COVENTRY UNIVERSITY 2021
BSC (HONS) ARCHITECTURE YEAR 1
ESSAY COURSEWORK
STUDENT NAME: PARTH DEWOOLKAR
STUDENT ID :10774898
This paper discusses the evolution of Indian temple design over from 1st century CE and how social-cultural practices and traditions and philosophical conventions influenced the architecture in the Indian subcontinent. Author looks at how art, customs and science combined in different forms to develop the construction of temples of the religious sects of Hinduism and Buddhism in India. It consists of explorations of temple engineering under different dynasties and the development of construction technology in the ages. There are focuses on conceptualization, geometry and materiality of temples. Development of distinct styles of architecture are discussed in terms of geographical, historical and linguistic factors. The overall aim is to investigate how and why the structural elements of Indian temples are derived from.
The book delves into the history and main styles of Buddhist architecture in Asia, focusing on India, from the third century BCE to the twelfth centuries CE. It aims to look in what manner architectural traits and patterns are shared between Indian and Asian Buddhist monuments, as well as the derivative relationships between them. The book also addresses the historical antecedents of Buddhism, as well as the theological and philosophical roots of Buddhism's and in what way were these influential on the architecture. The architectural elements of Buddhist monasteries and temples are discussed to explain the development of Buddhist architecture and how it achieved the form of temples we know today. The Indian temples are discussed in chapter 7 of the book.
3. Dhavalikar, M. K. (1982). Kailasa The Stylistic Development and Chronology. Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute, 41, 33-45. The paper is from an academic bulletin and the research extensively looks into the Kailasa temple of the Ellora complex. The focus is on the stylistic development of the rock cut temple and aims at investigating the construction of the temple by dynasties which ruled when the temple was constructed and also the arrangement of spaces within the temple. Authors also emphasise on discovering the technology and tools used to carve out the temple only from a rock on the hills. The paper also discusses the use of rock for the temple and how intricate the job of carving the entire structure from the rock would have been for the builders.
The authors of this collection of books are architectural historians James Fergusson and James Burgess who collaborated with the initiative of a archaeological survey of India. The books document the cave temples across India and the development of religious architecture with the order of religion and function of numerous places of worship. Focus of the book is on temples which are built into caves and made from stone blocks and rock carvings. The research and examination of Kailasa temple is in Chapter 5 of Book number 3. It investigates distinct construction technology employed for the construction of rock cut form of Kailasa temple. In book 3 , authors investigate the Buddhist cave temple of Ellora complex. The authors also focus on the utilization of rocks and stones in Indian temple architecture and their importance to these structures in Buddhism and Hinduism.
ESSAY QUESTION 2: Stone/Rock is an important material in religious architecture since the antiquity. Discuss how the material performs in different ways by comparing building examples from the following religions –Buddhism and Hinduism.
Stone is the most widely recognized and consistently utilized building material at an essential level. Indeed, even for primitive humans and archaic culture would have been surmised to accumulate and organize stones to construct a structure for sheltering. Throughout human evolution as communities were formed, cultures started propagating and religion became a prevailing identifier for people. Temples and dwellings started being constructed for rituals and customs. An integral material for the construction of religious and sacred architecture has been stone since the antiquity. With civilizations expanding and technological advancements, varieties of stone were used as a basic building material. In most past societies the widespread and magnified allure of religion made temples or shrines most expressive, the most perpetual, and the most dominating structure in any commune. Classification of religious architecture is intricate, because different religions have varying activities, which all change with evolution and propagation of cultures.
The essay explores how stone was employed in the Indian subcontinent for building Hindu and Buddhist temples and looks at the importance of the material not only from a design perspective, but also its symbolic value. The focus of the essay is on temples of the Ellora Cave Complex in the Maharashtra state of India, which consists of monolithic temples of both Hindu and Buddhist faiths. This essay examines the rock cut architecture phase in the Indian subcontinent and its importance for the construction of Kailasa Hindu Temple and the Vishwakarma Buddhist Temple at the Ellora complex. Rock and stone have a significant importance not only as a structural element, but also has a symbolic and sentimental value in these two religions. Cultures of Hinduism and Buddhism may be detached from each other, but their temple structures have some similarities to a certain extent.
There has been evidence of stone construction in India from the 2ND and 3RD century BCE- Before Common Era (Vardia S,2008). This technique was developed from rock sculpted sanctuaries to temples by carving and chiselling huge rocks, which would form the entire structure of the temple. The stones were utilized in generally complicated and resplendent carvings by artists all through the subcontinent. Early traces of carved Buddhist cave sanctuaries from 2ND century BCE are found in Bihar, a state in India (Burgess. J,2013).
Buddhist temples were constructed with the conjunction of beliefs and practices of Buddhism. Religious doctrines of asceticism and living a monastic life are at core of Buddhism. Caves hold a sacred value as they conform to the idea of a natural living and spiritual awakening in Buddhism. Caves were used as shrines and shelter for missionaries. Interior of the caves were divided into spaces for the shrines, halls, monasteries with living and kitchen sections where the monks would live (Le H. P, 2010). Buddhist architecture has its own established autonomous design language, significantly impacting the architectural development of Hindu temple and most established surviving Buddhist sanctuaries and establishments originate before any Hindu models. The principal structures and styles of the Hindu temples started developing and started proliferating between 600-800 CE- Common Era (Vardia S,2008) Due to the huge landmass of the Indian subcontinent, there are varying architectural types of Hindu temples around the country. In a typical Hindu temple, the image or idol of a god is placed within a square shaped shrine. Hindu temples are designed with the belief of connecting humans to the gods. A Hindu temple is a place where a person is meant to experience a sense of being close to heaven. Structure of these temples are characterized as sole standing structures with a main shrine or cell, constructed with blocks of stone or by excavating massive rocks to provide the form (Fergusson J,1864). The entire structure of the temple is built on a raised platform with smaller shrines surrounding the platform. Overall, the structure of Hindu temples can be characterised either by a framework in isolation or as a segment of a compound. The Hindu temples carved to the rock are almost structural in nature. The rock is excavated until only the interior and exterior features of the temple is present and has form of a free-standing assembly.
The development of temples composed of rock cast structures is the peculiar definition of architecture in India. The exceptionally developed techniques of excavating and casting stone rocks has been an exceptional technical advancement in the historic architecture of Hindu and Buddhist temples (Burgess. J,2013). The Ellora complex is a collection of temples and sanctuaries of Hindu and Buddhist religion. The complex was situated on the trade route of South Asia in early 2ND century CE and was a key stop for merchants and travellers, effectively becoming a major commercial hotspot. It consists of cave dwellings, sanctuaries, monasteries and temples from the sects of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism (Berkson. C, 1992).
Kailasa temple of the Ellora complex is a temple built in 760 CE for the deity Lord Shiva and is meant to represent his dwelling Mount Kailash - a mountain in the Himalayan hill range. The entire structure is casted from a single basalt rock on a hillside, with excavation starting from the top (Dhavalikar. M. K,1982). The temple has a vast collection of intricate sculpting and detailing across all sections of the temple. This considerable solid temple is built of an immense delegated stone of dark basalt, and covered with fine carvings through and through, showing an astounding degree of craftsmanship. Basalt is a dark fine grained black stone found in the Sahyadri hills of the Ellora complex.
Construction of the temple began by digging three ditches into the basalt rock at right angles to the base of the hill and then sculpting the individual spaces and structural elements of the temple’s interior and exterior (Dhavalikar. M. K,1982). The entrance to the temple courtyard is through a ‘Gopuram’ which is a large tower decorated by ornamental sculpting. The hallways to enter Lord Shivas shrine are adjoining by shrine for Lord Shiva’s vehicle ‘Nandi’ by a rock-solid bridge. The main shrine is called ‘Garbgriha’ and outside is a hall called ‘mandapa’ for devotees to assemble. On the rock pillars supporting the hall are sculptures of Lord Shiva’s weapon, called the ‘trishul’ or trident. Within the shrine is a huge idol of Lord Shiva and the ‘Shivalinga’ (Fergusson J, 1864)
In Hinduism, the Shivalingam is an aniconic image of Lord Shiva in Hindu shrines for devotees to pray to their deity. It is normally made of stone and is thought to appear in nature as self-manifested objects. Devotees keep food next to the Shivalingam as a way of providing offerings to their god. The Shivalingam stone has a symbolic and devotional value to the believers and is considered sacred, as it is a representation of their lord. On top the main shrine is a large pyramidical tower called ‘shikara’ which in Sanskrit language means the highest peak of the mountain, which here symbolises Mount Kailash. Bands of rock sculpting on the shikara depict Lord Shiva’s time on top of the mountain. By the means of figurines and ornamental moulding on the Shikara, Gopuram, interior and exterior walls, porticos and cornices there are depictions of anecdotes important to Lord Shiva and the beliefs, from the Hindu mythological epics of Mahabharata and Ramayana inhabitants (Berkson. C, 1992). In sections of the temple there are running bands and panels of these anecdotes, with inscription and carved out illustrations of rituals the believers undertake to worship their god. The engravings of figurines and statues in the temples have a similar appearance to texture, grains and structure of brick, timber, wood and other materials (Fergusson.J, 1864).
The Vishwakarma Temple is a Buddhist temple built around the 7th century CE in the Ellora complex. This is the only cave temple in the complex with a prayer hall called ‘Chaitya’. Chaitya is a common feature in Buddhism and is characterized by a space with a ‘stupa’ or shrine and a domed apse opposite to the entry passage, and a high rooftop. Vishwakarma Temple is also carved into a natural cave on the face of Sahyadri hill. It was not only a temple for people
worship but also a religious retreat where the monks were inhabitants (Berkson. C, 1992).
Despite being small in its dimensions and lacking extensive decorative castings, it is still a magnificent work in terms of its engineering, with a wide-open courtyard in front flanked by a corridor and a frieze carved with various depictions above its pillars. The shrine of Buddha has carved out of statue depicting an image of Buddha sitting on his two legs and various sculptures of Buddhas attendees on the arches of the roof. Within the temple are living and kitchen quarters which were meant to be used by the missionaries. In the open court the frieze above pillars is divided into two parts, with a lower narrower and upper much deeper section (Berkson. C, 1992). Worshippers would chant prayers in the temple which would echo due to arched shape of the roof and because rock framework contributing to this sound effect. On the friezes, pillars in corridors and face lifted exterior facade there are depictions of Buddha and his attendees, figures from Mahayana Buddhism, sculptures of Buddha mythology and inscriptions of teachings and rituals important to the religion, all casted with the rock cut method. The arches, barrel vaults, friezes, elements in the balcony of the temple have been casted by the builders and carpenters in a manner that the form provides look and feel of a wooden structure (Berkson. C, 1992). A major contributor of this is provision of visual depth to the carvings of the structure such as the wide and thick walls, heavy flooring sizes, carvings of the arched roof, railings and details on them.
Both Vishwakarma temple and Kailasa temple demonstrate highly developed and progressive nature of craftmanship during the eras they were built in. Even though the form of the temples is different due to their discrete cultures, the construction in rock is commendable considering the technology and tools were not very advanced during that age (Dhavalikar. M. K, 1982). The design elements of both the temples have been constructed by craftsman mimicking forms of structure made from other materials. In certain respects, rock cut Hindu temple architecture varies from conventional structures. Since temples were carved out of solid rocks, rock cut form is more akin to sculpture than architecture.
Even though both the temples served as a place to pray, the design elements differ since Buddhism and Hinduism have distinctive proceedings, beliefs and cultures. Vishwakarma served also as a monastery, the cave was in conjunction with ideals of spirituality and ascetism in Buddhism. Unlike the Kailasa temple, Vishwakarma temple has been modified by carving inside the cave, engineering the spaces within the naturally made cave (Dhavalikar. M. K, 1982). Kailasa temple is a sole standing, carved out of rock so that only the structure of spaces is present. Symbolism gestures of stone statues and entities are common in both temples, as both temples have representation of respective gods as idols, statue, inscriptions or aniconic objects. The highly exquisite carving and moldings in both temples is a character which showcases the level of architecture and craftsmanship. For both Vishwakarma and Kailasa temple have lasted through centuries due to the rock-built framework of both temples since they are still present with their original carvings and detailing to a very high degree. Rock is known to be durable under weather conditions and degradation, enhancing the monumental and symbolic significance for people of both religions.
From the comparison, it can be surmised that stone used for temple architecture in Indian subcontinent has been employed to a certain extent similar to the design techniques when constructing with brick, wood or any other material. As seen with the examples of Vishwakarma Temple and Kailasa temple which are carved in rock as discussed above, architects attempted at mimicking certain elements and forms of conventional structures made from other materials. Also, these temples excavated from rock have not deteriorated over the ages and are still in existence to witness. The application of stone varied for the Buddhist and Hindu temples. Both religions have representational stone statues of their gods which they pray too. Caves took the form of the entire Buddhist temple, with living spaces allowing devotees to follow a lifestyle that Buddhism condemns them to follow. On the contrary Hindu temples were built with the modes
operando of bringing service and having a connection to their god, a representation of god’s home. Natural rock caves were seen as a place to attain spirituality by Buddhist, thus the construction of monasteries. Whereas Hindus had more stone statues to which they prayed, and the temple was a place of their god.
The rock cut architecture of temples in the Indian subcontinent is common to both Buddhism and Hinduism with both religions developing its elements with accordance to their cultures and practices, shaping the application of the stone in their respectively unique but also similar in certain extents. Indian temple architecture in stone has evolved over the period of multiple religious orders and the functionality of those. Rock casted temple architecture is an extraordinary tradition in the Indian subcontinent, due to the huge size, distinctive features and the precise construction of these structures.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 1- File: ElloraCave33and34-Ellora-Maharashtra-JM08.jpg. (2020, October 1). Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository. Retrieved 13:48, April 21, 2021 from https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ElloraCave33and34-Ellora-MaharashtraJM08.jpg&oldid=477246291.
Figure 2: File: Ellora Caves-1.jpg. (2020, October 28). Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository. Retrieved 13:46, April 21, 2021 from https://commons .wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ellora_Caves1.jpg&oldid=505667093.
Figure 3 - File: Ellora cave16 001.jpg. (2020, December 4). Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ellora_cave16_001.jpg&oldid=516692116
Figure 4- File: Ellora cave16 001.jpg. (2020, December 4). Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ellora_cave16_001.jpg&oldid=516692116.
Figure 5- File: Gajalakshmi, Cave No. 16 (Kailasa Temple), Ellora Caves.jpg. (2021, March 3). Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gajalakshmi,_Cave_No._16_(Kailasa_Temp le),_Ellora_Caves.jpg&oldid=538887593
Figure 6- File: Shivalinga@Naagpokhari.jpg. (2021, March 22). Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository Retrieved 19:54, April 20, 2021 from https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Shivalinga@Naagpokhari.jpg&oldid=545064632
Figure 7- File: Mahabharata relief panel at Kailasha temple.jpg. (2020, December 4). Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository. Retrieved 19:54, April 20, 2021 from https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mahabharata_relief_panel_at_Kailasha_temple.j pg&oldid=516692791.
Figure 8- File: Ellora Caves, India, The Vishvakarma Buddhist Cave.jpg. (2021, March 17). Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository. Retrieved 20:12, April 20, 2021 from https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ellora_Caves,_India,_The_Vishvakarma_Buddhist _Cave.jpg&oldid=543313577
Figure 9- File :1 façade du Chaitya Griha Vishvakarma Cave 10 Ellora India.jpg. (2020, September 8). Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository. Retrieved 20:17, April 20, 2021 from https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1_fa%C3%A7ade_du_Chaitya_Griha_Vishvakarm a_Cave_10_Ellora_India.jpg&oldid=451650095.
Figure 10- File: Temple Architecture-Ellora, Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India.jpg. (2020, October 16). Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository. Retrieved 20:23, April 20, 2021 from https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Temple_ArchitectureEllora,_Aurangabad,_Maharashtra,_India.jpg&oldid=491852574
Figure 11- File: Ellora buddhist cave.jpg. (2021, March 26). Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository. Retrieved 13:53, April 21, 2021 from https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ellora_buddhist_cave.jpg&oldid=5468250