foods and point to the role of biotechnology in the development of this rapidly growing research area.

Chapters 1 through 15 focus on various biotechnological aspects of design of functional ingredients in plants. Chapter 1 focuses on concepts related to the use of clonal screening and sprout-based bioprocessing for designing functional phenolic phytochemicals, and has a section on its relevance to functional foods. This chapter’s introduction to the general aspects of regulatory issues related to functional foods is relevant to all

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chapters that follow. Chapters 2 through 5 focus on concepts of ingredient modification in the context of starch, plant oils and lipids, soybean proteins, and mineral and vitamin enrichment. These chapters provide excellent conceptual insights and ideas also relevant to other photosynthetic plant species that are sources of the above major nutrients.

Chapters 6 through 9 focus on phenolic ingredient development in specific food plant species such a soybean (Chapter 6), cranberry (Chapter 7), fava bean (Chapter 9), and the phenolic metabolite rosmarinic acid-enriched culinary herb family, Lamiaceae (Chapter 8). Good conceptual insights are also provided for several health benefits, and there is excellent discussion of potential mechanisms of action of key metabolites with critical chemoprotective roles for enzymatic-based redox regulation in cellular systems. Chapter 10 covers some basic concepts in antioxidant mechanism and provides some additional perspectives to the better understanding of Chapters 6 through 9. Chapter 11, on chemoprevention of breast cancer by phytochemicals, is a good example of diet-influenced cancer, and these concepts could be relevant for other diet-influenced cancers such as colon and stomach cancers. The influence of dietary antimicrobial phytochemicals is discussed in Chapter 12 in the context of chronic infections such as Helicobacter pylori, and in the context of food-borne pathogens. New control strategies are essential in light of emerging challenges with antibiotic resistance, and the role of dietary phenolic phytochemicals is promising. In view of the established benefits of wine (Chapter 13) in cardiovascular health, and the need for non-nutritive sweeteners (Chapter 14) in the context of diabetes, these concepts have been separately discussed. The rationale for Chapter 15, on biotechnological strategies to improve nutrients, is that fruits and vegetables are major sources of protective phytochemicals against chronic disease, and many of these compounds are produced during post-harvest development. Therefore, protective phytochemical synthesis during post-harvest stages has implications for both preservation and enhancement of protective phytochemical factors for managing chronic human disease that is oxidation linked. Chapters 16 through 19 focus on protective immune modulating factors from eggs (Chapter 15) and immune-modulating lactic acid bacteria (Chapter 16) which could be delivered through dairy and soy-milk fermented products, with their functionality enhanced through the use of prebiotics (Chapters 18 and 19). Chapters 20 through 25 cover various microbial and biochemical concepts, specific metabolite types, and bioprocessing systems to develop functional food ingredients. The concepts from these chapters can be extended to many microbial ingredients of relevance to human health. Chapter 25, on solid-state bioprocessing, is relevant for ingredient production and mobilization from chemically bound forms from food biomass and food waste byproducts using aerobic fungal and anaerobic yeast and bacterial systems.

The strength of this book is the conceptual insights it provides on some key emerging areas of functional foods where biotechnology principles will be key to new advances.

These novel conceptual ideas and tools could be adapted and applied to develop diverse food-relevant biological systems and biochemical processes for ingredient and whole foods production in order to manage both diet-linked chronic and infectious diseases in an economically feasible manner.

Kalidas Shetty Professor of Food Biotechnology Chenoweth Laboratory University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts

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Contributors Motoyasu Adachi Laboratory of Food Quality Design and Development Graduate School of Agriculture Kyoto University Uji, Japan Tamara Casci School of Food Biosciences The University of Reading Whiteknights, UK Hanne Risager Christensen BioCentrum-DTU Biochemistry and Nutrition The Technical University of Denmark Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark Fergus M. Clydesdale Department of Food Science Chenoweth Laboratory University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts, USA Ali Demirci Deptartment of Agricultural and Biological Engineering The Hucks Institute of Life Sciences Pennsylvania State University University Park, Pennsylvania, USA

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Glenn R. Gibson School of Food Biosciences The University of Reading Whiteknights, UK Ramon Gonzalez Departments of Chemical Engineering and Food Science and Human Nutrition Iowa State University Ames, Iowa, USA Peter L. Keeling BASF Plant Science Ames Research Ames, Iowa, USA Anthony J. Kinney Crop Genetics Research and Development DuPont Experimental Station Wilmington, Delware, USA Jeffrey D. Klucinec BASF Plant Science Ames Research Ames, Iowa, USA Jennifer Kovacs-Nolan Department of Food Science University of Guelph Guelph, Ontario, Canada

K. Helen Fisher Department of Plant Agriculture University of Guelph Vineland, Ontario, Canada

Reinhard Krämer Institute of Biochemistry University of Köln Zülpicher, Germany

Hanne Frøkiær BioCentrum-DTU Biochemistry and Nutrition The Technical University of Denmark Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark

Yuan-Tong Lin Department of Food Science Chenoweth Laboratory University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts, USA

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V. Maitin School of Food Biosciences The University of Reading Whiteknights, Reading, UK Nobuyuki Maruyama Graduate School of Agriculture Kyoto University Uji, Japan Yukie Maruyama Graduate School of Agriculture Kyoto University Uji, Japan

Reena Randhir Department of Food Science Chenoweth Laboratory University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts, USA

Patrick P. McCue Program in Molecular and Cellular Biology University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts, USA

Robert A. Rastall School of Food Biosciences The University of Reading Whiteknights, UK

Yoshinori Mine Department of Food Science University of Guelph Guelph, Ontario, Canada Moustapha Oke Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food Guelph, Ontario, Canada Juan Alberto Osuna-Castro Laboratorio de Biotecnología Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas y Agropecuarias Universidad de Colima Tecoman, Colima, México Gopinadhan Paliyath Department of Plant Agriculture University of Guelph Guelph, Ontario, Canada

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Anthony L. Pometto III Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition NASA Food Technology Commercial Space Center Iowa State University Ames, Iowa, USA

Louis A. Roberts Pioneer Valley Life Sciences Institute Springfield, Massachusetts, USA Gerhard Sandmann Botanical Institute J. W. Goethe Universität Frankfurt, Germany Kalidas Shetty Department of Food Science University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts, USA Preethi Shetty Department of Food Science Chenoweth Laboratory University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts, USA

Octavio Paredes-López Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN Apdo, Gto., México

Sallie Smith-Schneider Pioneer Valley Life Sciences Institute Springfield, Massachusetts, USA

Reena Grittle Pinhero Department of Food Science University of Guelph Guelph, Ontario, Canada

Ian W. Sutherland Institute of Cell and Molecular Biology Edinburgh University Edinburgh, UK

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Evelyn Mae Tecson-Mendoza Institute of Plant Breeding College of Agriculture University of the Philippines Los Banos Laguna, Philippines

Dhiraj A. Vattem Nutritional Biomedicine and Biotechnology FCS Department Texas State University-San Marcos San Marcos, Texas, USA

Shigeru Utsumi Graduate School of Agriculture Kyoto University Uji, Japan

Dhiraj A. Vattem Nutritional Biomedicine and Biotechnology FCS Department Texas State University-San Marcos San Marcos, Texas, USA

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Contents Chapter 1

Clonal Screening and Sprout Based Bioprocessing of Phenolic Phytochemicals for Functional Foods Kalidas Shetty, Fergus M. Clydesdale, and Dhiraj A. Vattem

Chapter 2

Molecular Design of Soybean Proteins for Enhanced Food Quality Nobuyuki Maruyama, Evelyn Mae Tecson-Mendoza, Yukie Maruyama, Motoyasu Adachi, and Shigeru Utsumi

Chapter 3

Genetic Modification of Plant Starches for Food Applications Jeffrey D. Klucinec and Peter L. Keeling

51

Chapter 4

Genetic Modification of Plant Oils for Food Uses Anthony J. Kinney

85

Chapter 5

Molecular Biotechnology for Nutraceutical Enrichment of Food Crops: The Case of Minerals and Vitamins Octavio Paredes-López and Juan Alberto Osuna-Castro

97

Chapter 6

Potential Health Benefits of Soybean Isoflavonoids and Related Phenolic Antioxidants Patrick P. McCue and Kalidas Shetty

133

Chapter 7

Functional Phytochemicals from Cranberries: Their Mechanism of Action and Strategies to Improve Functionality Dhiraj A. Vattem and Kalidas Shetty

151

Chapter 8

Rosmarinic Acid Biosynthesis and Mechanism of Action Kalidas Shetty

Chapter 9

Bioprocessing Strategies to Enhance l-DOPA and Phenolic Antioxidants in the Fava Bean (Vicia faba) Kalidas Shetty, Reena Randhir, and Preethi Shetty

1

25

187

209

xvii

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Chapter 10

Biochemical Markers for Antioxidant Functionality Dhiraj A. Vattem and Kalidas Shetty

229

Chapter 11

Phytochemicals and Breast Cancer Chemoprevention Sallie Smith-Schneider, Louis A. Roberts, and Kalidas Shetty

253

Chapter 12

Phenolic Antimicrobials from Plants for Control of Bacterial Pathogens Kalidas Shetty and Yuan-Tong Lin

Chapter 13

Biotechnology in Wine Industry Moustapha Oke, Gopinadhan Paliyath, and K. Helen Fisher

311

Chapter 14

Biotechnology of Nonnutritive Sweeteners Reena Randhir and Kalidas Shetty

327

Chapter 15

Biotechnological Approaches to Improve Nutritional Quality and Shelf Life of Fruits and Vegetables Reena Grittle Pinhero and Gopinadhan Paliyath

Chapter 16

Egg Yolk Antibody Farming for Passive Immunotherapy Jennifer Kovacs-Nolan and Yoshinori Mine

Chapter 17

Human Gut Microflora in Health and Disease: Focus on Prebiotics Tamara Casci, Robert A. Rastall, and Glenn R. Gibson

Chapter 18

Immunomodulating Effects of Lactic Acid Bacteria Hanne Risager Christensen and Hanne Frøkiær

Chapter 19

Enzymatic Synthesis of Oligosaccharides: Progress and Recent Trends V. Maitin and Robert A. Rastall

Chapter 20

Metabolic Engineering of Bacteria for Food Ingredients Ramon Gonzalez

501

Chapter 21

Technologies Used for Microbial Production of Food Ingredients Anthony L. Pometto III and Ali Demirci

521

Chapter 22

Production of Carotenoids by Gene Combination in Escherichia coli Gerhard Sandmann

285

345

381

401

435

473

533

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Chapter 23

Production of Amino Acids: Physiological and Genetic Approaches Reinhard Krämer

Chapter 24

Biotechnology of Microbial Polysaccharides in Food Ian W. Sutherland

Chapter 25

Solid-State Bioprocessing for Functional Food Ingredients and Food Waste Remediation Kalidas Shetty

Index

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545 583

611 625

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1 Clonal Screening and Sprout Based Bioprocessing of Phenolic Phytochemicals for Functional Foods Kalidas Shetty, Fergus M. Clydesdale, and Dhiraj A. Vattem

CONTENTS 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4

Phenolic Phytochemical Ingredients and Benefits......................................................1 Biological Function of Phenolic Phytochemicals.......................................................2 Phytochemicals and Functional Food.........................................................................4 Relevance of Phenolic Antioxidants for Functional Food and Comparative Metabolic Biology Considerations..............................................................................9 1.5 Clonal Screening of Phenolic Synthesis in Herb Shoot Culture Systems................11 1.6 Phenolic Synthesis in Seed Sprouts..........................................................................14 1.7 Summary of Strategies and Implications..................................................................15 References...........................................................................................................................16 1.1

PHENOLIC PHYTOCHEMICAL INGREDIENTS AND BENEFITS

Phenolic phytochemicals are secondary metabolites synthesized by plants to protect themselves against biological and environmental stresses such as pathogen attack or high energy radiation exposure (1,2). These compounds involved in the plant defense response are one of the most abundant classes of phytochemicals and are also invariably important components of our diets (3,4,5). Commonly consumed fruits such as apples, bananas, grapes, and several types of berries and their beverages are examples of plant foods as sufficiently rich sources of phenolic phytochemicals. Similar phytochemicals in our diet are also obtained from diverse commonly consumed vegetables such as tomato, cabbage, and onions to grains such as cereals and millets as well as legumes such as soybean, common beans, mung beans, fava beans, and peas, depending on the specific regions of the world (4,5,6). In addition many different types of herbs and spices containing phenolic 1

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Kalidas Shetty, Fergus M. Clydesdale, and Dhiraj A. Vattem

phytochemicals are widely consumed through the diet. Therefore, there are many different types of phenolic phytochemicals from the diet that are mediators of different biological functions for health and wellbeing. The profile of phenolic phytochemicals is often a characteristic of that plant species and is a result of the evolutionary pressures experienced by that species (5,6,7). The most abundant phenolic compounds in fruits are flavonols and flavonoids. Flavonoids, isoflavonoids, phenolic acids, and tannins are important phenolic phytochemicals in many legumes (5,6,7). Biphenyls such as rosmarinic acid are common in many herbs (1).

Chemically phenolic phytochemicals refers to a wide range of chemical compounds containing at least one aromatic ring and a hydroxyl substituent. Metabolic processing in plants after their synthesis results in chemical variations in basic phenolic structure (8).

More than 8000 different phenolic structures, categorized into 10 subclasses, have been identified and are a result of differences in substituent groups and linkages. Structurally different phenolic phytochemicals having distinct properties range from simple molecules (e.g., phenolic acids with a single ring structure) to biphenyls and flavanoids having two or three phenolic rings (9,10). Polyphenols that contain >10 phenolic groups are another abundant group of phenolic phytochemicals in fruits and vegetables. Proanthocyanidins, tannins, and their derivatives phlorotannins are often referred to as polyphenols (9,10).

Phenolic phytochemicals are synthesized in plants via a common biosynthetic pathway and derive precursors from the shikimate–phenylpropanoid and the acetate–malonate (polyketide) pathways (1,11). Cinnamic acid, coumaric acid, and caffeic acid, and their derivatives are widespread in fruits, vegetables, and herbs and are derived primarily from the shikimate/phenylpropanoid pathway (1). Oxidative modifications of side chains produce benzoic acid derivatives, which include protocatechuic acid and its positional isomer gentisic acid. Fruits and legumes are especially rich sources of another group of phenolic phytochemicals called flavonoids and iso-lavonoids, which constitute the most abundant group of phenolic phytochemicals derived from the phenylpropanoid–acetate–malonate pathway (2,11).

Flavonoids are subdivided into several families such as flavonols, flavones, flavanols, isoflavones, and antocyanidins, which are formed as a result of hydroxylation, methylation, isoprenylation, dimerization, and glycosylation of the substituents in the aromatic rings (2,11). Phenolic phytochemicals are often esterified with sugars and other chemicals such as quinic acid to increase their solubility and to prevent their enzymatic and chemical degradation. Esterification also helps to target the phenolics to specific parts of the plant (11). Phenolic phytochemicals esterified via their hydroxyl groups to sugars are called glycosides. The sugar most commonly involved in esterification is glucose. However, the glycosides of phenolics with galactose, sucrose, and rhamnose are also found in some plant species (11).

1.2

BIOLOGICAL FUNCTION OF PHENOLIC PHYTOCHEMICALS

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are now associated with manifestation of several oxidationlinked diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases (CVD) and diabetes; epidemiological studies indicate that diets rich in fruits and vegetables are associated with lower incidences of such oxidation linked diseases. These disease protective effects of fruits and vegetables are now linked to the presence of antioxidant vitamins and phenolic phytochemicals having antioxidant activity, which support the body’s antioxidant defense system (12–15). This has led to an interest in the use of diet as a potential tool for the control of these oxidative diseases (5,16–18). This is further supported by recent in vitro and clinical

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Clonal Screening and Sprout Based Bioprocessing

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studies which have shown that lack of physical activity, exposure to environmental toxins, and consumption of diets rich in carbohydrate and fats induced oxidative stress, which was decreased by consuming fruits, vegetables, and their products (19–26).

Phenolic phytochemicals with antioxidant properties are now widely thought to be the principle components in fruits, vegetables, and herbs that have these beneficial effects.

Most phenolic phytochemicals that have positive effect on health are believed to be functioning by countering the effects of reactive oxygen species (ROS) species generated during cellular metabolism. Consumption of natural dietary antioxidants from fruits, vegetables, and herbs has been shown to directly enhance scavenging of ROS, prevent the formation of ROS, and enhance the function of the antioxidant defense response mediated

by Glutathione, Ascorbate, superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione–s–transferase (GST) interface (15–20).

Specifically, oxidation of biological macromolecules as a result of free radical damage has now been strongly associated with development of many physiological conditions that can manifest into disease (27–31). The first and widely accepted mode of action of these phenolic phytochemicals in managing oxidation stress related diseases is due to the direct involvement of the phenolic phytochemicals in quenching the free radicals from biological systems. Phenolic phytochemicals, due to their phenolic ring and hydroxyl substituents, can function as effective antioxidants due to their ability to quench free electrons and chelate metal ions that are responsible for generating free radicals (32). Phenolic antioxidants can therefore scavenge the harmful free radicals and thus inhibit their oxidative reactions with vital biological molecules (32).

Emerging research into the biological functionality of phenolic phytochemicals also strongly suggests their ability to modulate cellular physiology both at the biochemical/ physiological and at molecular level. Structural similarities of phenolic phytochemicals with several key biological effectors and signal molecules have been suggested to be involved in induction and repression of gene expression or activation and deactivation of proteins, enzymes, and transcription factors of key metabolic pathways (27,33–35). They are believed to be able to critically modulate cellular homeostasis as a result of their physiochemical properties such as size, molecular weight, partial hydrophobicity, and ability to modulate acidity at biological pH through enzyme (dehydrogenases) coupled reactions. As a consequence of many modes of action of phenolic phytochemicals they have been shown to have several different functions. Potential anticarcinogenic and antimutagenic properties of phenolic phytochemicals such as gallic acid, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, catechin, quercetin, and resveratrol have been described in several studies (36–38). It is believed that phenolic phytochemicals might interfere in several of the steps that lead to the development of malignant tumors, including, inactivating carcinogens, inhibiting the expression of mutant genes (39). Many studies have also shown that these phenolic phytochemicals can repress the activity of enzymes such as cytochrome P 450 (CYP) class of enzymes involved in the activation of procarcinogens. Their protective functions in liver against carbon tetrachloride toxicity (40) have shown that phenolic phytochemicals also decrease the carcinogenic potential of a mutagen and can activate enzymatic systems (Phase II) involved in the detoxification of xenobiotics (41). Antioxidant properties of the phenolic phytochemicals linked to their ability to quench free radicals has been shown to prevent oxidative damage to the DNA which has been shown to be important in the age related development of some cancers (42). Phenolic phytochemicals have been shown to inhibit the formation of skin tumors induced by 7, 12-dimethyl-benz(a) anthracene in mice (43).

Skin tumors in mice, and development of preneoplastic lesions in rat mammary gland tissue in cultures in the presence of carcinogens, were inhibited by resveratrol which is an important biphenyl found in wine (44,45).

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Kalidas Shetty, Fergus M. Clydesdale, and Dhiraj A. Vattem

Ability of phenolic phytochemicals is preventing of cardiovascular diseases (CVD) has been well described by epidemiological studies. The “French paradox” describes a famous study linking the lower incidences of CVD in the population consuming wine as part of their regular diet (46). Recent research has revealed that these beneficial effects of wine are due to the presence of a biologically active phenolic phytochemical “resveratrol.”

Inhibiting of LDL oxidation (47) and preventing platelet aggregation (48) are now believed to be the mechanisms by which resveratrol and other phenolic antioxidants prevent development of CVD. Phenolic phytochemicals have also been able to reduce blood pressure and have antithrombotic and antiinflammatory effects (48,49). Phenolic phytochemicals have also been shown to inhibit the activity of alpha-amylase and alpha-glucosidase which are responsible for postprandial increase in blood glucose level, which has been implicated in the manifestation of type-II diabetes and associated cardiovascular diseases (50,51).

In addition to managing oxidation linked diseases, immune modulatory activities of phenolic phytochemicals such as antiallergic (52) properties as a result of suppressing the hypersensitive immune response have also been defined. Antiinflammatory responses mediated by suppression of the TNF-alpha mediated proinflammatory pathways were also shown to be mediated by phenolic phytochemicals (53). Several studies have shown phenolic phytochemicals to have antibacterial, antiulcer, antiviral, and antifungal properties (54–57) and therefore are being implicated in management of infectious diseases.

1.3

PHYTOCHEMICALS AND FUNCTIONAL FOOD

The use of foods and food components such as phenolic phytochemicals as medicine has had an extraordinarily long history in the East and is still practiced successfully in many countries in Asia with Ayurvedic Medicine in India being one of many examples. However, the origin of the modern concept of “functional foods” as a separate and government regulated category of foods is quite new and was first developed in Japan in the 1980s.

Faced with inflationary health care costs, the Japanese government instituted a regulatory system to approve certain foods with documented health benefits in order to improve health. These foods have a special seal and are known as “Foods for Specified Health Use” (FOSHU) (1). According to a recent report, as of September 2001, 271 food products had FOSHU status in Japan (58).

Interestingly, with this exception, there is no international, nor in most cases national, agreement on how functional foods should be defined nor is there a legal or regulatory definition. Functional foods seem to be regarded simply as foods that have physiological and psychological effects beyond traditional nutritional effects (59). In spite of the lack of legal or regulatory status consumers are extremely interested in the potential “medicinal” effects of food because they are becoming more and more convinced that their health and quality of life is, in part, a controllable gift, and they want to be an active participant in the process of this control. Added to this desire is a health care system, or lack thereof, which is increasingly perceived as distant, cold, and uncaring along with an explosion in emerging science which points to nontraditional health benefits of foods, food components, and plants (botanicals). This does not imply that consumers wish to give up traditional food, medicine, or health care but means that other options are being offered to the consumer, that form a continuum of treatment. These options are attractive to the consumer but they are also extremely attractive to governments who are being overwhelmed by the cost of health care and to growers and the food industry as a source of new value added products, which fulfill consumer demand and have the potential to create a healthier and higher quality of life.

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