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Contents Preface

ix

About the Authors

xiii

Acknowledgments

xiv

Part I

Administration

1

CHAPTER 1

The Director: A Broad View 3 A Brief History of Child Care in the United States 5 Child Care Today 5 Program Administration 6 The Director as Leader 7 The Director as Manager 10 The Director-Manager as Delegator 14 The Director-Manager as Organizer 16 The Director-Manager as Planner 17 The Director-Manager as Communicator 18 Ethical Management Practices 21 Professional Development 23 Evaluating Director Competencies 24 The Director’s Relation to Boards of Directors 28

CHAPTER 2

Diversity and Early Education 34 The Changing Face of America 35 The Need for Culturally Aligned Services 36 Pathways to Cultural Competence 37 Why Is It Important to Preserve Diversity? 39 Becoming a Culturally Competent Organization The Administrator’s Role 40 A Guide for Administrators 42 Clarifying Your Vision and Mission 43 Classrooms That Respect Diversity 44 Managing Conflict 45

CHAPTER 3

40

Choices: Schools and Programs 52 Child Care Today 53 Types of Programs—Characteristics 54 Military-Based Child Care 63 Inclusive Programs: Including Children with Diverse Abilities School Age Care 66 Foster Care 67 Infant-Care Programs 68

66

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vi

Contents

Part II

Planning: Program and Environment

CHAPTER 4

Administering Program Plans Program Planning 76 Goals 78 Curriculum 83 Assessment 88 Policies and Procedures 93

CHAPTER 5

Planning: Infants and Toddlers 100 Brain Research 101 Infant-Toddler Development 102 Characteristics of a Developmentally Appropriate Infant-Toddler Program 105 Responding to Families in Culturally Sensitive Ways 113 Program: Infant and Toddler Activities 115 Space: Infant-Toddler Environment 116 Specific Areas 118 Adaptations for Infants and Toddlers with Special Needs 124

CHAPTER 6

Planning: Preschool-Age Children 129 Preschool Development 130 Characteristics of a Developmentally Appropriate Program 134 Supporting a Developmentally Appropriate Program 139 Program Space 147 Diversity in the Program 151 Planning Program Spaces by Area 153 Outdoor Areas 159 Adaptations for Children with Special Needs 161

CHAPTER 7

Planning: School-Age Children 166 School-Age Programs 167 School-Age Children 168 Characteristics of a Developmentally Appropriate Program Supporting Developmentally Appropriate Programs 174 Space 178 Planning Space for Specific Areas 180 Outdoor Environment 185

CHAPTER 8

73

75

Family Child Care 190 Family Child Care: An Overview 192 Regulation of Family Child Care 194 The Choice of Family Child Care 195 Provider Characteristics 197 The Family Child Care Provider as Administrator The Future of Family Child Care 201

Part III

Staff Administration

CHAPTER 9

Staff Selection/Personnel Policies Staff Turnover 212 Staff Selection 212 Staff Recruitment 216

172

198

209 211

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Contents

Application Information 218 Selection Process 219 Evaluating 224 Personnel Practices 226 Personnel Records 235 Classroom Substitute Personnel 237 CHAPTER 10

Staff Supervision and Training 241 Director as Supervisor 242 Evaluation of Staff Performance 243 Professional Development 248 Planning Effective Meetings 253 Burnout 256 Staff Turnover and Retention 258

PART IV

Management 265

CHAPTER 11

Budget 267 The Budget 268 Development of the Budget 268 Expenses — Personnel 273 Expenses — Variable 273 Fixed Expenses 274 Income 275 Summary of Budget Cycle 277 Budget Analysis 278 Keeping Budget Records 279 Other Sources of Income 280

CHAPTER 12

Nutrition, Health, and Safety for the Program Nutrition 289 Cooking Experiences for Children 295 Food Purchasing 297 Food Preparation 298 Food Safety 298 Food Service for Children 299 Physical Activity 300 Health 300 Safety 309

CHAPTER 13

Beginnings: A New Program/A New Year A Business Plan 322 Location 322 Finances 328 Staff Selection 333 Working Checklist 334 Planning for Opening Day 334 Enrollment 336 Parents 341 The New School Year 344 Retaining Families 348

288

321

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vii

viii

Contents

Part V

Beyond the School Itself

353

CHAPTER 14

Including Families and the Community Changing Roles of Families 356 Parent Involvement 356 Community Involvement 363 Parent Education 364 The School and the Community 371

CHAPTER 15

Maintaining the Quality of Child Care 381 Upgrading the Quality of Programs 382 Child Abuse 387 Laws and Issues Pertaining to Child Care Settings Directors as “Gatekeepers to Quality” 395 Leading with a Vision 396

355

393

APPENDIX A

AEYC’s Code of Ethical Conduct: Guidelines for Responsible Behavior in Early N Childhood Education 401

APPENDIX B

Technology and Interactive Media as Tools in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children from Birth through Age 8 408 Glossary Index

429

433

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

Preface Rationale Administration of Programs for Young Children was first published in 1976, when interest in the education of very young children was just beginning. Today the importance of those early years is well established, and there is universal recognition that quality programs must have well-trained and knowledgeable teachers, as well as leaders or directors who can meet the challenges of operating these programs. Each year, new research offers additional insight into the needs of young children. The job of an administrator is so multifaceted that it is imperative that every leader be well versed in the latest information. Therefore, the availability of courses and up-to-date training materials is essential. This book can serve that purpose. The text is appropriate for a course at a 2-year college, a 4-year university, or at the graduate level. It can also be a source for working directors, planners of training programs, or people who want to start a child care program.

Organization The organization of this edition reflects a logical progression of information needed by a director. It is divided into five sections with chapters containing relevant information.

Part I—Administration, includes the general responsibilities of a director and ­discusses the different kinds of settings. Chapter 1 emphasizes the importance of creating a democratic or collegial environment for staff members. Chapter 2 is new to this edition and explains the importance of incorporating diversity into an early education program.

Chapter 3 discusses the different kinds of programs and how the responsibilities of the job of administrator change according to the needs and scope of each program type.

Part II—Planning: Program and Environment, details the process for establishing, organizing and designing a specific, well thought-out child care program. Chapter 4 discusses how to plan and organize a curriculum by setting creating a vision and mission and then setting goals to achieve the desired results. The reader is taken through the steps that lead to the development of goals, and then shown how to take action to provide excellent curriculum. Chapters 5 to 7 document planning for three age levels: infants and toddlers, preschool children, and school-age children. Each highlights developmental milestones and then discusses how to plan a developmentally appropriate programs and curriculum with emphasis on domain-specific activities. In each chapter, examples of program standards are discussed (e.g. health, safety, developmentally appropriate practice etc), along with specific guidelines and suggestions for activities and areas to include in both the ­indoor and outdoor environment. This enables the reader to get a complete picture of how to plan for each age level. Chapter 8 discusses family child care and describes the administrative details for this unique family setting.

Part III—Staff Administration, covers hiring staff and developing personnel ­policies that encourage staff retention. Chapter 9, Staff Selection/Personnel Policies, takes the ­director through the process of determining staff qualifications, recruiting, and selecting.

There are also sections on developing personnel policies, preventing staff turnover, and writing a personnel manual. Chapter 9 also has a section on managing substitute personnel. Chapter 10, Staff Supervision and Training, suggests effective methods of supervising and evaluating staff, as well as planning for staff development and training activities. ix Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

x

Preface

Part IV—Management, includes the tasks that are needed to successfully ­operate a program. Chapter 11 details the process of putting together a budget, which includes a break-even budget, and operating a program using effective business practices. The new Chapter 12 discusses how to maintain a safe environment, ensure the health of ­children, and operate a good nutritional food program that is also economically feasible and ­sensitive to cultural differences. Chapter 13, Beginnings: A New Program/A New Year, ­discusses the processes that are needed to start a new program or begin a school year after a summer break.

Part V—Beyond the School Itself, takes the reader outside the facility to consider external influences. Chapter 14, Including Families and the Community, considers the role of families in early childhood education and how the surrounding community can impact the program. The final chapter, Maintaining the Quality of Child Care, addresses the issues of how to determine quality, how to measure it, and how to maintain it. This chapter also contains a discussion of the laws and issues that pertain to personnel and families, as well as a discussion of liability insurance coverage.

Appendix A contains the complete National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) Code of Ethical Conduct.

Appendix B contains the complete NAEYC position paper on technology and interactive media in early childhood programs.

This new edition of the text addresses requests by reviewers for the most current ­information and responds to their concerns and requirements. However, these updates may not always meet the needs of each group of students or individual instructors. That said, each chapter has been written to allow instructors to change the order in which the chapters are presented to best align with their course objectives.

Features An important new feature of this edition is the placement of the NAEYC icon within each chapter to indicate where the text addresses specific NAEYC Standards for ­Professional Development. The Standards covered in each chapter are listed on the chapter opening page, along with the chapter objectives and key terms.

Another new feature in this edition is the inclusion of TeachSource Videos. This awardwinning video series captures in-the-classroom footage of early childhood ­programs, caregivers, teachers, and children. Each chapter features one to two video call-out boxes with questions for readers to think about as they watch the videos. Questions can be assigned or merely used to focus readers’ attention on specific topics. Videos can be viewed on the Education CourseMate at CengageBrain.com.

New Digital Downloads also have been added throughout the book. The reader will find Digital Download icons next to Figures that show samples of forms used in ­program administration. These forms can be downloaded from the Education CourseMate at ­CengageBrain.com, adapted, and used by students and instructors as a practical tool in early childhood programs.

A final new feature, “Did You Get It?” quizzes, can now be found at the end of ­every ­major section of the chapters. These questions will spur readers to check their ­understanding of what they just read and encourage them to visit the Education ­CourseMate at CengageBrain.com to take the full quiz.

The instructors will still find the vignettes “A day in the life of . . .” in this edition.

These snapshots of a director’s activities give the student an opportunity to glimpse what it is like to be a program leader. They sometimes provide a bit of humor to spark interest in the content as examples of “real life”—not to suggest appropriate practices.

Each chapter ends with a Case Study and Helpful Websites. The case study poses ­questions that foster critical thinking; the websites provide access to additional information if the student chooses to pursue it.

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

Preface

xi

Internet Disclaimer The authors and Cengage Learning affirm that the website URLs referenced herein were accurate at the time of printing. However, due to the fluid nature of the Internet, we cannot guarantee their accuracy for the life of this edition.

New to This Edition This edition reflects the changes that are taking place in early childhood education. The following topics have either been expanded or added to this edition.

• Emphasis on the leadership role of the administrator.

• More attention to the professional development of a program administrator.

• Focus on standards, including NAEYC Professional Development Standards in • • • • • • • • • • •

e­ very chapter.

Up-to-date references throughout the text.

Focus on program and quality improvement, including the Program Administrator Scales.

Increased information on planning that includes mission and vision statements, as well as goals.

A brand new Chapter 2 on diversity within the early childhood program.

More extensive information on curriculum delivery systems.

Greater emphasis on developmentally appropriate activities.

Focus on technology and interactive media.

Health, safety, and nutritional information combined in one concise chapter.

Updated “Selected Further Reading” at the end of each chapter.

Detailed information on the newest trends within early child care and education.

Updated information on marketing your program.

Resources for Students Education CourseMate Education CourseMate brings course concepts to life with interactive learning, study, and exam preparation tools that support the printed textbook. CourseMate includes an integrated eBook, Did You Get It? quizzes, flashcards, videos, and more. Visit CengageBrain.com for access.

TeachSource Video Cases The TeachSource Video Cases feature footage from the classroom to help students relate key chapter content to real-life scenarios. Critical-thinking questions, artifacts, and bonus video help the student reflect on the content in the video.

Resources for Instructors Online Instructor’s Manual with Test Bank An online Instructor’s Manual accompanies this book. It contains information to assist the instructor in designing the course, including sample syllabi, discussion questions, ­teaching

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

xii

Preface

and learning activities, field experiences, learning objectives, and additional ­online ­resources. For assessment support, the updated test bank includes true/false, multiplechoice, matching, short-answer, and essay questions for each chapter.

PowerLecture with ExamView This one-stop digital library and presentation tool includes preassembled Microsoft® ­PowerPoint® lecture slides. In addition to the full Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank, ­PowerLecture also includes ExamView® testing software with all the test items from the printed Test Bank in electronic format, enabling instructors to create customized tests in print or online, with all of your media resources in one place, including an image library with graphics from the textbook itself and TeachSource Videos.

How to Use This Text The sequence of chapters provides the student with a logical progression of topics that have been field-tested by many instructors using the text. The order can be adopted as is or changed to suit the needs of a particular setting. Review questions and activities at the end of each chapter also make it applicable to a self-study plan by individual readers.

A significant resource for students is the list of websites at the end of each chapter.

Many students have computers and are comfortable searching for information on the ­Internet. The instructor can assign topics or pose questions to be answered by logging on to one of the sites. Additionally, the premium website provides the instructor with ways to enhance students’ learning. Downloadable forms can be used as worksheets for in-class discussions or reproduced as transparencies to accompany lectures. The case studies are a rich source for augmenting learning. Students can read and discuss the cases online or in groups during class time. The author has posed questions at the end of each case and ­welcomes the instructor to pose additional ones.

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

About the Authors Phyllis Click obtained her bachelor’s and master’s degrees from the University of ­California at Berkeley in psychology and child development. Throughout a long career, she worked in various settings with both children and adults. She taught in preschools, worked in summer camps, and developed and taught in a program for autistic children. She then began working with adults, teaching college students, administering grant programs, and designing a curriculum for a private college for prospective teachers.

Upon retirement, she served as a consultant, helping others start or administer ­programs, and published widely. Her publications included another textbook, articles in ­professional journals, and ancillary materials for other authors’ texts.

Kimberly Karkos was awarded a bachelor’s degree in child development and family relations from the University of Connecticut and a master’s degree in early childhood education from the University of Saint Joseph in West Hartford, Connecticut. She received a Director’s Administrative Credential from the National Institute of Childcare Management in 2004. She has been an administrator for various early childhood programs, a consultant, and a child development specialist for over 40 years. Ms. Karkos is a professor of Child Development at Ventura College in Ventura, California and the University of LaVerne. She belongs to the National Association for the Education of Young Children, is a member of the ­Ventura County Child Care Planning Council, and serves on several other advisory boards. In 2013, she was awarded a Community College Early Childhood Education ­Fellowship from the Simms/Mann Institute for Education and Community Development.

Cathie Robertson, who extensively revised information in Chapters 1, 4, 6, 7, 8, and 12, received her bachelor’s and master’s degrees from San Diego State University and did much of her undergraduate work at California Polytechnic University at San Luis Obispo.

She is a professor of Child Development and Family Studies at Grossmont College near San Diego, California. A number of her students are directors so she is very familiar with the issues they face. She has taught child development and childhood nutrition courses for more than 25 years and is now semi-retired and teaches mainly online. Ms. Robertson has made numerous national, state, and local professional presentations and has been the recipient of a number of grants. She is a long-time member of the National Association for the Education of Young Children. Ms. Robertson volunteers regularly in several early elementary classes to keep current. She is married, the mother of three adult children and one elementary school-age child, and a grandmother to eight.

xiii Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

Acknowledgments Our thanks to those who generously gave of their time to make this edition of Administration of Programs for Young Children an effective tool for both new and experienced administrators. Our special thanks to Mark D. Kerr, Acquisitions Editor, and Caitlin Cox and Linda Stewart, Developmental Editors. We want to express our appreciation for the other Cengage Learning staff members who carried the project from one step to another until the final pages were put together.

A special thanks to the reviewers who took the time to read the previous edition and offer excellent suggestions for changes and additions to this edition: Teresa Clark Debra Dyer

Cedarville University Keuka College

Deb Farrer Colleen Fawcett Jamie Harmount Barbara June Karri Kerns

California University of Pennsylvania Palm Beach State College Ohio University Baker College Iowa State University – Child Development ­ Laboratory School Tallahassee Community College College of the Desert Saddleback College Ball State University

Maureen O’Neil Dianne Russom Barbara Tamialis Kresha Warnock

xiv Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

Administration CHAPTER 1

The Director: A Broad View

CHAPTER 2

Diversity and Early Education

CHAPTER 3

Choices: Schools and Programs

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Nenov Brothers Images/Shutterstock.com

Part 1

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C h apte r

© Cengage Learning

1

Objectives

The Director: A Broad View A Day in the Life of . . .

A Director of a For-Profit Center 6:30 a.m. Arrive to open center. One parent waiting; the first teacher is late. The phone is ringing: it’s a sick teacher. Child and I go to classroom to set out a few materials. ­Finally a teacher arrives.

6:45 a.m. I go to my office: there are notes from my assistant on my desk. They concern a request from Michelle (an assistant teacher) to leave early; an upset mother; two requested tours with prospective families; and that it is time to order rubber gloves, paper towels, and tissues. The parents are arriving and the phone continues to ring, heralding further changes in attendance. I take out my daily schedule to make the changes, then call a substitute teacher from our list. She will come, but cannot get there for an hour and a half. No substitute assistant teacher, so Michelle cannot leave early. Maybe I’ll be able to figure it out later.

After reading this chapter, you should be able to: State the responsibilities of a director.

Describe management styles and methods.

Describe leadership qualities.

Identify ways a director allocates school resources.

Discuss the role of a director as a communicator.

Devise and use a self-evaluation tool.

Discuss the relationship of a ­director to a board of trustees.

• • • • • • •

Standards The following NAEYC Standards for Early Childhood Professional ­ Preparation Programs are ­addressed in this chapter:

Standard 1: Promoting Child ­Development and Learning (1a) Standard 2: Building Family and Community Relationships (2 a, b) Standard 4: Using Developmentally Effective Approaches to Connect with Children and ­Families (4a, b, d) Standard 6: Becoming a ­Professional (6a, b, c, e)

7:00 a.m. Jordan’s mom comes into the office and without closing the door ­demands to talk to me. “I thought you had a policy that you won’t release a child to anyone other than who is listed on the enrollment form by the parents!” Yesterday, her daughter

K e y

T er m s

ethics

morality

leadership

nonverbal messages

management

values

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4

Part I

Administration was released to her uncle. Even though he was known to the staff, he should not have been allowed to pick her up. “I expect that you are going to look into this and give me a full report. And I just want you to know how upset I am!”

I apologize and assure her that I will investigate it and that this incident does not ­reflect our policy. I tell her I will give her a report by the end of the day.

7:30 a.m. I am in the toddler room welcoming parents and explaining why I am there. I tell them that the regular teacher is sick and reassure them that a substitute teacher is on her way. I spend 45 minutes in the room helping the children separate from their parents.

The phone continues to ring. I answer from the classroom. Three more children have been called in as sick.

The cook enters the room to tell me that the milk expired yesterday and that there is no pancake mix for the morning snack. She stays in the room while I get petty cash so she can go to the store for more. I have to remember to tell the teachers that the snack will be about 20 minutes late.

8:20 a.m. The substitute has arrived. I walk through the classrooms to see if everything is fine.

I count the children to check that the teacher/child ratio is correct. A parent comes in and hands me her tuition check. She waits for a receipt and requests a conference with her child’s teacher. She wants me to attend the conference because the teacher intimidates her.

8:40 a.m. I finally get to my desk. A staff member comes to request a day off the ­following week. I talk to a prospective parent for 10 minutes and schedule a tour for this afternoon at 2:00.

9:00 a.m. My administrative assistant arrives. We talk briefly about what needs to get done today and what transpired with Jordan yesterday afternoon. She takes messages off the answering machine. By now there is an extra teacher, a floater, in one room.

I begin to work on the payroll report, the cash flow report, and the payment status log.

This usually takes one hour if there are no interruptions. I almost finish, but my tour arrives 10 minutes early. We tour the building and then sit in the office.

10:30 a.m. The tour leaves and I return to my paperwork. I meet with the staff that let Jordan go yesterday with her uncle. I reiterate our policy and ensure that they understand their error and responsibility.

11:00 a.m. The phone rings with another inquiry from a prospective parent. I take her phone number and promise to call back.

12:00 p.m. I leave the building to make a bank deposit and to purchase tomorrow’s supplies. I return to the center, have some leftovers from lunch, and review the daily ­schedule to decide if I can let Michelle leave early. I shift an extra teacher to Michelle’s room. She’s very happy.

1:00 p.m. I begin tomorrow’s schedule and look at today’s to-do list. I call the upset ­parent and give her a full report. I write a thank you note to the parents who participated in last week’s fundraiser, ask my assistant to send reminders to 10 parents to pay tuition, and call back the prospective parent who wants to tour the school. I begin work on a grant ­application that is due next week.

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Chapter 1

The Director: A Broad View

5

2:00 p.m. My tour arrives and we spend about 20 minutes together. I give my assistant a list of three things to do that I did not get done today. I make a new list for tomorrow.

3:00 p.m. I begin the agenda for Friday’s staff in-service. My doctor’s office calls to inform me that I missed my ­appointment this morning and will be charged.

I look at the clock and realize I am going to be late for a Child Care Planning Council meeting. I run out of the building and tell my assistant to call my cell phone if there are any emergencies.

Karen, Director of Kiddie Academy

A Brief History of Child Care in the United States Throughout history, families have often relied on others to care for their children. The beginning of the daycare movement originated with the welfare and reform movements of the 19th century. It was founded to alleviate the child care problems of working parents and to prevent children from wandering the streets. “Daycare grew out of a welfare ­movement to care for immigrant and working class children while their impoverished mothers worked” (Boschee & Jacobs, 2006). Today’s daycare centers evolved from these day nurseries, which began in Boston settlement houses in the 1840s. The nurseries cared for children of economically deprived wives, widows, and immigrants. Child care in the United States has evolved. During the Great Depression, the federal government sponsored daycare to employ adults who were out of work. During World War II, the federal government sponsored daycare for 400,000 preschool children so that their mothers could work in industries producing war materials. After the war, the government removed all support for daycare and encouraged women to stay home and care for their children.

Many women, however, rejected that advice and, consequently, the ranks of working women have been steadily increasing since World War II (Boschee & Jacobs, 2006).

Did You Get It? While touring a daycare center, a parent comments to the director, “What a lovely and well-run center! It seems far removed from the first American daycare centers, which were a function of the welfare movement.” This statement about the beginnings of the daycare movement a. is accurate. b. is inaccurate. c. is true regarding only centers located in big cities, not in rural towns. d. is true regarding only centers located in rural towns, not in big cities.

Take the full quiz at CengageBrain.com

Child Care Today The dramatic increase in the labor force participation of mothers has been the most ­important factor affecting the demand for child care in the last 40 years. Currently, in a ­majority of American families with children, including those with toddlers, the mother works (Glynn, 2012). According to the Employment Characteristics of Families 2011, 69 percent of married women with children and 75 percent of single women with children are in the workforce (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2012). Approximately 9 to 11 ­million children are in some form of organized daycare while their mothers work (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011; Child Care Aware, 2012). More than one-third of ­children of working mothers and one-quarter of children whose mothers do not work are in some type of daycare arrangement (Glynn, 2012; Child Care Aware 2012). The U.S. ­Department of Labor believes Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

6

Part I

Administration that the need for programs that serve young children and their families will remain on the rise and the need for daycare providers and teachers will increase at a rapid rate in the near future.

Similarly, an increasingly significant trend affecting the demand for child care is the proportion of mothers who are the sole or primary financial supporters of their ­children.

Additionally, child care has been a significant issue in debates about moving welfare ­recipients toward employment and self-sufficiency; mothers on welfare may have difficulty entering the labor force because of child care problems. Finally, the impact of child care on children is the subject of ongoing discussions about whether low-income children benefit from participation in programs with a focus on early childhood development.

As women’s labor force participation has grown over the past several decades, ­concerns about the quality of child care have increased. The relationship between quality of child care and children’s development is of increasing interest to parents, researchers, and policy­ makers. A growing body of research now examines the factors that correspond to quality child care, measurements of those factors, and their short- and long-term effects on children.

Knowing that the quality of early care and education that young children receive lays the building blocks for future success in school motivates child care programs and ­daycare providers to meet higher standards. Thus, organizations such as the National ­Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC), the National Child Care ­Association (NCCA), the National After school Association (NAA), and the National ­Association for Family Child Care (NAFCC) promote professional development, accreditation, and other quality care initiatives.

Standards are an important part of today’s child care and early ­elementary education environments. The NAEYC has set standards for professional development and competencies for Program Administrators; and the NAA has set standards for quality environments for ­After school care. A fairly new quality assessment rating system for administrators is now found in the Program Administration Scale (2011) from the McCormick Center for Early Childhood Leadership at http://cecl.nl.edu/evaluation/resources/PAS_StandardsandCriteria.pdf. There are also other quality assurance tracking systems—such as the Early Childhood Education Rating Systems (ECERS) and School Age Care Education Rating Systems ­(SACERS)—that are in place to assess quality in programs. These will be covered in other chapters.

Did You Get It? Jamie, a mother of a 4-year-old and a one-year-old, works 30 hours a week. Statistically, her work and parenting status places her a. in the majority. b. in the minority. c. In the minority, but she would be in the majority if she had two children and worked more than 40 hours a week. d. In the minority, but she would be in the majority if she had more than two children and worked.

Take the full quiz at CengageBrain.com

Program Administration Being a program administrator is challenging. It is like being circus juggler with all the different facets that must be managed and addressed. The first step to being a program ­administrator, which we will often refer to as “director,” is to understand what that entails.

To do this, we can look to the NAEYC Program Administrator Definition: The program administrator is the individual responsible for planning, ­implementing and evaluating a child care, preschool or kindergarten program. The role of administrator covers both leadership and management functions. Leadership functions ­relate to the broad plan of helping and organization clarify and affirms values, set goals, ­articulate a vision and chart a course of action to achieve that vision. Managerial functions relate to the actual orchestration of tasks and the setting up of system to carry out the organization’s mission. (NAEYC, 2007) Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

Chapter 1

The Director: A Broad View

7

The core competencies are in the areas that the ­ irectors need to be involved in, such as staff management, d legal and fiscal management, educational programming, ­family ­support, and leadership and advocacy. For the entire list of administrator competencies, review the NAEYC Program Administrator Definition and Competencies document, available at http://www.naeyc.org.

Providing quality services to children and families while running a successful business is both a complex task and what makes child care administration a daunting challenge. How do you retain competent staff, offer a program that prepares children for later school success, and manage a business at the same time? The task becomes harder every day. During slow economic times, businesses of all sizes face layoffs, closures, or restructuring. Employees may have shortened hours, a lack of raises, reduced pay, split shifts, and/or multiple jobs to make ends meet.

Directors play a key role in building and maintaining Go to the CengageBrain.com to watch the video high-quality early childhood programs (Ryan et al., 2011).

The Quality of Child Care where you will learn They know the impact of modern day realities on the about what constitutes high-quality child care. program and must work around them to sustain quality.

Watch the video with-these questions in mind: The recent economic downturn saw shifting enrollments, 1. Describe the components of quality care more part-time enrollments, and difficulty collecting fees.

There was more competition, increased costs, and a grow2. What can a director do to ensure quality in ing number of “customers” with fewer resources. What can child care? the program administrator do to maintain program qualWatch at CengageBrain.com ity while managing to keep the business afloat? Quality is easier to maintain when the director has a strong commitment to children and follows quality standards. Financial solvency is easier to attain by exercising the basics of sound business practices for small businesses. Small businesses all face stiff competition, rising costs, and shifting consumer demand. Many do not survive. However, many last because they monitor consumer needs, customer satisfaction, and cost controls.

A successful program director needs more than a strong commitment to children and families. Such a director must be, at the least, a wise leader and a knowledgeable manager.

BBC Motion Gallery

TeachSource Video Case 1.1

Did You Get It? A director notes that in the past six months, the center experienced more part-time enrollments of children. She has also had difficulty collecting payment from parents. What is the most likely explanation for these changes? a. The director has not been sufficiently committed to maintaining a ­quality program. b. Another daycare center opened on the same street. c. There has been an economic downturn that affected many families. d. The parents have colluded against the director to oppose the center’s high fees.

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The Director as Leader Understanding the difference between leadership and management is as important as ­understanding what each is. Leadership is setting a direction or vision for a group to follow. A leader should be able to: articulate a vision, clarify values, and create a culture for the program that is built on a strong foundation, allow for continuous improvement, and value Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

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Part I

Administration ethical conduct. A leader provides guidance for program direction. ­Management controls or directs resources according to established principles, such as core values. Management without leadership maintains the status quo and ensures that things ­happen according to established plans, but does not see the whole picture of possibilities for ­improvement, change, and growth. Leadership combined with management designates a new ­direction and manages the resources to achieve it. “Today’s early care and ­education … leaders must be politically astute, aware of and engaged in a multitude of context ­extending ­beyond one’s day-to day work, and skilled in envisioning and facilitating change” (Whitebook et al., 2012). In recent years, there has been increasing emphasis on the director’s leadership. A director who truly leads has the power to shape the environment and to meet current program ­conditions with imagination and creativity. Carter & Curtis (2010) call this type of leader a “visionary director”; another name might be a “transformational leader.” A transformational leader emphasizes behaviors that inspire and nurture others, which is ­especially ­beneficial in child care settings. This type of leadership meets both the ­challenges of a rapidly changing environment and the need to engage everyone emotionally within the program.

Transformational leadership behaviors include:

• Developing and sharing an inspiring vision of the program’s future.

• Behaving in ways that bring out the best in individuals and teams.

• Showing genuine concern and respect for others.

• Investing continuously in the development of oneself and others.

• Developing a culture of collaboration in which change is welcomed as an •

­ pportunity—as opposed to a culture of command and control, where change is o viewed as a threat.

Recognizing that leadership needs to be demonstrated at times by everyone in the organization.

In addition to these behaviors, there are certain characteristics that a good leader has that allow her to be effective and that encourage others to follow her lead. The following five characteristics allow for more a successful best practice of leadership skills.

The Five C’s of Leadership 1. Character: People will not follow someone whom they cannot trust. Leaders have to be trustworthy to produce sustainable results.

2. Caring: Leaders demonstrate care for their team personally and professionally.

A leader is interested in staff concerns, while sensitive to individual needs; is patient, creative, and flexible; is respected as knowledgeable and fair; is able to share ­responsibility and credit with others; promotes consensus, compromise, and tradeoffs; and integrates different perspectives.

3. Commitment: Leaders are committed; they are doers. Their high level of commitment is the inspiration that motivates their staff to achieve program goals. They are committed to being a change agent who involves staff in the process.

4. C onfidence: Leaders are confident about what must be done and in their own ­capabilities to accomplish those tasks. Furthermore, they want others to be successful with them. They instill confidence in others and make everyone on the team feel like a winner. They know how to delegate leadership in their absence and can cultivate needed qualities in others.

5. Communication: Leaders have compelling visions and clearly communicate them to their staff. Leaders utilize good communication and group interaction skills.

In addition to being clear and understandable, leaders are exceptional listeners.

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Chapter 1

The Director: A Broad View

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­ irectors who develop these qualities create an environment in which their teams D willingly do more tasks.

Other Qualities of Effective Leaders There is a direct correlation between the way people view their directors and the way they perform themselves. Strong leadership is imperative for shaping a group of people into a force that serves as a competitive business advantage. One of the major differences ­between a leader and a manager is the way each motivates the staff who work for or follow them. This sets the tone for most other aspects of what they do. The director’s ability to use leadership behaviors—not just to get a job done but to lead both the staff and program to success—is a measurement of quality (Robertson, 2011).

Leaders work “on” the system to create new opportunities, transform organizational rules when necessary, provide a vision and strategic alignment, coordinate efforts, and support and empower people. They are change agents. Leadership requires motivating people to abandon outmoded habits and achieve new results. Therefore, it is about change and, subsequently, about inspiring, helping, and sometimes enforcing change in people. A good leader will know that, sometimes, change needs to be made in small steps. Making change one step at a time is a way to demonstrate success (Bella, 2008).

Talan (2010) stated, “One thing I know for certain—the need for effective early childhood leadership has never been greater than in this time of global economic crisis, demand for standards-based practice, and increased accountability for program outcomes.”

So many different outside influences are making demands of child care programs and the directors who lead them. An effective director understands the importance of a well-­ qualified staff. She knows that some leadership can be delegated to others in certain situations. A good leader appreciates the interdependency between the leader, the followers, and the situation (Talan, 2010). Good leaders will encourage others to be involved in leadership as situations arise for which they have the skills and knowledge to help lead.

A demo­cratic leadership approach allows others to share in decision making and helps them to feel that they have a greater stake in the program and its outcomes. Collaborative efforts make situations and change more manageable. When staff is involved in making decisions, they have “ownership” in the outcomes as well as in the entire process. In addition, cultivating leadership in others allows them to flourish in their abilities. Good leaders should be willing to grow their own replacements who can step in when they are ill, retire, or move on ­(Sullivan, 2009).

The shifting demographics of this country is an outside force that will need good leadership and the involvement of staff to deal with the necessary changes. Almost 30 percent of homes in this country speak a language other than English as their first language. More than 80 percent of Head Start programs have children who speak a total of 140 different languages (Hernandez, 2009). The challenge is how best to serve these children and their families in this time of changing demographics. A transformational leader will work to understand and convey the reasons for this shift to their staff. Guiding staff to understand that they need to be aware of the demographic changes—and to understand those changes—can lead to action that best serves the children and the program. Collaboration around this situation is crucial: leading staff to envision the changing needs of the more diverse population in the program is a starting point (see Chapter 2). Staff can contribute practical ideas and strategies that would work best for the population in the program. Recruit staff members who may not have English as their first language to help lead. Partner with community resources and agencies that are familiar with diverse populations. Involve families who are part of the diverse population to help create solutions. A good leader creates an atmosphere that encourages collaboration and “buy in” from many stakeholders to address this situation and involve everyone in the decision-making process for change and adaptation.

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Part I

Administration

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The director acts as organizer, manager, and communicator of the institution.

Did You Get It? A teacher comes to a program director and explains that her husband has been hospitalized due to pneumonia. While he is in the hospital, the director allows the teacher to leave early every day, and regularly asks how her husband is feeling. This director is demonstrating the leadership quality of a. commitment. b. confidence. c. character. d. caring.

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The Director as Manager The role of the classic manager is to work within the existing system to maintain the status quo, minimize risks, enforce organizational rules, steer people in the right direction, react, and provide instruction and direction. But management is a very important task that links leadership with a program’s effectiveness. It is the nuts and bolts that keep the program running like a well-oiled machine. Managing a child care facility can be an exhausting job that requires much more than a typical 40-hour workweek. Stress and burnout often occur, resulting in substandard child care. The child care program manager in the 21st century must learn to work smarter, not harder. What does intelligent management include?

Today’s successful child care program manager performs such valuable practices as:

• Learning how to run a successful business.

• Automating the facility for maximum efficiency, such as by introducing manage-

ment software to: keep track of children and families; update records; monitor fees to collect, bills to pay, and reports to write; and more. Using such software enables the director to accomplish tasks significantly faster.

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• Practicing financial planning, which includes maintaining a balanced budget;

• • • •

•

­ eveloping profit and loss forecasts, break-even points, and strategies to identify d cash flow or funding gaps; and creating strategies—such as fundraising, grants, and gifts—to meet funding gaps.

Establishing effective marketing and public relations strategies to promote ­services; staying abreast of market trends in the area; and maintaining a competitive edge.

Interpreting, implementing, and—often—exceeding licensing standards.

Appraising legal issues such as legislation affecting child care, including national standards, health and safety, fire safety and first aid, child protection, equality of opportunity, employment law, insurance, and environmental health.

Developing a work plan that includes assigning roles and responsibilities, as well as developing timetables of work and a SWOT analysis. SWOT analysis is a tool for auditing an organization and its environment. The acronym stands for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. While strengths and weaknesses are internal factors, opportunities and threats are external factors.

Evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of your operation on a constant basis, and developing action plans to improve program performance.

A director will be called upon to manage many tasks in the child care program. These tasks vary by type of program, composition of age of children in program, staff, and ­general duties expected of a director pertinent to that program. Some examples of duties can be found in the following paragraphs.

The Director Has General Responsibilities (Chapters 1–3) Determines the requirements that must be met regarding licensing, health, and safety ­regulations from the state and local regulatory agencies. Works with agencies to meet requirements. Serves as an ex officio member of the board of directors and attends committee meetings as necessary.

Provides leadership for setting overall goals for the school—to be used as a basis for ­curriculum objectives.

Creates reports on the school as required by the board or corporation.

Evaluates own work as a director and plans for continuing professional growth.

Provides a culturally aligned program.

Plans for the diversity present in the program.

Practices cultural competency.

Practices conflict resolution in regards to cultural issues.

The Director Supervises Program Planning and Curriculum (Chapters 4–7) Displays strong depth of knowledge of child development, including current information and latest research.

Develops or assists in development of philosophy, vision, and mission statements.

Formulates program plans.

Creates, implements, and revises management policies for staff, children, and families.

Understands and can apply standards, quality assessment, and other program ­improvement strategies.

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Part I

Administration Demonstrates knowledge of best practices for developmentally appropriate practice.

Analyzes and helps to choose appropriate delivery methods for curriculum.

Provides direction to staff in setting curriculum objectives/outcomes that are ­developmentally appropriate and align with the school goals.

Works with staff to implement and maintain goals and objectives in an age- and ­developmentally appropriate manner.

Provides leadership in evaluating curriculum.

Provides up-to-date information on curriculum issues.

Applies knowledge of age and developmentally appropriate practice to the design of the classroom.

Directs modification of classroom design, materials, and curriculum adaptation for ­children with special needs.

A Child Care Provider Who Acts as a Director in Family CHILD CARE (CHAPTER 8) Displays knowledge of child development.

Understands and complies with all local and state regulations pertinent to family child care.

Demonstrates knowledge of business in terms of family child care.

Practices good budgeting, marketing, and record keeping skills.

Demonstrates developmentally appropriate practice.

The Director Is Concerned with Staff Relationships (Chapters 9 and 10) Recruits and hires staff.

Plans and conducts staff orientation.

Prepares job descriptions for each position.

Formulates and implements personnel policies.

Maintains effective personnel policies and procedures for all phases of staff employment.

Assists staff in implementing school goals.

Provides a continuing assessment of staff development needs.

Plans with staff for in-service training.

Encourages staff involvement in community activities.

Meets with staff members to resolve problems.

Prepares a staff handbook and keeps it current.

Keeps personnel records.

The Director Is in Charge of Finances (Chapter 11) Plans a budget.

Controls budget expenditures.

Collects fees and tuition.

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Chapter 1

The Director: A Broad View

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Manages disbursements for payroll, equipment, and supplies.

Keeps adequate records of income and expenditures.

Handles petty cash disbursements.

Prepares monthly reports on expenditures to date.

Prepares a year-end analysis of budget and expenditures.

Reports to board or corporation.

The Director Must Plan for Food Programs, Health, and Safety (Chapter 12) Demonstrates understanding basic nutrition.

Demonstrates understanding of legal obligations for Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP) funding programs for food supplies.

Plans or assists in planning of food program, including menus.

Manages supplies, reordering as needed.

Keeps records such as inventories, repair schedules, and purchase information.

Maintains an adequate health program for the school.

Keeps health records on all enrolled children.

Keeps staff informed concerning the health status of each child.

Confers with parents as needed about child’s health and nutritional status.

Refers families to community agencies for special help when necessary.

Keeps informed of the school’s legal responsibilities in relation to safety.

Plans activities for staff and children to teach safety.

Plans, allocates, and uses space effectively.

Maintains the physical space by providing custodial care and repair services.

Plans for the future space and equipment needs of the school.

Monitors the health and safety aspects of the environment.

The Director Has Enrollment Duties (Chapter 13) Enrolls children and keeps an accurate waiting list.

Interviews prospective parents and provides information about the school.

Plans orientation for new parents.

Knows the changing needs of the community to maintain full enrollment.

Prepares a parent handbook and keeps it current.

The Director Builds and Maintains Good Community Relations (Chapter 14) Interprets the school’s goals to visitors.

Maintains an effective public relations and advertising process.

Represents the school at community functions.

Establishes contacts with community agencies.

Involves self and staff in professional and legislative activities.

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Part I

Administration

© Cengage Learning 2014

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Effective managers involve staff in planning.

The Director Provides Leadership in Parent Involvement and Education (Chapters 14 and 15) Implements policies that promote partnerships with families who are responsive to the ­diversity of school families’ preferences and styles.

Communicates goals of the school to parents.

Plans and implements parent education activities.

Confers with parents regarding their child’s progress.

Encourages various ways for parents to be involved in school activities.

Keeps adequate records of parent involvement and education activities.

Did You Get It? A program director whose program is struggling financially decides to make cuts in the program. Rather than reduce the number of staff members and compromise on the quality of care, she decides to reduce each staff member’s pay by a small percentage. Which term best describes the role she is taking? a. Manager. b. Leader. c. Financial director. d. Staff supervisor.

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The Director-Manager as Delegator To accomplish the many tasks required, directors must be good organizers. This means they must make the best possible use of the resources available to them. The first step is to learn to delegate responsibilities to others. By doing so, directors will accomplish

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Chapter 1

F Y I

The Director: A Broad View

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Average directors’ salaries differ greatly among states. In some states, salaries are figured as an hourly rate; in others, directors receive a yearly salary. In 2013, a director’s salary was between $21,155 and $49,466—with the median being $32,540. The range is dependent upon years on the job and area of the country.

Source: Retrieved from the Internet March 2013. http://www.payscale.com/research/US/Job=Director%2c_Child_Care/Salary

more themselves and achieve greater participation from staff members. Many program ­administrators find it difficult to delegate responsibility to others, feeling that it puts an unnecessary burden on their staff or that they cannot be certain the job will be done ­properly. Some directors cannot delegate well for a number of reasons, including some of the following:

• Inability to let go of control • Concern that staff does not measure up to expectations • Fear of staff repercussions and dissatisfaction if delegating occurs • Perfectionism and concern about the quality of the job to be delegated • Concern that the staff perceives them as pushing work onto the staff; fear of • •

i­ mposing on others Caretaking personality Lack of organization to get help in time

Directors in all-day centers may have an assistant director who handles some a­ dministrative tasks. When a program is open many hours, one person may open the school in the morning, set the daily schedules, and talk to parents as they drop off their children. The other may close the school and help parents and children reunite. In ­between, they may divide other administrative tasks.

The division of labor between the director and assistant should be based on an ­assessment of their skills and interests. Some people like to do the necessary myriad daily paperwork; others like to interact with the people involved in the program. Both the director and assistant should decide which jobs each is more comfortable with, who does which better, and who has primary responsibility for each task. Once the primary responsibilities are assigned, assistants should be allowed to perform those tasks without interference. The director still bears ultimate responsibility for the performance of the assistant; therefore, communication between them is important.

In today’s economic atmosphere, directors are less likely to have an assistant ­d irector than previously. Responsibilities also can be delegated to other staff members. The cook can order supplies, compile information on new equipment to be purchased, or plan schedules for serving snacks and meals. The maintenance person can create the cleaning schedule or suggest ways to recycle and reuse disposable materials.

A secretary may assume responsibility for scheduling classroom field trips that have been suggested by ­teachers or for calling a qualified substitute from a list. The director should decide who can best accomplish a task. This requires the director to assess the necessary skills and then to find the best person for the job. The person who does the task needs to benefit. No one should be asked to perform extra duties merely to help the director with administrative functions. Delegating a task does not mean forgetting about it and expecting it to be done. It is important to establish a schedule and procedure for supervising delegated responsibilities. The director may meet with the staff person once a week or once a month, or they may just have that person provide written updates periodically.

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Part I

Administration When first delegating responsibilities, some directors may find that the task takes more time than if they had done the work themselves. However, as employees learn and gain confidence, directors find that their time is freed for those tasks that only they can do. They also discover that both they and their staff benefit immeasurably from the team effort.

Did You Get It? A director asks a staff member to handle communication with parents, then spends longer than 30 minutes each day helping the staff member emotionally deal with her various issues with parents. This director has trouble delegating due to her a. lack of organization. b. intrusive style. c. caretaking personality. d. love for children.

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The Director-Manager as Organizer Time is a precious commodity to busy directors. They can accomplish much more each day if they make a list starting with either urgent jobs or daily jobs; these should take top priority. Next come jobs that should be done as soon as possible or need to be done once a week. Last are the jobs that they would like to do or only have to do infrequently.

The director should set aside a specific time to do jobs that must be done every day. Sometimes it helps, for instance, to get to work a half-hour before opening time so that ­certain jobs can be done before the center becomes busy. Some of the daily jobs can be done later in the day.

It may be difficult to follow a precise schedule for accomplishing these tasks, but if done with persistence, other staff members will begin to honor the time commitments of the director.

It is helpful to schedule one day a week or specific days during the month to do tasks that need to be completed less frequently. Ordering materials, compiling financial reports, and writing a newsletter are examples. The director should mark the day on the calendar, block out some time, go into the office, close the door, and get to work. It is surprising how quickly it will be finished when there are no interruptions.

Directors should plan for those tasks they would like to do when they have time. Reading professional materials, writing an article, or making long-range plans may fall into this category. These all are important and directors should not feel guilty about setting aside an afternoon each month to accomplish any of these tasks.

Emergencies will arise—by definition, at the most inopportune times—but if one is prepared, they are manageable. What kinds of emergencies come up in a school for young children? The same kinds that happen in a busy household: the plumbing stops working or leaks occur; the licensing worker is coming to visit and two teachers call in sick; a child falls and is bleeding from a cut on his forehead. No one will panic in any of these situations if procedures have been established ahead of time.

For possible building and equipment emergencies, it is useful to keep an up-to-date list of repairmen. When new equipment is purchased, repair information should be added to the list immediately. For staff emergencies, a list of reliable substitutes is essential. ­Qualified people can often be found by advertising in a local newspaper or online.

Students may be found through the local community college or university. If a desirable teacher applies for a position at the school and there is no opening, she should be encouraged to accept placement on the substitute list.

Additionally, several staff members should know first aid and be Red Cross® ­certified, if possible. A written procedure to care for children’s injuries should be posted in a

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Chapter 1

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17

­ rominent place so that any staff member can follow the correct procedure. Training of the p procedure should be part of orientation.

Other kinds of emergencies arise, depending upon the area of the country. In ­California, schools are required to have an earthquake disaster plan. In some hillside areas, schools have developed a plan for evacuating children in case of a brush fire. A tornado drill for schools in the Midwest, Texas, and New England is appropriate. States along the southeastern seaboard may need plans for managing children in case of a severe storm.

There may be other disasters requiring an evacuation or lockdown of the building, such as community violence or a bomb scare. Drills should be planned and executed so that all staff members and children react quickly and without panic.

Computer technology is essential to the child care program. It can help keep financial records, budgets, personnel records, and correspondence. A computer can manage a great deal of communication between the director and staff in addition to the director and families. Having a computer allows the director to e-mail families and create newsletters and a webpage as tools of communication. It can help maintain databases of useful information, such as addresses of parents, staff, community organizations, and food and equipment vendors. There is a great deal of software available to preschool and other early childhood programs. Although specific references to computers appear in later chapters, Appendix A contains a lengthy discussion.

Did You Get It? Once a week, a daycare director schedules a day in which she blocks out time to sit by herself and complete certain tasks. Which task is she most likely to perform during that time? a. Calling prospective parents who have expressed interest in the center. b. Writing the weekly newsletter. c. Listening to phone messages. d. Reading articles about best practice for daycare centers.

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The Director-Manager as Planner Faced with the pressures of everyday activities, it is easy to overlook planning of any kind, which is an essential part of managing a child care center. Each day is filled with so many occurrences that must be dealt with immediately that it is difficult to find time to focus on what should happen the next day, let alone the next month.

However, both short- and long-term planning are necessary for the smooth operation of the facility. Short-term planning ensures the smooth running of each day and provides contingency plans when the unexpected occurs. At the beginning of each day and each week, the director must know what has to be done; then he or she must ensure that those tasks are finished throughout that day or week. However, there will be inevitable emergencies. It is important to anticipate which past emergencies are likely to reoccur, and then develop backup plans. Although this kind of planning cannot eliminate temporary disruptions caused by emergencies, it does make it easier to manage them.

Long-term planning will help the director to provide the environment and services set forth in the goals for the center. The director decides which goals should be addressed at a particular time and then sets a schedule for implementation. For example, one of the program goals might be that The Child Learning Center will offer various experiences designed to help children acquire the skills needed for kindergarten entrance. To implement that goal, staff members need to know which skills are included, when it is developmentally

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18

Part I

Administration appropriate to introduce experiences designed to teach those skills, and how to evaluate children’s progress. The director should carefully plan a series of learning experiences to inform the teachers. This project may take place over several months or even a year.

The most effective planning will involve the staff as much as possible. Everyone should have a copy of daily and weekly schedules, as well as changes for rainy or snowy days. ­Additionally, they should identify long-term goals to work toward during a particular period of time. The director should solicit suggestions for implementing the goals and ­provide a method for obtaining feedback to evaluate progress.

Did You Get It? A director realizes that emergencies continuously pop up and interfere with his plan for managing the center. Therefore, he spends several hours every evening catching up on work. What is the best thing he can do to fix the situation? a. Appoint one staff member to handle all emergencies so the director will not be distracted from his job duties. b. Consider emergencies that have occurred in the past, and develop backup plans accordingly. c. Instruct all staff members to handle emergencies on their own. d. Arrive at work a few hours early each morning, so he can accomplish most tasks before the students arrive.

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The Director-Manager as Communicator Directors spend a great deal of time talking to people. It is important to develop ­communication skills to prevent problems, as well as to provide a model for other staff members. Everyone experiences some difficulty in communicating with others. We know what we mean, and we are sure the other person understands. Often, though, we are surprised at how others interpret what we have said. We think, “How could they have gotten that meaning out of what I said?”

Verbal Messages Words are a coding system by which our thoughts are conveyed to others. Although each word in a language has a meaning, coloration of that meaning comes from our own ­experiences. Because words may have different meanings to each of us based on our past, miscommunication may occur when we do not all share the same experiences. People who hear our words bring their own interpretations, so misunderstandings can arise, ­especially for families, children, and staff for whom English may be a second language. A key to ­successful communication is being aware of potential misinterpretations and showing ­respect for people from diverse backgrounds.

Sometimes a particular word triggers an emotional response based on a past experience or an association that causes us to stop listening to the rest of the communication and focus on that one word. The speaker’s tone of voice or the emphasis on one word may elicit a similar reaction. For example, “How are you today?” can convey many messages depending on the way it is uttered. It can be merely a polite contact, a real concern, or an irritated inquiry meaning, “Are you really all right today because usually you are not?”

Nonverbal Messages Another reason for problems in communication is that we communicate nonverbally as well as verbally. Nonverbal messages are facial expressions, movements, and postures we use while speaking. Additionally, we maintain eye contact or we look away; we sit or stand close to the listener, or we maintain a distance between ourselves and the listener.

Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller, without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who, as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.

FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER” (Sarcopsylla penetrans)

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley, some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing, but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature, from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,

or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.

Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?

The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both “off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the craving for tobacco in the tropics.

Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to

an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and lemon-juice.

Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment, that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.

Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.

My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari; consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had

bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding, consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us, seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten years to come.

Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch: Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9 × 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.

How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his mutilated finger-tips.

Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.

The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface, however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day such a fire is a grand sight.

Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction, sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.

Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush, and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the

western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.

It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki suits had not escaped scatheless.

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR MAHUTA

I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process

may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe— not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more, between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them— cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes, perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.

This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the secondary bush.

After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact, receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains, where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were accustomed to rule.

But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and

lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible, impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and come back to his starting point.

The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.

According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast, to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however, correct.

The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau, instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks and springs of the low country.

“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.

He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a stillborn child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which

was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In course of time, the couple had many more children, and called themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams, for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest wateringplace; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”

The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?

Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short, woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood, ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia, Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably) would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded

by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.

The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.

Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.

This knowledge is crystallized in the ancestral warning against settling in the valleys and near the great waters, the dwelling-places of disease and death. At the same time, for security against the hostile Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted that every settlement must be not less than a certain distance from the southern edge of the plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the present day. It is not such a bad one, and certainly they are both safer and more comfortable than the Makua, the recent intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain, especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the

most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.

The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.

It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding out how the back door is fastened.

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of “Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have

two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise, come in for a blowing-up.

The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala, shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.

Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde bush:—