Valor Magazine - Volume 3, Number 1

THE GEORGE S. ROBB CENTRE FOR THE STUDY OF THE GREAT WAR AT PARK UNIVERSITY VOLUME 3. NO.1

VALOR

FIRST LIEUTENANT RALPH AMBROSE O'NEILL MORE THAN A MEDAL DOCUMENTARY

Valor magazine is sponsored by the Robert R. McCormick Foundation

VALOR

CONTENTS There's no expiration on valor.

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Message from President Smeed 4 Message from Robb Centre Director Westcott 5 Julius Ochs Adler Collection: in Photos 7 National African American History Month 8 National Asian Pacific American Heritage Month 9 National Jewish American Heritage Month 10 Robb Centre Co-Hosts Symposium on LesserKnown Stores of the Great War 12 First Lieutenant Ralph Ambrose O'Neill 18 Veterans Day Lecture Series 19 "More Than A Medal" Documentary 22 The Inception and Evolution of American Military Aviation, 1907-18

24 First Lieutenant Ralph A. O'Neill 147th Aero Squadron 1st Pursuit Group U.S. Army Air Corps

30 Adopt-A-Hero Program 31 Sponsorships

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Message from Park University President Shane Smeed

In 1991, President George H. W. Bush signed Public Law 101-564 which recognizes National Medal of Honor Day as a federal observance to be held annually on March 25th.

The law reads in part: “Whereas the Medal of Honor is the highest distinction that can be awarded by the president, in the name of congress, to members of the armed forces who have distinguished themselves conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of their lives above and beyond the call of duty; Whereas public awareness of the importance of the Medal of Honor has declined in recent years; and Whereas the designation of National Medal of Honor Day will focus the efforts of national, State, and local organizations striving to foster public appreciation and recognition of Medal of Honor recipients.”

The date was selected to honor the men who participated in the Great Locomotive Chase on April 12, 1862, in Georgia. Six members of the chase received the first Medals of Honor on March 25, 1863.

In the spirit of public appreciation and recognition, I was honored to host the debut of the “More Than a Medal” documentary at the National World War I Museum and Memorial in Kansas City, Mo., on March 24.

The documentary was produced by Lame Deer Films in cooperation with the Valor Medals Review team at Park University’s George S. Robb Centre for the Study of the Great War. The film, produced over the course of several years, interweaves the efforts of the researchers working against time, untold heroic stories of courage on the battlefields of France and the experience of modern day descendants as they maintain cautious hope that their family will be recognized.

The documentary asks hard questions about what it really means to be an American and debates how we as citizens can heal the wrongs of the past.

The Robb Centre team is exploring locations across the nation to screen the 30-minute documentary. If you or an organization are interested in hosting a screening, please email gsrcentre@park.edu.

In addition, if you or an organization would like to sponsor a particular servicemember as part of the review, please consider the Adopt-A-Hero program by contacting the team at gsrcentre@park.edu.

I invite you to browse this issue of Valor to read more about the documentary and other articles related to the work of the Robb Centre team and Park University’s connection to World War I. Shane B. Smeed President Park University

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Message from Robb Centre Director Westcott The past four years, Joshua Weston, senior military analyst in the Park University’s George S. Robb Centre for the Study of the Great War has been responsible for managing the Robb Centre’s military research team and authorship of each servicemember’s military engagement template.

He has instituted the practices essential to matching currentday Medal of Honor standards with information more than a century old. Weston’s team is also responsible for authoring the final report of action affiliated with each veteran’s Distinguished Service CrossNavy Cross-Croix de Guerre citation through federal texts, after-action reports, and cartographic collections. He has performed these duties and many others while an undergraduate history major.

I have the great pleasure to announce that Weston, as of 1 July, will assume full-time staff duties as the associate director of military research at the Robb Centre. He and his team will continue authorship of each servicemember’s military engagement template and authoring servicemembers final reports of action. Weston will continue managing the Robb Centre’s social media platforms while also expanding opportunities to engage audiences in furthering the work of the Centre.

“I am extremely grateful for the opportunity to continue my work at the George S. Robb Centre and be a part of a systematic review that has affected countless lives, including my own” Weston said. “Throughout my time at the Centre, I have made it my personal mission to positively effect society. I hope that the Valor Medal Review will create a new foundation for correcting past injustices by providing a path to a fairer and just future for all, regardless of their demographic. It's been an absolute pleasure to learn and grow under the leadership and teamwork of all of those involved with the Centre and its endeavors. I look forward to this prestigious opportunity and want to thank everyone including those at the Robb Centre, Park University, and my family for their love and support.”

the coordination of information from each servicemember’s military personnel files, descendant materials, and primary evidence from public and private collections from around the country.In addition, Weber will research the military service of Park University alumni that have served since the Civil War. “I am proud to usher Josh into his new role on the Robb Centre’s executive staff.” Weber said.

“Though he has served as senior military analyst since 2018, we are continuously proud of his accomplishments and look forward to the strides he will make in further development of Robb Centre military research and collections. Josh will no doubt continue to hone his archival skills in further avenues of research within the Robb Centre joint holdings with the University’s Frances Fishburn Archives and Special Collections.”

The appointment of Weston furnished an opportunity for Ashlyn Weber, as former associate director, to assume the duties as associate director for research and initiatives. Weber will continue to manage the biographical and genealogical research team as well as the descendant outreach within the Valor Medals Review Project. Weber’s team will maintain responsibility for VALOR MAGAZINE

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THE JULIUS OCHS ADLER COLLECTION AT THE ROBB CENTRE: IN PHOTOS The Julius Ochs Adler (1892-1955) Collection at the George S. Robb Centre for the Study of the Great War is a combination of personal effects, military memorabilia (pre-World War I through World War II), and scrapbooks of the Ochs and Adler Families.

The Robb Centre is deeply appreciative of the donation of this collection from the Adler Family in the Summer 2021- we are incredibly grateful to be the home of Mr. Adler’s legacy.

Note: Original photographs have been scanned to the best of their physical ability.

Figure 1 (Left Top): Julius Ochs Adler's American Expeditionary Forces Identification Card Figure 2 (Middle Left): Adler's Field Message Book cover.

Figure 3 (Middle Right): Original photograph. Caption: "Taken from Foor de Paris Argonne Forest looking down Ravine de Meurisons North-East Original front line of Sept. 26. 1918."

Figure 4 (Bottom Left): Receipt of the Distinguished Service Cross signed by Robert Alexander and sealed by Louis B. Gerow.

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THE JULIUS OCHS ADLER COLLECTION AT THE ROBB CENTRE: IN PHOTOS

Figure 1 (Left Top): Original photograph. Caption: "Square in Grand Pre. Looking South West.

Figure 2 (Right Middle): Original photograph. Caption: "77th Div. Hdqrs. Cornay Nov. 1st to Nov. 3 1918.

Figure 3 (Left Bottom): Original photograph. Caption: "Office of G-3German Dugout at 00.4-71.8 Forest d'Argonne, map Forest d'Argonne 1/20,000. Oct. 2nd to Oct. 12th 1918.

Figure 4 (Right Bottom): American Flag art on cardstock with quote

by Woodrow Wilson. Note on upper-right-hand corner, "Scrap Bk".

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In 1915, Carter Godwin Woodson and five colleagues founded the Association for the Study of African American Life and History, an organization dedicated to the study of African American culture. Intended to preserve and promote materials on Black Heritage, the organization quickly rose to prominence with its widely distributed magazine, The Journal of Negro History. It was through this organization that Mr. Woodson requested a week of observance of African American titans- authors, activists, politicians, and cultural icons that had long deserved proper recognition. This first Negro History Week, in February of 1926, would prove a massive success, prompting its continued celebration for the next fifty years. In 1976 the Week was given official national recognition with a Presidential Proclamation from President Gerald Ford, stating, “The last quarter-century has finally witnessed significant strides in the full integration of black people into every area of national life. In celebrating Black History Month, we can take satisfaction from this recent progress in the realization of the ideals envisioned by our Founding Fathers. But, even more than this, we can seize the opportunity to honor the too-often neglected accomplishments of black Americans in every area of endeavor throughout our history”.

Proclamations from Presidents James Carter and Ronald Reagan continued the tradition, with Congress following suit in February of 1986 with Public Law 99-244, To provide for the designation of the month of February, 1986 as National Black (Afro-American) History Month.

Annual celebrations in public schools, churches, and organizations around the country have continued the legacy of prominent Black leaders from history, and reminds each of us of the incredible strength and fortitude of those who came before us. The continued observance has prompted the creation of some of our nation’s greatest collections and archives, like the W.E.B. DuBois collection at the University of Massachusetts at Amherst, and the National Museum of African American History and Culture in Washington, D.C. The George S. Robb Centre for the Study of the Great War at Park University is honored to participate in African American History Month with the Valor Medals Review, in which dozens of veterans of World War I are honored for their service. We are extremely proud to be the home of this endeavor, and are continuously reminded of the immense responsibility we have to continue the legacy of these servicemembers.

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On October 5, 1978, Public Law 95-419 was passed in Congress requesting the President to proclaim May 4 to May 11, 1979 as “Asian/Pacific American Heritage Week”, encouraging the country to commemorate the contributions of Asian/Pacific Americans to American culture and history.

Celebrating Americans of Asian, Pacific Islander, Micronesian and Polynesian background, the Week traced its legislative roots to Senator Daniel Inouye of Hawaii, who lobbied for a resolution in 1977. Inspiration for the month of May came from two key events in Asian American history; the date of the first Japanese immigrants arriving in the United States in 1843, and the completion of the Pacific Railroad in 1869, much of which was built by Chinese immigrants.

By 1990, the week was expanded to encompass the entire month of May, soon officially declared “Asian/Pacific American Heritage Month” by Public Law 102-450 on October 23, 1992.

Presidential Proclamations beginning yearly in 1979 have continuously praised the role Asian/Pacific Americans have had in the shaping of our nation, President Bill Clinton saying in 1997, “Along with a vast array of skills, Americans of Asian and Pacific Island ancestry brought their remarkable traditions of hard work and respect for family and education to their new country. Their belief in the American Dream, of equality and opportunity enabled them to face the challenges of adversity and discrimination and achieve a record of distinguished service in all fields...These people and their children managed to preserve the rich legacy of their homelands while also embracing the best values and traditions that define our Nation”.

The George S. Robb Centre for the Study of the Great War at Park University is honored to participate in Asian/Pacific American Heritage Month with the Valor Medals Review, in which veterans of World War I are honored for their service. These servicemembers have qualified for investigation of their acts of valor to determine if their actions merit a potential upgrade to the Medal of Honor. We are extremely proud to be the home of this endeavor, and are continuously reminded of the immense responsibility we have to continue the legacy of these servicemembers.

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On April 24, 1980, Public Law 96-237 was passed by Congress to designate one week in April as “Jewish Heritage Week” to celebrate the contributions of Jewish Americans upon American culture and history. The intended week, April 21 to April 28, highlighted several events as its date of inspiration, including the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising of April 19, 1943, Israel Independence Day on April 14, 1948, and Passover Celebrations between April 1 and April 8.

President Carter’s first Proclamation of Jewish Heritage Month in 1980 asked for the people of the United States to appropriately reflect on and honor those who contributed to the American identity, “American Jews have made their heritage a heritage of struggle for freedom, knowledge, and human dignity part of the inheritance of all Americans”. Upon the anniversary of the founding of the State of Israel, Public Law 102-30 passed by Congress in April of 1991 issued a second week of celebration due between May 3 and May 10. Jewish Heritage Month would now be celebrated in April and May to properly acknowledge the country’s gratitude to generations of American Jews.

For the following decade, Presidents would regularly announce a Proclamation in April or May to celebrate. President Clinton stated in 1998, “Acutely conscious of the dangers of racism, prejudice, and political oppression, American Jews have been strong and effective advocates in the cause of social justice. They have dedicated their energies, talents, and resources to ensure that our Nation lives up to its promise of equality, making a lasting impact in the struggle for civil rights, labor reform, and women’s equality”. Starting in 2006, a set month-long period of observance began with President Bush’s Proclamation 8006, renaming the period of remembrance to Jewish American Heritage Month.

The George S. Robb Centre for the Study of the Great War at Park University is honored to participate in Jewish American Heritage Month with the Valor Medals Review, in which over one hundred Jewish veterans of World War I are honored for their service. We are extremely proud to be the home of this endeavor, and are continuously reminded of the immense responsibility we have to continue the legacy of these servicemembers.

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Robb Centre Co-Hosts Symposium on Lesser-Known Stores of the Great War Park University's George S. Robb Centre for the Study of the Great War and the First Division Museum at Cantigny Park, Wheaton, Ill., co-hosted the Lesser-Known Stories of the Great War: Women, Minorities, Civilians and the Untold Symposium on May 13 at the First Division Museum.

Among the presentations, scholars addressed American Indian nurses and spiritual transformations, Signal Corps switchboard soldiers, 1st. Lt. William J. Warfield, the first U.S. casualties, the forgotten female veterans, American horses, soldier participation within the American humanitarian movement and pacifism, protest and the queer community.

Special recognition goes to Krewasky A. Salter, Ph.D., Executive Director of the First Division Museum and Gayln Piper, director of programs, First Division Museum and McCormick Museum, for their hospitality and arrangements.

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FIRST LIEUTENANT RALPH AMBROSE O'NEILL Ralph O’Neill was one of the most decorated pilots of the First World War. By the time of his discharge in 1919, he had flown 99 combat patrols in a five-month period and was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross three times as well as a French Croix de Guerre with Palm.

O’Neill was credited with five confirmed combat victories, establishing him as the State of Arizona’s second ace of World War I. Moreover, although his service record was impressive, he was a pioneer in the commercial airline and mining business, leaving an everlasting impact in the world of aviation long after he ended his business practices in the 1960s.

O’Neill was born to Ralph Lawrence O’Neill (1859-1939) and Dolores Petra Avila y Landa (1868-1919) in his mother’s hometown of Durango, Mexico, on Dec. 7, 1896. O’Neill was the fifth of eight children: Alicia (18871927), Louise (1890-1988), Esther (1892-1971), Carmen (1895-1978), Frances (1898-1962) and Guadalupe (190085) were all born in Durango; the last child, Howard (1904-79) was born in Cananea, Mexico.

O’Neill’s father was an Irish-American banker and businessman who established banks along the U.S.-Mexican border from Nogales, Ariz., to El Paso, Texas. The O’Neill’s relocated to Nogales in 1901 where R.L. expanded his business practice into the local newspaper, Border Vidette, helped establish the city’s two banking institutions, and became owner and publisher of the Nogales Daily Herald. In June 1906, R.L. was shareholder and bank cashier with interests in the Mercantile Banking Company of Cananea. It was during this time that Mexican miners at the Cananea Copper Mine waged a strike, leading to martial law and border tensions between the U.S. and Mexico which would last a decade. However, the civil unrest intensified and the O’Neill’s relocated to El Paso in November 1911.

O’Neill was active during his high school days, becoming a member of the football, baseball and debate teams, and he was elected vice president of the Sam Houston Debating Society. He graduated from El Paso High School in 1914, a year earlier than his peers, before traveling to San Francisco to attend the Panama-Pacific International Exposition, where he witnessed Art “Bird Boy” Smith perform nighttime aerobatics over San Francisco Bay. Smith flew a biplane featuring sparkling streamers attached to the wingtips on Dec. 4, 1915, leaving a trail of light behind the plane as it looped, rolled and dropped. This was not the only notable account of O’Neill’s childhood involving aeronautics. He and his father attended an event in Douglas, Ariz., where men from the Douglass Aeronautical Club took flight in a motorized canard-pusher from a ballpark in early 1909.

Figure 1: Photo of Art Smith above San Francisco Bay on 4 December 1915 VALOR MAGAZINE

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On Sept. 23, 1916, O’Neill left Tooele, Utah, where he had been working in a lab at International Smelting and Refining to attend Lehigh University in Bethlehem, Pa., for an education in advanced mining engineering.

“Through a wild series of fortunate coincidences, there came a chance to get into a mining operation of my own. My father’s bank staked me enough money to buy in as a partner. I threw myself into the new venture, worked my tail off, and in six months had cleared $25,000 — a sizable chunk of cash for a kid of nineteen. I used part of the money to finance a crash course in advanced mining engineering at Lehigh University, where I was accepted as a special student because of my previous tutoring and on-the-job experience in mining.”

After the U.S. entered WWI on April 6, 1917, O’Neill continued with his education at Lehigh University, but filled out his draft registration card on June 5, 1917, applying for an appointment to the Air Section of the U.S. Army Signal Corps. On Sept. 15, 1917, O’Neill began the eight-week ground school in Princeton University’s School of Military Aeronautics where he took courses such as: “Aeronautical Motors,” “Theory of Flight,” “Cross Country and General Flying,” “Aerial Observation,” “Gunnery,” “Signaling and Radio,” “Infantry Drill” and “Calisthenics,” graduating on Nov. 10, 1917. Soon after, O’Neill was ordered to flight school at Camp Everman, Texas, to train with the Royal Flying Corps, and was assigned to the No. 87 Canadian Training Squadron.

At the same time that the commanding officer of the 147th Aero Squadron, Maj. Geoffrey H. Bonnell, was looking to bring his squadron to full strength, O’Neill had completed his Royal Flying Corps training and was selected to the Bonnell’s Aero Squadron. Although O’Neill had a run-in with military police along the northbound platform during his time in France, he arrived to his unit near Issoudun, France, at the Third Aviation Instruction Center during the first week of April 1918.

The 147th Aero Squadron originally flew the Curtiss JN-2 “Jenny” at the Third Aviation Instruction Center; however, upon completion, they received French Nieuport 28 C.1 pursuit fighters on May 15, 1918. Sixteen days later, the 147th Aero Squadron was ordered to the relatively quiet Toul Sector for operations along the Western Front. Upon arrival, O’Neill was assigned as the leader of [B] Flight and flew his Nieuport 28 with difficulty as did most of the 147th Aero Squadron. The Nieuports were slow and cumbersome planes that were easily thrashed by the wind. On June 4, 1918, O’Neill’s good friend, Lt. Edgar Lawrence, whom O’Neill trained with during his time at Camp Everman, was killed after his plane fell into a nose spin, crashed and burst into flames. The death of his friend deeply affected O’Neill. He became demoralized and the quietness of the Toul Sector began taking a toll on the 147th Aero Squadron as a whole. O’Neill wrote about his frustrations: “I have not yet been in combat, nor even seen a [German]. We go up in patrols, but it seems we take the air at the wrong time — and some other squadron is seeing the excitement.”

Figure 2: Nieuport 28 C. 1 circa 1917

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However, his fortunes would change when the 147th Aero Squadron was ordered to move to the Château Thierry front on June 28, 1918.

At 4:30 p.m. on July 2, 1918, O’Neill led a mixture of eight pilots from [B] and [C] flight on a patrol from Dormans to Château Thierry in their Nieuport 28’s. The patrol became separated after O’Neill dove from formation after seeing unknown planes flying nearby. Seeing American insignia on the wings, O’Neill broke pursuit, but lost the planes of [C] Flight. Around 5:30 p.m., at an altitude of 15,000 feet, O’Neill led two planes of [B] Flight but was still unable to find the rest of the original patrol. O’Neill noticed a group of five planes in the nearby airspace and decided to approach the group in mistaken hopes that it was [C] Flight. He quickly became engaged by German Pfalz D. III fighters over the airspace of Epaux-Bézu. Lt. O’Neill engaged the German fighters, shooting one Pfalz D. III down to record his first confirmed kill.

As he continued to pursue the remaining German aircraft, both of his guns jammed and he was forced to make erratic evasive maneuvers in the cumbersome Nieuport. As he dipped and rolled, O’Neill recalled hearing two German planes firing on him. By this time, O’Neill was 10 miles into Germany and realized he needed to cross back into friendly lines. At a speed of approximately 217 knots, O’Neill crossed into friendly lines which began to open up antiaircraft fire on the German planes and the Pfalz D. IIIs withdrew. For his actions, O’Neill earned the Distinguished Service Cross for his “extraordinary heroism in action near Château Thierry.”

Only three days after his first engagement, O’Neill led a seven-plane patrol after receiving a call that a large formation of German planes were crossing the line over Château Thierry, but O’Neill’s patrol was quickly cut to four due to three planes having mechanical issues just after takeoff. O’Neill led his remaining planes into the sun, leveling around 15,000 feet over the line when his patrol saw a large formation of German planes flying at 17,000 feet.

Figure 3: Pfalz D.III The German fighters dropped from formation and engaged O’Neill and his patrol at long range. O’Neill noticed that the group of German pursuit aircraft was small and decided to charge them rather than turn away. When the lead German plane came within range, O’Neill fired and shot the plane, causing it to spin uncontrollably as it dove toward the ground. As Lt. O’Neill assisted in shooting down a second German plane, his Nieuport stalled. As he regained control of his plane and attempted to climb, a German fighter approached from above and fired both of its guns in close proximity. O’Neill attempted to return fire, but his Nieuport stalled once more and the remaining German planes broke off, most likely speculating that he was shot down. As O’Neill and his [B] Flight fought the Germans overhead, troops of the American Artillery and Signal Corps had witnessed the fight from the ground and noted two confirmed kills for O’Neill. Due to his actions on July 5, 1918, O’Neill received an Oak Leaf Cluster as representation of a second Distinguished Service Cross.

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Figure 4: Ralph Ambrose O'Neill in flight suit. Undated, public domain.

On July 24, 1918, at 4:37 p.m., O’Neill led a patrol from the 147th Aero Squadron between the Oulchy-la-Ville, Roucourt and Barzy airspace when they encountered 12 German Fokker and Pfalz fighters. Despite the poor visibility due to the clouds and being outnumbered, O’Neill led his five Nieuports into combat against the Germans and chased them off. O’Neill was awarded two shared victories for this engagement because individual confirmation was made difficult by the French Sixth Army due to poor visibility at the time. For his actions in chasing away the superior German planes, in both number and technology, and for becoming the fifth overall American pilot to down three German planes, O’Neill was awarded his second Oak Leaf Cluster for his Distinguished Service Cross (making this a third DSC citation) and the French awarded him the Croix de Guerre with Palm.

By the end of July 1918, Lt. O’Neill had flown 24 combat missions in his Nieuport 28. However, the cumbersome planes were creating a deficiency in morale and the 147th Aero Squadron pleaded with their command to receive new SPAD XIII fighters. Although these requests were initially declined, on Aug. 13, the 147th Aero Squadron returned from a patrol and were met with 17 new SPAD XIIIs. This would mark the last time a Nieuport was flown for the Army Air Service in combat. O’Neill would fly a combined 43 combat missions between the Nieuport 28 and the SPAD XIII by the end of August 1918 and was responsible for 40 percent of the confirmed victories of the 147th Aero Squadron during the Second Battle of the Marne.

O’Neill continued to fly combat missions throughout September in preparation and support of the Saint Mihiel Offensive, Sept. 12-17, 1918, and create an aerial support role during the Meuse Argonne Offensive beginning Sept. 26. During a patrol on Oct. 9, O’Neill led a group part of a three-squadron attack on an observation balloon located at Doulcon. With his mission to protect the attacking Allied planes, O’Neill shot down a German Fokker attempting to stop the attack on the German balloon and subsequently scored his fifth victory.

Although Lt. O’Neill flew 99 combat patrols, with five victories, three U.S. Army citations and a French Croix de Guerre with Palm, O’Neill had succumbed to combat stress. On Oct. 30, 1918, O’Neill suffered a nervous breakdown and was taken off the 147th Aero Squadron’s roster. He was ordered out of service and placed on leave by Nov. 6; he returned to the U.S. aboard the U.S. Army Transport Ship Canopic on Feb. 19, 1919 and was honorably discharged on April 21.

Figure 5: Pennsylvania, U.S., World War I Veterans Service and Compensation Files, 1917-1919, 1934-1948

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While overseas, O’Neill met Englishwoman Priscilla Eileen Wilson (1891-1954) and married her on Jan. 31 in St. Martin, London. After he returned to the U.S., she followed on steamship, and the couple moved to San Francisco. O’Neill, in the early 1920s, was approached by then-governor of Sonora, Adolfo de la Huerta (later president of Mexico), to assist with the formation of the Mexican Air Service. O’Neill was swiftly named chief of the Mexican Air Force, serving in that role until 1925.

“He trained six air squadrons and helped set up the first commercial airline for the government of President Alvaro Obregon. In 1924 he commanded an air squadron in an unsuccessful rebellion led by Adolfo de la Huerta.”

By the late 1920s, O’Neill had interacted with several early American commercial airline companies in an attempt to create an independent airline with concentration in South America. A partnership with Consolidated Airlines culminated in the founding of the New York, Rio, Buenos Aires Line (NYRBA), which ran from 1929 to its merging with Pan American Airlines in 1930.

Figure 6: Aviation Magazine, March 2, 1930 Figure 7: New York, Rio & Buenos Aires Line, Inc. Poster; Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum “Mr. O'Neill's airline was purchased in 1930 by Pan Am for $4 million, creating what was then the largest fleet of big airplanes anywhere, and establishing United States dominance in aviation in Central and South America.”

O’Neill was not out of a job for long. He founded the Bol-Inca Mining Corp., a company tasked with the transportation of materials via air over the Andes Mountains, based in Nevada. O’Neill and his wife divorced in 1937; in November of the same year, O’Neill married Jane Elizabeth Galbraith (1905-97) in Stamford, Conn.

Galbraith and O’Neill had not only been acquainted for several years but worked together during early NYRBA Sikorsky S-38 test flights.

“One of Jane’s duties was to keep the flight log…[she] became lyrical about the beauty of the Florida gulf coast from the vantage point of low altitude…there is less poetry in her account of the violent squalls, thunder and lightning we encountered on the Cuban coast.”

The O’Neill’s had two children, Patricia Jane (1938- ) and Louise Elizabeth (1940-2015)[4] in New York and Englewood, N.J. O’Neill retired in the 1960s and the family settled in California. O’Neill died on Oct. 23, 1980; he is buried in Menlo Park, San Mateo County, Calif.

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Sources ·Ancestry.com. U.S., World War I Draft Registration Cards, 1917-1918 [database on-line]. Provo, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations Inc, 2005. ·Arizona Republic; Publication Date: 15 Sep 1939; Publication Place: Phoenix, Arizona, USA; URL: https://www.newspapers.com/image/116778214/?article=d31bfd31-f187-440e-9fd6d7fbb00c506b&focus=0.025733488,0.2591774,0.15293112,0.44528958&xid=3355. ·Belanger, Noelle, and M. Elizabeth Boone. “‘Art’ Smith, Flying at Night, and the 1915 San Francisco World's Fair.” Panorama Journal of the Association of Historians of American Art, 2015. https://journalpanorama.org/article/art-smith-flying-at-night-and-the-1915-san-francisco-worlds-fair/. ·Cameron, Rebecca Hancock. Training to Fly: Military Flight Training, 1907-1945. Air Force History and Museums Programs, 1999. ·“Distant Neighbors: the U.S. and the Mexican Revolution.” Distant Neighbors (Hispanic Reading Room, Hispanic Division), March 9, 2022. https://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/mexico/cananea.html. ·Frandsen, Bert. Hat in the Ring: The Birth of American Air Power in the Great War. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Books, 2010. ·Guttman, Jon. USAS 1st Pursuit Group. Oxford, U.K.: Osprey, 2008. ·Maurer, Maurer. The U.S. Air Service in World War I. 1. Vol. 1. 4 vols. Montgomery, Ala.: The Albert F. Simpson Historical Research Center Maxwell AFB, 1978. ·The Ogden Standard. October 30, 1918. https://www.newspapers.com/image/175131228/? terms=Ralph%20O%27Neill&match=1 ·O'Neill, Ralph A. A Dream of Eagles. Boston, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1973. ·O'Neill, Ralph Ambrose. “U.S., Passport Applications, 1795-1925.” Ancestry.com. National Archives and Records Administration. Accessed June 13, 2022. https://www.ancestry.com/discoveryuicontent/view/601701321:1174? tid=&pid=&queryId=b114ca09c323cf091f4146fdd9e1fd12&_phsrc=RfK307&_phstart=successSource. ·Pfalz D.III. Accessed June 27, 2022. http://www.airwar.ru/enc/fww1/pfd3.html. ·“Ralph O'Neill - Recipient.” The Hall of Valor Project. Accessed June 21, 2022. https://valor.militarytimes.com/hero/16145#3831. ·“Ralph O'Neill - Recipient.” The Hall of Valor Project. Accessed June 21, 2022. https://valor.militarytimes.com/hero/16145#4654. ·“Ralph O'Neill - Recipient.” The Hall of Valor Project. Accessed June 21, 2022. https://valor.militarytimes.com/hero/16145. ·Roesler, Alan L., and Christopher C. Brown. “Ralph A. O’Neill: Arizona’s Other WWI Flying Ace.” The Journal of Arizona History 52, no. 2 (2011): 111–42. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41697353. ·Šafařík, Jan Josef. “United States of American - World War I.” Jan J. Safarik: Air Aces Home Page, October 31, 2014. http://aces.safarikovi.org/victories/usa-ww1.html. ·Swanborough, G., and P. Bowers. “Their Flying Machines.” United States military aircraft since 1909.

Accessed June 27, 2022. https://flyingmachines.ru/Site2/Arts/Art9274.htm. ·U.S., Department of Veterans Affairs BIRLS Death File, 1850-2010. ·U.S. Air Service Victory Credits: World War I. Maxwell Air Force Base, Ala.: Historical Research Division, Aerospace Studies Institute, Air University, 1969. ·United States, Selective Service System. World War I Selective Service System Draft Registration Cards, 19171918/i. Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration. M1509, 4,582 rolls. Imaged from Family History Library microfilm. ·Wianecki, Shannon. “Global Village.” Hana Hou! Accessed June 27, 2022. https://hanahou.com/19.5/globalvillage. ·World War I Veterans Service and Compensation File, 1934–1948. RG 19, Series 19.91. Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, Harrisburg, Pa. ·Worley, John F. “Worley's Directory of El Paso, Texas, 1912.” The Portal to Texas History. John F. Worley Directory Company, December 22, 2012. https://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth285890/m1/385/? q=R.L.+O%27Neill.

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Texans in World War I Park University’s Great War Institute, a division of the University’s George S. Robb Centre for the Study of the Great War, will host its 2nd annual Veterans Day Lecture Series event on Tuesday, Nov. 15, at The National World War I Museum and Memorial in Kansas City, Mo., starting at 7 p.m.

Presenting the discussion will be Gregory W. Ball, Ph.D., senior historian for the U.S. Space Force. A retired U.S. air officer, Ball has been a member of the Air Force History and Museums Program since 2009. He served on active duty with the U.S. Air Force from 1995-2006 and remains an active member of the USAF Reserve. He received his doctoral degree in U.S. history from the University of North Texas.

Ball is the author of They Called Them Soldier Boys: A Texas Infantry Regiment in World War I (Texas A&M University Press, 2013), which discusses soldiers of the Texas National Guard’s 7th Texas Infantry Regiment through their recruitment, training, journey to France, combat and their return home. He also authored Texas And World War I (TAMUP, 2019) which recounts the ways in which the war affected Texas and Texans politically, socially and economically — on the battlefield and on the home front.

Source: Library of Congress, lccn.loc.gov/2007664127

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“More Than a Medal” Documentary “Why didn’t he?” commented Beatrice Kee, daughter of Pvt. Sing Lau Kee. The question fills the narratives of the documentary “More Than a Medal” which debuted at the National World War I Museum & Memorial on March 24. The film was produced by Lame Deer Films in cooperation with the Valor Medals Review team at Park University’s George S. Robb Centre for the Study of the Great War. Over the past two years, Alex Goldstein and Clark Slater from Lame Deer Films, traveled to Kansas City, Mo., New York City, and Philadelphia to research collections from a multitude of archives and museums to narrate the lives and service of the 214 servicemembers being researched by the Robb Centre as part of the Valor Medals Review Project.

"Creating this documentary was a collaborative process with the Robb Center as we aimed to take their years of research and form a short narrative that can engage students, historians, activists and general audiences alike in the Valor Medals Review process,” Slater said.

The documentary includes interviews with Beatrice Kee; Emma Lapsansky-Werner, Ph.D., daughter of 1st Lt. Thomas Jones; Shane Smeed, president of Park University, Nathan Marticke, chief advancement officer at Park; Richard Potter, director of the Veterans of Foreign Wars Foundation; Matthew Naylor, Ph.D., president and chief executive officer of the National World War I Museum & Memorial; and member of the Robb Centre team. The documentary underscores the research process being conducted by the Robb Centre within the larger context of honoring those servicemembers and their descendants.

"We were immediately drawn to this subject matter due to the fascinating untold nature of the stories the Robb Centre is unearthing,” Goldstein said. “Even after roughly a century, the relevance to today’s societal discussion is impossible to ignore and made this documentary something we think will resonate with audiences in the US and abroad."

Following the viewing of the documentary, Goldstein, Slater and Timothy Westcott, Ph.D., director of the Robb Centre and associate professor of history at Park, held a question-and-answer session for attendees.

Prior to the debut, Smeed and the Robb Centre team held a meet-and-greet social hour at Lidia’s-Kansas City.

If you or an organization are interested in hosting a screening of the 30-minute documentary, please email gsrcentre@park.edu.

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If you or an organization are interested in hosting a screening of the 30-minute documentary, please email gsrcentre@park.edu.

Goldstein said, “Clark and I feel the Valor Medals Review Project is an important reflection on our nation’s history, and we want viewers who see “More Than a Medal” to be able to engage with that in an accessible way.”

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Special recognition thanks to the staff at the National World War I Museum & Memorial and Lidia’sKansas City, as well as Matt Hicks, MSH Visuals.

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THE INCEPTION AND EVOLUTION OF AMERICAN MILITARY AVIATION, 1907-18

by Joshua Weston

On Dec. 17, 1903, the Wright brothers (Orville and Wilbur) successfully completed the world’s first powered flight with a heavier-than-air aircraft known as the “Wright Flyer” at Kitty Hawk, N.C. Although the flight lasted just 12 seconds, its impact would revolutionize communication, trade, travel and warfare.

On Jan. 18, 1905, the Wright brothers pushed for their airplane to be incorporated into military service, stating that they would be “of great practical use in various ways, one of which is hat of scouting and carrying messages in time of war.” The Board of Ordinance and Fortification declined the Wright brothers later than month, and again in October, to fund their efforts for experimental aircraft. However, by 1907, the Aero Club of America brought the Wright brothers efforts to President Theodore Roosevelt and seeds of the aerial arm of the U.S. military were planted.

In August that year, the Aviation Section of the United States Army Signal Corps was conceptualized, though it would not achieve statutory recognition until July 1914. Although the concept of the airplane was new and exciting, implementing it into warfare became cause for contentious debate and evolving American strategy.

As early as mid-1907, a handful of trained flyers began noting the value the airplane could have on the battlefield. By August, the decision was made to place balloons and planes in the Signal Corps, naming it the Aeronautical Division. However, besides aerial surveillance, the tasks of expanding the role for planes were heavily debated. In December 1907, as one of the most influential trailblazers of early aeronautical strategies, Lt. Benjamin Foulois introduced his groundbreaking thesis “The Tactical and Strategical Value of Dirigible Balloons and Dynamical Flying Machines.” Foulois proposed using air power to support land forces which included artillery spotting, reconnaissance and air-to-ground attacks.

After the Aeronautical Division had been formed, the Signal Corps was tasked with performing acceptance trials to decide on the War Department’s first official plane. Between July and August 1908, Foulois, Frank Lahm and Thomas Selfridge would become the Army’s first three aviators after participating in the acceptance trials at Fort Myer, Va., after operating Dirigible Number One.

Figure 1: The improved Wright Flier “Airplane Number 1” was accepted as the United States Army’s first airplane on 2 August 1909

Subsequently, by July 1909, the Wright brothers built and tested an improved “Wright Flyer” in an endurance trial designed to meet the War Department’s specifications. Orville Wright and Lahm exceeded the War Department’s standards. On July 30, Foulois was trained and took his first flight in an airplane, and the War Department received its first airplane on August 2.

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Figure 2: Lieutenant Benjamin Foulois in 1911

Despite Foulois’ experience flying, the War Department reassigned Foulois as an American delegate in France and assigned Lt. Lahm and Frederic Humphreys to become pilots. Lahm and Humphreys completed their training in October, but the War Department reassigned both and there were no trained pilots at the end of 1909.

Foulois was reassigned to Flyer No. 1 and ordered to bring the airplane to Fort Sam Houston, Texas. From January 1910 to mid1911, Foulois was in charge of maintaining the plane while he fought for the acquisition of more planes and training of new pilots. After numerous denials, Congress allotted five additional airplanes to be provided, giving Foulois control of six planes and four trainees, and established a flying school at College Park, Md. The Signal Corps Aviation School was removed from Fort Sam Houston in early summer 1911 and the planes relocated to the new school at College Park.

Throughout 1912, the school focused its efforts on developing airborne telegraphy as well as improving the quality and range of air-to-ground communications. Despite the focus on developing better communications, a schism between aerial officers and ground officers had developed. A debate erupted over making the Aviation Section of the Signal Corps into its own independent service. However, in 1913, Assistant Secretary of War Henry S. Breckenridge stated that military aviation was just a means of “communication, observation and reconnaissance… [which] be coordinated and subordinated to the general service of information and not erected into an independent and uncoordinated service.” Even with Foulois’ noteworthy concepts, the argument in how to utilize the Aeronautical Division resulted in intense debates between flying officers and ground officers.

In March 1913, tensions between the U.S. and Mexico began to mount and required American forces to occupy the U.S.-Mexican border. Subsequently, Fort Sam Houston was reopened as a Signal Corp Aviation School after President William Taft ordered the mobilization of troops to the northern bank of the Rio Grande River. With 10,000 troops from the American 2nd Division stationed at Galveston, Texas, the “August Flyers” in College Park were designated as a provisional aero squadron in support of the 2nd Division with the mission of surveying the area and conducting experimental flights.

During their flights to Texas, weather played a dramatic role with heavy rain and wind, which proved how fragile the flying machines of the Burgess Model H and Wright Model C’s were. Missions were abandoned and the planes were grounded. When the planes managed to fly, they were forced into dangerous rolls and downdrafts which ultimately rendered flying as too hazardous. Despite requests for more stable planes, the provisional units’ desires were ignored and the aerial commander was replaced by Capt.

Arthur S. Cowan, a ground officer, which stirred more discontent within the aero squadron.

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Regardless of the discontent, the events throughout 1913 served as the catalyst of significant developments of flight training with the approval to build the San Antonio Aviation Center on May 9, 1913. Approval of funds to build the SAAC was appropriated nearly a year later on April 27, 1914, and on July 18, the creation of the Aviation Section of the Army Signal Corps replaced the Aeronautical Division, proving to be a milestone in American military aviation with 60 officers and 260 enlisted men joining the Aviation Section.

It was during 1914 that the world saw two dramatic events take place: when the European War broke out after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his wife in Sarajevo, Austria-Hungary (now capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina), on June 28, and July 28 when Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. Further, revolutionary conflicts broke out in Mexico and threatened the already delicate peace between the U.S. and Mexico.

Although the plane had only been invented 11 years prior, and American aviation was far behind the more rapidly advanced European aircraft, on April 24, 1914, the 1st Aero Squadron was ordered to mobilize for operations as part as scouting and border patrol operations with the American 2nd Division.

Figure 4: The 1st Aero Squadron in Texas

The group of the 1st Aero Squadron, designated as Company [A], consisted of five pilots, 30 enlisted and three airplanes. Their presence to patrol the Texas border and gather intelligence necessitated a fourmonth stay in Galveston. However, despite the excitement of planes being used for combat operations, the planes were never used. It wasn’t until a year later that the planes were unboxed and deployed for their first official flight to gather intelligence on hostile trenches on April 20, 1915.

During their flight, the pilots, Lt. Jones and Lt. Milling claimed they received hostile machine-gun and rifle fire from the revolutionaries in the trenches, despite asserting they hadn’t crossed the Rio Grande. Due to the hostile fire, the plane was damaged beyond repair. After a month of deployment, the 1st Aero Squadron was ordered to return to North Island in San Diego and arrived on May 27, 1915. The 1st Aero Squadron began expanding its role in the Signal Corps when it began training in artillery fire-control duty at Fort Sill, Okla., with eight new Curtiss JN-2s. The JN-2 became a tactical workhorse for the 1st Aero Squadron, despite the pilots voicing grievances about its slow speed and cumbersome handling.

Before the pilots and ground crews could become familiar with the “Jenny,” a detachment from the 1stAero Squadron was ordered to return to Texas for border patrol duties on 18 August 1915. Eight days after arrival, two pilots from the 1st Aero Squadron conducted an intelligence gathering mission to find a group of Mexican bandits when the JN-2 lost control and fell about 150 feet. A similar event occurred a few days after when another JN-2 fell 900 feet from its cruising altitude of 11,500 feet.

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Figure 5: Curtiss JN-2

Hatred of the JN-2 continued throughout the rest of 1915.

Regardless of its shortcomings, the tensions between the U.S. and Mexico forced an American military expedition against Pancho Villa after his forces attacked and killed 15 U.S. mining executives in January 1916. President Woodrow Wilson ordered U.S. troops to the border and charged Gen. John Pershing with pursuing. In March 1916, the 1st Aero Squadron was ordered to begin immediate service for recon missions in Pershing’s Punitive Expedition. Although eight JN-2s were sent, only six made it to their destination near the Sierra Madre Mountains. It was during the Punitive Expedition that the 1st Aero Squadron would find

itself used in combat for the first time. Despite dust storms, snow, strong winds and the intolerable JN-2, the 1st Aero Squadron assisted ground troops in communication, recon missions, and directed ground fire as well as delivering mail and messages. By April 1916, when the 1st Aero Squadron was ordered to Columbus, N.M., the airplane had found itself playing a vital role in warfare. Although the squadron completed 540 flights between March and August 1916 with the new JN-3 biplane, the planes proved to be just as fragile as their predecessor. However, at the close of the Punitive Campaign, Pershing had realized how underpowered and fragile the planes were, and came to support aerial officers demands for smaller, faster and more resilient pursuit planes and bombers.

With the introduction of the synchronization gear by Anthony Fokker, pilots no longer had to carry pistols and rifles. Pilots were able to use machine guns placed behind the propeller, which opened up new roles for attack planes over the battlefields of Europe without damaging their propellers. With the Americans forced into the Great War and the evolution of technology, air power could provide further support for ground troops. Pershing, commander of the American Expeditionary Forces, stated that airplanes could be used “to drive off hostile airplanes and procure for the infantry and artillery information concerning the enemy’s movements…Once in command of the air, the enemy’s artillery and ground troops became the object of their attacks.”

The function of air power was opened beyond the scope of an observation role. Brig. Gen. William Mitchell, commander of combat aviation along the Western Front and one of the foremost pioneers of the Army Air Service, believed the AAS had the ability to provide three main functions when the U.S. entered the Great War in 1917: pursuit, bombardment and observation.

Fokker’s invention allowed the German’s to create the first-ever dedicated single-seat pursuit fighter, which forced the Allies to adapt and introduce the French Nieuport XXIII. When the American’s joined the war, they were short of aircraft and supplies, and the Americans were loaned French Nieuports and other Allied planes. However, receiving planes wasn’t enough because despite the promise airplanes offered during the Punitive Expedition, U.S. military leaders continued to debate how to utilize aircraft in the European theatre.

Figure 6: Brig. Gen. William Mitchell VALOR MAGAZINE

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Mitchell proposed four overall functions for the air service in attack, pursuit, bombardment and reconnaissance. Further, Mitchell believed that the air service should be commanded by an air officer and an independent branch known as the Department of Aeronautics. Although air officers agreed with Mitchell’s analysis that it should hold autonomy in its command, many expressed a belief that aerial warfare could be used to shatter a nation’s will to fight a war and attack its industrial centers. This concept was borrowed from the Germans given that the Luftstreitkfäfte (the German Imperial Air Force) carried out the first strategic bombing campaign in history between spring 1917 and spring 1918 against British cities.

Regardless, ground officers disagreed with Mitchell and the general staff believed the effect of airplanes to be minimal. The general staff believed that the main function of planes to be observation, and that aerial bombardment was less effective than that of artillery. This view supported the opinions prior to 1917 with ground officers believing that “military flying [was] an extension of the traditional means of communication and observation…airplanes could go faster and higher than horses” which meant they could take over reconnaissance duties from cavalry units.

Regardless of the difference in ideologies that pitted Pershing and Mitchell against one another, Mitchell was in charge of combat aviation along the Western Front when the German Imperial Army began Operation Michael on March 21, 1918. The importance of air power was displayed in the days to follow as the Germans concentrated around 300 aircraft in direct support of their ground troops. German attack planes bombarded Allied positions and pursuit planes ensured that the Germans maintained control of the air. This combination allowed German movements to become virtually unimpeded in zones of actions during the opening days of the German Spring Offensive.

The Germans had learned the value of air power early in the war and “the battles of 1917 had proven its value beyond question.” The German air plan for the Spring Offensive consisted of concentrating bombs on artillery batteries, then switching to a support role for the ground troops. After the ground troops had gained momentum, Commanding General of the Air Forces Gen. Ernst von Hoeppner instructed his air forces to protect against Allied counterattacks while conducting attacks against bridges, railroads, roads and airdromes.

The overall objective was to support ground movement while denigrating Allied morale. Although the German air support wasn’t as effective as planned in the opening days of the German Spring Offensive, the German strategy was noted by Allied command and two fundamental principles became synonymous with Allied air strategy: concentration of force and priority of counter-air action.

As air service commander of the American First Army, Mitchell used these principles to successfully counter German air operations and the first American unit to see combat in the First World War was the 94th Pursuit Squadron on April 14, 1918. Although American pilots had flown with British and French forces before America entered the war, the “Hat-in-the-Ring” outfit with Lt. Douglass Campbell and Lt. Alan Winslow of the 94th Pursuit Squadron scored two victories in the relatively quiet Toul Sector. “The moral effect of this was great and from this very first day [the American] pursuit squadrons showed in their work that aggressive spirit and high morale which alone can win in war.

With the pursuit function of the Air Service finding headway in its role protecting ground troops and surveillance aircraft, another role for the U.S. Air Service made progression with the first bombardment unit, the 96th Aero Squadron, flying its first combat mission on June 12, 1918.[1] Although day bombardment strategy directly contrasted British and German night bombing strategies, daytime bombing would become the standard doctrine for American bombardment groups throughout the first and second world wars alike.

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Figure 7: Captain Eddie Rickenbacker, commander of the 94th “Hat in the Ring” Aero Squadron standing with his plane

Although shaky, the Air Service seemed to be coming into its own. As the U.S. Air Service continued various operations along the front, American pilots became more experienced and aces such as Frank Luke Jr., Frederick Libby, Ralph O’Neill and Eddie Rickenbacker began to emerge. Concepts such as strategic bombing, long-range strikes against military supplies behind enemy lines, and tactical bombing, attacking the enemy directly over the battlefield, led to specialized roles for bomber and pursuit pilots alike.

Despite resistance given from aerial theorist Guilio Douhet in his 1921 publication The Command of the Air and others, Gen. Mitchell’s steadfast stance, which reflected that of the Germans whereby specialized planes were necessary to complete their dedicated role, proved to be the leading principles of which military aviation doctrine would be founded on. By July 1918, the Allied forces had conceptualized a massive offensive against the Germans and air power had become a necessity to close the St. Mihiel Salient. This salient was necessary to close given that it interfered with railroad communication and supplies, and would allow the massive offensive planned for September to converge.

The St. Mihiel Offensive officially began on Sept. 12, 1918, and included around 1,500 planes commanded

by Mitchell. Prior to the offensive, specialized planes flew in preparation for the assault. Observation over the salient was required to find German gun emplacements and troop locations, and provide photographs to ground units. Meanwhile, pursuit fighters flew to protect reconnaissance planes, observation balloons, and harass German air and ground units. When the offensive began, day and night bombing operations were conducted against German targets that the artillery either missed or couldn’t reach.

Despite anti-aircraft fire, German pursuit pilots, and the weather hindering the U.S. Air Service, the principles of concentrating forces and obtaining air superiority helped the ground forces drive off the Germans from the salient. The Allied advance was nearly completely protected from German air attacks due to the resilience of the Air Service. Following the closing of the salient, aerodromes were constructed to assist in the upcoming Meuse-Argonne Offensive, which would prove to be the final Allied offensive leading to the Nov. 11, 1918 armistice.

Mitchell would stick to his principles, however, with a slight twist. The successful offensive action in the St. Mihiel Offensive allowed pilots to make immediate decisions and take advantage of their position overhead. Subsequently, at the end of the Meuse-Argonne Offensive, the U.S. Air Service shot down a total of 781 enemy aircraft and 73 enemy balloons, while only using 283 planes. The establishment of aerial supremacy allowed ground operations to successfully push the Germans back and ultimately collapse under the weight of the Allied drive, and had proven to greatly disturb German civilian and military morale.

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Although the American Air Service saw growing pains before and during the Great War, military thinkers such as Gen. Mitchell allowed aerial doctrine to evolve. From the first Wright planes adopted by the U.S. military to debate over the role of how aviation would be used in combat scenarios, aerial power ultimately proved flexible and organization of the Army Air Service became the catalyst to the Army Air Corps, and eventually the U.S. Air Force. Although the plane had only existed for 11 years, it proved vital for direct ground support, reconnaissance and destruction of enemy resources. The evolution of American, British, French and German air strategies and technologies during the First World War paved a way for a new dimension of warfare and the catalyst to new strategies still in use today.

Figure 8: “A formation of De Havilland DH-4’s, British-designed, American built bombers."

Figure 9: Jacques Michael Swaab's SPAD S.XIII, named "Meyer III", in honor of his father. Public domain. Undated.

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Sources 93d Division Summary of Operations in the World War. Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1944.

Billman, Andrew. “BUILDING AIRPOWER: American Air Service Construction in the Great War.” The Military Engineer 110, no. 718 (2018): 34–39. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26553155.

Clark, George B. The Second Infantry Division in World War I: A History of the American Expeditionary Force Regulars, 1917-1919. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2007.

Corum, James S. “The Old Eagle as Phoenix: The Luftstreitkräfte Creates an Operational Air War Doctrine, 1919–1920.”

Air Power History 39, No. 1 (1992): 13–21. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26272262.

Cox, Gary C. “Attack Theory and Doctrine of the Air Service, 1919–1926.” Beyond the Battle Line: US Air Attack Theory and Doctrine, 1919–1941. Air University Press, 1996. http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep13792.8.

Crouch, Tom. “1908: The Year the Airplane Went Public.” Smithsonian.com. Smithsonian Institution, August 28, 2008. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/air-space-magazine/1908-the-year-the-airplane-went-public-8791602/.

Cuneo, John R. “Preparation of German Attack Aviation for the Offensive of March 1918.” Military Affairs 7, No. 2 (1943): 69–78. https://doi.org/10.2307/1983066.

Foulois, Benjamin D., and Carroll V. Glines. From the Wright Brothers to the Astronauts. New York, NY: Arno Press, 1980.

Glines, C.V. “Captain Eddie Rickenbacker: America’s World War I Ace of Aces.” C.V. Glines - Accessed 6/1/2022. https://www.historynet.com/captain-eddie-rickenbacker-americas-world-war-i-ace-of-aces/ Greer, Thomas H. The Development of Air Doctrine in the Army Air Arm, 1917-1941. Manhattan, Kan.: Sunflower University Press, 1985.

Holley, I. B. Ideas and Weapons. Washington, D.C.: Air Force History and Museums Program, 1997.

Maurer, Maurer. The U. S. Air Service in World War I. 1. Vol. 1. 4 vols. Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Albert F. Simpson Historical Research Center, 1978.

Mets, David R. “Airpower in World War I.” A Companion for Aspirant Air Warriors: A Handbook for Personal Professional Study. Air University Press, 2010. http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep19586.11.

Miller, Roger G. “Billy Mitchell, the 3d Attack Group and the Laredo Project of 1923.” Air Power History 54, No. 2 (2007): 4–15. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26274844.

Pool, William C. “Military Aviation Texas, 1913-1917.” The Southwestern Historical Quarterly 59, no. 4 (1956): 429–54. http://www.jstor.org/stable/30235248.

“Punitive Expedition in Mexico, 1916-1917.” U.S. Department of State. U.S. Department of State, January 20, 2009. https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/wwi/108653.htm.

Quinn, Ruth. “American Military Aviation Takes off with First Aero Squadron. This Week in History: 9 March 1916.” www.army.mil. United States Army, March 1, 2013. https://www.army.mil/article/97537/american_military_aviation_takes_off_with_first_aero_squadron_this_week_in_histo ry_9_march_1916.

R., Franks Norman L., and Frank W. Bailey. Over the Front: A Complete Record of Fighter Aces and Units of the United States and French Air Services, 1914-1918. London: Grub Street, 1998.

Roesler, Alan L., and Christopher C. Brown. “RALPH A. O’NEILL: Arizona’s Other WWI Flying Ace.” The Journal of Arizona History 52, No. 2 (2011): 111–42. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41697353.

Schrader, Karl R. “Foulois and the Beginnings of Military Aviation (1897–1913).” A Giant in the Shadows: Major General Benjamin Foulois and the Rise of the Army Air Service in World War I. Air University Press, 2013. http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep13855.8.

Vasquez, Richard G. “Preparing the Air Operations Center to Leverage the Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance Capabilities of Current and Future Aircraft.” American Intelligence Journal 31, No. 1 (2013): 3–12. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26202034.

Weigley, Russell F. The American Way of War: A History of United States Military Strategy and Policy. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana Univ. Press, 1991.

Wells, Samuel F. “William Mitchell and the Ostfriesland: A Study in Military Reform.” The Historian 26, No. 4 (1964): 538–62. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24442557.

“The Wright Brothers: Military Use of the Airplane.” Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum. Accessed May 24, 2022. https://airandspace.si.edu/exhibitions/wright-brothers/online/age/1910/military.cfm.

Wright, Wilbur, Orville Wright, and John T Daniels, photographer. First flight, 120 feet in 12 seconds, 10:35 a.m.; Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. Kitty Hawk, N.C., 1903. Photograph. https://www.loc.gov/item/00652085/.

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ADOPT-A-HERO PROGRAM There is no expiration on valor. Every servicemember, that meets the legislative criteria, shall be researched and their descendants contacted. If interested in sponsoring an individual servicemember for research, please contact the George S. Robb Centre for the Study of the Great War at gsrcentre@park.edu.

Adoptions will be recognized on individual servicemember webpages, sponsorship webpage and Valor magazine.

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SPONSORSHIPS Nathan Marticke, Chief Advancement Officer

Research Investors The George S. Robb Centre for the Study of the Great War invites research investors to join the Valor Medals Review effort to properly recognize our servicemembers. While the research is supported by legislation (S. 1218/H.R. 2249) signed within the National Defense Authorization Act on December 20, 2019, no federal appropriations are funding the project.

To discuss investing in the project, please contact: Nathan Marticke, Chief Advancement Officer Park University (816)-584-6844 nathan.marticke@park.edu Give Today! advancing.park.edu/valormedals Strategic Partners Partners are critical to advancing the mission of the Valor Medals Review. Endorsement, research support or other non-financial support of the successful completion of the Valor Medals Review is invited.

The American Legion Army Aviation Association of America AMSUS, the Society of Federal Health Professionals Association of the United States Navy Commissioned Officers Association of the US Public Health Services, Inc. Congressional Black Caucus Veterans Braintrust Fleet Reserve Association Iraq and Afghanistan Veterans of America Jewish War Veterans of the USA Marine Corps League Military Officers Association of America Military Order of the Purple Heart Naval Enlisted Reserve Association Reserve Officers Association Service Women's Action Network The Military Chaplains Association of the USA Tragedy Assistance Program for Survivors The Retired Enlisted Association USCG Chief Petty Officers Association US Army Warrant Officers Association Vietnam Veterans of America Wounded Warrior Project

To discuss becoming a strategic partner, please contact Dr. Timothy Westcott, Director, George S. Robb Centre for the Study of the Great War at Park University (816)-584-6364 or tim.westcott@park.edu

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CONTACTS

Dr. Timothy Westcott Director Park University 8700 NW River Park Drive, CMB 117 Parkville, MO 64152 Email: tim.westcott@park.edu Telephone: (816)-584-6890 Website: https://gsr.park.edu Facebook: George S Robb Centre for the Study of the Great War LinkedIn: George S Robb Centre at Park University Twitter: @CentreRobb YouTube Channel: George S Robb Centre

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