The Factors That Affect The Tourism Related Income In Turkey

AGP

CONTEMPORARY APPROACHES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES EDITED BY WILLIAM SAYERS

CONTEMPORARY APPROACHES

IN SOCIAL SCIENCES

EDITED BY WILLIAM SAYERS

AGP SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE Prof. Dr. Giles Chemla (Imperial College London) Prof. Dr. Gustavo Araújo Batista (University of Uberaba) Prof. Dr. Douglas E. Angus (University of Ottawa) Prof. Dr. Kâzım Yetiş (Istanbul Aydın University) Prof. Dr. Larissa Clare Pochmann da Silva (Candido Mendes University) Prof. Dr. Luisa Maria Arvide Cambra (University of Almeria) Prof. Dr. Norbert Pap (University of Pec) Prof. Dr. Sueli Teresinha de Abreu Bernardes (University of Uberaba) Prof. Dr. Babak Rahimi (UC San Diego) Prof. Dr. Sabit Oymael (Istanbul Arel University) Prof. Dr. Nurhodja Akbulaev (Azerbaycan State University) Prof. Dr. Richard Smiths (London Goldsmiths) Prof. Dr. Richard Davis (Durham) Prof. Dr. Şakir Gözütok (Van Yüzüncü Yıl) Prof. Dr. Zeki Taştan (Van Yüzüncü Yıl)

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© 2016

AGP ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

II

Contemporary Approaches in Social Sciences

Turkish academic scene has experienced remarkable growth since the 1990s. This volume of AGP is intended as a finger on the pulse of the latest developments in the corpus as we enter a new era.

The articles in this volume have been chosen with an eye to giving the reader an idea of the current state of the mainstream of contemporary Turkish Academia. Therefore, we have not included any hackwork. We hope that this will be an important contribution to the growing field of humanities in Turkey and elsewhere.

The editors’ corrections are limited to the expunction of typos and to changes for the sake of consistency. Except for these superficial changes, the text is always that of the author.

William Sayers, London, 2016.

III

Table Of Contents

Oktay Kızılkaya & Emrah Sofuoğlu - Are Economic Activities the Engine of Environmental Pollution An Application of Cointegration Analysis for Selected Developing Countries………………………………………….……………………………………………….1.

Necip Dündar - An Evaluation On The Entrance Of Foreign-Owned Banking In The Turkish Financial System……………………………………………………………………………………..7.

Serap Ağaya - The Question of Statue of Limitation For Tax Evasion as Regulated in Tax Procedure Law……………………………………………………………………………………………16.

Aziz Bostan & Orhan Şanlı & Hatice Erol - The Factors That Affect The Tourism Related Income In Turkey………………………………………………………………………………….21.

Kutlu Sevinç Kayıhan & İrem Tunçbiz - Examination of Architectural Design of Education Centres in the Context of Sustainability Education-Architecture Relationship……………………………………………………………………………………………………...30.

Fatma Zehra Tan & Tuğba Yeğin &Engin Yurdasever & İlknur Kılıç - The Factors That Affecting The Vocational College Students’ Individual Career Planning………...40.

Sabit Oymael & Alper Bı̇decı̇ & Özlem Sallı Bı̇decı̇ -Vocational-Technical Education and Employment Relationship....................................................................................46.

Taşkın Kılıç – Dual Commitment Concept Over Two Rival Organizations Workplace………………………………………………………………………………………………………...53.

İçten Duygu Çallı & Işıl Karpat Aktuğlu - Tracks of acculturation during cultural adaptation process: a research on food consumption habits of Turks living in Germany…………………………………………………………………………………………………………...57.

Onur Yılmaz & Gülsün Şahan - The Problems Students Coming To Turkey For Higher Education From Germany Experience And Suggestions For Solutions………64.

Ahmet Eyim - A Discussion on the Problem of Will in Philosophy of Mind…………..73.

M. Ali Sarı - Fact and Value Paradox in Social Science…………………………………………79.

Elif Karakurt Tosun - Comparison of Environmental Information and Behavioral Level of Classroom Teachers in Turkey: Bursa City Example……………………………….87.

IV

Tuna Şahsuvaroğlu & Aydan Aydın & Cennet Tuba Arslantürk - The Determination of Views of Mental Retardation Practicum Students about the Community Service Practices Course………………………………………………………………….97.

A.Gökhan Yazıcı & M. Mohammadi - The Effect Of Strength Training In Dry Land And Aquatic On Static, Semi-Dynamic And Dynamic Balance In Elderly Male With Knee Osteoarthritis………………………………………………………………………………………….105.

Duygu Şahan & Mustafa Gönulal - The Evaluation of Interactive Digital Storybooks by Preschool Teachers..........................................................................................................112.

V

Are Economic Activities the Engine of Environmental Pollution? An Application of Cointegration Analysis for Selected Developing Countries1 Oktay Kızılkaya2, Emrah Sofuoğlu3 Abstract. The aim of this study is to examine the relationship among economic growth, foreign direct investment, manufacturing industry and CO2 emissions that cause climate change. For this purpose, panel FMOLS and panel DOLS methods are used for selected developing countries and the data covering the period 1990-2011 is employed. According to panel FMOLS results, while economic growth and manufacturing industry have positive impacts on CO2 emissions, foreign direct investment affects CO2 emissions negatively. In addition, panel DOLS results show that while there is a positive relationship between economic growth and CO2 emissions, foreign direct investment has a negative impact on CO2 emissions. However, the coefficient of manufacturing industry is statistically insignificant. Finally, in the light of this information, the policy implications are discussed in the conclusion.

Keywords: Carbon Dioxide Emissions, Economic Growth, Environmental Economics, Panel FMOLS and DOLS 1.

Introduction Climate change has been attracting attention as one of the most important issue in our planet. In this regard, researchers have aimed to investigate the relationship among economic growth, energy consumption and greenhouse gases that lead to climate change. Most studies confirmed that there is a strong relationship between the variables.

Foreign direct investment inflows have been rising since 1980s in almost every region of the world. In fact, foreign direct investment inflows may supply direct capital financing and generate positive externalities. In addition, it may contribute economic growth through technology transfer, spillover effects, productivity gains and new management skills [15]. Graph 1 shows development of foreign direct investment inflows in the selected developing countries.

Graph 1: Foreign Direct Inflows for Selected Countries (2001-2011) 8 6 4 2 0 -2 -4

China Indonesia Mexico

India Brazil Malaysia

Resource: Worldbank, 2015

There is a strong relationship between manufacturing industry and energy intensity. The higher energy intensity in manufacturing industry leads to higher greenhouse gases in countries.

Graph 2 indicates the share of manufacturing

1

This study was supported by the Ahi Evran University Scientific Research ProjectsCoordination Unit. Project number: İKT.E2.16.001 2 Asst.Prof.Dr., Ahi Evran University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of Economics, okizilkaya@ahievran.edu.tr 3 Research Assistant, Ahi Evran University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of Economics, emrahsofuoglu@gmail.com

1

industry in GDP for the year of 2011 in selected countries.

Graph 2: Share of Manufacturing Industry in GDP by Selected Countries (2011)

South Africa

13,33

Turkey

18,18 34

Thailand 7,19

Malaysia Mexico

17,04

Brazil

13,87

Indonesia

22,2 18,08

India China

31,1 0

10

20

30

Graph 3 focuses on CO2 emissions by selected developing countries in 2011. South Africa has the highest CO2 emissions followed by Malaysia and China. According to World Development Indicators, average per capita CO2 emissions is 4.96 in the world. Considering this data, these countries are emerging as having energy intensive production structure.

Graph: Per Capita CO2 Emissions by Selected Countries (2011)

9,26

Turkey

Author

Samp le

Perio d

Method

Findings

Linh and Lin (2015)

12 Asia Count ries (Most Popul ated)

19802010

Panel Cointegration

CO2↔ Energy Consumption (short term) Income↔FDI ( short term ) CO2→ Energy Consumption ,FDI, Income (long term) FDI→ Energy Consumption ( long term)

Kivyiro and Arminen (2014)

6 Africa Count ries

19712009

ARDL

Akın (2014)

12 Count ries (High Incom e Group )

19702012

Dynamic Panel Data

Sbia (2014)

U nited Arab Emira tes

1975 Q12011 Q4

ARDL

Tang and Tan (2015)

Vi etnam

1 9762009

Cointegration and Granger Causality

All variables move together in the long term (CO2, FDI, economic growth, energy consumption) There is a negative relationship between FDI and CO2.

There is a positive relationship between energy consumption and CO2.

Per capita income decreases CO2 emissions.

FDI and openness decrease CO2 emissions.

Economic growth and clean energy increase energy consumption.

CO2 ↔ Income CO2↔FDI Energy Consumption ↔ CO2

Azlina et al. (2014)

Malay sia

19752011

Cointegration

Omri, Nguyen, Rault (2014)

54 Count ires

19902011

Dynamic Panel Data

40

Resource: Worldbank, 2015

South Africa

these countries for the reason that they are emerging as “Newly Industrialized Countries”.

In introduction part, we will submit general information about foreign direct investment, manufacturing industry, economic growth and CO2 emissions in selected developing countries.

In the second chapter, we will make a literature review that focuses on the relationship between economic growth and CO2 emissions. Finally, the third chapter will focus on econometric model and analysis results.

2.

Literature Review In the literature review part of this study, surveys that focus on the relationship between CO2 emissions, energy consumption, economic growth, foreign direct investment and manufacturing industry were summarized based on the date.

Table 1: Literature Review

4,38 4,53

Thailand

7,9

Malaysia Mexico

3,88

Brazil

2,19

Indonesia

2,3 1,66

India

6,71

China 0

5

10

Resource: Worldbank, 2015

In this study, we examined the relationship among foreign direct investment, manufacturing industry, economic growth and CO2 emissions in selected developing countries. We examined

CO2 emissions Granger-cause income, energy consumption and renewable energy use FDI↔Economic growth (All countries)

2

Chandran and Tang (2013)

ASE AN-5

19712008

Cointegration

Mahmoo d and Chaudary (2012)

Pakist an

19722005

ARDL

Al-mulali (2012)

12 Middl e East Count ries

19902009

Panel Data

Farhani and Rejeb (2012)

15 Count ries in MEN A Regio n

19732008

Panel Data

Arouri et al. (2012)

12 Count ries in MEN A Regio n 28 States in China

19812005

Panel Data

19952007

Panel Cointegration, VEC

Halıcıoğl u (2009)

Turkey

19602005

ARDL

Pao and Tsai (2011)

BRIC Count ries

19802007

Panel Data

Jalil and Mahmud (2009)

19752005

Chin a

ARDL

Annicchi aricoet al.

(2009) Merican et al.

(2007)

18612003

Italy

Cointegration, VEC

ASE AN 5

19702001

ARDL

Wang et al. (2011)

CO2↔FDI ( Apart from Europe and North Asia ) The long-run elasticity estimation suggests that income and transport energy consumption significantly influence CO2 emissions whereas FDI is not significant.

Foreign direct investment, manufacturing value added and population density have positive impact on carbon dioxide emissions.

GDP ↔ CO2 FDI ↔ CO2

Energy Consumption ↔ CO2 Total trade ↔ CO2 There is no relationship between economic growth, energy consumption and CO2 emissions in the short run.

Economic Growth →Energy Consumption CO2→Energy Consumption Energy consumption has a positive significant impact on CO2 emissions.

CO2 emissions, energy consumption and economic growth are cointegrated.

CO2↔ Energy Consumption Energy Consumption ↔ Economic Growth Income is the most significant variable in explaining the carbon emissions in Turkey which is followed by energy consumption and foreign trade.

There is a strong relationship between CO2 emissions and FDI. Output → FDI Economic Growth →CO2 Energy consumption and income level are significant variable in explaining CO2 emissions.

CO2↔ Economic Growth While FDI increases CO2 emissions in Malaysia, Philippines and Thailand, there is no

Azomaho u (2006)

19601996

100 Coun tries

Nonparametric panel

impact in Indonesia and Singapore.

There is a positive relationship between economic development and CO2 emissions.

3. Empirical Results In this study the relationship among CO2 emissions, economic growth, foreign direct investment and manufacturing industry will be tested in the framework of panel data analysis.

Relevant relationship will be examined in three phases. In the first phase, stationarity of the variables will be examined with Levin et al. [16] and Imi Pesaran and Shin [13] panel unit root tests. In the second phase, long term relationship between variables will be tested with Pedroni [19] panel cointegration test. In the third phase, cointegration coefficients will be estimated through Panel DOLS and Panel FMOLS estimators.

3.1 Model and Dataset Relationship between CO2 emissions, economic growth, foreign direct investment and manufacturing industry were examined. A linear regression model in panel data format was set up as follows: CO2it = α0i + α1i gdpit + α2i fdiit + α3i manuit + uit i=1, …..,n ve t=1, ......,t Here, “CO2” represents carbon dioxide emissions, “gdp” represents gross domestic product, “fdi” represents foreign direct investment and “manu” represents manufacturing industry. The data set used in the analysis covers the period between 2000-2013 and includes 9 countries. These countries are China, India, Indonesia, Brazil, Malaysia, Thailand, Mexico, Turkey, South Africa. All variables were obtained from World Bank Development Indicators.

3.2 Panel Unit Root Tests It is necessary to test the stationarity of the variables before proceeding to the empirical analysis. If data pertaining to the variables is stationary then regression analysis will be used to determine the relationship among the variables, if it is not stationary then, spurious regression issue will arise. In this case existence of cointegration relationship among the variables will be tested. In this context, Im, Pesaran and Shin test [13] and Levin et al. [16] test will be used to test panel unit root presence.

It is necessary to estimate this model for LLC panel unit root test:

3

Î&#x201D;yit = Âľi + Ď yit-1 + â&#x2C6;&#x2018;đ?&#x2018;&#x161; đ?&#x2018;&#x2014;=1 đ?&#x203A;źđ?&#x2018;&#x2014;â&#x2C6;&#x2020;đ?&#x2018;Śđ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;Ą â&#x2C6;&#x2019; đ?&#x2018;&#x2014; + δit + θt + Îľit Î&#x201D; is the first difference operator; m is lag length, Âľi and θt constant and time effect for unit. Ď = 0 for all i hypothesis is testing with Ď < 0 for all i hypothesis. Rejecting the null hypothesis means that the data set is stationary. IPS test which was developed by Im et al. specifies LLC test and calculates t statistics for each section in the panel and then averages the results. This test provides p values to differ for each unit composing the panel. Equality (2): Î&#x201D;yit = Âľi + Ď yit-1 + â&#x2C6;&#x2018;đ?&#x2018;&#x161; đ?&#x2018;&#x2014;=1 đ?&#x203A;źđ?&#x2018;&#x2014;â&#x2C6;&#x2020;đ?&#x2018;Śđ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;Ą â&#x2C6;&#x2019; đ?&#x2018;&#x2014; + δit + θt + Îľit Null hypothesis Ď = 0 for all i is testing with the hypothesis Ď < 0 at least for one i. Rejecting the null hypothesis means that the data set is stationary. Table 1 shows the result of panel unit root test.

The empirical results obtained from panel unit root test are shown in Table 1. Variables are generally stationary in first difference, namely I(1), while they are not stationary in level value according to the unit root test results. In this case the presence of long term cointegration relationship between the variables should be tested. If there is cointegration between the variables then the obtained regression will not be misleading.

Table 1: Panel Unit Root Test Results Variabl

LLC Test

IPS Test

es Statistica l Value

Pro b. Value

Statistical Value

Prob.

CO2 GDP

0,70 1,89

0,76 0,97

1,01 2,48

0,84 0,99

FDI

-1,05

0,15

-1,29

0,10

MANU

1,92

0,97

2,27

0,99

Î&#x201D; CO2

-4,44*

0,00

-3,12

0,00*

Î&#x201D; GDP

-4,72*

0,00

-2,71

0,00*

Î&#x201D; FDI

-5,83

0,00

-5,51

0,00*

Î&#x201D; MANU

-4,74*

0,00

-3,85

0,00*

Î&#x201D;, is the first difference operator.*: indicates 1% significance level. **: indicates 10% significance level.

3.3 Panel Cointegration Test In this study, the cointegration relation was examined with the panel cointegration test which was developed by Pedroni. Pedroni developed 7 different test statistics to test null hypothesis which was defined as there is no cointegration relation. Pedroni obtained this statistics from the plusses in panel cointegration regression. Four of these tests are composed of intra-group statistics (panel-v, panel-p, non-parametric panel-t and parametric panel-t), other three of the tests are composed of inter-group statistics (group- Ď statistic, non-parametric group-t statistics and

parametric group-t). calculated as follows: i) Panel v-Statistic:

These

statistics

2

2

T T2N3/2ZvĚ&#x201A;N,T â&#x2030;ĄT2N3/2(â&#x2C6;&#x2018;N i=1 â&#x2C6;&#x2018;t=1 LĚ&#x201A; 11i ĂŞ i ,t

ii)

Panel

Ď -Statistic:

T Tâ&#x2C6;&#x161;đ?&#x2018; (â&#x2C6;&#x2018;N i=1 â&#x2C6;&#x2018;t=1 LĚ&#x201A;

2 11i

are

1 N,T-1â&#x2030;Ą

Tâ&#x2C6;&#x161;đ?&#x2018; ZĎ Ě&#x201A;

2 2 T ĂŞ i ,t 1 )-1â&#x2C6;&#x2018;N i=1 â&#x2C6;&#x2018;t=1 LĚ&#x201A; 11i

(ĂŞ

i , t 1 â&#x2C6;&#x2020;ĂŞi,t- ÎťĚ&#x201A; i) T iii) Panel t-Statistic: ZtN,Tâ&#x2030;Ą(Ď&#x192;Ě&#x192;2N,Tâ&#x2C6;&#x2018;N i=1 â&#x2C6;&#x2018;t=1 LĚ&#x201A; 2 11i

2

2

2

T ĂŞ i ,t 1 )-1/2â&#x2C6;&#x2018;N i=1 â&#x2C6;&#x2018;t=1 LĚ&#x201A; 11i (ĂŞ i ,t 1 â&#x2C6;&#x2020;ĂŞi,t-ÎťĚ&#x201A;i)

(non-parametric) *2

T iv) Panel t-Statistic: Z*tN,Tâ&#x2030;Ą (sÍ&#x201A; N ,T â&#x2C6;&#x2018;N i=1 â&#x2C6;&#x2018;t=1 LĚ&#x201A; 2 11i

*2

(parametric) v) GroupĎ -Statistic: 1/2

*

2

T * ĂŞ i ,t 1 )-1/2â&#x2C6;&#x2018;N i=1 â&#x2C6;&#x2018;t=1 LĚ&#x201A; 11i ĂŞ i ,t 1 â&#x2C6;&#x2020;ĂŞ i,t)

TN-1/2ZÍ&#x201A;Ď Ě&#x201A;

N,T-1â&#x2030;Ą

TN-

2 T -1 T â&#x2C6;&#x2018;N i=1(â&#x2C6;&#x2018;t=1 ĂŞ i ,t 1 ) â&#x2C6;&#x2018;t=1(ĂŞ i , t 1 â&#x2C6;&#x2020;ĂŞ i , t â&#x2C6;&#x2019; ÎťĚ&#x201A; i)

2

vi) Groupt-Statistic: N-1/2ZÍ&#x201A;tN,Tâ&#x2030;Ą N-1/2â&#x2C6;&#x2018;N i=1( Ď&#x192;Ě&#x201A; i 2 â&#x2C6;&#x2018;Tt=1 ĂŞ i ,t 1 )-1/2â&#x2C6;&#x2018;Tt=1(ĂŞ i , t 1 â&#x2C6;&#x2020;ĂŞ i , t â&#x2C6;&#x2019; ÎťĚ&#x201A; i)

(non-parametric vii) Groupt-Statistic: 1/2

*2

*2

N-1/2ZÍ&#x201A;*tN,Tâ&#x2030;Ą *

N-

*

T -1/2 T â&#x2C6;&#x2018;N i=1( â&#x2C6;&#x2018;t=1 sÍ&#x201A; i ĂŞ i ,t 1 ) â&#x2C6;&#x2018;t=1 ĂŞ i ,t 1 â&#x2C6;&#x2020;ĂŞ i ,t

(parametric) These 7 statistics may be accepted or rejected by comparing them with critical values. If Pedroni test statistics are bigger than critical values, the null hypothesis is rejected which means that there is no long run cointegration relationship between the variables included to the analysis.

Table 2: Pedroni Panel Cointegration Test Results Test Panel vStatistic Panel rhoStatistic Panel PPStatistic Panel ADFStatistic Group rhoStatistic Group PPStatistic Group ADFStatistic

Fixed 0,59

Fixed and Trend -0,44

-0,52

0,12

-2,05**

-2,80*

-2,05**

-3,38*

0,60

1,64

-1,74**

-1,17

-2,07**

-2,22*

* and **; indicate 1% respectively.

and 5% significance level

4

According to the test result, in the fixed model, four of seven statistics show that null hypothesis is rejected at 1% significance level. These results strengthen that variables are cointegrated in the long run.

3.4 Estimation of Panel Cointegration Coefficients The second step after estimation of panel cointegration relationship is the estimation of long term cointegration coefficients. For this purpose, panel fully modified ordinary least squares (FMOLS) and panel dynamic ordinary least squares (DOLS) methods developed by Pedroni [20-21]will be used. FMOLS and DOLS estimators were developed after deviated results were seen in estimation of series having long term relationship among them, through least squares method. FMOLS method corrects the autocorrelation and endogeneity problem through a non-parametric approach, whereas in the DOLS method, the autocorrelation is eliminated and estimation is made by taking variables with their lag values.

Table 3: Panel Cointegration Coefficients (CO2 is dependent variable) Variables GDP FDI MANU

Panel FMOLS 0,99 (0,00) -0,02 (0,04) 0,06 (0,00)

Panel DOLS 0,66 (0,00) -0,09 (0,04) 0,05 (0,20)

According to the test results, economic growth (gdp), and manufacturing industry (manu) have positive effects with 1% significance level and foreign direct investment (fdi) has a negative effect on carbon dioxide emissions (CO2) in FMOLS estimations. Besides, while economic growth has a negative impact at %1 significance level, foreign direct investment has a negative impact on CO2 emissions. However, coefficient of manufacturing industry is statistically insignificant.

Conclusion In this study, we investigated the relationship between economic growth, foreign direct investment, manufacturing industry and CO2 emissions. For this purpose, we used panel FMOLS and panel DOLS methods for selected developing countries and employed the data covering the period 1990-2011. According to the panel FMOLS results, while economic growth and manufacturing industry have positive impacts on CO2 emissions, foreign direct investment affects CO2 emissions negatively. In

addition, panel DOLS results show that while there is a positive relationship between economic growth and CO2 emissions, foreign direct investment has a negative impact on CO2 emissions. However, the coefficient of manufacturing industry is statistically insignificant.

The other important result from the analysis is that foreign direct investment reduces CO2 emissions in selected developing countries. The reason is that, foreign direct investment leads to technology transfer from developed countries to developing countries and contributes productivity. CO2 emissions have the largest share in greenhouse gases that cause climate change issue. However, manufacturing which has the largest share in economic growth increases CO2 emissions. For this reason, it is necessary to reduce energy intensity of industrial production of these countries. Many developed countries have succeed low-carbon production applying clean energy policies and incentive mechanisms.

In this context, incentive mechanism that supports low-carbon production should be established in developing countries.

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An Evaluation On The Entrance Of ForeignOwned Banking In The Turkish Financial System Necip Dündar Muş Alparslan University- Department of Accounting and Finance n.dundar@alparslan.edu.tr

Abstract. The process of integration of global financial markets has been inevitable with neoliberal policies. In 1970’s, global financial order has evolved into a new process. Policies on the liberalizing of financial markets especially have been offered to developing countries as a prescription in this period. With the 1980s, the liberalization of financial markets has been led to massive capital inflows to developing countries. Investors who are willing to be a part of the international financial system have begun to enter the banking sector of developing countries for the potential of big profits.

As a developing country, Turkey has begun to liberalize its financial markets with 1980’s and has started to develop an appropriate environment for the entry of the foreign banking. Foreign banks have entered to the Turkish Banking Sector in different ways with this period. Although there have been periodic fluctuations in the number of foreign- owned banks in the Turkish banking sector, many positive contributions of foreign-owned banks have been observed.

Keywords: financial markets, foreign-owned bank, financial system, developing countries

1. Introduction

With the spread of globalization, especially foreign-owned banks are observed to enter into developing the countries that are requesting funds for their financial markets. Developing countries have become attractive in terms of being high profit and investment targets for these banks. Because these countries have begun to integrate the international financial system by removing obstacles on the financial markets with the 1980s. At the same time, this term is known as the period of development of massive capital flows.

Developing countries quickly made their liberalization efforts in order to integrate of global markets. After massive capital flows to these countries, many foreign-owned banks also have entered and started to have a big share in their financial systems. Although developing countries have experienced many positive results of capital movements, they have experienced also many negative results as having some kind of

financial crisis. Mexico and Turkey (1994), Asia (1997), Russia (1998), Brazil (1999), Argentina and Turkey (2001) have experienced a number of financial crises. There was not only single or same reason of financial crisis in these developing countries. They were all developing countries, had liberalization effort quickly for integration of international markets but insufficient and weak financial infrastructure made them fragile in front of any attack. So having crisis have been inevitable for these countries at the end.

The experienced financial crisis has led to the need to fix or control of structural weaknesses of the financial system of these countries. Domestic politic stability, confidence and a strong financial system attract foreign investment and foreign-owned banking in particular. These are considered as effective factors for the development of financial systems, so it has been required to give importance to this case.

The aim of this study is to analyze how global financial order enables the development of

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foreign-owned banking, and in this context, to analyze Turkish banking sector from 1980’s to the present, to show the share of foreign-owned banking, to assess the dimension of the current situation in the banking sector and to examine the effect of entrance of foreign-owned banking in the Turkish banking sector.

2. Global financial order in the transition of

foreign-owned banking 2.1. Global financial order

The world economy has entered a new process as named financial liberalization that has become effective in the international markets with the policies implemented under the leadership of the Reagan government of the USA and Thatcher government of the UK. IMF and World Bank as Bretton Woods corporations, have proposed liberal policies that may be considered excessive to developing countries in this period, but most countries have acted hasty, have taken rapid steps towards opening up financial markets without establishing main macroeconomic balance, and creating the necessary infrastructure, so developing countries have experienced some financial crises accompanied by increasing capital mobility after 1990’s. [11].

The liberalization of capital markets in developing countries has caused global investors to flock since the 1980s. Because developed countries keep their domestic interest rates low in general and provide investors to be part of developing countries’ financial system where interest rates are relatively high.

Capital flows to developing countries have had a major role in the growth of investment and the volume of the country's economy. Although there have been some positive aspects of the capital flow in these countries, the capital flow could occur economic, social or political destruction as being the reason for a possible speculative attack on the currency of the country.

The causes of the crisis in developing countries were generally similar. Fixed exchange rates were implemented in developing countries and it was observed that the real exchange rate was appreciated before the financial crisis. In addition, high debt, current account deficit, and fragile financial structures were observed in these countries. And in general, these countries have been suffered from an attack on their cur-

rencies and they have been shown to switch from fixed exchange rate to floating exchange rates after the crisis.

Foreign-owned banking has been developed in parallel with the flow of capital to developing countries in new global financial order. The entrance of foreign-owned banking into developing countries’ financial systems have fluctuations according to politic, social or economic situation. If there have been strong laws, regulations, controlling system in the financial system, foreign capital will be willing to invest in the financial system. On the other hand, it has been observed that foreign capital can be reversed under politic risks or in the absence of an atmosphere of trust.

3. Foreign-Owned Banking 3.1. Features and Effects of foreign-owned

banks Foreign-Owned Banks are advanced, rich and high capital accumulation countries banks that enter into a foreign financial market as merging with a national bank, opening a new branch, establishing a new bank or purchasing a bank for the purpose of execution of specific activities. Due to having advanced technology, they have the capacity to offer new services to the customers. These banks are in or have close cooperation with the major financial centers. In addition, they change the competitive nature of the country they entered with facilities such as low-interest loans or credit card [13].

There are different perspectives for the entrance of foreign-owned banking in the national banking sector. The most important benefit of foreign-owned banking is to develop and help the local banking system to be more competitive. It facilitates international capital access into the country. In addition, it ensures widespread use of modern banking skills and technology in banking sector [10].

Bringing of modern banking methods and their own technological infrastructure of foreign-owned banking do develop and make the banking sector stronger. Foreign-owned banking attracts foreign capital to flow into the country, so they contribute positively to the balance of payments. They can take a leading role towards ensuring the financial stability of the country in this context.

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As foreign-owned banking provides competition and efficiency to the sector, it has a capacity of finding funds from the international community as well. All these features make foreign banking very important for national markets.

The entrance of foreign-owned banking to the sector has many positive aspects, but it has some negative aspects as well. For instance, it is seen that they may apply some restrictions on credit supply and create fragility risk in times of crisis that these may cause serious consequences.

In addition, it is likely to be of foreign domination of resource allocation in the sector. Foreign-owned banking may act as reluctant to extend credits to small businesses that may adversely affect both the financial sector and the real sector. Also, capital and deposit outflows may occur in the case of political risks or global reasons.

4. Turkish banking sector 4.1. From 1980’s to the present

There has been constructed a new global order after 1970’s. Developing countries were advised to apply neoliberal policies. With the1980’s, Turkey has not been insensitive to new global developments also. Turkey has begun to open its financial markets to foreigners.

And for this purpose, it has emerged developments in its financial markets.

Turkey has made some improvements in the foreign capital with liberal policies implemented by legislation in 1980, and this policy has created an attractive environment for the entry of foreign capital. The reforms about financial sector have created a positive impact on the banking sector and has resulted in the execution of a more competitive environment in the banking sector [5].

On 24th January 1980, the Turkish government has made some crucial decisions and this was the first step of the process of transformation in the financial system. Deposit and lending rates have been released with these decisions, the restrictions on foreign exchange transactions of banks and the owner of deposits have been abolished, it has been recognized possession of foreign currency to individuals, the costs of brokerage services have been decreased compared to the previous periods, restrictions related to participation in financial systems of

domestic banks and foreign-owned banks have been reduced [17].

The result of financial liberalization, Turkey has opened its financial markets to the rest of the world. Turkey has been started to deepen its financial system, and needed to attract more foreign investors with the aim of economic growth. So Turkey has taken concrete steps in the legal as well as institutional dimensions. As a result, it has seen an increase of the entry of foreign banking.

Turkey's economy in 1990, has some of the structural problems that have adversely affected banking sector. The increase in public sector savings gap has led to demand more resources in the public sector. This has created a great pressure on domestic interest rates. With domestic or overseas borrowing and appreciation of the Turkish lira, short-term capital has quickly started to flow [8].

On the other hand, Turkey's current account deficit reached nearly $ 6.5 billion in late 1993.

Devaluation expectations have caused a large amount of capital flight, this flight has upset the money market and the stock market [9]. Capital flow in 1994 was reversed sharply, a serious rise has occurred in domestic interest rate and inflation rate. A stabilization program is explained on 5 April 1994, in order to describe the origin of this crisis.

As a result, the negative effects of the crisis have been overcome in a short period of time, the banking sector is also affected positively with the momentum that the economy caught.

In addition, it was observed that banking sector’s growth rate was higher than national income’s in 1995, 1996 and 1997 [8].

However, due to the financial crisis in developing countries in subsequent periods and the earthquake in 1999, the Turkish economy has experienced a significant contraction and Turkey's banking sector has also experienced. By the law that enacted in 1999, the Banking Regulation and Supervision Agency (BRSA) was established and officially began operations in 2000. BRSA has set goals as to protect the rights and interests of the savings owner, to increase the efficiency of the banking sector and competitiveness, to minimize damage to the economy, to make lasting confidence in the sector, improve the sector's stability and economy [14].

During this period, the Turkish economy has depended on short-term capital. Weak banks that have acted as an intermediary for short-

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term capital flow have led to large fiscal deficits.

In November of 2000, the first speculative attack on the Turkish lira has occurred but this episode was eliminated. In February of 2001, a new attack has been on Turkish lira by a political turmoil, exchange rate regime has been abandoned, the Turkish lira was allowed to fluctuate. This result has caused company and bank crisis, credit crunch and a fall of 7.5% in Gross Domestic Product in 2001 [12].

After the crisis of 2001, "The Transition to Strong Economy Program" has been implemented. The banking system and the economy have been restructured and structural problems of the sector that led to the crisis have been eliminated. Depending on the demand for loans in the banking system, the financial structure of banking has been empowered, the rate of loans in total assets have increased and profitability performance has improved [16].

Structural reforms that support the free market economy and budgetary discipline were applied in the post-2002 period in Turkey. It has been carried out legal and institutional arrangements in order to improve the effectiveness of supervision and control, to provide the sector more efficient and competitive structure. Due to these effective measures, the impact of 2007 global crisis has been relatively limited on Turkeyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s financial markets. Because Turkey has imposed tight restrictions and regulations about the foreign exchange open position, liquidity and capital adequacy ratio after 2001 financial crisis that has led to being prepared for this crisis [2].

Although taking measures in favor of protection against shock and the crisis, it has been observed that the Turkish financial system has been small and shallow. On the other hand, Turkey is a developing country and the financial sector has been in the growth phase. But the low level of savings, due to the taxation of high rates of financial instruments and services, the demand for the financial assets has remained at the low level, on the other hand, inflation has been at a high level for many years. So these can be listed as factors limiting the growth of the financial sector [15].

4.2. Reasons of entrance of foreign-owned banking

obstacles against capital flow since 1980â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s. In addition, Turkey is a good profit, and a market for the investors of developed countries so has become attractive to foreign-owned banking.

The liberalization of the exchange regime with 1980, Turkey has followed the free market conditions and a policy that facilitated foreign capital inflows, so foreign capital flow has increased from this period [21]. In parallel, as a result of regulations to facilitate entry into the banking sector and removed the strict rules for the entry of foreign capital, a significant increase in the number of foreign banks have been occurred [3].

It has been taken place some financial regulation and innovation as Capital Markets Board (CMB) (1982), the Banking Law of 3182 and the Savings Deposit Insurance Fund (1985), Interbank Money Market (interbank) and Istanbul Stock Exchange (ISE,1986), Open Market Operations (1987), Currency and Foreign Market (1988), The Market for Gold Currency (1989) established to enhance the efficiency and competition in the financial markets [18]. Undoubtedly entry of foreign banks has begun to increase after these settlements and Turkish banking system has been formed on a more solid infrastructure.

Foreign banks are willing to invest that have been in a search for new markets as a result of saturation and competitive pressures on their national markets. In this context, Turkey has become a lucrative market for these banks with the regulations [7].

Furthermore, Other factors that are attracting the attention of foreign banks are listed as the accession process of the European Union, improvement in Turkey's macroeconomic indicators and corporate governance, improvement in regulation and supervisory framework of the banking system, the volume of the economy, having a potential as developing country [4].

The Political stability of the country is another factor that is very important on the entry of foreign banks into the national market. Because, the owners of capitalâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s investment decisions in a foreign country are not only affected by expectations of higher profits but also politic regime, ethnic conflict, military coup, the embargo imposed on the country, etc. Since 1980, the capture of political stability in Turkey has increased the activities of foreign banks [1].

Turkey is known as a developing country that has applied important policies for removing

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4.3. The effects of entrance of foreign-owned

banks on the Turkish financial system The entry of foreign-owned banking into the Turkish banking sector has largely positive effects but it may also have some negative effects.

The entry of foreigners into the Turkish banking sector has lead to some positive externalities.

New financial products such as repurchase agreements, swaps, futures, options and so on have become widespread and Turkish banking system has met new technologies. The increase in the foreign share has brought competition and efficiency in the industry as well. All these developments are thought to affect economic growth and each component of the financial sector positively [6].

The most positive aspect of foreign capital in the sector of banking is bringing more efficient working environment with the small number of staff and intensive technology and is to add great progress on banking mentality or techniques [21]. There has been also positive impact of foreign capital on the deepening and the transformation of the financial system. On the other hand, the banking sector is generally focused on collecting deposits and lending function but foreign-owned banking has caused the banking sector to reconsider their strategy of banking. Especially after the entry of the foreign banking to the sector, there have been significant developments in areas such as financial and operational planning, credit analysis, marketing and human resources capital. This situation has led the local banks to be more resistant to possible crises [19].

To summarize the above-mentioned effects, the entrance of foreign capital into the banking Turkish banking system was found in the following effects: • Deepening and transformation of the financial system • Transparency and risk management • Transformation in corporate infrastructure • Competitive sectorial structure • The variety of financial products • General costs and profitability.

It is considered that foreign-owned banking has some negative impacts as well. Since the liberalization of its markets in 1980’s, Turkey has experienced two important financial crises in 1994 and 2001. And it is known that foreignowned banking did not use their sources to eliminate the effects of the crisis, in contrary,

they deepened the crisis with the purpose of obtaining more profits. Furthermore, they had a prepared position to leave the country that did not contribute to the growth of the country and stable banking system [21]. On the other hand, foreign-owned banking led to the increase of the competition but it may result in the loss of market share of the national banks, the decrease of profitability and the increase in financial fragility.

4.4. Foreign-Owned banking in the Turkish

banking system As it is seen in Table 1, there have been thirty-four deposit banks, thirteen investment and development banks and six participation banks as the total of fifty-three banks in Turkish Banking System in March 2016. The number of branches and number of employees was recorded as 12.276 and 216.532 (Table 2).

Table 1. Basic Indicators for The Turkish Banking System Number Deposit Bank 34 Public Deposit Bank 3 Banks at Fund 1 Private Deposit Bank 30 Domestic Private Deposit Bank 9 Foreign Private Deposit Bank 21 Participation Bank 6 Domestic Private and Public Partici3 pation Bank Foreign Private Participation Bank 3 Development and Investment Bank 13 Public Development and Investment 4 Bank Private Investment Bank 9 Domestic Investment Bank 5 Foreign Investment Bank 4 Turkish Banking System 53 Source: BDDK

According to Table 1, The Turkish banking system is dominated by deposit banking that has a rate of 64.1%. Twenty-one of the total thirtyfour deposit banks in the sector that proportionally 61.7% is owned by foreign banking. Three of the total six participation bank that proportionally 50% and four of the total thirteen development and investment banks that proportionally 30.7% are owned by foreigners. So in March of 2016 the share of foreigners in the whole banking sector has reached 52.8%.

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According to Table 2, the amount of assets of the Turkish banking sector has been 2.407.551 billion TL (Turkish Lira) in March of 2016. Total assets of the sector by the end of 2015, has increased 50.119 million TL in March of 2016, Loans are the largest component of assets that have been 1.511.537 billion TL, Securities has been 330.811 million TL. Assets of the sector have increased 2.1%, Loans have increased by 1.8% by the end of 2015. Deposits are the largest source of funds of the banks that have increased by 2.3% compared to the year of 2015 and have been 1.274.180 billion TL, while the net profit of the sector has been 8.192 million TL ( BDDK).

Table 2. Indicators of The Turkish tor (Million TL) Foreign Bank Asset 724.794 Loans 446.033 Deposit 395.247 Equity 78.081 Net Profit 1.984 Branch 4.023 Employee 75.678

Banking SecSector 2.407.551 1.511.537 1.274.180 273.021 8.192 12.276 216.532

Source: BDDK Mach 2016 Report, TBB

Foreign banking may be involved in several ways into the domestic banking market. For instance, foreign banks do enter the sector by purchasing a bank, buying bank shares or establishing a branch, with the fulfillment of the necessary procedures. But it has been seen that foreign entry into the Turkish banking sector has as cyclical ups and downs.

According to Table 3, the Turkish banking sector has consisted of only four foreign banks of the total operating forty-three banks in 1980, the number of banks in the sector and foreign banks have reached sixty-six and twenty-six, respectively in 1990. The number of banks in the sector has reached seventy-nine but the number of foreign banks has declined to twenty-one in 2000. Even if the total number of banks in the sector has fallen to forty-nine in 2010, the number of foreign banks has increased to twenty-four. In addition, the number of banks in the sector was fifty-two, and twenty-eight of the total banks was made up of foreign banks in December of 2015. The ratio of the number of foreign banks to all banks in the sector was 9% in 1980, in 1990 increased to 39%, it fell 26% in 2000 and rose 48.9% in 2010. This ratio has continued to increase after

2010 as well and rose to 53.8% in December of 2015.

Table 3. Number of Foreign Banks in Turkey Foreign Sector Foreign/Sector(%) Bank 1980 4 43 9 1990 26 66 39 2000 21 79 26 2010 24 49 48,9 2015 28 52 53,8 Source: TBB, BDDK

It is observed that the rate of foreign banks in the total sector is over 50% in the developing countries of the European Union. For instance, the ratio of foreign banks in the sector is 80% in the Czech Republic, 70% in Hungary, over 60% in Poland. Nonetheless, this ratio is realized between 5-20% in advanced countries of the European Union such as Germany, Netherlands, France, Italy, Spain, Austria and Denmark that foreign banks in other union members constitute the most important part of the rate of foreign banks in these developed countries. In other words, the share of foreign banks from foreign countries is very low. On the other hand, the rate of foreign banking in Argentina is 50%, while in Brazil is around 30% [20].

Table 4. Sector Share of Foreign Banking (% 1980 1990 2000 2010 2015 Asset 2,9 3,5 5,4 16,5 30,3 Loans 1,8 3,5 2,8 19 29,5 Deposit Equity Branch Employee

2,3 2,2 1,8 1,5

2,4 3,8 1,7 1,9

3,2 7,6 1,5 2,2

15,2 16,7 25,1 26,5

31,0 28,7 32,8 35,0

Source: TBB, BDDK

According to Table 4, although there have been some fluctuations in some periods, the balance sheet size of the foreign-owned banking seems to be the general upward trend from 1980 to 2015. Asset ratio of foreign-owned banking is realized 2,9% in 1980, which increased to 30.3% in 2015. At the same years, loans have increased from 1.8% to 29.5%, deposits from 2.3% to 31%, while equity seems to rise from 2.2% to 28.7%. The branches of the foreign bank in the sector and employee ratio have remained relatively limited from 1980 to 2000 but reached the ratio of one in three of all sector in 2015. But here is an interesting point that there has been an increase in the number of the foreign banks since 1980â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s but there had not been

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a grow at the same rate in the size of components of balance sheet during these years.

Table 5. Equity/Total Assets (%) Foreign Bank 1980 4,2 1990 11,1 2000 9,6 2010 13,5 2015 10,5

Sector 5,5 10,1 6,9 13,3 11,1

Source: TBB, BDDK

According to the selected ratios in Table 5, the rate of equity in total assets for foreign banking was lower than sector in 1980 but was higher than sector in 1990, 2000 and 2010 years.

This rate was close to each other in 2010 as being for foreign banking is 13.5% and the sector is 13.3%. In addition, there has been a decrease in both ratios in 2015. And the rate of equity in total assets for the total sector was realized higher than the rate of equity in total assets for foreign banking.

Table 6. Total Loans/Total Assets (%) Foreign Bank Sector 1980 33,3 53,8 1990 48,2 47 2000 17,1 32,9 2010 60,2 52,2 2015 61,3 63 Source: TBB, BDDK

According to Table 6, the rate of loans in total assets for foreign banking was lower than total sector in 1980 but was higher than total sector in 1990. There has been a dramatic decrease in this rate for foreign banking from 48,2% to 17,1% in 2000. Total loans/ Total assets ratio for foreign banking was realized as 60,2% and for the total sector was 52,2% in 2010. As it is seen that this ratio for the total sector (63%) was realized higher than foreign banking (61,3%) at the end of 2015.

Table 7. Net Profit(Loss)/Total Assets (%) Foreign Bank Sector 1980 2,1 1,3 1990 2,7 2,3 2000 0,6 -3,0 2010 1,5 2,2 2015 0,9 1,1 Source: TBB, BDDK

Table 8. Net Profit(Loss)/Equity (%) Foreign Bank Sector 1980 50,0 24,2

1990 2000 2010 2015

24,5 6,2 11 9,4

22,5 -43,7 16,4 11,2

Source: TBB, BDDK

On the other hand, according to Table 7 and 8, the profitability of assets and equity for foreign banking was greater than total sector since from 1980 to 2010. But the profitability of the total sector was realized greater than profitability for foreign banking in both years, 2010 and 2015.

There have been fluctuations and decline in this ratio for both sides as selected years but the ratios have been close to each other after 2010. In addition, the decline in the ratio of profitability for the total sector is seen greater than the decline for foreign banking proportionally from 2010 to 2015.

The main reason for the decline in profitability of whole banking system is considered that regulations to increase the costs of the banks and to limit their incomes and the increase in specific provisions allocated to troubled loans (TBB).

5. Conclusion

With the 1970â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s, a new economic approach has emerged with the change and transformation of the global financial system. The global markets were needed to be fully integrated with each other, hence, all kinds of barriers to trade must be removed, as this is a key factor to the mobilization of labor and capital.

In order to cause development and growth of these countries, the liberalization of financial markets is presented as a formula to developing countries. Most of developing countries have started to open their markets to international investors with the 1980â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s. A large amount of capital flow has been observed at the end of this process. On the other hand, as a result of massive capital inflows, developing countries have been more fragile to international or domestic shocks and developing countries have experienced several financial crises after 1990â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s.

Large amounts of capital inflows have accelerated the entry of foreign banks in the financial market as well. Foreign-owned banks usually are technologically advanced banks of developed countries and thus have the ability to provide new services to customers. These banks are in close cooperation with major financial cen-

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ters, able to change the country's competitive structure of the banking system as bringing a lot of innovations.

There were only four foreign-owned banks in Turkey in 1980. After opening its markets to international investors and doing a lot of financial, structural and legal regulations with this year, many foreign banks have started to enter Turkey’s financial sector. The number of foreign banks has reached twenty-six in 1990. In 2000, there were twenty-one foreign banks but, this number dropped to fifteen after the crisis of 2001. The Turkish banking sector has experienced a restructuring process after the crisis of 2001. And it is clear that the Turkish banking sector has not been adversely affected by 2007 global financial crisis after restructuring process since 2001.

The number of the foreign bank in the Turkish financial sector was realized as twenty-four in the total of forty-nine banks in 2010 and as twenty-eight in the total of fifty-two banks of the sector at the end of 2015.It is also seen that the rate of foreign banks in the total sector has been increasing from 1980 (9%) to 2015(53,8%).

Foreign-owned banking has contributed to the Turkish banking system by providing sectoral competition. It has been a positive contribution to productivity with less staff. It has increased the diversity of financial products and services in the industry by bringing new technologies and applications. it has been a contribution in terms of increasing profitability and reducing overall costs in the markets as well.

On the other hand, the increase of foreign banks in the sector may create a number of risks and situations. For instance, foreign banks have not used their sources to eliminate the effects of the crises, in contrast, they have been with the purpose of obtaining more profit and kept their resources in a position of outflow. Taking this position was seen as a risk factor for the Turkey’s economy during the crises of 1994 and 2001 in Turkey.

Although foreign banks have an important role and big potential for national markets, the entry of foreign banks to the Turkish financial sector should not be unlimited and uncontrolled that some restrictions and regulations should be done in terms of negative experiences. So the domination of foreign banks in the sector should not be unlimited while the competitiveness of local banks should not be limited and

some regulations should be implemented to increase competition in the sector.

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Fırsat mı?, İstanbul Üniversitesi, İktisat Fakültesi Mecmuası, 2009, 59(2), 25-60.

[20] TBB, Türkiye’de yabancı bankalar, Bankacılar Dergisi, 2005, 52, 3-9.

[21] V. Çakar, Yabancı sermayeli banka girişleri ve ulusal bankacılık sektörü üzerindeki etkileri, Uzmanlık Yeterlilik Tezi, Bankacılık ve Finansal Kurumlar Genel Müdürlüğü, TCMB, 2003, Ankara.

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The Question of Statue of Limitation For Tax Evasion as Regulated in Tax Procedure Law Serap AĞAYA Erciyes University, Department of Public Finance serap@erciyes.edu.tr

Abstact: Limitation is that some rights are win or lost by expiration of a period. There are two kinds of base limitation in tax law as limitation of assessment and limitation of collection. There are two kinds of limitation in criminal law as limitation of action and limitation of punishment. Limitation of action and limitation of punishment have also been applied for tax crimes and tax evasion. The theme of this paper is tax evasion and limitation issue about tax evasion. The aim of this paper to explain the beginning and ending date of limitation for tax evasion in the light of decision of the Turkish Supreme Court.

Key Words: Tax evasion, limitation of action, limitation of punishment.

1.

Introduction

Limitation is that some rights are win or lost by expiration of a period. Limitation has different meaning in tax law and criminal law.

There are four kinds of limitation in tax law.

Two of them are base limitations as limitation of assessment and limitation of collection.

There are two kinds of limitation in criminal law as limitation of action and limitation of punishment.

There are two legal concepts in tax law for acts which against rules as “blame” and “crime”. Provisions of Tax Procedure Law have been applied for tax blames and there is punitive fine for the blames.

There is prison sentence for tax crimes and provisions of Turkish Criminal Law are applied for the crimes. Hence provisions of Turkish Criminal Law are applied for tax crimes about limitation.

There are five different kinds of tax crimes in Turkish tax law. One of them is tax evasion.

The theme of this paper is tax evasion and limitation issue about tax evasion. The aim of this paper to explain the beginning and ending date of limitation for tax evasion in the light of

decision of the Turkish Supreme Court. Firstly it will explain what limitation means in Turkish Crime Law and Tax Procedure Law in this paper. Then tax crimes will be analyze in terms of limitation of action and limitation of punishment. At the end of the paper, tax evasion will be analyze in terms of limitation of action and limitation of punishment.

2.

Statute Of Limitation

According to Turkish Language Society limitation is that some rights are win or lost by expiration of a period which enacted in the law (TLS, 2016). In other words the power of penalization has been disappeared at the end of a period which is provided in law (Demirbaş, 2011:696).

Limitation is one of the way of acquisition some rights or acquittal of obligation. So there are two kinds of limitation as limitation acquisitive and limitation extinctive (Arslan, 2007:26).

Statute of limitation has differences in tax law and criminal law. In criminal law, the most important point is the power of penalization

16

and being disappear the power by the end of a period. In tax law, the most important point is tax claim.

Limitation is one of the oldest statutes in criminal law. Limitation has been used in history for example roman law, germen law.

Nowadays most of country use statute of limitation in their law system (Demirbaş, 2011: 696-697).

In terms of criminal law, Islamic law and ottoman code of civil law have been included statute of limitation in our country. However it has taken place in tax law since republic period (Arslan, 2007:96).

Reasons of why limitation takes place in judicial system depends on the injustice of being under suspicion for a long time who do not commit a crime which is not discovered after a long time from time of crime (Burgul, 2009:iv).

There are lots of comment which are for limitation and against to limitation. Somebody is for limitation because of its benefits. For example, limitation prevent that cases take long time, after long time from time of crime it will be hard to get evidences.

Somebody is against to limitation because of its bad conclusion. For example, limitation rewards the guilty (Demirbaş, 2011:697).

Limitation of collection has been enacted in 102 numbered article of Law on Collection Procedure of Assets. Unless a kind of tax is collected in five years the tax is prescribed.

The period of limitation of collection is five years. Period of limitation of collection is started by deferral date of the tax.

The periods of two kinds of limitation are the same in tax law. They are both five years.

But the beginning of them and the laws enacted them are different.

4.

Limitation In Criminal Law

Limitation is one of the oldest statute in criminal law (Demirbaş, 2011:696). However limitation has bad points good points are more than bad ones. So most of country is for limitation and they enacted limitation in their criminal law (Demirbaş, 2011:698).

There are two kinds of limitation in criminal law as limitation of action and limitation of punishment. They are both enacted Turkish Criminal Law numbered 5237. Limitation of action has been enacted 66-67 numbered articles, limitation of punishment has been enacted 68-69 numbered articles of Turkish Criminal Law. Even though prosecutions say nothing about limitation, it have to been into consideration by judge.

4.1. Limitation of Action

3.

Limitation In Tax Law

There is a definition in 113 numbered article of Tax Procedure Law. According to the article the tax claim has been disappeared by the end of the period which is provided in law. There are two kinds of limitation called base limitations as limitation of assessment and limitation of collection.

Limitation of assessment has been enacted in 114 numbered article of Tax Procedure Law. Unless a kind of tax has been garnished to taxpayer in five years the tax is prescribed. The period of limitation of assessment is five years.

Period of limitation of assessment is started by taxable event. That means, the period of limitation is five years from taxable event.

According to Turkish Criminal Law; “Unless otherwise is provided in the law, public action is dismissed upon lapse of ; a) Thirty years in offenses requiring punishment of heavy life imprisonment, b) Twenty-five years in offenses requiring punishment of life imprisonment, c) Twenty years in offenses requiring punishment of imprisonment not less than twenty years, d) Fifteen years in offenses requiring punishment of imprisonment more than five years and less than twenty years, e) Eight years in offenses requiring punishment of imprisonment or punitive fine not more than five years”

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Limitation of action is an obstacle to filing action or if it is fired, limitation is an obstacle to condition of an action (Burgul, 2009:iv).

The period of limitation of action changes 8 to 30 years. The period of the limitation depends on prison term for the acts. The upper limit of prison term enacted in the law has been taken into consideration to determine the period of the limitation. There are some differences for beginning of limitation of action among acts. According to Turkish Criminal Law, “In succeeded offenses, the statute of limitation starts to run as of the commission date of offense; in attempt to accomplish offense, as of the execution date of last act; in continuing offenses, as of the date on which the offense is discontinued; and in successive offenses, as of the commission date of last offense”.

4.2.

Limitation of Punishment

According to Turkish Criminal Law, “The punishments listed in this article may not be executed upon lapse of following periods; a) Forty years in punishment of heavy life imprisonment, b) Thirty years in punishment of life imprisonment, c) Twenty-four years in punishment of imprisonment for twenty years or more, d) Twenty years in punishment of imprisonment more than five years, e) Ten years in punishment of imprisonment and punitive fines imposed up to five years.”

Limitation of punishment is an obstacle to execution of restrictive decision of the court (Burgul, 2009:iv).

The period limitation of punishment changes from 10 to 40 years. Restrictive decision of court about prison term is more important to determine the period of limitation. The more prison term is long, the period of limitation is long.

5.

Limitation About Tax Evasion

There is no article abot limitation for tax crimes in Turkish Procedure Law. So articles of Turkish Criminal Law about limitation have been applied for tax crimes.

The places of jurisdiction for tax crimes are criminal courts. Because of this Turkish Criminal Law have to be applied both crimes enacted in Turkish Criminal Law and tax crimes. It is also enacted in5th article of Turkish Criminal Law. According to Turkish Criminal Law, “The general provisions of this Law are applicable also for the offences under the cover of special criminal laws and other legislation relating to criminal punishment”.

As it says in previous parts, there is two kins of limitation in criminal law. It is important that when limitation of action and punishment begins and expiration of time limit.

5.1.

Tax Evasion in Tax Procedure Law

Tax evasion has been enacted in 359 numbered article of Tax Procedure Law. According to the article 359, acts of evasion are; 359/a; • To commit accounting fraud, • To open an account for people who are not concerned with the transaction, • To keep one more books, • To falsify books and records, • To arrange and use misleading documents 359/b; • To conceal books and records • To arrange and use fake documents 359/c; • To be press document by a printing house that is not certified.

The imprisonment is different among the acts enacted the article of 359/a, 359/b, 359/c. for the article of 359/a, the imprisonment is between 18 months-3 years. For the article of 359/b the imprisonment is between 3-5 years.

For the article of 359/c the imprisonment is between 2-5 years. For example someone uses misleading document it is imprisoned for 18 months-3 years.

5.2.

Limitation of Action About Tax Evasion

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According to Turkish Criminal Law, "Public action is dismissed upon lapse of; eight years in offenses requiring punishment of imprisonment or punitive fine not more than five years”. The upper limit of imprisonment for the acts of tax evasion is five years in the 359 numbered article of Tax Procedure Law. So the period of limitation of action is 8 years.

Unless an action files in 8 years, limitation of action is an obstacle to filing action or if it is filed, limitation is an obstacle to conduction of an action.

There are reasons of suspension and vacation of limitation of action in 67th article of Turkish Criminal Law. Another important point about limitation is beginning time of limitation. In other words when limitation begins has to designate properly. According to Turkish Criminal Law, “In succeeded offenses, the statute of limitation starts to run as of the commission date of offense; in attempt to accomplish offense, as of the execution date of last act”.

Tax evasion is not compatible with attemption. So the limitation of action starts to run as of the commission date of offense.

Commission date of offense is significant for tax evasion. Commission date of offense varies from act to act.

The commission date of offense for the act of committing accounting fraud is date of transaction. the commission date of offense for the act of opening account for people who are not concerned with the transaction is the date when the account opens.

The commission date of offense for the act of keeping one more books is the date when the books keep. The commission date of offense for the acts of falsifying books and records is the date of transaction. The commission date of offense for the act of concealing books and records is the last day of the period given by tax administration.

There are three different dates for the act of arranging and using misleading or fake documents. These are the date of arranging, the date of using and date of declaring the tax (Şengöz, 2008:127). To some researcher, the commission date of for the act is date of using

or arranging the documents (Uğur and Elibol, 2015:253). But to Supreme Court the commission date of offence for the act is the last day of declaring the tax. There are lots of Supreme Court decisions about these dates.

For example; Penal Department no. 11 of the Supreme Court, Date: 27.02.2014, Decision No: 2014/3549; Penal Department no. 11 of the Supreme Court, Date: 09.09.2014, Decision No: 2014/14431; Penal Department no. 9 of the Supreme Court, Date: 17.03.1993, Decision No: 1999/1325 (Uğur and Elibol, 2015:257; Şengöz, 2008:233).

5.3.

Limitation of Punishment About Tax Evasion According to Turkish Criminal Law 68th article; “The punishments listed in this article may not be executed upon lapse of following periods;….. e) Ten years in punishment of imprisonment and punitive fines imposed up to five years”.

The upper limit of imprisonment for offense of tax evasion enacted in Lax Procedure Law is five years. So the period of limitation of punishment is ten years. To determine period of the limitation of punishment it is important that the restrictive decision about imprisonment.

The time of beginning of the limitation is the effective date of judgment. So the last day of legal remedy or the following day of affirmance of judgment by supreme court may be the time of beginning of the limitation (Demirbaş, 2011:719). The time of beginning does not change for acts of tax evasion.

Because the most important point is the effective date of judgement.

6.

Conclusion

There are two kinds of limitation in tax law.

There are two kinds of limitation in criminal law as limitation of action and limitation of punishment.

Limitations of action and punishment have been applied for tax crimes also tax evasion. It is important that determining of beginning limitation of action for the acts of tax evasion.

Because the beginning of limitation has

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changed for the acts. But the period of limitation is the same that is eight years.

Period of limitation of punishment is ten years for tax evasion. The effective date of judgement is important for determining the time of beginning of limitation of punishment.

References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8]

D. Şenyüz, M. Yüce and A. Gerçek, Tax Law, Ekin Press, Bursa, 2013.

T. Demirbaş, Criminal Law, Seçkin Press, Ankara, 2011.

M. Arslan, Limitation in Tax Law, Yaklaşım Press, Ankara, 2007.

S. Donay, Tax Crimes, Beta Press, İstanbul, 2008.

D. Şenyüz, Tax Penalty Law, Ekin Press, Bursa, 2013.

H. Hakeri, Criminal Law, Adalet Press, Ankara, 2011.

H. Uğur and M. Elibol, Tax Crimes, Adalet Press, Ankara, 2015.

Y. Şengöz, The Date of Offense, The Period and Beginning of Limitation of Actionin Tax Penalty Law, Tax Affairs, 2008, pp. 121-137.

[9] F. Burgul, Limitation of Action and Punishment in Turkish Criminal Code, Post Graduate Dissertation, İstanbul University, 2009.

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The Factors That Affect The Tourism Related Income In Turkey Aziz BOSTAN, Orhan Ĺ&#x17E;ANLI,

Hatice EROL

Adnan Menderes University Nazilli Department of Economy azbostan@hotmail.com orhan.sanli@adu.edu.tr haticeerol@adu.edu.tr

Key Words: Tourism Revenues, Foreign trade, GDP , Inflation Abstract:Tourism sector is a very significant sector for the economies of the countries. Turkey, especially after 1980ies in the direction of 24th of January conclusions is directed to a liberal economic conception that is open to foreign countries and this perspective opened the horizon of tourism sector that has in fact less effect on economy at those years. Turkey comprehended the importance of tourism income and in this field increased the investments and especially after the year 2000 reached to such a situation that became competitive in the World in tourism sector. In this study of ours the reasons that affect tourism income in Turkey have been researched. At the ampirical analysis section covering the years 2001(1)-2015(2) with 3 monthly data dependent variable tourism income is reviewed and analysed in the direction of independent variables such as GDP, Exchange Rate, inflation (CPI). countries execute their economic activities in countries in international field comfortably and 1. INTRODUCTION easily supplies the necessary currency entry. In Together with the Industrial Revolution Europe many countries because of this reason around the world a rapid increase in the made many investments in tourism sector and incomes of countries has been started to be in the World in these fields they get to rather experienced.

With the Geographical further level.

Explorations as a result of the changes in Turkey is a country who gains the political, social and economic structure the awareness and importance of tourism sector curiosity of people to discover other countries lately. Turkey until 1980ies was executing has started as well. Starting from the 20th generally a self-enclosed economics politics. century around the world tourism activities This situation naturally pushes the importance gained a rapid acceleration. Because of the of tourism sector to the back ground. But after supportive reasons such as the improvement of the 24th of January 1980 conclusions Turkey technology, with the increase of transportation that follows a liberal politics as occurred in opportunities tourism activities exceed further every field made considerable investments to only beyond political or trade related limited tourism sector as well and after the year 2000 fields, and shifted to holiday, health, started to reap the fruits in this field and recruitment aimed various fields and became starting from the year 2014 became the sixth rather significant in economies of countries. mostly visited country around the world. Also Especially within the global world despite the regarding the tourism income in year 2013 fact that physical boundaries still stand, the Turkey gained the 12th rank among the world. fact that these physical boundaries do not exist The purpose of this study is to execute in trade and in tourism and in politics increased a general assessment of tourism sector within the economic activities internationally. Thus the economics of Turkey, and to reveal the the developing tourism sector and increasing relationship between the variables that affect tourism incomes, in order to the fact those the tourism income and the tourism income.

21

The purpose briefly is to reveal the weak and strong sides of Turkey in tourism sector, and to increase the awareness towards the investments in this sector as an infrastructural study.

2. TOURISM SECTOR AROUND THE WORLD Among the countries to possess the highest tourism income in the world, developed countries such as France, Germany, UK and USA can be counted. Generally Europe continent is the largest region to execute the wider scoped tourism activities.

The least tourism activity is at the continent Africa that is parallel to its level of development. The countries to have the highest shares of international trade because of the necessity of currency entry have shown great significance to both tourism and international trade opportunities[13].

Generally the centre of gravity of tourism can be counted as the continent Europe. The continent Europe that Turkey is also involved in regarding both the tourism income and the number of tourists covers more than 50% of the world. On the second row Asia-Pacific region covers almost about 20% of this share. America continent follows this region. And Africa and Middle East zone averagely represents 5% of this share regarding the tourism activities and it is the less developed region around the world considering tourism sector. As can be understood easily from here the zones to represent the intensified areas of the developed countries indirectly collect the highest rates of shares from tourism[9] Table 1: Between 1950-2010 annual growth rates in World Tourism PERIODS ANNUAL ANNUAL TOURIST AVERAGE NUMBERS TOURISM AVERAGE INCOME (%) (%) 1950-1970 9,9 11,6 1970-1990 5,2 14,3 1990-2010 3,7 8,6 Source:[6] file:///C:/Documents%20and%20Settings/TEMP.H PLAB63.009/Belgelerim/Downloads/Dnya-daturizm-endstrisinde-istihdam-ve-alima-artlari.pdf

According to the data of Table 1 that belongs to the reports of World Tourism Organization, a continuous increase in the numbers of tourists and tourism income can be seen.

Despite the fact that increase rate changes between the periods, increase in tourism income continues. While the highest rate of change period is 1950-1970, within the period 1990-2010 annual number of tourists increase averagely in amount of 3,7%, annual average tourism income increases in amount of 8,6% and increase in tourism sector continues.

Table :2 The number of contributions to World Tourism and Tourism Income.

Years Number of Tourism Income tourists (Billion $) 1988 394.000.000 204 1989 426.000.000 221 2010 940.000.000 919 2011 980.000.000 1.042 2012 1.035.000.000 1.075 2013 1.087.000.000 1.197 2014 1.138.000.000 1.245 Source:[24] http://mkt.unwto.org/en/barometer

Again according to the summarized data given on table 2, between 1988-2014 there is a permanent increase both in the number of tourists in the world and in tourism income. In year 1988 while the number of tourists was averagely 400 million and the tourism income was about 204 billion dollars, in year 2014 the number of tourists increase to 1.138 million and the tourism income became 1.245 billion dollars.

According to the World Tourism Organization from year 2014 among the mostly visited countries are the countries in the Europe continent. France, Germany, Italy, UK, Turkey and Spain are among the countries that continuously increase their number of incoming tourists and tourism income.

According to the World Tourism Organization report from the year 2015 among the mostly tourist attracting countries with 83,7 million visitors in 2014 France is at the first order around the world. When the first ten countries are reviewed excluding Mexico, USA and China mostly visited countries are in Europe continent as well. While Turkey increases its number of incoming tourists in amount of 5,3% in 2014 when compared to the year 2013, Mexico increased its number of incoming tourists in amount of 20,5% in year 2014 when compared to the year 2013 and became the country to raise its amount of visitors at most [20]. Generally, the fact that the countries to benefit from tourism at most are the developed and developing countries,

22

indicate also the fact that how tourism is very important within the economics.

3. TOURISM SECTOR IN TURKEY Generally in the world in recent years while tourism sector is continuously developing, in Turkey especially after the year 1980 considerable investments in tourism field has been initiated as a result of the 24th of January conclusions. Turkey economics in general terms depend on the service industry and industry sector. Tourism sector as well continues its development under the service industry parallel to the structure of Turkey economics. Considering the 1980ies when Turkey started to follow liberal economics politics, started also to experience changes in international trade.

Liberalization in international trade increased the requirement to foreign currency [3]. Since the international trade structure of Turkey generally based on import, it has a structure give current account deficit. In order to adjust the international trade deficit the necessary foreign currency requirement are attempted to be adjusted through the incoming foreign currencies brought by the employees working outside the country or the foreign currency coming through other ways. In such a case tourism sector has a significant place in international trade transactions of Turkey economy.

Investments made in tourism sector especially started to bring results after the year 2000 and Turkey is involved among the first ten countries among the world and in such a way considerable amounts of foreign currency entry to the country have occurred[23].

One of the biggest problems of Turkey of course is the current account deficit. Foreign Trade Deficit can be counted among the important items of this Current Account Deficit. According to the Report of the Association of Turkish Travel Agencies, 2015 a continuous increase in Turkeyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Foreign Trade Deficit can be observed.

Because together with the activities of liberalization international trade became free and both in private sector and governmental import and export increased. The fact that import is more decreases down he net export.

Parallel to this tourism income increase continuously and its share to adjust the international trade deficit has increased in a same manner continuously. In year 1996 while

a tourism income of about 7.970 billion dollars was obtained, Foreign Trade Deficit was averagely about 20 billion dollars. During the same period the adjustment rate of tourism income of Foreign Trade Deficit was 39%. In year 2001 this rate increased up to 133% and the share of adjustment rate of tourism income the foreign trade deficit get to a record level. In the following years while the adjustment rate of tourism income of the Foreign Trade Deficit was decreasing, in year 2014 in amount of 34.306 billion dollars of tourism income with a rate of 40,59% has adjusted the Foreign Trade Deficit and this indicates the stillness of significance of tourism in Turkey Economy[23].

Turkey got to a very important place regarding the tourism income in recent years in the world. Turkey and Greece that are among the two Mediterranean countries can be counted among the regions to attract most tourists and tourism income. Especially because of the boundary neighbourhood relationship these two countries got into an important concurrence and this competitive attitude provide a great contribution to their economies. Regarding the general years Greece was in a better position both in term of the number of tourists and in terms of tourism income than Turkey. But in recent years both because of the economic crisis arise in Greece and the investments of Turkey to tourism according to the report of World Tourism Organization Turkey got to a better position both regarding the number of tourists and in terms of tourism income than Greece.

The influence of Tourism sector to Turkey economy is not only limited to the adjustment of Foreign Trade Deficit balance.

Tourism sector is considerable important regarding the recruitment field. In fields such as Hotels, Tourism Agencies, Excursion Companies about one million people are working and recruited. Another influence of the tourism sector is on the the national income. When the effects of the income obtained from the tourism sector is compared with the balance of payments in increasing the national income the share of tourism sector is considerably high. In 1980ies the share of tourism income within the GDP was below 1% this share in mid 2000s raised up to 5%[1].

According to the report of World Tourism Organization, 2015 , when the most income receiving countries from tourism sector

23

were reviewed in year 2014, it can be seen that USA had record level tourism income of about 177 billion dollars in the world. In the ranking Turkey got the tenth rank with averagely 30 billion dollars of income. In Europe Turkey got into the first five countries regarding tourism income [19].

The value of tourism sector can be understood via looking into its share in the GDP. Turkey attempts to increase the share of tourism sector in GDP via Ads, publicities, promotions and investments continuously.

Despite the executed investments when compared to the most tourist attracting countries the share of tourism income within the GDP in Turkey are still at low levels [1].

The Ministry of Culture and Tourism of Turkey published in 2015 a report that involves tourism promotion budget, tourism income and the number of tourists.

According to the report concerning the years the share spared for promotion in tourism sector has increased. In year 2001 the while the promotion budget was 40 million TL, in 2011 it has been increased up to 155 million TL, and in recent years it has started to show a tendency to decrease again and became in 2014 50 million TL. Parallel to this the number of tourists and tourism income has increased as well. While tourism income in year 2001 was about 7 billion dollars with 11 million visitors, in year 2014 from averagely more than 4 million tourist an income of about 34 billion dollars were received [22].

4. LITERATURE REVIEW Within the studies of Erol Nermin and Hassan Azize that cover 2001-2012 the number of tourists and tourism income were reviewed. In research analysis it has been detected that the number of incoming tourists and tourism income are not parallel[10].

Aktaş Cengiz (2005) in his study to cover the timeframe of 1980-2000 researched the factors to affect the tourism income. In his study he used the regression analysis technique and applied the co-integration test. As a result it has been detected that the most important variable to affect tourism income is the number of Travel Agencies[2].

In the study of Arslan Aytuğ that covers 2001-2012 the influence of promotion expenses to foreign tourism demand and tourism income has been researched. As methodological approach Correlation, Co-

integration and Regression predictions are used and a positive relationship between the promotion expenses and the number of tourists and tourism income are detected[4].

Between the years 1998 – 2009 Aykaç Alp Elçin made a study using monthly data to research the relationship of the tourism income in Turkey and growth rate. In a study made through T-VAR analysis technique a conclusion has been reached that tourism income has a positive influence on the growth of Turkey[3].

In the study that cover the years 1984 – 2010 by Çelik Uğuz Sabriye via using monthly data a possibility of a relationship between the tourism income and foreign trade deficit has been reviewed. In the study that is executed using Johansen Co-integration Test, Error Correction Model and Granger Causality Test a significant causality relationship between the tourism income and foreign trade deficit has been detected[17].

In a study made by Topbaş Ferhat and Çelik Uğuz Sabriye that covers the period of 1990-2010 using monthly data the relationship between the exchange rate and tourism demand has been reviewed. According to the results of the study executed within the frame of EGARCH method and Johansen Cointegration Test tourism demand, exchange rate and currency flexibility are in significant relationship in long-term statistically[18].

Erkan Birol, Kara Oğuz and Harbalıoğlu Melda in their study that covers the timeframe 2005-2012 via using monthly data identified and determined the factors that affect tourism income. According to the analysis results made via Var analysis and Granger Causality Test, it can be claimed that, while in Turkey mutual-sided causality relationship exists between the tourism income and the number of tourists, there are no influences of real exchange rate on the tourism income[11].

Bahar Ozan and Bozkurt Kurtuluş reviewed 21 developing countries in years between1998-2005 via using monthly data and examined relationship between tourism and economic growth. With the dynamic panel data method two levelled GMM-system analysis is executed. And as a result for GOÜ a positive and significant relationship has been detected between the tourism and growth. While tourism income is increasing in amount of 1%,

24

the economic growth increases in rate of 2.825%[5].

Demirel Baki, Bozdağ Emre and İnci Gökhun Alp in their study executed that covers the timeframe of 1994-2006 using threemonthly (three quarters period) data have examined the influence of exchange rate fluctuations and uncertainties in real exchange rated on the number of tourists that are coming to Turkey from USA, Germany, UK and France. In the study that is executed using Johansen Co-integration Test and EGARCH model regarding the uncertainties of real exchange rates excluding France there are no influences of exchange rate uncertainties on the number of incoming tourists. When the changes and fluctuations on the real exchange rates are reviewed a significant result for USA has been detected. For Germany the change of Exchange Rates are not effective on the incoming number of tourists. For France and the UK it has been detected that the current exchange rate is effecting[8].

5. DATASET and METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH Within this study reasons that affect tourism income in Turkey are researched. With this purpose first of all between the periods 2001Q1-2015 Q2 quarter periodic datasets are used. At one side there is the dependent variable tourism income and on the other side independent variables that are presumed to affect the tourism income GDP, inflation (CPI), Exchange Rate (dollar) exist. The used variables are obtained from the TCMB (Republic of Turkey Central Bank) website from the electronic data distribution system section.

Since some of the used variables represent three-monthly periods and since they consist of large numbers their logarithmic values are calculated to convert them into real state. With this purpose consumer price index, GDP and tourism income values’ logarithms are calculated. After that datasets that comprise of monthly and three-monthly periods are cleaned up and removed from seasonal affects via using Moving Average Method since they are supposed to be suspected with the seasonal affects.

T= Tourism Income, E=Inflation (CPI), G= (GDP) Gross National Product, DV= Exchange Rate (Dollar)

Model to be used : Tourism income = B0 + B1CPI + B2EXCHANGE RATE + B3GDP + ut One of the significant characteristics of time series used in econometrics is that whether the series are stable or not. In the method to be applied first of all the stability of the series are controlled and so that an econometrically significant result can be obtained. If the series are not stable regression reflects a real relationship. If the series are not stable, because of the fact that possibly fake regression exists, among the variables misleading results can be revealed[16]. With this purpose in order to measure the stability of series unit root test is applied.

5.1. Unit Root Test The fact that Time Series are stable depend on various conditions. For this first of all average and variance shall be independent from time and shall vary in time. Covariance between two intervals shall depend not on the period that the covariance is calculated and shall depend on the distance between two periods [16].

Number of observations (n) = 58, Number of parameters (k) = 3 t= Period The control of the stability of a series: If Null Hypothesis is Ho: S = 0 than the series is not stable, and in the series ther is a unit root.

If Alternative Hypothesis is H1: S ≠ 0 than the series is stable, and in the series there is no unit root.

For the control of stability of series another way is to look into the probability values. If the Prob is less than <0.05 than series is stable, and series possess no unit root.

Tourism Income = B0 + B1CPIt + B2EXCHANGE RATEt + B3GDPt + ut Within the established econometric model the B symbol represents the coefficients of the series. Ut represents the error term coefficient of the model.

In this study in order to review the fact that whether the series are stable Dickey-Fuller test statistics has been applied. But in order to get the internal relationless model to be obtained, an expanded version of DF test the Expanded Dickey-Fuller test statistics has been used[15]. The executed unit root test results are shown on table 1.

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According to table 1 for the DVsa (exchange rate) variable, since ADFHes < Critical Value (1%, 5% and 10%) the series is not stable and in the series there is a unit root.

Because of this to the dollar series a differentiation operation is applied and the trended model is removed. Thus, when differentiation operation is applied to the DVsa series, since ADFHes > Critical Value there is no unit root in the series, and it means that the series became stable. If Esa is (CPI-Inflation) variable, when ADF test is applied at threshold value which means before calculating the difference series became stable. Gsa (GDP) series is again stable at threshold value. Tsa (Tourism Values) series is not stable at threshold value and after calculating the 1st difference it has become stable.

Table 3: Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) Test Results Variables ADF Critical Values Test Results %1 %5 %10 Dvsa -1.099 -3.49 -3.17 4.12 dDVsa -6.68 -2.91 -2.59 3.55 Esa -4.59 -3.49 -3.17 4.13 Gsa -4.20 -3.49 -3.17 4.14 Tsa -1.98 -3.49 -3.17 4.14 dTsa -5.20 -2.91 -2.55 3.56 Note: ‘d’ symbol within the table represents that the first differences of the series have been calculated.

In the series according to the Akaike Knowledge Criteria ADF test have been applied. ‘’sa’’ symbol at the end of the series by the way describe the fact that series are cleaned up and processed from the seasonal affects. According to this Dollar exchange rate and tourism income values’ first differences are taken and the series became stable (I1). Other series are stable at the threshold value (I0). Following symbols represent the following terms : DV symbol exchange rate, E symbol: consumer price index, G symbol GDP series, T symbol tourism income.

5.2. Granger Causality Test

In some cases the direction of the relationship among the economic variables shall not be identified by the theory of economics. In this situation the direction of the relationship between the variables are determined by interactive Granger Causality Test. Within the Granger causality test there is no distinction such as dependent or independent. The direction of the relationship among the variables can be reviewed in a counter relation [12].

For a sample study in a model where variables such as a and b are used when a variable is added to the model if there is a contribution to the prediction of b variable, in this situation a variable is one cause of b variable and relationship from a to b can be detected in this way. Thus the direction of causality can be detected as well [16].

Following table number 4 gives the test results of Granger Causality Test. For the application of Granger Causality Test series must be stable at same levels. All the series used in this model are stable at Iı level. For the variable in table 4, it is possible to see 12 results. When making a decision here among the series regarding the causality relationship probability values or F-statistics results are taken into account and a decision is taken. If the probability is <0.05 it can be stated that from variable a to b there is a linear causality.

This means that a variable is a cause of b variable. Another method on the other hand is that if F statistics > F table value again it can be stated that there is a linear relationship from a to b. This means that a variable is the cause of b variable.

Number of observations (n) = 58, Number of Parameters (k) = 3 F Table value (%5)= 2.76 Hypotheses are as follows: H0:Bi=0 for all i (If F statistics < F Table or Prob > 0.05) there is no linear causality relationship from A to B. A, is not the Granger Causality of B. H1: Bi≠0 for some i (If F statistics > F Table or Prob < 0.05) there is a causality relationship from A to B. A, is the Granger causality of B. When we examine Table 4 that is obtained from Ewievs 8 software considering the level of significance of 5% via looking at the probability values we will be able to make the following interpretation: There is no causality relationship from GDP to tourism income. But from tourism income towards the GDP value there is a causality relationship.

26

Between the CPI (consumer Price Index) and tourism income there is a causality relationship from CPI towards Tourism Income but from tourism income towards CPI there is no relationship of causality. Within the analysis executed there has been no causality relationship has been detected among the exchange rate and tourism income.

Table 4: Granger Causality Test Results

NULL HYPOTHESİS:

OBS

G→T T→G E→T T→E DV→T T→DV

54 54 54 54 54 54

FSTATİSTİC 0.36439

PROB 0.8327

5.82514 3.09903 1.39175 0.64521 1.99160

0.0007 0.0246 0.2520 0.6331 0.1120

Note: : ‘→’ symbol within the table represents that the granger causality relations from first to second variable. Series are stable at same level (Iı). Delay length that is estimated within the analysis according to EXISTS prediction has been found as 4 and the decision has been made within the level of significance 5%. The delay length has been identified according to AIC.

5.3. Least Squares Estimation (LSE) Prediction Table 5: Least Squares Estimation (LSE) Prediction

Variab Coeffice le nt

Std.Err or

LNGSA

1.142546

0.266165

LN_ESA

-0.622203

0.389542

DVSA

0.549552

0.076986

C

-1.867849

3.420025

Rsquared Adjusted Rsquared Fstatistic Prob(Fstatistic)

tStatist ic

Pro b

4.29262 8 1.59726 5 7.13834 5 0.54615 1

0.000 1 0.116 0 0.000 0 0.587 2

0.957203 0.954825 402.5899 0.000000

Within table 5 models LSE prediction has been made. As a consequence together with the variables to affect the tourism income, model is converted into the following situation:

Tourism Income = 1.14254589358GDP 0.622202578635CPI+0.549552363315DOLL AR - 1.86784874232 When we review Table 5 R² is obtained equal to 0.95. According to this the explanation rate of independent variables of tourism income is 95%. In this situation a 5% change in tourism income arises from the reasons excluding CPI, exchange rate and GDP. In this situation explanation power of the model is rather high and model can be stated as significant. F-statistics results are quite significant as well. Thus it can be stated that Fstatistics that gives the total significance of the model is significant. Since the probability values of GDP and Dollar variables are less than 0.05 it can be claimed that the model in general is significant. Since the probability value of CPI index is high, it can be stated that CPI variable does not affect the tourism income in positive direction. According to the LSE prediction 1% increase in GDP influences tourism income in rate of 1.14%. As a result of Granger causality test there has been no causality relationship has been detected from GDP towards tourism income but there has been causality relationship detected from tourism income towards GDP, in this case tourism income can be counted among the granger causality of GDP. Again 1% increase in CPI decreases tourism income in amount of 0.6%. According to the Granger causality results there is a causality relationship from CPI towards tourism income but tourism income can not be counted among the granger causality of CPI. Last but not least an increase in amount of 1% in exchange rate (dollar) increase the tourism income in amount of 0.5.

According to the Granger causality result between the two variables no granger causality relationship has been detected. As a result tourism income is not influenced from changes in neither the exchange rates nor the GDP but the inflation or in other words CPI does not influence tourism income considerably.

6 . CONCLUSION Tourism sector is very important for countries to give current account deficit. Considering the 1980ies Turkey that follow liberalisation politics in foreign trade the requirement of currency started to increase.

With this purpose Turkey started to increase its investments towards this field considering the

27

1980ies. When evaluated from this aspect tourism sector, since it provides the currency entry that is required in foreign trade, both because of the effects on the opportunities of recruitment and on to the national income is very important for the developing countries and also because of the contribution to all countries’ economic powers the importance of the sector is increasing day by day.

Within the empirical analysis part executed, factors affecting the tourism income in Turkey have been reviewed. In the executed LSE prediction significance level of the model has been obtained as R2 averagely 95% and thus it can be claimed that the descriptive power of the model is very high. This means that 95% of the changing rate in tourism income arise from these three independent variables. A directly positive relationship among GDP and Exchange rate has been obtained but it has been concluded that CPI index does not affect tourism income in positive direction. 1% increase in GDP and in Exchange Rate increase tourism income. % increase in CPI decreases the tourism income.

Within the causality test there is one-sided causality relationship between tourism income and GDP. Between the tourism income and CPI there is one-sided causality relationship as well. But there is no granger causality relationship between the tourism income and exchange rate. In order to the fact that tourism politics to be successful in Turkey exchange rate shall be kept high at certain levels and GDP shall be increased. Since inflation effect tourism income in a negative manner low inflation politics will not prevent the increase of tourism income.

Turkey is a very strong country regarding its potential of Tourism. In this field it has become competitive to compete with the Mediterranean countries. But Turkey is considered as cheap tourism country because of the all-in packages. This situation concludes that tourism income remain lower than the potential. In order to the fact that Turkey reaches to further higher levels in Tourism, Tourism variety shall be increased as well.

Especially in fields of winter tourism, religion tourism, culture tourism, local tourism if more investments are done it is possible to reap the fruits of these efforts. Also in our country native tourism did not unfortunately develop considerably. If such policies are promoted to support native tourism, again significance

levels of increase in tourism income can be expected as well. A nother problem can be counted as the decrease of the budget share that is spared to the publicity and promotion of tourism. In this field, if policies to promote the Turkish Tourism and publicity expenses increase, it is obvious that considerable increases in tourism income shall be reached.

7. KAYNAKÇA 1) Akın, A., Şimşek, M.Y., Akın, A. 2012.

Türizm Sektörünün Ekonomideki Yeri Ve Önemi.

Akademik Araştırmalar Dergisi, Sayı:7, s:63-81.

2) Aktaş, C. 2005. Türkiye’nin Turizm Gelirlerini Etkileyen Değişkenler İçin En Uygun Regresyon Denkleminin Belirlenmesi. Doğuş Üniversitesi Dergisi, Cilt:6, Sayı:12, s:163-174.

3) Alp, E.A. 2010. Türkiye’de Turizm Gelirleri İle Ekonomik Büyüme Arasındaki İlişki. Dumlı Pınar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, Sayı:28.

4) Arslan, A. 2007. Türkiye’nin Tanıtım Harcamalarının Dış Turizm Talebine Etkileri. Balıkesir Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Endüstrisi, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, 2007, Balıkesir.

5) Bahar, O., Bozkurt, K. 2010.

Gelişmekte Olan Ülkelerde TurizmEkonomik Büyüme İlişkisi:Dinamik Panel Veri Analizi. Anatolia Turizm Araştırmalar Dergisi, Cilt:21, Sayı:2, s:255-265.

6) Boz, C. 2006. Dünya’da Turizm Endüstrisinde İstihdam ve Çalışma Şartları. Marmara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, 2006, İstanbul.

7) Coşkun, N. 2010. Türkiye’de Turizm Politikaları Ve Turizm Sektörü Üzerindeki Etkileri. T.C. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Kütüphaneler ve Yayınlar Genel Müdürlüğü, Uzmanlık Tezi, 2010, Ankara.

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8) Demirel, B., Bozdağ, E., İnci, A.G. 2007.

Döviz Kurlarındaki Dalgalanmaların Gelen Turist Sayısına Etkisi:Türkiye Örneği. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi İİBF Kongresi, 2007, İzmir.

9) Dilber, İ. 2007. Turizm Sektörünün Türkiye Ekonomisi Üzerindeki Etkisinin Girdi-Çıktı Tablosu Yardımıyla Değerlendirilmesi. Celal Bayar Üniversitesi İİBF Yönetim Ve Ekonomi Dergisi, Cilt:14, Sayı:2, s:2005-220.

10) Erol, N., Hassan, A. 2013. Türkiye’ye Gelen Turist Sayısı İle Elde Edilen Turizm Gelirlerinin Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu Verilerine Göre Karşılaştırılması. Journal Of Tourism And Gastronomy Studies, s:3-14.

11) Erkan, B., Kara, O., Harbalıoğlu, M. 2013. Türkiye’de Turizm Gelirlerinin Belirleyicileri.

Akademik Bakış Dergisi, Sayı:39.

12) Göçer, İ. 2015. Ekonometri. Lider Yayınları, İzmir 2015.

13) İstanbul Ticaret Odası(İTO), 2007.

Türkiye’de Turizm Ekonomisi.

Yayın No: 2007-69 İstanbul. http://www.ito.org.tr/itoyayin/0016481 .pdf

Araştırmalar Dergisi, Cilt:16, Sayı:26, s:18-22.

18) Uğuz, S.Ç., Topbaş, F. 2011. Döviz Kuru Oynaklığı Turizm Talebi İlişkisi: 1990-2010 Türkiye Örneği. Anadolu Üniversitesi İİBF, Econanadolu 2011, Anadolu İnternational Conference in Economics II, 2011, Eskişehir.

19) http://www2.unwto.org/ , World Tourism Organziation, UNWTO,2015.

20) http://www.eunwto.org/doi/pdf/10.18111/97892844168 99) , World Tourism Organziation, UNWTO,2015.

21) http://www.tuik.gov.tr/ , Turkish Statistical Institute 2015 Report.

22) http://yigm.kulturturizm.gov.tr/TR, 9851/turizm-istatistikleri.html Republic Of Turkey, The Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2015 23) http://www.tursab.org.tr/tr/turizmverileri/istatistikler/turizminekonomideki-yeri/dis-ticaretaciklarini-kapatmadapayi_916.html,TÜRSAB,Association of Turkish Travel Agencies,2015).

24) http://mkt.unwto.org/en/barometer World Tourism Organization, UNWTO, 2015.

14) İçöz, Orhan. 1991. Enflasyonun Turizm Sektörüne Etkileri. Anatolia Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi, Cilt:2, Sayı:1, s:19-21.

15) Peker, O., Göçer, İ. 2012. Bütçe Açıklarının Ampirik Analizi. Celal Bayar Üniversitesi İİBF Yönetim ve Ekonomi Dergisi, Cilt:19, Sayı:1, s:163-178.

16) Tarı, R. 2012. Ekonometri. Kocaeli Üniversitesi Yayın no:172 İstanbul 2008.

17) Uğuz, S.Ç. 2014. Türkiye’de Cari İşlemler Dengesi ve Turizmin Önemi.

KMÜ Sosyal ve Ekonomik

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Examination of Architectural Design of Education Centres in the Context of Sustainability Education-Architecture Relationship Kutlu Sevinç Kayıhan* and İrem Tunçbiz** * Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gebze Technical University, Department of Architecture PK 141 41400 Gebze/KOCAELİ/TURKEY sevinc@gtu.edu.tr ** Graduate student

Abstract. In recent years, an enormous public awareness and consciousness on the construction industry has been created about the negative effects of global environmental problems and the remarkable share caused from the construction industry on the formation of these effects. This has brought the green building industry, the fastest growing industries in to the state. Informing green building users about the story of the creation and operation of the building has become necessary and important as a result of the enrichment of the green building technologies day by day and the green buildings’ increase quantitatively/dimensionally. Studies intended to establish the relationship between sustainable architecture and education pedagogy has begun to take place in architectural literature as a result of realizing green buildings’ potential as a tool for sustainability education. Various educational building examples which try to establish this relationship has emerged. Nowadays successful examples are situated in various countries around world on this regard and studies are underway on the more successful examples with lessons learned from current examples. Sustainable architecture examples including education and awareness programs targeting community has been increasing in recent years in Turkey as well. In this context, theoretical studies about how green buildings can be a sustainability education tool through their architecture will be elaborated in this study. Also studies in this area will be considered in the axis of the developments in the world and Turkey exemplifying educational facilities except the scope of compulsory education.

Keywords: sustainability education, learning environments, architecture, environmental studies, pedagogy and space

1. Introduction

Today, ignoring the urgent environmental problems such as climate change, food crisis, biodiversity decline and the depletion of natural resources is not possible. It is accepted that development must be performed sustainably on

a global scale as the only way to overcome such environmental problems.

Sustainable development is a dynamic concept that aims people from all ages and all socio-economic levels to maintain a sustainable life and to build a sustainable future in this direction. As also located in the "Our Common Future" Report;

30

sustainable development is defined as; "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs". [1] This sustainable development concept is directly related with the concept of "sustainable development-oriented education" An education understanding that shapes necessary values and behaviors towards sustainable development expressed with the sustainable development-oriented education approach. The relationship between education and sustainable development are set forth in various international sources until today.

“Agenda 21”, adopted by 178 countries in the “United Nations Conference on Environment and Development” held in Brazil's city of Rio de Janeiro education on 1992 gives high priority to the education. [2] The importance of education was highlighted as one of the most important components to achieve sustainable development in the Chapter 36 of Agenda 21 titled "Promoting Education, Public Awareness and Training” [3] “In December 2002, resolution 57/254 was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly establishing the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (2005-2014). The Decade is a culmination of the momentum towards sustainability generated by the Earth Summit, ‘Agenda 21’ and the WSSD and presents an opportunity to focus world attention on education for sustainability across the globe. The United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development aims to: promote education as a prerequisite for the movement to sustainable human societies; integrate sustainable development into education systems at all levels; and strengthen international cooperation towards the development and sharing of innovative education for sustainable development theory, practice and policy. The Decade also offers opportunities for researchers, practitioners and education policymakers, who are often isolated from each other, to join in partnerships and to contribute to a collective and international imperative” [4]

One of the most significant problems facing sustainable development is how to achieve a true transformation towards responsible consumption patterns of the individual and hence the society.

This can only be provided in the scope of education and training. Young people whom are targeted to adopt sustainable consumption habits play a key role on the way of changing life styles that create large adverse effects on the natural environment.

Thus, gaining environmental sensitivity and raising awareness about environmental issues to the young people in all the formal/informal learning environments are considered as a current target in our time. In line with this goal, it was seen that especially educational buildings which an important period of life of young people are spend in, carry weight with an important potential and has been referred to in architecture literature. This current study area is located at the intersection of education pedagogies and architecture discipline.

In this study, how educational buildings can contribute to say transformation through their architecture is emphasized. To summarize, with the theoretical knowledge on the architecture of informal education buildings (training center, solar home, sustainability museum, model buildings etc.) major financial and intellectual resources made investments at the beginning of 21st century. In terms of how their architecture should be addressed and a comparative analysis of successful national and international examples in this topic are aimed to be elaborated.

2. Architecture and Sustainability Education: Buildings as a learning tool Traditional education building host education and training but cannot actively participate in education. This is perhaps a missed opportunity in terms of architecture. Buildings are able to act as a dynamic structure that can respond to environmental conditions, such as biological organisms. Opportunities for architecture formatted with the consideration of required principals to participate to education and training on the usage phase can also be created.

Educational buildings aiming to transform the

31

building into an educational tool designed by the architect begun to be used also as a result of the growing public interest in energy conservation in recent years. However, solutions reduced to a sundial located in the entrance of the building or a dashboard monitoring the energy consumption in many cases means the insufficient usage of the real potential of the architecture.

Architecture can become an active participant in education and training and a platform for displaying the environmental sensitivity with implementation of "teaching building" concept entirely in to architectural design. However, to fully apply the concept of building that teaches requires; 1. The designer to understand the philosophical and pedagogical underpinnings of sustainability and environmental responsiveness, 2. Work with educators to derive curricula that engages the building, 3. Have knowledge of system monitoring equipment for integration into the building [5] Also the designer should be aware of how a building could join education at various levels.

According to Jones, there are three domains for architectural expression of "buildings that teach"; 1. Explicit demonstration: This is the most intense manner followed approach in the case studies. Solar panels located as can be easily detected visually on the building roof, rainwater collection systems take place on visible points can be seen as examples. There are critics about these: despite of such examples are easy perceived visually, they could not be included in the pedagogical structure of the education and training.

2. Implicit demonstration: This goes beyond to offer an environmental system by linking a cognitive connection with the student. Usage of natural lighting in the building can be seen as an example on how to create a cognitive map of the daily and seasonal

cycles of sunlight with younger students. .

3. Architectural formation: This is the most interesting category for architects.

Form is one of the basic elements for the architecture discipline. There is a wide range of formal influences to determine the form on the design process on the architect. Environmental factors like climate, sun, light, wind, rain are important data for the architectural form on the â&#x20AC;&#x153;building that teachesâ&#x20AC;? approach.

[5] Seeing school building as a stand-alone learning tool increases the importance of sustainable educational building design. Taylor who is an education scientist defends this opinion with the concept of "three-dimensional textbookâ&#x20AC;?, express that the building and its surroundings are not passive fields; these spaces can be used as an active tool on the education of physics, geometry, botany and ecology.

Teachers, students and parents can learn many things from the buildings, learning to read the environment and interacting with it. [6] In order for the building to serve as an educational tool, it is important that it is perceived as a living and dynamic structure, not a rigid and unchangeable by the community.

Typical educational buildings offer a passive training media, but cannot participate actively in the learning process.

"In order to accomplish this, the following pedagogical concepts and strategies be used to integrate the built environment with pedagogical strategies to teach sustainability; 1. Holistically planning a building that teaches to accommodate all types of intelligences.

2. Integrate environment and project-based learning to maximize the use of the built environment as a 3D textbook.

3. Use specific education strategies that enhance knowledge transfer and foster a deeper understanding: a) Use of contrast cases b) Incorporating multiple examples and transfer potential

32

c) d) e)

Contribute to others Teach in multiple contexts Make results readily availableâ&#x20AC;?

[7] Sustainable technologies such as greenhouses, green roofs, photovoltaics, green walls, school gardens, rainwater collection systems and wind turbines can be used as attractive educational tools. These design features help users to develop more intimate knowledge and relationship with the building and increase students/visitorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; understanding of the positive impact of these technologies on the environment [8] Educational buildings can be a physical aid and interactive tool that shows many issues on science, mathematics, social areas and so on by integrating energy, water and materials efficiency.

Photovoltaics, heating-coolingventilation systems, lighting fixtures and control systems can be used in lessons about energy consumption and conservation. Natural lighting systems can help students to understand the daily and annual movement of the sun. A neighborhood botanical garden can be created using native plants in landscaping so that community members can be informed about the ecology and natural history of the area. The inclusion of the concept of sustainability into the curriculum of the educational institution may also inspire future generations of students by improving environmental awareness and responsibility among students.

The combination of green school design, a green organizational culture, and curriculum aligned with green practices and methodologies sets the stage for a school to utilize their facilities and grounds as a teaching tool. School facilities can be used as pedagogical instruments [9, 6, 10, 11, 12, 13] Students can be able to understand the value and importance of the solar panels, wind turbines and alternative fuels thanks to green curriculum followed at school. Such tools are enforces strong values about conservation and sustainability [14] It has been proven with various training programs that desired behavior changes can be obtained in the case where

students and staff take environmental education which gives energy-saving responsibility. [15, 16] 3. Buildings as a learning tool: The Case of Education Centers The main subject of the study is examined through the examples of qualified training centers around the world and in Turkey, and how they use sustainable features of the building as an educational tool in this section.

3.1 Education Center Samples from Turkey Experimental solar house applications built by mainly universities and various public institutions in the 1970s can be demonstrated as the first examples of ecological architecture in Turkey. These small-scale structures functioned mostly for research purposes, and are mainly focused on energy conservation and economic sustainability aspects. In these years, public education function, which has not yet recognized the importance, was not considered. The idea of ecological buildings can be used as a tool for social awareness in the scope of social sustainability began to take place in the literature from the beginning of the 21st century.

Therefore, Turkey's first ecological building examples that are designed and built to serve the community education on environmental protection and sustainability have emerged during this period. However, the idea of inclusion of the building to public education as a tool takes place quite partially at these few examples. Samples which particularly prominent with the aspect of acquiring environmental awareness and consciousness to the society in Turkey are selected in the scope of this study [Fig. 1] [Table 1] [Table 2].

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Fig. 1. Figure Showing the Location of National Education Centers on the Map Discussed within the study

Table 1. Education Centers from Turkey Discussed within the Study BUILDING NAME Energy Efficiency Sample Building Diyarbakır Solar House Gaziantep Metropolitan Municipality Ecological Building Antalya Solar House and Ecological Education Center Samsun Avdan Recycling Museum

INSTITUTION General Direct. Of Electric Power Resourc. Survey and Develop. Administration Diyarbakır Metropolitan Municipality Gaziantep Metropolitan Municipality Antalya Metropolitan Municipality Samsun Avdan Power Plant ve Trade Incorporated Company

LOCATION

YEAR

FUNCTION

AREA (sqm)

Ankara

2006

Education Center

275

Diyarbakır

2008

Gaziantep

2013

Antalya

20112014*

Samsun

2015

Education and Practice Center Informing and Introduction Center Ecological Education Center Recycling Museum and Education Center

120 325 10.000 230

34

Table 2. An Overview of Selected Examples of Education Centers from Turkey BUILDING NAME

DİYARBAKIR SOLAR HOUSE

GAZİANTEP METROPOLITAN MUNICIPALITY ECOLOGICAL BUILDING

SAMSUN AVDAN RECYCLING MUSEUM

ANTALYA SOLAR HOUSE & ECOLOGICAL EDUCATION CENTER

ENERGY EFFICIENCY FACILITY, SAMPLE BUILDING

PHOTOS

ARCHITECTURE AS A TEACHING TOOL The building produces its own energy (from sun), not dependent on external energy terms.

Ecological system properties of the building are presented by informing panels on walls for visitors. This information can be followed from building’s website.

This building is intended to be a research center that operating results can be followed, clean energy and consciousness-raising activities are carried out.

The building is visited by high school students and university students.

Fruits and vegetables have been grown in the greenhouse situated at the south side of building.

Waste water used in building, is being purified by rotating biological contactor with minimum energy and it has been watered the garden.

[18] Web Address: http://www.gunesevi.org/ Gaziantep Ecological Building is the first building that has Passive Haus Certificate in Turkey. It was designed according to LEED Platinum criteria.

Ecological Building which functions as a Human Resources Center, also serves as a center where renewable energy technologies are introduced.

1/50 scale models belonging to technical details of the building are presented visually to visitors. High insulation material layers, the most important features of the building can be seen 1/1 scale models of roof, ground and wall details.

In the center, awareness activities have been done for people of all ages about importance of energy and water productivity, renewable energy resources and recycling.

[20] Web Address: http://www.gaziantepekolojikbina.com.tr/ The center is located at a landfill area. Students -especially from primary and high school- are educated about sorting and storage of solid waste, biogas and purification of waste water.

During learning process, visual items and exhibition boards are used to educate visitors about recycling stages.

Also, real waste materials have been used for recycling process in education. In this way, it has attracted attentions and visitors experienced different learning practice.

Web Address: http://www.samsunavdan.com.tr/index.php/tr/haberler[21] galeri/299-soysal-sorumluluk-donusum-muzesi Solar house and ecological education center has been constituted for raising the awareness of public about renewable energy resources and ecological practices, workshops are organized for student and public who are interested in sustainability, renewable energy resources, especially solar energy and example of producing electric energy from solar energy.

[22] The building is aimed at zero carbon emission and generates all building’s energy from sun, wind, rain water and groundwater.

Soilless agriculture greenhouse, mini golf cars which are powered from solar energy, walking tracks, viewing platforms where the natural protected area and recreation areas locate in education center’s garden can be watched.

Due to Antalya’s climate and number of sunny days, promotive and [23] informative studies have been done for public who wants to use solar energy at their houses.

The building functions to educate ‘’certificated energy directors’’ and informs to public about renewable energy resources.

Theoretical and practical education programs have been implemented in the building. Active and passive systems - solar cells, Trombe Wall, geothermal heating system, fiber optics lighting system, high performance thermal insulation which are constructed in building, are utilized for practicing and evaluating.

[24]

Web Address: http://www.eie.gov.tr/verimlilik/e_ornek_bina.aspx

35

3.2. Education Center Samples Around the World The idea of conversion of architectural building design suitable with the principles of sustainability to an educational tool and the design of structural systems in this context has been quite improved and widely used around the world. The study has been covered by some prominent examples from the world. The study

aims to examine how architectural design and operation features of the buildings are used as an educational tool through selected examples in the context [Fig. 2] [Table 3] [Table 4].

Fig. 2. Figure Showing the Location of International Education Centers on the Map Discussed within the study

Table 3. Education Centers from Various Countries Discussed within the Study BUILDING NAME Center for Alternative Technology (CAT) Slunakov Center for Ecological Activities Omega Center for Sustainable Living Zero Carbon Building The Bosarge Family Education Center

INSTITUTION

LOCATION

YEAR

FUNCITION

AREA ( sqm)

-

England

1973

Education and Visitor Center

160.000

-

Czech Republic

2007

Ecological Activity Center

1.586

USA

2009

Hong Kong

2012

USA

2011

Omega Institute Construction Industry Council The Coastal Maine Botanical Gardens

Wastewater Treatment Facility and Education Center Education and Exhibiton Space, Mixed-use (Office, housing...)

Educational/Gathering Space, Offices

6.250 14.700 8.200

36

Table 4. An Overview of Selected Examples of International Education Centers BUILDING NAME

PHOTOS

[25] In CAT, courses about sustainable living, renewable energy resources, local species and ecosystems, are held for one day or a week. In this way, visitors practice each other about what they have learned. Also, the center has got academic training courses.

Visitors monitor building energy performance.

Water-balanced funicular railway that brings visitors from the car park up to the main site. With this transportation method, visitors realize about different types of sustainable technology.

CENTRE FOR ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGY (CAT)

SLUNAKOV CENTER FOR ECOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES

OMEGA CENTER FOR SUSTAINABLE LIVING

[ 31 ZERO CARBON BUILDING

BOSARGE FAMILY EDUCATION CENTER

ARCHITECTURE AS A TEACHING TOOL

Web Address: http://www.cat.org.uk/index.html Sustainable education courses are held daily or weekly for students and adults. At [26] the same time, other function of center is tourist information center which informs about natural life.

Center teaches active and passive building systems. Also, all of sustainable systems are used as a teaching tool.

Materials are used in building- color and texture are preserved as original. Thus, visitors’ awareness will be raised about natural material usage.

[27] Building system information is found in the center’s website.

Web Address: http://www.slunakov.cz/ Center was awarded with LEED Platinum and Living Building Challenge [28] Certificate.

Omega Center has been built to an alternative solution for water purification. In this way, innovative solutions, for waste water purification, are presented to visitors. In addition, information panels are used to teach waste water purification system.

Local and international water conservation courses are held daily in center such as ‘’ecology by design’’, ‘’grow food everywhere’’ and other focused on water.

During construction, 99% of metal, cardboard, rigid foam and wood scraps were recycled. Material sources used in the building and the advantage of using recycled materials are shared with visitors.

Web Address: https://www.eomega.org/visit-us/rhinebeck-ny Building systems and sustainable features of building appeal to different senses of visitors. In this way, Zero Carbon Building shows features of sustainable [29] buildings.

Daily education tours are arranged in building. With these tours, visitors are taught about main design criteria and usage of green technologies.

Zero Carbon Building is not only an education center but also eco-office, ecohome, exhibition hall and information center. Hence people, who utilize different [30] parts of the building, can understand sustainable design features.

On building website, active systems, passive systems and renewable features of building are defined as three main sustainable education titles. Also, with the assistance of the 3D visual tour, the center has been visited on website.

Web Address : http://zcb.hkcic.org/Eng/index.aspx The center was awarded with LEED Platinum and Net Zero Energy Building [31] Certificate.

An educational tour organized in the center focuses on energy-efficiency and environmentally friendly features of the center.

The solar panels covering the south-facing roof can be seen from the parking lot; an interactive building dashboard and signage located throughout the Education Center highlight energy performance, water savings, sustainable and environmentfriendly material selections, and other high performance characteristics of the project’’.

High insulated Wall systems are made visible with “truth wall”. It is an innovative learning tool which visitors can reach the information about green features of building with touchscreen information board.

[32] Energy data of building can be followed on web.

Web Address: https://buildingdata.energy.gov/project/coastal-maine-botanicalgardens-bosarge-family-education-center

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4. Conclusion Raising awareness of the society about sustainable living lies on the basis of sustainability concept which entered our lives in the 1970s and grows its importance every day.

Environmental education centers -a current building type- designed to serve raising awareness about the environmental problems and preventions. The idea that buildings not only hosts the education but also serves as an education tool at the same time is a contemporary approach.

Environmental education center examples also transformed into an educational tool with their architecture are observed for many years around the world.

Centers built for this purpose are increasing at recent years in Turkey.

When some selected successful national and international examples in the study’s context are examined comparatively, following determinations are made: • The example structures in Turkey usually focus on children and youth education, adult education is often not considered. Yet when we look at successful examples across the world, these structures seem to work as a community center that caters to the entire community.

• The areas are very limited and the projects are quite small scaled at the example buildings in Turkey. The samples selected in this study ranged from 120 to 325 m2. The most comprehensive example of Antalya Solar House and Training Centre with its 10,000 m2 area unfortunately is not currently active. International examples are quite comprehensive with their areas ranging from 1,500 to 160,000 m2, with very large open spaces. It is seen that they are planned as a complex which include the residential areas.

• One day trainings are carried out at the examples in Turkey, because of the time these trainings are usually in the form of

building trip and oral expression. At the international samples, in addition to the daily trainings, participants can take weekly or even quarterly trainings; they can stay in the area during this period.

They can also participate actively to producing workshops.

• The idea of inclusion of the structure to the public education as a tool takes place partially in the samples located in Turkey. Trainings usually occur by informational examining boards and verbal information held by authorities, applications and techniques that the building itself is a tutorial is very superficial.

In order to fill this gap, inclusion of the opinions of experts study on the approach of “building that teaches” to the design process is crucial.

References [1] Our Common Future ('Brundtland report'), Gru Brundtland, Mansour Khalid, Susanna Agnelli, et al.Our, p. 43, 21 May 1987.

[2] UN Conference on Environment and Development, Brasil, 1992.

[3] The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, Agenda 21, Chapter 36; http://www.un-documents.net/a21-36.htm (accessed on May 7, 2016) [4] Biodiversity GlossaryConvention on Biological Diversity; https://www.cbd.int/cepa/toolkit/2008/doc/CBD -Toolkit-Glossaries.pdf (accessed on May 7, 2016) [5] J. Jones, Guidelines for the Design of Sustainable Learning Laboratories that Teach Through Architecture, Final Report, Center for High Performance Learning Environments, 2010.

[6] A. Taylor, The learning environment as a threedimensional textbook. Children's Environments, 10(2), 104-117, 1993.

[7] C. Schiller, Buildings as Teaching Tools: A Case Study Analysis to Determine Best Practices That Teach Environmental

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[8]

[9] [10]

[11] [12] [13]

[14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25]

Sustainability, Theses, Carnegie Mellon University, p. 7, 2012.

S. Burke, The School as a Teaching Tool, SMMA, 2016; http://smma.com/work/school-teaching-tool (accessed on May 7, 2016) M. Dudek, Architecture of schools: The new learning environments.

Oxford, United Kingdom: Architectural Press, 2000.

A. Taylor, Linking architecture and education: Sustainable design of learning environments.

Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press, 2009.

D. W. Orr, Architecture as Pedagogy.

Conservation Biology, 7(2), 226-228, 1993.

D. W. Orr, Architecture as Pedagogy II. Conservation Biology, 11(3), 576-600, 1997.

A. L., Higgs and V. M. McMillan, Teaching Through Modeling: Four Schools Experiences in Sustainability Education, The Journal of Environmental Education, 38(1), 39-53, 2006.

W. Dejong, Balancing green, School Construction News, 15(1), 9, 2012.

L. Kopochinski, Colorado School Achieves Top LEED Honor, School Construction News, 15(4), 14-16, 2012.

T. Sims, Green Building Benefits, School Construction News, 15(4), 17, 20, 2012. http://www.gunesevi.org/index.php/2012-09-2412-48-20/foto-galeri/category/5-cesitlifaaliyet (accessed on May 7, 2016) Yeşil Bina Dergisi / Kasım-Aralık 2013 / Sayı 22 http://19mayisgazetesi.com/haber-5680samsunlu_ogrenciler_yesil_enerji%E2%80%99 nin_izinde.html (accessed on May 7, 2016) http://www.aktifcevre.com.tr/projelerdetay/tama mlanan-projeler/gunes-ev-antalya (accessed on May 7, 2016) http://cengiztoytuncanaokulu.meb.k12.tr/tema/ic erikler/gunes-ev-gezimiz_566749.html (accessed on May 7, 2016) http://www.eie.gov.tr/verimlilik/e_ornek_bina.a Spx (accessed on May 7, 2016) http://www.machynlleth.net/alternative.html (accessed on May 7, 2016) http://www.dezeen.com/2009/02/23/slunakovby-projektil-architekti/ (accessed on May 7, 2016) http://www.archdaily.com/29349/slunakovcenter-for-ecological-activities-projektilarchitekti (accessed on May 7, 2016)

[26] http://inhabitat.com/omega-center-forsustainable-living-gets-leed-platinumcertification/omega-2-3/ (accessed on May 7, 2016) [27] http://hk.asiatatler.com/homes/real-estate/firstlook-hong-kong-s-first-zero-carbon-emissionbuilding (accessed on May 7, 2016) [28] http://hk.asiatatler.com/homes/real-estate/firstlook-hong-kong-s-first-zero-carbon-emissionbuilding (accessed on May 7, 2016) [29] http://www.allied-eng.com/portfolio/bosargefamily-education-center-coastal-mainebotanical-gardens (accessed on May 7, 2016) [30] http://www.solaripedia.com/images/large/50 56.jpg (accessed on May 7, 2016)

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The Factors That Affecting The Vocational College Students’ Individual Career Planning Fatma Zehra Tan, Tuğba Yeğin, Engin Yurdasever, İlknur Kılıç Fatma Zehra Tan (Author) Karabük University, Faculty of Business fatmazehra@karabuk.edu.tr

Abstract. Career is a series of the attitude and behavior that the person perceives dealing withactivitiesand the experience he/she has had covering all his /her professional life, a continuous advancement in any professional field throughout the years he/she can work, acquiring experienceor ability. The aim of this study is to measure the perceptions of the students of Social Sciences Vocational School on education they get and their university, to determine to what extent that they are affected from which factors after they finish school while they are defining their careers, to investigate their view and opinions about the necessity of forming their future. The universe of this study is 1590 students who enrolled to Ordu University, Social Sciences Vocational School in 2015-2016 education period. 300 of these students were surveyed. 274 question reevaluated with in the concept of the study. According to research results, economic factors and the job prestige are the most graded dimensions. A positive significant relation was defined between the factors that affect he career planning.

Keywords: Career, career planning, the factors that affect the career planning, student, vocational college

1. Introduction Planning is one of the keys to attain success at every stage of life and management including individuals and state. Haphazard and random progresses may provide short-term success but they do not provide permanently positive results. If individuals and organizations set a target for themselves and want to achieve this goal, they have work within a plan [6]. The rapid changes which is being experienced nowadays compel individuals to plan for the future in the period in which they study. There are some issues in these plans such as in what kind of work he will be and what the benefits are that it will provide. When the choice is being made between the alternatives for it, the question that what should be done in which steps emerges. This subject which is presented as a career in literature, should be assessed taking into account the individual and personal characteristics [1].

Individual career development is individuals' planning their careers and conducting and fulfilling these plans with education, searching for job and work experiences. In order to provide greater employment opportunities for individuals , it is important first them to take individual responsibility in career development and planning. Therefore, individual plans are the basis for career planning [14].

The individual career planning is being affected by several factors. In addition to demographic, economic and social factors, the factors such as the laws, social and political factors are key determinants of an individual's career planning. Here, in this study, in terms of the students' being more successful in business after graduating, career trends of vocational college students which will form a large part of the workforce are emphasized. Consequently, it has been examined whether there is a difference according to students' gender and age in the answers given to questions related to career planning. The study is based on students' efforts to contribute to their career plans in business.

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2. Theoretical development 2.1 Career Career in daily conversation; is defined as to advance in profession and business life, to attain success and the totality of a person's experiences about the roles undertaken throughout all this work life. When the literature review is made, it is possible to encounter a wide variety of definition related to career concept. Career is a person's progressing step by step and continuously in any area of business, and gaining experiences and skills throughout the years that a person can go on[17].Career is a concept that includes the works during employees' working lives, development and improvement of business life[3].The concept of career is addressed as individual's consecutively using positions related to his job throughout the personal life long and this let the existence of three basic dimensions in career concept bring on the agenda. These are individual, business and the position. Business and existence of position makes an organization necessary and therefore individuals and organizations come together mutually in a career process. In other words, the concept of career has substantially two important dimensions such as individual and organization. The first dimension, of course, will occur in his own personality who have to plan his career. Individual should comprehend his position in business life and organization in which he is and should determine where and how he wants to see himself in the future. This case which might be called as the individual tendency is treated as 'self-realization' fact. In this motive direction, individual will have a need to develop his career, move forward and rise. In the other dimension, the organization, taking into account its own purpose, should communicate well with individuals about where they want to reach and how to get there, and should take responsibility to facilitate their progress by providing the necessary consultancy services[12].

2.2 Career management Career management is individual's career plans to be supported by the organization's career development tools [10]. For the most basic meaning, career management is individuals' making plans associated with their

business life. In addition, in terms of the Human Resources management, aspect of career management is ensuring the mobility of workers within the company so employees can be more motivated by this way.Employees can know where they will be after five years in organizations where the Career management is being made. To give a broader definition, career management is an employee's awareness of his current position, his knowledge about what the next step is for him, his prediction regarding the future of the business, his ability to make appropriate preparations in the course of development, in short, preparing himself for the future[4]. An effective career management is possible with a very open and honest communication above all.

Career management begins with identifying a need and career research. In this stage, a person tries to collect information about himself and his environment. Awareness of himself expresses to make objective assessment of personal values, beliefs, needs, goals, wishes and skills. Awareness of his environment means that someone recognizes requirements of the business which he is interested in and the existing business opportunities. This is a process tackling a person's identifying the career goals by increasing awareness regarding himself and his environment, his getting feedback and his career advancement[8].In individual career management process which starts with the individual's discovering himself and continues with recognizing and developing his personality; individual determine in which business he will be successful. It continues with the seize of opportunities and if it reaches a certain point in his career, individual career goals will have been reached [17]. According to Uyargil and others (2008); in individual career management, the most important factor affecting an individual's career management is a person's personal characteristics. Career management processes include the following [4]: The integration of the system with human resources plans, Identification of career paths, The announcement of the open jobs to increase the career knowledge, Evaluation of employee's performance, Making career counseling for subordinate employees, Increasing the work experience

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It includes the regulation of the training program.

Each employee wants to advance in business and to move forward to higher levels. However, to move up the career steps is not always easy.

The healthy progress of an individual in business is related to career management.

2.3 Career planning Career planning is operation which lets business, education and other development activities to be programmed and it make employees to be aware of opportunities, options and outcomes, to set targets relating to careers, to identify direction to the career targets and it also allow employees to do the planning of time[7].Even though career planning is executed as both organizational and individual, career management is related to the planning and executing of organizational career goals[9].The main objective of career planning is the administration's support employees to develop their careers. Other purposes of career planning can be listed as follows[16]: to increase job satisfaction and organizational affiliation of employees, to minimize loss of effectiveness and efficiency, to train employees for free position that may occur in the future, to secure coherence between person and organization, to give a chance creative and developing ideas to be implemented in the organization, effective and efficient use of human resources [8].

In reviewing the literature related to the career concept, it seems some works have been done on Individual Career Planning in this area.Sağdıç and Demirkaya (2009) conducted a study on the future-oriented career planning of university students. In this study, it has been observed that students have not a career plan and the cause of this has been defined as deficiencies in foreign language education, the lack of counselors for career plans and desire to start his career as soon as possible. In addition, education and opportunities at the colleges are insufficient so it has emerged a thought that friend at court is more being searched than students' personal qualifications at the entrance to a profession.

In the work of Litoiu (2010), in higher education institutions of Romania, it was emphasized that it is essential to assist students on their career choices and education sessions, also on their career development and career plans. It is mentioned that the opportunity given to each student has to be identified and their career development potential needs to be guided with several sources. And in the study, it has been concluded that students need to make an early career planning to fulfill the needs of work in international markets.

In study conducted by Taşlıyan et al (2011), it was investigated which factors affect students of the Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences in determining their career after graduation and what their ideas are on career plans. More than half of the students who participated in the study have the belief that education opportunities are inadequate. At the same time, it has been observed that men think more positively than the woman about the future of the profession.

In the current literature, there are many studies related to career planning but it is noteworthy that the majority of them have been implemented among students of faculty. The number of studies on vocational college students is very low. Therefore, this study is expected to contribute to the literature.

3.Field research 3.1 Scope of the research The target group in the research is the students of Ordu University. It was asked to learn that by which factors and in what extent they are being affected while the university students are making their individual career plans. Students of Social Sciences Vocational School of Ordu University form the scope of the research. Results of the study is limited with data collection tool and students who we could reached and studying at the related school.

3.2 Method of study In the study, Individual Career Planning Survey with 30 item which was developed by Sav (2008) was applied according to the 5-point Likert scale.

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3.3 Research findings 3.3.2 Findings related to factors affecting the career planning

Research findings are given in two parts as the findings about identifiable information and findings related to functional variables, and these have been commented by presenting the results on charts.

3.3.1 Findings information

regarding

Correlation Analysis results are provided on Table 1 for measuring the relationship between factors affecting the career planning.

descriptive

Table 1. Statistics to relationship between factors

determine

(4)

(9)

the

Majority of the students involved in research were female with the 63.5%. While 55.1% of the students aim to work in the public sector, 32.1% aim to work in the private sector and 12.8% part stated that they would like to work as a freelance. 21.9% of students who were involved in research are from Public Relations and Publicity, 21.2% are from Tourism

Family (1)

Background(2)

Legal requirements (3) Personal characteristics(4)

Economic factors (5)

Education(6)

Difficulty level of the profession (7) The prestige of the profession (8)

Current events (9)

University (10)

Kor. P N Kor. P N Kor. P N Kor. P N Kor. P N Kor. P N Kor. P N Kor. P N Kor. P N Kor. P N

(1) 1 ,000 274 ,569** ,000 274 ,297** ,000 274 ,017 ,785 274 ,052 ,387 274 ,280** ,000 274 ,250** ,000 274 ,146* ,016 274 ,215** ,000 274 ,153* ,011 274

(2)

(3)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

(10)

1 274 ,314** ,000 274 ,144* ,017 274 ,017 ,785 274 ,279** ,000 274 ,260** ,000 274 ,189** ,002 274 ,257** ,000 274 ,238** ,000 274

1 274 ,200** ,001 274 ,141* ,020 274 ,128* ,034 274 ,246** ,000 274 ,100 ,099 274 ,182** ,002 274 ,183** ,002 274

1 274 ,395** ,000 274 ,255** ,000 274 ,184** ,002 274 ,416** ,000 274 ,348** ,000 274 ,181** ,003 274

1 274 ,233** ,000 274 ,299** ,000 274 ,535** ,000 274 ,387** ,000 274 ,200** ,001 274

1 274 ,485** ,000 274 ,326** ,000 274 ,326** ,000 274 ,233** ,000 274

1 274 ,333** ,000 274 ,280** ,000 274 ,241** ,000 274

1 274 ,519** ,000 274 ,229** ,000 274

1 274 ,259** ,000 274

1 274

**. 0.01 *. 0.05

Administration, 20.8% are from Business Management, 18.6% are from Accounting and Taxation and remaining 17.5% are studying Local Authorities Program.

In order to measure the relationship between factors affecting students' career planning, correlation analysis was used to understand whether there is a significant relationship

43

between at least two variables. Correlation can take values between +1 and -1. It may be mentioned about the high correlation in the positive direction when it is getting closer to + 1, may be mentioned about the absence of the relationship when it is getting closer to zero, and may be mentioned about inverse relationship when it is getting closer to -1.

According to Table 1, there is a significant positive correlation between the factors affecting the career planning (Correlation Analysis p <0.1 and p <0.5).

4. Results According to the results of research to determine perceptions of Vocational School students related to the factors affecting the career planning, economic factors (earnings, job and retirement security, and insurance) (= 4.51) and the profession's prestige (prestige, promotion opportunities, to maintain the validity) are highest scored dimensions (= 4.48). Legal requirements factor has the lowest score (= 3.08).25.2% of the people who want to work in the public sector is students of Local Government program, 21.2% is students of Accounting and Taxation program, 19.9% is students of the Public Relations and Advertising program and the Business Management program, 13.9% is students of Tourism and Hotel Management.34.1% of the students as majority who want to work in the private sector is students of Tourism and Hotel Management. A significant positive correlation was found between factors affecting the career planning (Correlation Analysis p <0.1 and p <0.5). Changes in any of these factors will have the same effect on the other.

The following recommendations are made according to the results of the study on behalf of contributing to individual career planning of vocational high school students: Each of the vocational school can organize units such as a "career advisory unit" or "human resources development unit" and they can make students keep in constant communication with this section during at least two years. Especially students who prefer unconsciously their departments which they are educated can manage their careers consciously by this way.

The internship practices in vocational schools can be made more effective by turning it from formalities into a form in accordance with the

essence. So, it may let students prefer doing internships in offices that they want to work in the future and to get the opportunity to start his career in the same office after internship period.

For example, a mandatory section like "if they worked permanently in office which they had worked during the internship period, what kind of career plans they would have'' can be provided in the internship notebook of students.

Via career counseling or human resources development units which are established in College, by making meetings with industry representatives, information on sectoral expectations can be provided. Curriculum may be updated in line with sectoral expectations.

Even facilities in the transition of students to the business can be provided by making protocols with industry representatives.In this regard, with the participation of industry representatives, "career day" events which will be implemented in the colleges can be considered as another formation that will contribute to this objectives.

A wide variety of certificate programs which will be held within College can make students have many skills and equipment before beginning of business life.

Academic counseling practice in College may be revised again in a form which include the career planning process, which can contribute to students' career planning by strengthening the academic advisor and student communication.

Kaynakça [1] A. SosyalandC. Söylemez, İİBF Öğrencilerinin Bireysel Kariyer Planlamalarına Etki Eden Faktörler: Kilis 7 Aralık Üniversitesi Örneği,Journal of International EconomicandAdministrativeInvestigations, (12),pp.23-37, 2014.

[2] C. Uyargil, A.C. Acar, Z. Adal, İ.D. Ataay, G. Dündar, A.O. Özçelik, Ö.

Sadullah and L. Tüzüner, İnsan Kaynakları Yönetimi, Beta Publising, İstanbul, 2008.

[3] D. Bingöl, İnsan Kaynakları Yönetimi, Beta Publising, İstanbul, 2004.

[4] D. Özel, Kariyer Yönetimi ve Planlaması,http://www.dilaver.net/makalel er/Kariyer_004.doc, Date of access: 13.12.2015.

44

[5] D. Sav, Bireysel Kariyer Planlamada Etkili Olan Faktörler ve Üniversitelerin Etkisi Üzerine BirAraştırma,Master’sThesis, Süleyman Demirel University, Isparta, 2008.

Issn:1300-302, 2012.

OMÜEducationFaculty,

[17] S. Bayraktaroğlu, İnsan Kaynakları Yönetimi, Gazi Publising, Sakarya, 2006.

[6] F. Geçikli, Bireysel Kariyer Planlama ve Geliştirmede İmajın Rolü, İstanbul UniversityJournal of CommunicationFaculty, (15), pp.337-354, 2002.

[7] H. Ersen, Toplam Kalite ve İnsan Kaynakları İlişkisi, Yapı Kredi Publising, İstanbul, 1997.

[8] İ. Barutçugil, Kariyer Planlama ve Kariyer Yönetimi, http://www.rcbadoor.com/makalevekitapla r/makaleler/kariyer.htm,Date of access: 11.01.2016.

[9]M. Akoğlan Kozak, İnsan Kaynakları Yönetimi, Detay Publising, Ankara, 2009.

[10] M.C. Özden, Bireysel Kariyer Yönetimi: Profesyonelin El Kitabı, Ümit Publising, Ankara, 2001.

[11] M. Sağdıç and H. Demirkaya, Üniversite Öğrencilerinin Kariyer Gelişim Planlarına İlişkin Yaklaşımları, Erciyes UniversityJournal of SocialSciencesInstitute, 26(2), pp.233-246, 2009.

[12] M.Ş. ŞimşekandH.S. Öge, Stratejik ve Uluslararası Boyutları ile İnsan Kaynakları Yönetimi, Gazi Publising, Ankara, 2007.

[13] M. Taşlıyan, N.Ü. Arı and B. Duzman, İnsanKaynakları Yönetiminde Kariyer Planlama ve Kariyer Yönetimi: İIBF Öğrencileri Üzerinde BirAlan Araştırması,Journal of Organizationand Management Sciences, 3(2), pp.213, 2011.

[14]N. Anafarta, Orta Düzey Yöneticilerin Kariyer Planlamasına Bireysel Perspektif,Journal of Akdeniz İİBF, (2), pp.1-17, 2001.

[15] N. Litoiu, CareerCounseling At RomanianUniversities Level: ManagmentbyWhoseObjectives?, UniversităŃii Petrol – Gaze din Ploiesti, (2), pp.170-176, 2010.

[16]P. Tunçer, 'Değişen İnsan Kaynakları Yönetimi Anlayışında Kariyer Yönetimi,

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Vocational-Technical Education and Employment Relationship Sabit OYMAEL1, Alper BİDECİ2, Özlem SALLI BİDECİ2 İstanbul Arel University, Faculty Engineering and Architecture, Department of Architecture, İstanbul, TURKEY Düzce University, Faculty of Art, Design and Architecture, Department of Architecture, Düzce, TURKEY sabitoymael@arel.edu.tr; alperbideci@duzce.edu.tr; ozlembideci@duzce.edu.tr

Abstract. There have been great developments in the economic and social welfare of the people based on developments in education, industry and trade. Now businessmen strive to provide goods and services with absolute efficiency by fulfilling the requirements of the age. In this situation, the Technical Vocational Education(TVE) has been an extremely positive influence.

TVE, is irreplaceable factor in terms of the sustainability of development and modernization. It is important that syntheses of current issues in this area under the conditions in Turkey by reviewing in consideration of International criteria. Globalization of economy has given new dimension and perspective to vocational and technical education. Extreme development process in the informatics technology, important conversions of mass production and consumption has increased demand for knowledgebased workforce. This situation has left millions of unskilled labour outside of the employment process. The emerging developments have increased the problem of unemployment in both developed and developing countries. The role and mission of TVE in reintroduce unemployed to society will constitute important milestones to determine the future of countries. In this study; the necessity of vocational and technical education in Turkey is emphasized. Also in the light of the phenomena’s that affect topic education, regulation and reforms that can be made in the system has been studied to determine.

Keywords: Technical Vocational Education, Employment, Quality in Education, Efficiency, Accreditation.

1. Introduction Technology has an important place among the criteria used to determine the level of development of the countries. Developed countries have formed technical and vocational education (TVE) systems to grow desired quality and quantity required labour that produce and use technology. Qualified technical labour is directly related to TVE and will have a positive influence to the social development. In this way, both qualified technical labour and acquire a profession of people are provide. Because the phenomenon of becoming a profession and execution of profession, has a positive effect on the lives of people and communities. Globalization of economy has given new dimension and perspective to vocational and technical educa-

tion. Extreme development process in the informatics technology, important conversions of mass production and consumption has increased demand for knowledge-based workforce. This situation has left millions of unskilled labour outside of the employment process. Developments have increased the problem of unemployment in both developed and developing countries. The role and mission of TVE will be important milestones to determine the future of countries. In the recent TVE conference, this situation observed. In IVETA (International Association Training Education and Vocational) and AVA (American Vocational Association) conferences performed in 1995, in the South Africa and in the United States, in 1996 in Taiwan and in the United States, in 1997 in Finland, in 1997 in Turkey, TVE, appropriate to the global economy, has come to the fore.

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The common results of the conference are: the World change into a single economy village, labour mobility in wider areas, the necessity to reorganize its education system in each country.

Developments in the World put pressure on the countries in this direction and create need to make opportune arrangements to their own culture, economy and needs. Each country has its own unique culture, priorities and requirements, so it is normal to have different strategies and applications in TVE. In this context, no strategy and no application are superior or more effective than others [1].

2. Industrial Technical Education and Employment Industrial technical education and employment are integral components to each other.

Vocational technical education; can be indicated as cater to needs of labour market, providing efficiency in production and increase quality, reducing unemployment, production cheaper and quality goods and services, raising competitive capacity in internal and external markets, providing active, efficient and rational usage of sources, interpreting modern technology. Today engine of economy is not money, it is technology. Technology is superior factor in competition both on the basis of businesses and countries. Countries specialized and proceeded in technology, have a say in that area and lead to the market and begin to take share from the market. It is duty of technical staff that; to have technology and produce it and also to bring up it to availability and applicability levels. The main basis of this is correct technical education [2].

The individual requirements in vocational and technical education are stated with individual differences and can be divided into five groups. These are [3]; 1. Development of necessary skills and behaviors of secondary education students who are between the ages of thirteen and eighteen and study full-time.

2. After secondary education, make progress in individual's career towards high level, 3. Make individuals, who are unschooled/nongraduated from primary and secondary education, ready for continuous profession that

does not require advanced knowledge and skills.

4. Attendance of Employees to the development programs for the renewal of knowledge and skills, 5. Attendance of disabled or unemployment individuals to appropriate programs.

The general education above-stated typically has also “industrial education” dimension. Industrial education is a process performed to grow as quality and quantity labour that is necessary for industry. Education process can be formal or in-formal education. Individual who gets this education, develops both his main knowledge and skills, begins to work by adapting to work appreciate fettle. Here, the purpose is reducing unemployment in the industrialization period within the limits of market economy and bringing up the people to the constructive, creative level in their profession that is most suitable for their attention, predispose and skills.

According to famous Turkish educator Ismayıl Hakkı Baltacıoğlu, there are five policy related with industrial education (Business School) these are: 1. The principle of personality.

2. Environmental policy, 3. Working policy, 4. The principle of efficiency.

5. The startup policy.

In almost all of these policies, these are essential; not to push the individual for a job, and to educate in the rules and of democratic and to consider the ability of the individual.

General opinion in Turkey, university does not educate technical staff. Some researches relate this issue with unqualified academicians who educate qualified staff and think that at least undergraduate level, mission of the university is not to educate qualified staff; it must be teach to learn [4].

Such an approach is not very accurate. University is known as competence establishment and graduate students are known as competent people. Knowing research methods and learning do not mean that a person is competent in a profession. It should be known where the problem is in the system and it is important that all measures which make individual competent are already taken. At this point, educational variety comes to the fore. There is numerous education

47

methods in the World in addition to this, there are exemplary universities like Mac Master University in Hamilton, Canada. In this exemplary university, the theoretical education is performed in the first semester of each year, in second semester studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s intern in company related to profession and contracted with university and also internship scores are given by company administrators.

With this type of education, when the students graduate after two theoretical education years and two practical education years in four years, there is no behind the scenes about advertising, marketing, editorship, design and they start their professional career with full speed and efficiency in their first business day [4].This type of application, is compatible with employers philosophy that efficiency expectation from staffs in the coming days.

3. Vocational and Technical Education Development and Dissemination Activities The development and dissemination of Vocational Education Fund has been established within item 32 of Vocational and Technical Education Law No 3308, in order to extend technical education through formal education, apprenticeship education and non-formal education, increase number of manpower and its quality, support as a whole and improve inclusive apprenticeship education formal and non-formal vocational education, perform prejob education and in-service education in vocational and technical area by considering efficient factors in public and private business.

Even though this fund wound up from 31.12.2001, Usage areas of income-expense in vocational and technical education development and dissemination activities, inclusive apprenticeship, re-indicated by item 32 of Law No 4684 from 01.01.2002.

On the other hand, a series of studies reviewed within MEGEP Project (Vocational Education and Education System Development Project) under Law No 5544 The Vocational Qualification institution. Aim of this project is to determine vocational and education standards, improve education programs, accredit education institutions, prepare education programs, put consideration-authentication and quality and guarantee system in order, by creating ICS (International Competence System) [5].

In order to support vocational and technical education development and dissemination activities, Industrial Education Project President ship performance a range of Project studies and still perform. These are; I. Industrial Education Project (1985): This Project has been implemented (by spending 32,7 million $ World Bank loan and 5,1 million $ contribution from government of Turkish Republic, in total 37,8 million $).Within the scope of this Project; in 8 school reconstructions are achieved, programs are improved, increased numerous of academicians are educated and 199 of them were sent abroad and many laboratories are rigged with high-technology equipment.

II. Industrial Project (1989): Physical opportunity of 23 vocational high school are designed according to the standart design factors which prepared basis on program and completed structures (105,8 million$ form World Bank and 50 million $ from Turkish Republic). Laboratories and studios of 23 vocational high school and 6 vocational and technical education faculties are rigged with high-technology equipments.

III. MEB-YĂ&#x2013;K Vocational High School Program Development Project: In this Project 130 experts have worked intensively during 6 months and within this project 15 vocational high school have been updated using the latest opportunities of technology. These programs currently are implemented in 70% of our vocational high school and 70% of the students of vocational high school are educated with these programs. In other words, 70% of 15 vocational school programs developed with the program have been renewed and improved.

4. Problems in Vocational Technical Education 4.1. Integrity of Programs in Vocational Technical Secondary Education and Higher Education: The Law No 4702 provision is as follows: students graduated from vocational and technical secondary education institutes, in case they want, they can pass without examination to vocational high schools follow-up program or to vocational high schools which have the most similar programs.

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According to this provision, a group of expert (consisting of officials of National Education Ministry, Association of High School and the Centre of the Student Selection and Placing) has been determined transition without examination from which field/branch/units of technical and vocational and technical secondary schools to which programs of technical high school. The problem is providing to the integrity and continuity of the program between vocational and technical secondary education schools and vocational high school. The institutions should work in harmony with the University.

According to application in some governments abroad, lectures from vocational education institutions are considered valid as credit in relevant areas of university and other higher education institutions.

In Turkey, in the system integrity of Vocational and Technical Education, current program, technology used, student, in terms of administration and employment, should be reviewed urgently and solve existing problems. Hence, “MEB-YÖK Vocational and Technical Secondary Education Programs and Vocational High School Education Programs Integrity and Continuity” Project have been launched. With this Project, enrolling without an examination from vocational and technical secondary education to vocational high school has been enabled.

With this project those are intended: By the help of this program consistency of transition without examination from vocational and technical secondary schools institutions to vocational high schools will be enabled and in the future vocational high school education program will change over to modular system and fit out necessity of employment category.

Following issues that discussed in 16. The National Education Council of vocational and technical education and continues today, must be solved [7].

4.2. The number and variety of education programs in Vocational High Schools: In vocational high schools, in order to decrease the number of education programs which are around 300 including technical, economical, administrative and health and they should standardize their names and first and foremost they should have contemporary education pro-

grams, in collaboration with the Ministry of National Education. This is important in terms of the quality assurance system.

4.3. Consideration of Non-formal education and vocational technical education: It is as a result of developments in Communication Technology, as well as such methods are performed on-the–job education and work education together, distance education applications also has gained importance.

4.4. Employment of disabled people in vocational technical education: Vocational and technical education and employment of disabled people is also a problem.

Although, 6.90% of disabled people including 12.29% of total population in Turkey have graduated from high school or equivalent vocational schools, the labour participation rate of them is 21.71%. One of the most important reasons of inexistence of unemployment disabled people in economy is that period they spend until production process is an investment value [8]. According to The World Health Organization, In Turkey, 7.5 million of the population, according to UN figures at least 10% are disabled. Approximately 700,000 of this number are visually impaired. But number of educated visually impaired people is 2,5% [9]. Fund for education and employment of disabled people is only ten thousand four of gross national product and a great majority of disabled people are among the poorest sections. Therefore, it is easily understood that poverty is reflected with very large hurts, distress to disabled people [10].

4.5. Deficiency of vocational education institutions and their contribution to employment in Turkey: Notably municipalities in Turkey, some trade unions and large companies contribute directly or indirectly to vocational and technical education. This contribution, generally contains giving knowledge and skills to the individuals, to educate labour suitable for profession standards for small and medium sized enterprise and vocational education.

Some institutive activities about vocational technical education are:

49

• “BELTEK" courses organized by Ankara municipality in 1999 [11].

• In cooperation with, Istanbul Chamber of Commerce (ITO), General of Special Provincial Administration , National Education Directorate, courses meet demand intermediate staff and vocational courses for unskilled, unemployed people [12].

• MESS Union; to ensure their members benefit from Education and Employment Programmes presented by the EU, to set up a substructure study aimed at improve necessities, problems and solution offers about education and employment of blue-collar workers.

• According to the 42 item of Vocational Education Law No. 3308 promulgated by Vocational and Technical Education Research and Development Center (METRAGEM) in 1986, research and development studies about vocational and technical education of The Ministry National Education [13].

• It can be said that in Turkey industrial education is carried out within the scope of a programme. But, lack of infrastructure and financial resources transferred into the program, as well as, most importantly, psychologically that is left is back and this situation creates great difficulties in achieving the ultimate goal.Today, While 25% of age population get ready for career with formal education, 75% of population, as unskilled, waits for education and empoyment development. Koç Group has been debated deficiency of govermentand performed an application by protecting Vocational and Technical Education.

ITO carries out studies (OZIMEK) together withProvincial Special Administration and Ministry Of National Education and this institution has got vocational high school and university structures.

4.6. Students Direction (Orientation): Due to the lack of essential guidance and counseling services, it should be seen as a problem; work choices of student within inadequate knowledge about vocational education programs and work areas, disorientation of students with their interests and abilities to programs appropriate for business life. In recruitment of students into the programs, the needs of business life and employment should be taken into consideration.

In order for the continuity of vocational and technical education institute demands, school management realm of authority development have importance for performing necessary adaptation quickly according to education institution place.

At the same time, in each level from planning to implementing including administration and finance, local settlement must be performed by encouraging participation relevant institutions and organizations like labour and management institution, academic and research institutions, professional associations and student-teacherparent representatives to resolution process.

In sense of quality, guidance and counseling services must be submitted to the students who have position like customer of technical education institutions with their interests and abilities in accordance with business standards.

Essential vocational guidance and orientation must be provided by ISKUR. During MTE basis (essential) process, in accordance with guidance, vocational guidance and counseling should be promoted and in MTE programs special attention should be given to entrepreneurship.

4.7. Qualification of programs: When vocational education programs develop, places of education institution must be considered sufficiently. These places must be prepared suitably for showing flexibility to vocational education programs. Curriculum in vocational and technical education school and institutions must be updated suitably for developing technology and variable age. In the scope of these programs, ıt has become an important issue to follow a broad-based approach including diploma and various certificates according to modular principle. At this point, education programs should be configured in terms of purpose, scope, duration and other attributes in view of the fact that profession standards. Education programs should be created within a consciousness that can be utilized as much as possible from technological environment. It is of high importance to recognize technological environment and utilize technology extremely by understanding advantages and possibilities of technology. Adaptation problems of education institutions to the vocational education conditions and technological alterations in business proceed. In flexible presentation of vocational

50

technical education, information technologies and distance education methods especially should be used. However, the infrastructure should be established and pilot implementation should be performed well. So, leading boards of vocational technical education must have dynamic structure and must be transparent and debureaucratize. Vocational technical education boards improve themselves in terms of expert personals and equipments to succeed in global market that is based upon high competitive.

There shouldn’t be a division between curriculum programs of the topic institutions and necessity of industry [1]. “The only thing that doesn’t change is change itself”, as stated in the statement, new programs should be planned in the light of new ideas, new inventions and new expectations. These programs must contain multilateral cooperation agreements, thus new opportunities should be revealed by connecting resources.

For example about this topic, universities and the colleges within the system able to present diploma and certificate education achievement certificates in many different areas in MnSCU (Minnesota Association of Universities and Colleges), USA. These are certificate (undergraduate), post graduate and doctorate degrees.

When the institute receives approval to give a new certificate, immediately programs should be delivered in these regions and development and adaptation studies should be performed according to demands.

In addition, development and compliance programs in education and training for individuals, is the most flexible part program of plans. Education with flexible program becomes an increasingly opinion for the industry and trade institutions. In 1996, MnSCU system has provided education services with an approximate number of 2700 companies. More than 85.000 people have been educated in technical colleges as part of flexible program education [1].

Turkey is required to have a qualified workforce in accordance with international standards to compete in global economy. This situation reveals that people are required to compete in a global economy and use Information Technology and know at least two foreign languages.

With the necessary education we can educate engineers and technical staff who can use communication and technology in class, solve

problems, work cooperatively, use information effectively. By doing so, the demands of employers will be met globally.

4.8. Quality Assurance System: In Turkey, vocational and technical education has not been still established. A quality assurance system should be established by investigating systems of countries like USA, Scotland, Germany and Taiwan which implement a quality assurance system conspiratorially. Existence of a quality assurance system will eliminate many problems automatically in current vocational and technical education in Turkey.

“Continuing Education Center” supported by university should be developed for continuity of the rapid development of the industrial structure.

Continuing training of educators from secondary education to undergraduate education must be carried out at these centers [1]. Granting the right to pass without examination, to students with no hope of passing higher education undergraduate programs, has caused to lose their motivation from the first years of high school.

This situation has been caused to lose significant quality in vocational and technical education and also this quality loss with transition without examination has been transferred to higher education. In this case, solution eliminates the negativity of transition without examination by other filters [14].

4.9. Efficiency of instructors: A dynamic partnership between industry and vocational education schools and faculties should be established and in this context, accredited certificate education should be made effective.

A dynamic partnership that will be established when they start to search for a solution to the needs of the labour in the global economy, will play an important role in how to adopt an attitude. In this partnership, as based on cooperation and agreement between the parties, it may be formal or informal, but it must be effective and efficient. This partnership can be supported with a law similar to “Vocational Education for Work” applied in USA. This structure referred as “life long learning”, meets need of personal and general labour and improvement. In the literature, ‘lifelong learning’ is referred to as this structure, which meets the needs of the

51

general workforce development and provides individual and long time frames. Globalization has emerged as a new international agenda for development. The World passes to knowledgebased economy. Superiority is determined by the quality of product and service. In 21st Century, Critical success factor of competition is to train an efficient and flexible labour. It is clear that anthropocentric development model is in need [1].

It is important that every country must bring their citizens skills they need to continue the lives by improving and training instructors and provide their development in process to improve citizens’ quality of lives. Therefore, regardless of the development level of each country, teachers/instructors who are able to assimilate into theory and application for meeting labour demands of next century are vital.

5. Conclusion and Recommendations Vocational and technical education studies, increase vision and experience of institution and also position them to have qualified staff.

Educated qualified staff will increase quality and efficiency in institution/establishment. The increase in both employment and investment in the industry, if and only can be achieved with enough presence of qualified technical staff.

In card acceptors of MESS, prefer ability rate of people graduated from vocational and technical institutions is at high level (92,7) [15], and it can point to the reflection to quality. At this point, the development of vocational and technical education comes to the fore.

Now non-governmental organizations (associations of professional associations), their own sectors and people in the industry already time to think about Now, it is already time for non-governmental organization (association, associations) to think about what they can do to improve qualifications of their own sectors and people in the industry. Instead of waiting everything from the government, “what we can do.” should be considered.

It would be useful to review such issues as the integrity of vocational and technical secondary

education and programs in higher education, the number and diversity of education-learning programs in vocational higher schools, nonformal education and vocational technical education contextualization, increase the contribution of institutions to education and employment, students orientation, efficiency of programs, quality assurance system (Higher Education Quality Assurance System is a positive step) [16] and efficiency of instructor .

References [1] Balcı,S.,Arı, M.; http://karatekin.cmyo. ankara. edu.tr/iveta/makaleler/(7).doc); küresel ekonomi içinde mesleki ve teknik eğitimin önemi [2] Mimar ve Mühendis, Türkiye'de Teknik Eğitim, Sayı: 40, 2008.

[3] Cevat Alkan, Hıfzı Doğan ve İlhan Sezgin, Meslekî ve Teknik Eğitimin ihtiyaçları Esasları: Kavramlar, Gelişmeler, Uygulamalar, Gazi Büro Kitabevi Ankara, 1996, s.16-17.

[4] Güçlü,A., Diyalog, Milliyet, Kalifiye eleman neden bulunamıyor (2) 18 Ocak 2011 [5] www.http://www.megep.meb.gov.tr [6] http://www.uluslararasiegitim.com/mesleki/tafe3. asp [7] MEB. 16. Millî Eğitim Şûrası: Raporlar, Görüşmeler, Kararlar, Millî Eğitim Basımevi, Ankara, 1999, ss.249-270.

[8] TEKEV, http://www.tekevadana.org/Atatürk Kız Meslek Lisesi ve TEKEV-Adana (lDY Hareketlilik Projesi 06-19 Mayıs).

[9] http://www.altinoktavakif.org.tr/megitim.php 30.8.2007 [10] http://www.korlerfederasyonu.org.tr/egitim sempozyum. htm [11] http://www.ankara.bel.tr/birimalt.asp?birimkate gori=022) [12] http://www.elektrikbolumu.com/haber_oku.asp ?id=255 30.8.2007 [13] http://www.iskur.gov.tr/mydocu/yurtdisi/bolum 6/bolum6.htm [14] Eşme, İsa.,Liseden Üniversiteye Dar Geçit Türkiye’de Yükseköğretime Geçiş Sistemi, Cem Web Ofset San. Tic. Ltd. şti., İstanbul [15] MESS,http://www.mess.org.tr/html/yayinlarimi z/ html/ab.pdf 30.8.2007.

[16] YÖK (Yükseköğretim Kurulu Başkanlığı), 25.6.2015 tarih ve 73112577-0.50.99-1416 tarih ve sayılı genelgesi, Yükseköğretim Kalite Güvence Sistemi Yönetmeliği.

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Dual Commitment Concept Over Two Rival Organizations: Workplace- Trade Union Taskın KILIC Healthcare Management Department, Gumushane University, Turkey Email: taskinkilic79@hotmail.com

Abstract — Employees maintain relationship with both their workplace and the relevant union . This situation is referred as dual commitment in the literature . The present study will investigate commitment levels of employees from the health industry to their organization and union . Thus , it will be investigated that whether there is statistically significant relationship between employees ’ commitment to their organization and to their union (dual commitment).

Population of the present research is consisted of employees of Gumushane Public Hospital and employees Gumushane Oral and Dental Health Center in Gumushane City , Turkey . The prepared survey form was answered by 200 employees in the health sector . Obtained data was analyzed through SPSS 16.0 statistical package software.

As a result of conducted analysis, it was revealed that union and organization commitment do not exhibit significant difference with respect to employees ’ gender and marital status ; on the other hand , there is positive correlation between their organizational commitment and union commitment.

Index Terms— Dual Commitment, Union commitment, Organizational commitment

I.

INTRODUCTION

Employees maintain relationship with both their workplace and the relevant union. This situation is referred as dual commitment in the literature. Today’s organizations are required to manage their relationship with unions, one of the factors in the environment, as it is compelled by intensive competition conditions on sound foundation. Otherwise, employees, member of union, could cease functions of their organization by taking encouragement from their unions and may reduce efficiency, quality and productivity of the organization.

The present study investigates commitments of employees from the health industry toward their organization and union. Thus, it will be elucidated that whether there is significant correlation between employees’ organizational commitment and union commitment.

a.

Organizational Commitment

According to Meyer and Allen (1991), commitment is psychological status which characterizes the relationship between employees and their organization and which is effective on employees’ decision that whether they want to continue with their organization as part of it. Wiener (1982) describes organizational commitment as motivation of employees of an organization to act along purpose and interests of the organization by means of total internalized normative pressures. Internalized normative pressures in the description are explained as ethical values and sense of responsibility which directs individuals. Among them, the most commonly adopted model was three-dimensional organizational commitment model suggested by Allen and Meyer (1990). These are emotional commitment, normative commitment and continuance commitment.

1.1.1. Emotional commitment: Buchanan (1974) characterizes emotional commitment as partisan attitude and describes it as commitment to purpose and values of organization emotionally for their own interest regardless of personal self-values. According to Mir et al.

(2002), emotional commitment is described as attitudinal phenomenon which is related with personal characteristics and work-related factors, and which motivate employees to be volunteer in spending effort to ensure their organization to reach its targets.

1.1.2. Normative commitment: Normative commitment is desire to continue with organization based on sense of responsibility. Employees with high normative commitment feel that they are obliged to remain within the body of organization (Meyer and Allen, 1991). In this continuance understanding of employees, sense of duty and responsibility which arise from ethical and moral concerns mostly prevails (Bayram, 2005, 133).

1.1.3.Continuance Commitment: Continuance commitment is described as the commitment feeling that arises as a result of cognitive inducements of an organization member; and this understanding adopt a view that organization members remain in the organization as long as they find it more advantageous to continue with the organization in comparison to leaving it (Kanter, 1968).

53

b.

Dual Commitment

Scientific researches on dual relationship (organization/union) go back until 1950s (Gottlieb and Kerr, 1950; Stagner, 1954.41-47; Purcell, 1954). These researches basically rely on description drawn by Purcell (1954). According to Purcell, in dual commitment, while employees adopt all policies, purposes and existence of their organization, in the meantime, they look after policies, purposes and existence of the union of which they are member of (Purcell, 1954). On the other hand Stagner (1954.41-47) emphasizes that dual commitment nourishes from employersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; tendency to perceive their employer and union organization as a whole and to trust both institutions when work conditions are fine. The issue implied by the dual connection is that how would commitment and trust of employees which remain between two sides, which are in conflict of interest with each other (union/employer), be influenced by this dilemma? Since these two organizations which bind employees are in conflict of interest with each other, it is possible to characterize this conflict as sort of competition. In between this competition, employees are in position related with both side and all conflicts arise in connection with them. This status, naturally, affect attitudes and behaviors of employees toward their employers and union.

1.2. Union Concept: According to the 2nd Article of the Unions Law with 2821 serial number, union is described as institutions founded to protect and develop mutual economic and social rights and interests of employees with regard to their employment relations with their employers (Official Gazette with 07.05.1983 date and 18040 serial number). These are legal entities established by employees to enhance work conditions provided by employers, to protect interests of employees (Ozlu, 2014.11). As it was stated in the Constitution, union is legal entity to protect economic and social rights and interests of its members In Turkey, there are three types of unions with regard to their functions: worker unions, public servant unions, and employer unions.

II.

HELPFUL HINTS

A. Figures and Tables Research data was collected by means of a survey method. The scale consisted of 10 items developed by Meyer and Allen (1990) and adapted by Bilgin (XXXX) into Turkish was utilized to measure organizational and union commitment levels of participants.

Hypothesis of Research: H1. There is significant correlation between union commitment and organizational commitment.

H2. Commitment toward union and organization differs significantly with respect to gender.

H3. Commitment toward union and organization differs significantly with respect to marital status.

Research population: The research population is consisted of employees of Gumushane Public Hospital and Gumushane Oral and Dental Health Center in Gumushane City, Turkey. The survey form is responded by 200 health employees. Collected data was analyzed by means of SPSS 16.0 statistical package software.

Methods Demographical data: Table 1. Demographical Information of Respondents (N=200) AGE

No. of Person

(%)

MARITAL STATUS

No. of Person

(%)

18-23

47

23.5

Married

102

51.0

24-30

72

36.0

Single

98

49.0

31-40

60

30.0

EDUCATION LEVEL

No. of Person

(%)

41 and above

21

10.5

High school

45

22.5

GENDER

No. of Person

(%)

Associate Degree

62

31.0

Female

100

50.0

Bachelor Degree

66

33.0

Male

100

50.0

Graduate Degree

27

13.5

OCCUPATION

No. of Person

(%)

SENIORITY

No. of Person

(%)

Physician

40

20.0

1-5 Years

96

48.0

Midwife-Nurse

41

20.5

6-10 Years

49

24.5

Health Officer

40

20.0

11-15 Years

30

15,0

Lab. Technician

40

20.0

16-20 Years

12

6.0

Health Technician

39

19.5

20 Years and longer

13

6.5

UNION SENIORITY

No. of Person

(%)

MONTHLY INCOME

No. of Person

(%)

Figure 1. Research Model

54

1-5 Years

121

60.5

0-1000

16

8.0

Single

98

35,1 122

3.66618

0.292

6-10 Years

47

23.5

1001-1500

18

9.0

MARITAL STATUS

N

ME AN

STD. DEVIAT ION

P(Sig)

11-15 Years

22

11.0

1501-2000

26

13.0

Married

102

33.4 706

7.21756

0.219

16-20 Years

6

3.0

2001-2500

72

36.0

Single

98

34.8 061

8.09946

0.220

4

2.0

2500 above

68

34.0

20 Years longer

and

Total

200

and

100

Results Table 2. Results of the Correlation Analysis ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT Pearson Correlation

0. 469**

Sig.(2-tailed)

0.000

N

200

UNION COMMITMENT

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Table 2 exhibits the correlation between union commitment and organizational commitment. According to the results, there is significant positive correlation between union commitment and organizational commitment. Hence, it is possible to conclude that hypothesis H1 is found positive.

Table 3: t-test

UNION

ORGANI ZATION

UNION

GENDER

N

ME AN

STD. DEVIAT ION

P(Sig)

Female

100

34.4 900

4.69579

0.351

Male

100

35,0 700

4.04833

0.351

GENDER

N

ME AN

STD. DEVIAT ION

P(Sig)

Female

100

33.4 500

7.15962

0.214

Male

100

34.8 000

8.13274

0.214

MARITAL STATUS

N

ME AN

STD. DEVIAT ION

P(Sig)

Married

102

34.4 608

4.97254

0.294

ORGANI ZATION

According to t-test results, hypothesis (H2) which asserts that “there is significant correlation between union commitment and organization commitment with respect to gender” was not found significant. It can only be concluded that there is significant correlation between two groups when significance value is found less than 0.05. Since estimated P(Sig) value were 0.351 and 0.214, which are not less than 0.05; it was determined that there was no significant difference. According to independent t-test results, the third hypothesis (H3) which asserts that “there is significant difference between union commitment and organization commitment with respect to marital status”, the hypothesis was not found significant. Since estimated P(Sig) values were not less than 0.05; it was concluded that there is no significant correlation.

B. Other Recommendations This study tries to explain how employees’ commitments to both their organization and to their union influence each other through dual commitment concept.

As a result of conducted tests and analyses, it was determined that gender and marital statuses do not exhibit significant difference with respect to employees’ commitment toward union and organization. On the other hand, there is significant correlation between organizational commitment and union commitment. The finding that as commitment toward organization increases, the commitment level to union increases respectively suggests that there is positive correlation between these commitments.

Conclusively, it is possible state that organization commitment and union commitment are two factors influencing each other. From this point of view, this is positive situation in terms of employees and employer if employees are highly committed to both their organization and to their union.

Finally, it is necessary that dual commitment are required to be developed and enhanced at work places; it must be ensured that employees are highly committed to both their union and to their organizations; they must cooperate with unions to enhance employees; and this sort of organizational culture must be established.

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REFERENCES [1]

Bayram, Levent, (2005). “ Yönetimde Yeni Bir Paradigma: Örgütsel Bağlılık.” Sayıştay Dergisi, 59,129-136

[2]

Buchanan, B. (1974). Building organizational commitment: The socialization of managers in work organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly,19, 533—546

[3]

Kanter, R. M. (1968). Commitment and social organization: A study of commitment mechanisms in Utopiancommunities.

American Sociological Review, 33, 499-517

[4]

Meyer, J.P. Ve Allen, N.J (1991). “A Three-Component Conceptualization Of Organizational Commitment”, Human Resource Management Review, 1 (1), 1991, S. 61.

[5]

Meyer, N.J., Allen, J.P.(1990) The Measurement and Antecedens of Affective, Continuuance and Normative Commitment to the Organization, s.3.

[6]

Purcell, T.V.(1954). “ Dual Allegiance to Company and Union, Packing, House Workers “ s.49. DEMİRBİLEK, T., ÇAKIR, Ö.(2011). İkili Bağlılık: Hem Sendikaya hem de İşletmeye Bağlı Olunabilir mi? , s.128-129.

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Stagner, R.(1954). “ Dual Allegiance to Union and Management Personel Psychology, Vol 7, s.41. DEMİRBİLEK, T.(2008). İkili Bağlılık: İşletmeye ve Sendikaya Bağlılığın Belirleyicileri ve Sonuçları, s.72.

[8]

Ozlu, E.(2014). Anayasa KPSS Kitabı, BRC Basım Matbaacılık, Ankara, s.11.

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Tracks of acculturation during cultural adaptation process: a research on food consumption habits of Turks living in Germany İçten Duygu Çallı (C) and Işıl Karpat Aktuğlu Assist. Prof Dr./Prof Dr. Adnan Menderes University Faculty of Communication, PR and Advertising Department Ege University Faculty of Communication, Advertising Department icten.duygu@adu.edu.tr / isilkarpat@ege.edu.tr

Abstract. Moral cultural elements that the individual takes along to the place to live and spread to various areas invigorate in different geographies. The elements, especially the ones spreading via migration, conduce to the creation of unique cultural wealth by combining with the host culture. Every culture has its own rituals, values and consumption habits. Thus, individuals first adapt similar features to their own culture in the migrated place. Turkish immigrants had some adaptation problems at first in many ways, particularly in food consumption habits. The first generation immigrants brought food materials of their own culture; on the other hand, they tried to adapt themselves to the habits and rituals of food consumption in Germany. This cultural exchange between two different cultures serves as an important model of acculturation in practice. The aim of the study is to investigate in what degree the Turkish citizens living in Germany and German citizens of Turkish origins adapt themselves to the country they live in terms of food consumption habits and how the acculturation process reflects on food consumption. This research helps to explain how the process of acculturation and adaptation works within the context of shopping and consumption habits of target consumers.

Keywords: Acculturation, Turkish immigrants, consumption habits, adaptation

1. Introduction

The term culture, which might be defined as the material and nonmaterial set of values created by human being during the process of historical and social development, is a fact investigated by various disciplines. Every individual is born in a cultural environment and nourished by cultural heritage while enriching the culture s/he lives in with her/his productions. In this regard, people living in a different geography than they were born in brings along the cultural exchange.

The individual is in the position of adapting the values they settle in apart from the cultural values, norms and behavior types they have in order to carry up to a healthy social life. This exchange is done by the individuals both presenting their own values to the society they are in and recognizing the values of that society. It is seen that this period of mutual interaction is lived for other reasons. The fact of immigration

raised from the challenge of human to geographical borders is one of those reasons. The individual bringing along the moral cultural values while migrating carry these elements to the new settlement array. On the other hand, different cultural values, norms, behavior and attitudes wait for the individual. The individual experiences the acculturation process thanks to the cultural interchange.

2. The individual and adaptation process

The meeting of the cultural features that the individual carries to another place and the qualities that the host culture carries causes a new and unique experience. This process called acculturation is explained briefly as “two or more cultures undergoing a change as a result of mutual interaction and creating new synthesis and dynamic intersections” (Güvenç, 2007:87). Ac-

57

culturation is a process of cultural and psychological changes that involve various forms of mutual accommodation, leading to some longer term psychological and socio-cultural adaptations between both groups (Berry, 2005:699).

Walker et al. highlight those changes such as learning each other’s languages, sharing each other’s food preferences, and adopting forms of dress and social interactions that are characteristic of each group (2015:327). According to another definition, acculturation involves the process of cultural change following the contact of the groups with each other from different cultures. Acculturation in individual level is psychological processes following the intercultural interaction (Güngör, 2014:17). Valencia describes it as the process of learning a culture that is different from the one in which a person was raised (Ueltschy, 2002:2). Similarly, Neuliep views acculturation as the term used to describe what happens when people from one culture enter a different culture (2015:436).

According to Güvenç, stating that all contemporary cultures in the world are products of the acculturation process, acculturation is “the opening of the culturation process being realized in the society to the outer world, foreign language and cultures. In acculturation, it is not necessary for cultures or the people and the groups in that culture to interact directly. Press, radio, television broadcasting, cinema, art and fashion trends have the possibility of getting acculturated in long terms without facing each other (2007:87). The effects of globalization spreading rapidly and the development of technology facilitating to reach the information have an impact on the formation and acceleration of acculturation process. The mentioned elements; on the one hand, serve to the formation and spread of acculturation; on the other hand, they start acculturation by receiving their share from acculturation. Apart from that, globalization of commerce, technology, communication and transportation; and being exposed to life styles and world views of other cultures indirectly might also start acculturation. As it is seen, moral cultural values carried to other cultures mostly via migration in the past might interact as independent from the geography with the help of technology and start the process of acculturation nowadays.

Reproduction of culture begins with the individual. According to Baumann, culture maketh man, but it is men, women, and youths who make culture. If they ceased to make it and

remake it, culture would cease to be; and all making of culture, no matter how conservative, is also a remaking. Even at its most conservative, it places old habits in new contexts, and it thus changes the significance of these habits (1999:25). From the viewpoint of migration which is one of the essential points of the study, it might be stated that immigrants reproduces the culture by carrying their old cultural habits to the new cultural climate.

Even though the term acculturation involves all the mobility groups either in short or long terms, willing or unwilling; studies about the term have been conducted especially on immigrants and refugee groups. Rhee, Chang and Rhee state that acculturation tends to be stressful for immigrants due to difficulties in attaining language proficiency, separation from familiar social networks, and potential cultural incompatibilities (2003:751). Though, in the context of migration, the process of acculturation begins as a result of the mutual interaction between settled societies and immigrants evaluated as an outer group to the society they just come (Şeker& Sirkeci, 2014:72). Herein, mutuality is also corroborated by Neuliep. He points out that acculturation is not unilateral; it is an interactive process between a culture and groups of people. When individuals or groups of individuals enter a new culture, they are often changed by the culture, but they also impact the culture in return (2015:438). When members of two different societies come together, cultural changes are handled in two dimensions.

Immigrants continue living in their own culture only or adapt to the new culture in unidimensional process. On the other hand, in dual process of acculturation, there is a structure allowing the immigrant to maintain the elements of both cultures together (Şahin, 2010:107). Güngör notifies that immigrants might lean to cultural continuity and change even in different levels but at the same time according to theory of acculturation (2014:17). Similarly, Jandt points out that no immigrant can escape acculturation even though individuals do differ, however, as to what degree they become acculturated (2013:328). At this point, Berry questions acculturation tendencies in immigrants and cultural minority members within the scope of a basic question: What happens to individuals, who have developed in one cultural context, when they attempt to live in a new cultural context (1997:6)? This basic question leads to two

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more questions that have to be answered (Güngör, 2014:18): • How much importance does the individual gives to maintain self-culture?

• How important is it for the individual to get in touch with the dominant culture?

The answers of the questions above point out the acculturation levels of the immigrants. The effort of the individual to maintain self-culture without any interaction enables unidimensional acculturation; creating a new synthesis by contacting to the mainstream enables dual process of cultural change.

There are some elements that need to be considered in both dimensions of acculturation.

Kağıtçıbaşı highlights that either things desired and found meaningful by immigrants or tolerated as preservable by the dominant society are important. For example, different food habits of the ethnic minority might be tolerated by the host society, it might be accepted even as multiculture enrichment; however, different religious practices of the minority groups might not be acceptable (2014:122). Table 1 shows the basic background characteristics of acculturation.

Table 1. Young Yun Kim’s Background Characteristics of Acculturation Predictor Similarity of Culture

Characteristics • The similarity of the original culture to the new host culture is important i.e. an immigrant from Canada to the USA finds acculturation easier than a Vietnamese.

• There can be differences among immigrants from the same country – depending on whether they grew up in a cosmopolitan urban center or in a rural area.

Personal Characteris• Younger immigrants adapt tics and Experiences more easily than older ones.

• Educational background and person’s personality can determine how readily he or she will desire to blend in with a new culture.

Effect of Media and • If the immigration peaks of Transportation the early 1900s are compared Advances with today, it will be seen that millions of people seemed as an alien to many native-born US citizens at that time. Today, media and transportation advances contribute to the difference in the intercultural communication context.

Source: Fred E. Jandt, An introduction to intercultural communication- identities in a global community, 7th edi-

tion, Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications, 2013, pp. 329.

As seen, there are three main predictors that affect immigrants’ acculturation level. Similarity of culture, personal characteristics and experiences, effect of media and transportation advances help to specify the individual’s acculturation level. Besides, the host nation’s immigration policies, the institutional practices, and the attitudes of the dominant culture toward the migrant and her or his group also impact migrants’ experiences (Sorrells, 2013:109). In addition to all these, the two parties which are a part of the dual process of cultural change should be tolerant to each other in order to realize the sociocultural adaptation successfully.

3. A research on food consumption habits of

the Turks living in Germany in context of acculturation The aim of the study which examines how the cultural exchange is realized over food products between different societies is to investigate how much the citizens of Turkish origin, who are considered as the biggest ethnic minority in Europe, adapt to the country they live in terms of food consumption habits. Based on the findings, it is aimed to find out how food consumption habits mirror the acculturation levels and cultural change process.

As formerly stated, Turkish citizens living in Germany and German citizens of Turkish origin were formed the universe of this study. The sample group was formed by choosing 404 people living in Berlin and Frankfurt am Main with random sampling method. A questionnaire was structured and applied between 20th January – 19th February 2012 in the cities of Berlin and Frankfurt am Main. Besides, Günther Glebe (1997:129) states that the Turkish populations are especially large in metropolitan areas, such as the Stuttgart–Mannheim agglomeration, the Nürnberg region, the Frankfurt metropolitan area, the Rhine – Ruhr area, and the city of Berlin. Glebe also indicates that Berlin is the largest Turkish city outside Turkey. Due to this reason, the field study was limited with two cities and carried out only in the capital Berlin and the biggest industrial city, Frankfurt am Main. Data obtained from the questionnaire was quantified by using SPSS 20.0 program and measured by chi-square test. The questionnaire study has two

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main parts. First of all, the demographic information was based on a study of TÜBİTAK, namely “A Research on Consumer Acculturation and Consumption Patterns of Turkish Immigrants in Germany”. Distinctly from the project, the average monthly income has been asked as an open ended question and marital status has been changed as “married” and “not married”. Under the heading of “Demographic Information”, the participants were asked their age, gender, place of birth, marital status, citizenship, how many years they lived in Germany, monthly average household income and the generation they belonged to. Demographic information of the participants has been summarized in Table 2.

Table 2. The Characteristics of Participants Frequency Age Under 25 25-34 35-44 45-54 55+ Gender Female Male Birth Place Turkey Germany Marital Status Married Not Married Citizenship Turkish German Dual Other Years lived in Germany Less than 10 years 10-19 years 20-29 years More than 30 years Household Income Less than 1000 € 1000-1999 € 2000-2999 € More than 3000 € Generation Born in Turkey, came to Germany as an adult Born in Turkey, came to Germany after 5 y.o.

Born in Turkey, came to Germany before 5 y.o.

Parents born in Turkey, I was born in Germany I and one of my parents were born in Germany Both I and my parents were born in Germany Other

%

86 93 108 63 53

21,3 23,1 26,8 15,6 13,2

200 204

49,5 50,5

270 134

66,8 33,2

234 170

57,9 42,1

196 144 61 3

48,5 35,7 15,1 0,7

55 89 127 133

13,6 22,0 31,5 32,9

27 103 75 55

10,4 39,6 28,8 21,2

196

48,5

55

13,6

15

3,7

76

18,8

28

6,9

26

6,4

8

2,0

In the second part of the research, participants were asked where they get the food products in order to have an idea about preferences to buy food products. The distribution of the answers taken from the participants is given in Table 3.

Table 3. Buying place preferences of participants 1st Place

2nd

3rd

N

%

N

%

N

%

Turkish markets German markets Supermarkets German delis Hypermarkets Farmers markets Wholesale markets Shopping malls Other

259

64,2

3

0,9

2

0,7

99

24,5

180

51,1

3

1,1

37

9,2

112

31,8

81

28,4

5

1,2

32

9,1

58

20,4

2

0,5

9

2,6

16

5,6

1

0,2

12

3,4

41

14,4

0

0,0

3

0,9

7

2,5

1

0,2

1

0,3

76

26,7

0

0,0

0

0,0

1

0,4

Total

404

100

352

100

285

100

The sample group does the shopping primarily from Turkish markets, German markets and supermarkets. German delicatessens and shopping malls are the other places that the food shopping is done.

In the final part of the study, the participants were asked the food products they bring and take from Germany to Turkey and from Turkey to Germany in the last three years.

Table 4. Products taken from Germany to Turkey Product

N

%

381

94,3

Baby formula

65

16,1

Herbal tea

123

30,4

Filter coffee

173

42,8

Coffee cream

111

27,5

Cheese

66

16,3

Powdered drink

101

25,0

Other

49

12,1

Chocolate/ Sweets

The products taken from Germany to Turkey by the participants in the last three years are given in Table 4. Accordingly, chocolate (94,3%), filter coffee (42,8%) and herbal tea (30,4%) are the products that were taken away

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the most. In in-depth interviews, some participants stated that they prefer to take away meat than chocolate as a gift because of the meat prices in Turkey.

Table 5 shows that the sample group that consists of Turkish citizens living in Germany and German citizens of Turkish origin brought mostly Turkish delight (54,2%), snack (53,2%), Turkish coffee (50,7%), dried food/tarhana (38,4%) and spices (37,4%) from Turkey to Germany in the last three years. It shows that the participants still buy and consume food, which are important for Turkish culture and cuisine from the original place and they do not demand their equivalents sold in Germany unless it is urgently necessary.

Table 5. Products brought from Turkey to Germany Product

N

%

115

28,5

Pulses

86

21,3

Snack

215

53,2

Delight

219

54,2

Turkish coffee

205

50,7

Dried food/Tarhana

155

38,4

Spices

151

37,4

Cheese/Butter

123

30,4

Vegetables/Fruits

46

11,4

Bakery products

68

16,8

Pastrami/ Fer. Sausage

84

20,8

Pickles

51

12,6

Olives

106

26,2

Jam/Molasses

116

28,7

Fish/Chicken/Meat

23

5,7

Baklava/Desserts

150

37,1

Tea

81

20,0

Other

24

5,9

Tomato paste

By looking at the significant differences between variables, it is seen that preferences of the places to buy differ by genders in terms of priority (Chi-square: 15,592 df: 8 p<.05).

Whereas women prefer the sequencing of supermarkets, German delicatessens and shopping malls, men give priority to shopping malls and also buy food from supermarkets and German delicatessens. Both German citizens and dual citizens give equal importance to German markets and supermarkets (Chi-square: 33,139 df: 21 p<.05). While preferences of the people living in Germany less than 10 years are farmers

markets and shopping malls, the ones living there for 10-19 years prefer supermarkets and German delicatessens, the ones living there for 20-29 years prefer shopping malls and the ones living there more than 30 years prefer supermarkets (Chi-square: 45,083 df: 24 p<.05).

Considering the preferences among generations, all generations except for the generation who were born in Germany and whose parents were born in Germany prefer Turkish markets (64,1%), German markets (24,5%) and supermarkets (9,2%) respectively. The preference of the mentioned group is German markets (Chisquare: 67,620 df: 36 p<.05).

There is a significant difference between the food products brought to Turkey from Germany and the monthly average household income.

Accordingly, 20% of the participants having household income between 1000 and 1999 euro take filter coffee to Turkey. (Chi-square: 9,773 df: 3 p<.05).

Another statistically significant difference between the products brought to Germany from Turkey in the last three years and the age factor is given in Table 6.

Table 6. Products brought from Turkey to Germany according to the age factor Snacks

Delight

Baklava/ Desserts Under 25 Count 36 35 24 % 8,9% 8,7% 6,0% 25-34 Count 45 55 39 % 11,2% 13,6% 9,7% 35-44 Count 62 58 42 % 15,4% 14,4% 10,4% 45-54 Count 36 37 17 % 8,9% 9,2% 4,2% 55 + Count 36 34 28 % 8,9% 8,4% 6,9% Total Count 215 219 150 % 53,3% 54,3% 37,2% (Chi-square: 11,084 df: 4 p<.05), (Chi-square: 9,878 df: 4 p<.05), (Chi-square: 12,558 df: 4 p<.05).

Examining Table 6, it can be said that there is a significant difference between the age groups and the products brought from Turkey to Germany by the participants; such as Turkish delight, baklava and snack food. As seen in the table, the participants above 35 years of age stated that they brought snacks to Germany.

Turkish delight, which is one of the traditional flavors, was not brought only by the participants less than 25 years of age, in other terms by the last generation. Another traditional flavor, baklava, was brought by participants above 55 years of age. There is not a significant differ-

61

When it comes to the distribution of the products brought from Turkey according to the generations, it is seen that all participants brought snacks and Turkish delight except for the ones born in Germany but whose parents were born in Turkey (10,1%) and the ones both they and their parents were born in Germany (4,7%; 5%).

Examining Table 7, it is seen that the participants who both they and one of their parents were born in Germany (3,7%; 5%) bring baklava and cheese/butter.

ence between age factor and food products brought; such as tomato paste, pulses, bakery products, pastrami, fermented sausage, pickles, tea, vegetables and fruits. Considering the relationship between marital status and food products brought from Turkey, it was found that married couples bring more snacks (33,9%) and Turkish coffee (32,4%) (Chi-square: 6,344 df: 1 p<.05), (Chi-square: 6,110 df: 1 p<.05). There is also another significant difference between the consumption of snacks and the staying years in Germany. The participants living in Germany less than 10 years (8,7%) and the ones staying there more than 30 years (20,8%) stated that they brought snacks (Chi-square: 8,243 df: 3 p<.05). 19,6% of the participants having monthly average household income between 10001999 euro and 13.1% of the participants having monthly average household income more than 3000 euro brought snacks, too (Chi-square: 8,843 df: 3 p<.05). Moreover, the ones who lived there less than 10 years (8,7%) stated that they brought dried food or tarhana (Chi-square: 10,325 df: 3 p<.05).

4. Conclusion

Baklava/ Desserts

Cheese/ Butter

Delight

Snacks

Turkish culture and German culture which are different from each other have interacted in time by Turkish citizens living in Germany and German citizens of Turkish origin. In this research, it is seen that the sample group representing Turkish immigrants mostly take away chocolate, candy, filter coffee, herbal tea, coffee cream and powdered drinks from Germany to Turkey and they bring Turkish delight, Table 7. Products brought from Turkey to Germany according to snack food, Turkish coffee, dried food, tarthe generation factor hana, spices, baklava and other desserts from Turkey to Germany. As it is seen, foods considered as unique to Turkish culture are taken from its origin and the equivalents sold in Germany are not preferred if Born in Turkey, 65 107 109 83 Count not necessary. The participants living in came to Germany as an adult Germany less than 10 years and more than 26,5% 27,0% 16,1% 20,5% % Born in Turkey, 30 years bring the same food products from 33 33 15 10 Count came to GermaTurkey. ny after 5 y.o.

3,7% 8,2% 8,2% 2,5% % In the context of acculturation, regardless Born in Turkey, 10 8 1 2 Count of the generation of the participants, Turkish came to Germany before 5 y.o. markets take the first place in buying food 2,5% 2,0% 0,2% 0,5% % products. Whereas the individuals who were Parents born in 19 35 35 25 Count Turkey, I was born in Germany and whose parents were born in Germany 8,7% 8,7% 4,7% 6,2% % also born in Germany prefer German marMe and one of 18 24 15 20 Count kets, other participants do the shopping from my parents were Turkish markets. Furthermore, even though born in Germany 3,7% 4,5% 5,9% 5,0% % the buying places do not differ by gender, it Both I and my 7 6 7 6 Count parents were born is seen that their order of priority is different. in Germany 1,7% 1,5% 1,7% 1,5% % Whilst women prefer supermarkets, men 1 5 4 4 Count buy food products from shopping malls.

Other One of the most obvious features of the 1,2% 1,0% 0,2% 1,0% % scope of acculturation process is to create 215 219 123 150 Count Total new syntheses by undergoing changes as a 30,4% 53,2% 54,2% 37,1% % result of mutual interaction. As seen in the (Chi-square: 12,697 df: 6 p<.05), (Chi-square: 24,345 df: 6 research findings, the process of adaptation to p<.05), (Chi-square: 14,455 df: 6 p<.05), (Chi-square: multicultural experiences, considering the de31,845 df: 6 p<.05) sires and needs of ethnical groups and food production technologies cannot abolish the effect

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of cultural origin. In one sense, while contacting with dominant culture, moral cultural values of the family are not ignored on the other hand.

Food consumption habits point out that elements of both cultures are consumed together.

Nevertheless, the preferences of the buying places and the products brought and taken away point out that dual process of cultural change maintains its existence.

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[2] B. Güvenç, Kültürün ABC’si, İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 2007.

[3] B. D. Şeker, İ. Sirkeci, Birleşik Krallık’taki Türkiye kökenli kadınlarda yaşam doyumu: kimlik, kültürleşme ve ayrımcılık, Türk Psikoloji Yazıları, 17 (34) (2014), 69-81.

[4] B. Şahin, Almanya’daki Türk göçmenlerin sosyal entegrasyonunun kuşaklar arası karşılaştırması: kültürleşme, Bilig, 55 (2010), 103-134.

[5] Ç. Kağıtçıbaşı, Kültürleşme ve aile ilişkileri, Türk Psikoloji Yazıları, 17 (34) (2014), 120-127.

[6] D. Güngör, İkinci kuşak Avrupalı Türklerde psikolojik entegrasyon ve uyum: çift boyutlu kültürleşme temelinde karşılaştırmalı bir derleme, Türk Psikoloji Yazıları, 17 (34) (2014), 16-31.

[7] F. E. Jandt, An introduction to intercultural communication- identities in a global community, 7th edition, Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications, 2013.

[8] G. Baumann, The multicultural riddle: rethinking national, ethnic and religious identities, New York: Routledge Publications, 1999.

[9] G. Glebe, Housing and segregation of Turks in Germany, Ş. Özüekren, R. van Kempen (edt.), Turks in European cities: housing and urban segregation, Utrecht: European Research Centre on Migration and Ethnic Relations, 1997.

[10] J. W. Berry, Acculturation: living successfully in two cultures, International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29 (2005), 697-712.

[11] J. W. Berry, Immigration, acculturation and adaptation, Applied Psychology: An International Review, 46(1) (1997), 5-68.

[12] J. Neuliep, Intercultural communication – a contextual approach, 6th edition, Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications, 2015.

[13] K. Sorrells, Intercultural communication globalization and social justice, Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications, 2013.

[14] L. Ueltschy, Multicultural marketing: advertising strategies for the Mexican-American market,

Marketing Management Journal, 12(1) (2002), 118.

[15] R. Walker, L. Koh, D. Wollersheim and P. Liamputtong, Social connectedness and mobile phone use among refugee women in Australia, Health and Social Care in the Community, 23(3) (2015), 325-336.

[16] S. A. Öztürk, N. Suğur and Necdet Timur, Almanya’daki Türk göçmenlerin tüketim davranışları ve tüketici kültürleşmesi üzerine bir araştırma, TÜBİTAK project no: 108K05, http://uvt.ulakbim.gov.tr/uvt/index.php?cwid=9& vtaid=TPRJ&ano=121920_f905afbf80cb943394 0091111680fd1e, Accessed: 06.10.2011.

[17] S. Rhee, J. Chang and J. Rhee, Acculturation, communication patterns and self-esteem among Asian and Caucasian American adolescents, Adolescents, 38(152) (2003), 749-768.

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The Problems Students Coming To Turkey For Higher Education From Germany Experience And Suggestions For Solutions* Onur YILMAZ** Gülsün ŞAHAN***

Abstract The purpose of this study is to put forth young people’s reasons for preference to come to Turkey from Germany for studying through various programs, their expectations from Turkey, how much of these expectations were met, what the economic, personal, university related and social problems are, how they solve these problems and what their suggestions are for the ones who want to study in Turkey; to give ideas about the issue to the students who will come to Turkey to study and to give advice as solutions to the problems encountered. The study is qualitative. Opinions of 17 students selected via snowball sampling method who had studied in Turkey and who are still studying in Turkey, were collected through interview method. Data obtained were analyzed with content analysis. It was put forth that young people who came to Turkey to study experience economical, personal, social and university related problems and solve them in various ways. Based on these problems and suggestions for solutions, students who will come to Turkey from Germany and universities that will make student exchange have been given recommendations about making necessary improvements mutually.

Key Words: Turkey, Germany, education overseas, student exchange, Erasmus *This study is the edited and extended version of the oral presentation that was presented at IV AGP International Humanities and Social Sciences Conference held in Berlin between May 19th – 22nd 2016. ** Dr. at Hacettepe University German Language and Literature ***Assist. Prof. at Bartın University Faculty of Education

64

Introduction Families immigrated to Germany from Turkey have settled in a period of 60 years.

This is a foreseeable behavior considering whole World. However, unlike this trend, the number of people who returned from Germany to Turkey is quite a lot.

According to a declaration of a government official, a hundred thousand Turkish citizens returned to Germany between the years of 2009 and 2011 (Sabah,2013). Also, as the real reason of this return, economical problems in Europe were stated. The idea to return to Turkey has always been an option for Turks living in Germany apart from economical struggles. 45% of the participants in a survey conducted with Turks living in Germany considers both Turkey and Germany as their country and stated that they wanted to return to Turkey for a comfortable retirement period and for a better climate (Die Zeit, 2012). The state of Germany supports immigrants who want to return. It gives this supports not only financially but also socially. In the booklet prepared by Germany Job Creating Agency, information about how to find a job in Turkey, the retirement and insurance conditions, which schools can the children attend are given in detail for the people who will return to Turkey. It is indicated in the booklet that undergraduate programs in German are advantageous in terms of language for the students (Rang, M. 2011).

In a study about the level of adaptation of people who returned to Turkey from abroad Akbalık (2003), stated that teenagers got affected by the immigration process the most and they overcame both the physical and psycho-social difficulties harder than adults. According to a study by

Kuruüzüm (2002), the biggest problem returning students faced in Turkey was that they couldn’t get used to the education system. The ones who experienced this problem were generally the students who had studied primary and middle school abroad and who didn’t want to return.

According to a study conducted by Prof.

Dr. Eberhard von Einem (2014), Berlin Technical University professor, a majority of the young professionals who returned to Turkey preferred living in İstanbul, which caused the effects of information transfer to be collected in this city. It was stated that these bilingual employees contributed in the integration on global markets through their know-how in Germany.

Among the adaptation to a different culture, being involved in the social life of that region, speaking the language and feeling close to the customs can be counted. An individual who has difficulty in realizing these influences both himself and his surrounding throughout the orientation process. Herbert stated that when Polish and Turkish people are compared in terms of adaptation, it is enough for the Polish people to pass the language barrier in order to adapt since they came from the similar working culture with their German colleagues. On the other hand, Turkish people have difficulty not only because of language but also the different culture they belong to (Herbert, U. 2001). Foreign students who went abroad to study naturally experience several social, cultural and economical problems along with language. Apart from that, students who came with short student exchange programs such as Erasmus could experience a lot of problems socioculturally so studies can be conducted towards these students (Kıroğlu, Kesten, Elma, 2010,27). Turkish citizens who

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returned back to Turkey from Germany for different reasons have a tendency to bring all of their family members with them so their children’s education status appears as a phenomenon to be examined. Although it is easy for the first generation immigrant Turkish people to adapt the social life in Turkey because they came from the same cultural environment, it differs for the third generation. In a study about the level of adaptation of people who returned to Turkey from abroad Akbalık (2003), stated that teenagers got affected by the immigration process the most and they overcame both the physical and psychosocial difficulties harder than adults. These individuals who try to survive in the community they live in with a second identity experience another second identity problem when they return to Turkey.

According to a study by Kuruüzüm (2002), the biggest problem returning students faced in Turkey was that they couldn’t get used to the education system. The ones who experienced this problem were generally the students who had studied primary and middle school abroad and who didn’t want to return. Young people who didn’t start working yet preferred undergraduate degrees in German language and at universities located in big cities.

German Language and Literature, German Language Teaching and German Language Translation undergraduate programs are among these majors. These citizens who returned back to Turkey had a tendency to bring all of their family members with them therefore their children’s education status appears to be a phenomenon to be examined within the orientation process.

Purpose

The purpose of this study is to evaluate the difficulties students who study at Hacettepe University and who came to Turkey from Germany to obtain an undergraduate degree had in terms of education and their solution recommendations, to give some ideas to other students who will come to Turkey to study and to make suggestions to universities to make necessary regulations.

For this purpose, students were asked about the problems they faced throughout their undergraduate education and these were divided into fields as economical, language, social and environmental consultancy. Moreover, suggestions were included.

Method This study is qualitative and the study group was selected through snowball sampling method. The purpose in snowball sampling method is to find out the most knowledgeable ones in order to reach the source of knowledge and to collect information by reaching people in a chain row in line with the suggestions of the people whose opinions are obtained (Yıldırım ve Simşek, 2008: 111). Opinions of people were gathered through semistructured interview forms including open ended questions and recorded with a voice recorder and in written. Data were examined and interpreted through content analysis. In content analysis, concepts and relationships are reached through data collected and data are coded, themes are found. Data are arranged and defined according to themes and codes. Findings are interpreted (Yıldırım ve Simşek, 2008: 227). A total of 17 students of Hacettepe University, 9 of whom are females and 8 are males, were evaluated.

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Findings and Interpretations 1-Findings regarding the reasons why they preferred Turkey for university education (economical, personal etc.), their expectations from Turkey, to what level their expectations have been met

came here willingly and their expectations were met.

2-Findings regarding economical problems faced during their time in Turkey and how they solved their problems.

Students were asked about their reasons of choosing Turkey for education firstly and whether their expectations have been met.

As a result of the answers analyzed the following findings were obtained. 11 students stated that they came to Turkey due to obligation because their families returned back to the country. 6 students stated that they returned due to personal reasons and willingly. 11 people said that their expectations were not met completely while 6 said they were satisfied. One of the students who thought his expectations were not met stated as follow:

At the second step, students were asked whether they had financial problems and their answers were analyzed. Findings are listed as follow: The majority of the students didn’t have economical problems and 5 said that they had scholarship. One student said:

“Education in Turkey is very hard since it is based on memorization and knowledge. Therefore, my interpreting skills are not improving”(A10). Another student said that he felt like a stranger in both countries:

“I had support from German government and my family as well but in general I pay attention not to spend a lot and I buy cheap food” (A17). When findings are evaluated in general, students are said to be better off economically.

“Life, education and dormitories are expensive. I got a scholarship from Credits and Dormitories Organization” (A14). Another one told about the support he had received and his way of solving the problem:

“We are treated as a stranger both here and there” (A7). Another one said:

3-Findings regarding personal problems (language, visa, residence permit, accommodation etc.)

“I was feeling like I was not progressing since I was born and brought up in Germany. Although we came to Turkey on holidays, I felt like a stranger in my own country. Because there is a huge difference between coming here on holidays and living here” (A9). When opinions are generally evaluated, it is understood that a part of the students came to Turkey due to obligatory reasons and their desires were not fully met and they felt like a stranger in Turkey. Some others

Thirdly, students were asked whether they experienced any problems when they came to Turkey and if so, how they solved these problems. Opinions obtained were analyzed. 4 students stated that they had no problems and 4 others said that they thought they would face problems in terms of getting a German visa from then on. It is understood that 9 students had problems in terms of language and three others had no problems at all. Five students stated that they had some problems culturally: A

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student who had no personal issues stated as follow; “I didn’t have any problem because I am a Turkish citizen. However, I now need a visa to return to Germany. I didn’t have trouble since I know both languages” (A4). Another student experiencing trouble about language stated as follow: “I am more competent with German since I was raised in Germany I always had hard times expressing myself in Turkish both at classes and in my relationships with people when I came to Turkey” (A2). Another student stated his thoughts about language and discipline as follow; “When I came here, I realized my Turkish is not so good. Especially my pronunciation... I am still making spelling mistakes but I have improved a lot. Not having much discipline here gave me hard times in the beginning” (A9). Cultural differences were emphasized regarding personal problems. A student expressed his concerns as follow: “I had hard time making friends.

Due to some cultural deficiencies, you cannot communicate well or they don’t approach you thinking you are somewhere higher” (A10). When findings are evaluated in general, it is understood that students didn’t experience problems personally but language wise. It is understood that two countries are different culturally and problems were experienced due to this reason.

4-Findings about university related problems (registration, application, course selections, academicians, campus etc.) and methods of solving the problems

Students were asked whether they had experienced university related problems or not and if they did, what kind of solutions they found. Data obtained were analyzed and listed as findings. 12 students said that they didn’t experience any university related problems while two others said they had initially had problems regarding registration and dormitories but later solved them. A student said he wasn’t informed about university system; another one said she wasn’t satisfied with the professors while another student complained about transportation and traffic congestion. One of the students expressed that education system is memorization based. A student who didn’t experience any university related problem and who is satisfied said: “I didn’t have any problems because everything is on Internet now.

Since Turkey gets modernized each day and has become technology dependent, everything is easy. Campuses are very good. Campuses are large and spacious; however, since education is memory based, I believe I can’t learn anything here”(A4).

Here, the student indicated that technology and infrastructure are good but the quality of education is not satisfactory. It can be said that this is an significant situation and students’ opinions about the level of education should be taken into consideration. A student pointed out the fact that problems were solved with the help of professors. Regarding the university education system, a student pointed out that university should be introduced to the students coming from abroad; “I wasn’t informed about the university system much. I have learned

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everything myself by asking” (A6) Stating the dissatisfaction about academicians, another student said: “Academicians are irresponsible and uninterested” (A16). Another student emphasized the traffic congestion problem as follow; “Commuting problem. Traffic congestion. I have tried to get out of home and not to miss the bus” (A12). When opinions of students coming to Turkey from abroad for higher education regarding whether they experienced university related problems or not are evaluated in general, it can be said that the majority of the students didn’t experience any problems and the problems they faced had been solved. It can be said that there are a few students complaining about lack of university introduction, education quality, academicians’ lack of interest and transportation.

5-Findings about problems experienced socially (making friends with Turkish people, being involved in social life and feeling accepted in social life etc.)

Students who came to Turkey to study were asked whether they had problems socially and if so, what those problems were. Data obtained were analyzed and ordered. When opinions were examined, it is seen that the majority of the students had experienced some problems and only 3 students didn’t have any social problem.

Also, it is seen that one student is very happy about the fact that there were a lot of places to visit. A student indicated that cultural problems would be solved in time.

It is understood that three students felt different from other students in terms of status and they thought that’s why the

others didn’t approach them. One student said he had problems in public organizations an one other said she had difficulties as a female. A student who stated satisfaction and emphasized that there was no problem socially said: “Since by human relations have always been good, I have had good friends with students from Germany and from others who have grown up in Turkey”(A11) Another student expressed opinion about friendship: “I didn’t have any trouble finding a friend but there was always a feeling like they were jealous of me. They always had kind of jealous looks. When I didn’t remember the Turkish correspondence of some words, I had difficulties and sometimes I had trouble understanding“(A6). A student who compared two cultures said: “No matter how close we were with my friends in Germany, there was always a distance.

They were calculating every penny.

They were stingy and money grubbers. I have of course been accustomed to this; so I acted accordingly and I got a lot of negative comments from my friends. Also, people in Germany are loyal and punctual. He said: “The ones here are more comfortable” (A5) and he summarized his positive and negative opinions about both countries shortly. A female student pointed out a problem that female students experience by saying: “Another problem is that it is hard to live in Turkey as a female. We are being abused and generally, men try to harm”(A3). When findings of the study are considered, it is seen that some of the students experience problems in making

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friends with Turkish students, being involved in social life and feeling accepted in social life while some others do not experience too many problems.

6-Findings about recommendations for the people who want to study in Turkey Lastly, participants were asked to give recommendations for the people who would come to Turkey from abroad in order to study and data obtained were analyzed. The first 8 students gave positive recommendations to the ones who would come to Turkey for education purposes.

The other 4 students made explanations including their dissatisfaction. 2 students stated that the ones who are financially competent can come to Turkey for education while other 2 students stated that they should try whether Turkey would work for them through some short programs such Erasmus. Regarding the recommendations for the ones who would come to Turkey for education, a student stated as follows: “I would suggest they adapt to the culture quickly because Turkey is very different from others in that aspect. They shouldn’t be prejudiced and they shouldn’t think Turkey and Germany as the same.

They should respect the life, education and people in this country” (A4). Another participant stated that:; “It is easy to study in Turkey. But one has to improve himself individually” (A13)” Another student made the following statement about language: “I would suggest they learn a good level of language at first. There have been a lot of times when I couldn’t reply although I knew the answer” (A6). Another

student made a comment about coming earlier through a shorter program: “I would suggest they discover here by coming with Erasmus program and find out whether the program here is appropriate for them or not” (A9). A student who had negative opinions stated as follows: “The education system is not enough. Therefore, it is more meaningful to continue education in Europe“(A7). By this statement, he expressed his dissatisfaction. Another student expressed his opinion as: “One can definitely go to Turkey.

The important thing is not to show the helplessness of being a foreigner. Follow up your classes and official paperwork closely. Also, it is good to be careful. Do not talk about yourself too much. Find someone familiar who is Turkish. Be sincere but careful about trusting anyone.

Often try to visit other cities of Turkey if you really want to know about Turkey “(A17).

Generally speaking about the findings obtained, majority of the students didn’t choose Turkey willingly for education.

They came back to Turkey due to their parents obligatory returns and so they got affected more by the problems they faced.

It can be said that some students came willingly, solved their problems and didn’t complain about their status.

Results, Discussion and Recommendations In this study, which aims at evaluating the recommendations and economical, personal, university related and social problems of young people who came to

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Turkey from Germany for education purposes, it is understood that some of the students came due to obligation, their desires are not met fully and they felt like a stranger while some others came willingly and their expectations were not met. It can be said that they didn’t experience many problems personally and economically.

While in this study, students stated that they didn’t experience economical problems, in another study, students coming from Iran, Azerbaijan, Mauritania experienced financial difficulties, accommodation, transportation, climate conditions, environmental pollution problems and the most important of these was found to be financial difficulty (Biçer, Çoban, Bakır (2014,133). In another study, it was found out that students that came to Turkey from other Turkish communities experienced economical problems and got some family support in that aspect (Kıroğlu et al. 2010,27). Due to the fact that students participating in this study are coming from a country as Germany, which has a high level of economical status, it can be said that they do not experience economical problems. According to the findings obtained, students had problems in terms of language. In another study, it is stated that students from abroad mostly experience problems related with language (Biçer et al. 2014,134). According to Şahan and Yılmaz (2014, 93); students who went to Germany for studying purposes experienced language problems and some social problems as well. It can be said that findings obtained support this study and students traveling overseas for education experience language problems in general. It is thought that students had trouble in cultural terms, the reason of which may be the fact that two countries differ from each other culturally. Other

studies conducted with foreign students support this finding. It is found out that these students experience loneliness, disorientation, shyness, cultural shock and psychological problems (Biggs, 1999; Furnham,1997; Lewins, 1990; Tomich et al., 2000, Kıroğlu et al., 2010,27).

It is understood that the majority of the students didn’t experience university related problems and when they did, they could solve them. They stated that they were not pleased with the lack of introduction of the university, quality of education, academicians’ lack of interest and transportation issues. It can be said that some of the students experienced problems in making friends with other Turkish students, being involved in social life or feeling accepted in social life. It is understood that most of the students didn’t willingly choose to come to Turkey to study but they came for reasons such as their families’ returning back and they were affected by the problems they faced more. It can be said that some students came willingly, solved their problems and didn’t complain about their status.

However, it can be said that it is necessary universities self-criticize about issues that students are not very happy with and improve themselves in order to attract students from abroad while following good practices of universities abroad. Turkey’s share from foreign student market has remained to be low. Opportunities from Erasmus programs for student and scholar exchanges should be sought and Turkey’s historical, cultural, social and scientific opportunities should be introduced to other countries in order to increase the market share (Paksoy, Paksoy, Özçalıcı, 2012,92).

It would be beneficial that bilingual Turkish children living abroad are attracted

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to Turkey and the problems they have had are considered and improvements are

made.

References Biçer, N, Çoban, İ, Bakır, S (2014) Türkçe Öğrenen Yabancı Öğrencilerin Karşılaştığı Sorunlar: Atatürk Üniversitesi Örneği. Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, The Journal of International Social Research Cilt: 7 Sayı: 29, Issn: 1307-9581 Sabah Gazetesi (2013), Bozdağ’dan Alman İçişleri Bakanı’na. 07.02.2013 (14.05.2016 tarihinde erişilmiştir).

Akbalık,G. (2003) Yurtdışından Dönen Türk Öğrencilerin Uyum Düzeyleri ve Benlik Algıları, Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Dergisi, Sayı 1-2 Die Zeit. 31.05.2016 tarihinde http://www.zeit.de/gesellschaft/zeitgeschehen/201208/tuerken-deutschland-lebenszufriedenheit adresinden erişilmiştir.

Eberhard von Einem (2014) Dönen bilgi de getiriyor (http://www.dw.com/tr/d%C3%B6nenbilgi-de-getiriyor/a-18077874 - 14.04.2016 tarihinde erişilmiştir).

Kuruüzüm, A. (2002) Kesin Dönüş Yapan İşçi Çocuklarının Uyum Problemi Üzerine Bir Alan Araştırması. Akdeniz İ.İ.B.F. Dergisi (3) 102-113 Kıroğlu,K, Kesten,A, Elma, C (2010) Türkiye’de Öğrenim Gören Yabancı Uyruklu Lisans Öğrencilerinin Sosyo Kültürel ve Ekonomik Sorunları Mersin Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Cilt 6, Sayı 2, Aralık 2010, ss.26-39.

Herbert, U. (2001). Geschichte der Ausländerpolitik in Deutschland. C.H.Beck Verlag, Münih.

Rang, M. (2011). Mobil in Europa, BW Bildung und Wissen Verlag, Nürnberg.

Paksoy, H. M, Paksoy, S, Özçalıcı, M. (2012) Türkiye'de Yüksek Öğrenim Gören Yabancı Uyruklu Öğrencilerin Sosyal Sorunları : GAP Bölgesi Üniversiteleri Örneği. Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi ,Aralık, Cilt 2, Sayı 2, ss. 85-94 Şahan, G,Yılmaz, O (2014)Almanya’ya yükseköğrenim için giden Türk öğrencilerin karşılaştıkları problemler ve çözüm önerileri. Gazi Üniversitesi, III. Uluslararası Sosyal Bilgiler Eğitimi Sempozyumu Bildiri Kitabı. 28-30 Nisan.

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A Discussion on the Problem of Will in Philosophy of Mind Ahmet Eyim Assistant Professor Yüzüncü Yıl University Faculty of Literature, Department of Philosophy eyima@yyu.edu.tr, ahmeteyim@gmail.com

Abstract. This study aims at examining the problem of will which is commonly regarded as a part of mind. In philosophy of mind, there are different accounts which purports to define and explain the nature and the reality of mind. The mind is traditionally defined as the entity which has three parts like Thought, Feelings and Will. The problem of will is closely related to problems (or topics) in philosophy of mind like the nature of the mind and the problem of mental causation. In philosophy of mind, Dualism and Materialism are the two fundamental competing theories which try to explain the nature of mind and the problem of mental causation. Dualism admits that mind and body are the two different substances which cannot reduced into each other. Both the mind and body causally affects each other. Nevertheless, Dualism has a difficulty in dealing with the following questions: How could an immaterial mind affect a material body? How could a material body affect an immaterial mind? Unlike Dualism, Materialism suggests that the mind can be reduced into the brain. According to Materialism, our brains causally determine our decisions and will. Hence, the free will is an illusion.

Keywords: Mind, Will, Dualism, Materialism, Causation.

1. Introduction Many concepts that are related to mind and mental states are familiar and everyday concepts. Notions like pain, happiness, emotion, belief and so on can be shown as an example of these concepts. In most cases, all of us know how to apply these concepts and can understand them whenever these concepts are applied by other people.

In philosophy of mind, the mind is commonly defined as something that have three parts like Thought, Feelings and Will. The concept of will is generally considered to be a function of the mind. Wills are defined as specific acts or relations included in mind in the broadest sense.

Through these acts or relations, our minds

transform our wills into the actions. The will is usually conceived of a power to choose to act or refrain from acting in any given occasion. In this study, problem of will (or volition), being one of the main problem in philosophy of mind, will be discussed.

In our daily life, we are talking about a lot of acts of will like “I wanted to do x” or “I wish to make x”. People do something of their own wills if they can choose to either do or not do it, and if their decisions are not forced by circumstances. For example, I drink a cup of tea because I want to, not because anyone (or any circumstances) ordered me to. In daily life, we acknowledge that the same holds for many other actions and inactions. It has been commonly admitted that all codes of all adult human be-

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ings’ behaviors presume free will (or volition) if their decisions are not forced by the circumstances. And in general, free will is commonly defined as the ability to do what a person wants without any effect. Notions like responsibility, praise, guilt, sin and other judgements applying only to actions that are freely chosen are closely linked to the concept of free will. So, the problem of free will is as important in philosophy of mind as it is in politics, in ethics and in theology.

Nevertheless, although the concept of will is used in our daily life, it is a problematic concept at the same time, because when a sentence, involving a voluntarily act, has been analyzed, for example the proposition like “I wanted to fire the gun and fired it”, it can be realized that the proposition refers to the existence of an action in the physical world and also it mentions the existence of the mental processes. In short it is claimed that a mental process like “will to pull the trigger” causes the action “pulling the trigger” which is a physical process. In order to comprehend the problem of will (or volition), it is appropriate to explain why such a proposition is tricky or why the will has generally been regarded as illusory by some philosophers. To discuss what the problem of will (or free will) is requires to discuss some other problems in philosophy of mind such as the nature of mind and the problem of mental causation. In other words, the problem of will (or free will) is related to the questions like “What is the nature of mind?” and “How does it relate to the rest of the physical world?” [4]. For this reason, it will be convenient to continue to discuss the concept of will with the accounts in philosophy of mind that try to explain the nature of mind and the problem of mental causation.

2. Cartesian Dualism and Problem of Mental Causation The problem of mental causation is one of the residual problems that has been inherited from Descartes’ dualism. Before discussing what the problem is, historical trace of the problem should be pursued.

Descartes is the one who gives the first systematic account of the relation (or interaction) between the mind and body. According to him, the reality is comprised of two basic “substances” like the mind and body. Descartes argues that the mind and body are substances of different kind; in other words, the mind and body are

not identical. For Descartes what the mind is a basic substance implies that it cannot be reduced into the body.

Descartes proposes that the mind is a spiritual, immaterial substance. The essential attribute of the mind is to think. For Descartes consciousness, which is an activity of the mind, is the essence of the mind. He argues that as human persons we are aware of our mental activities while our minds are going on and we cannot be wrong concerning our awareness of mental activity. In philosophy of mind, the view that people cannot be wrong (or they are infallible) concerning their mental activities is titled as the infallibility of consciousness [1].

In his Second Meditation, Descartes defines himself as a person who doubts, understands, affirms, denies, is willing and also imagines and has sensory perceptions [2]. From this definition, it can be concluded that for Descartes the mind has some kinds of modes like doubt, understanding, will, imagination, perception, etc.

Such modes cannot be attributed to physical (extended) objects and hence these are the modes that only the mind can have according to Descartes.

For Descartes the body is a material substance. The essential attribute of the body is spatial extension (or dimension). Descartes holds that the body is a mechanism which works according to purely physical principles [1].

Descartes suggests that mind and body have no common attributes. The mind is immaterial and the body is material. They are totally different. Due to having distinctive attributes, the mind and body exclude each other according to Descartes.

Nevertheless, Descartes maintains that mind and bodies are closely related. He admits a human person as some sort of union of a mind and a body [1]. That is to say, he claims that the body causally affects the mind and also the mind causally affects the body. In philosophy of mind, this view is entitled as ‘interactionism’ which maintains that mental states causally interact with physical states. Nonetheless, Descartes has a difficulty in explaining that although the mind and body are so different and yet they have such influence (i.e., they have an interaction between them). In other words, Descartes has a difficulty in dealing with the following questions: How could an immaterial mind affect a material body? How could a material body affect an immaterial mind? Because

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of being immaterial substance, the mind cannot be in contact with the body and vice versa.

The philosophical problem about mental causation of Cartesian dualism can be summarized with some precision as follows: If our mind and mental states are nonphysical, then how could they ever have physical effect on our bodies? In order to demonstrate how the mind causes motion in the body, let us take a willing or a voluntarily act. For example, I decided to raise my arm and I raise consciously. It seems in my experience that my consciousness does move our body. That is to say, my willing causes the raising of my arm. Nonetheless, as stated before, willing is a mode of the mind which is immaterial and unextended, and the raising of my arm is a mode of my body which is material and extended. How can the mind cause this extended effect? Replying the question is a very serious difficulty for Descartes.

Yet at the same time, another story concerning raising my arm is possible. Specifically, the raising of my arm can be explained by referring the biological brain and neuron firings in motor cortex. Hence it looks like causal overdetermination [4]. The concept of overdetermination implies the situation in which there is one single effect determined by multiple causes and each cause would be sufficient to account for the effect. In the raising my arm, there are two different sets of causes that explain the effect ‘the raising my arm’. First one explains with will (or volition) and consciousness. And the second one explains the same event with neurons and the brain.

Descartes cannot consistently offer a solution to the problem of mental causation because his basic assumption is inconsistent with fundamental presumption of modern science. Modern science acknowledges that the physical world is causally closed and anything outside of the physical world cannot act causally in the physical world. That is, the mind which is immaterial and outside of the physical world cannot act causally in the physical world.

John R. Searle clarifies Cartesian inconsistency within four propositions: “(i) The mind- body distinction: the mental and the physical make distinct realms. (ii) The causal closure of the physical: the physical realm is causally closed in the sense that nothing nonphysical can enter into it and act as a cause. (iii) The causal exclusion principle: where the physical causes are sufficient for an event,

there cannot be any other types of causes of that event. (iv) Causal efficacy of the mental: mental states really do function causally” [4].

The inconsistency arising from these propositions demonstrates that Descartes cannot explain the problem of mental causation. Which proposition is false? Which one is the cause of this inconsistency? Searle argues that if the proposition (iv) is false, this leads us to accept epiphenomenalism and if the proposition (i) is false, this leads us to accept materialism [4].

Besides all, there exists another reason to believe in that Dualism is inconsistent with modern science. Modern science, specifically Modern Physics admits that the amount of matter (or energy) in the universe is constant; but Dualism acknowledges the existence of another kind of energy (called the mind or the mental energy) which cannot be fixed by Physics. Hence, one of the fundamental assumptions of Dualism contradicts with one of the most fundamental laws of Physics, i.e., the law of conservation [4].

As it is known, in the contemporary philosophy of mind, some accounts, which suggests that the mind and mental processes within all capacities (like cognition, emotions and will) could be reduced to physical processes, are available. For these accounts it is apparently clear that the traditional mind/ body distinction brings about Descartes’ inefficacy to explain mental causation. This leads us to examine materialist accounts for the mind. Let us analyze these explanation models.

3. Materialism and Materialist accounts Materialism (or materialist accounts), which has emerged as a challenge against Dualism, rejects the world in which both mind (immaterial substance) and body (material substance) are included. That is, Materialism refuses the view that mind and body are the two different kinds of entities (or substances) at the same level. Materialism argues that premise giving traditional mind/ body distinction (i.e. first one) is incorrect.

Materialist accounts can be classified into various groups but all of these accounts recommend that mind and all of mental states can be explained by the brain and neurophysiological processes in the brain. In other words, according to Materialism, the mind is to be identified with a particular part of the body: the brain.

That is, mental states are the physical states of

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the brain [7]. For Materialism, mind and mental states are considered as nothing more than what goes on in the brain. There is a numerical identity between mental states and neurophysiological states in the brain. Every mental state can be reduced into some neurological states or processes. In other words, Materialism accepts that “each type of mental state or process is numerically identical with (is one and the very same thing as) some type of physical states or process within the brain or central nervous system” [7]. More precisely, for every mental process A, there is a process B in a brain system, such that A= B. Materialism proposes that in order to understand the nature of the mind and the mental states, the living (biological) brain must be examined (or studied). This is exactly what cognitive science (neuroscience) has been doing. Materialism (especially identity theory) suggests that any increase in our knowledge concerning our nervous system leads us to discover apparent correlations between mental states and neurological processes in the brain. According to this view, since the mind and mental states can be reduced to neurophysiological processes in the brain, accepting the mind as a substance by dualism will be incorrect.

J. J. C. Smart argues that modern science gives us a viewpoint from which organism can be seen as physico-chemical mechanism [5].

For Materialism mental activity is nothing but a certain subclass of neurophysiological processes in the brain. Mind and mental states cannot be causes of any events or states in the body according to Materialism.

There are some arguments against Materialist accounts such as Qualia and Absent Qualia, Inverted Spectrum Argument, and Argument from Reduction, etc. Among these counter arguments, the argument from reduction is vitally important. It is so, because Materialism accepts that the mind and the mental states can be reduced into the brain and neuro-physiological processes in the brain.

In the twentieth century both in philosophy science and in philosophy of mind, reduction is a problem widely discussed. Since the purpose and scope of this study is not to discuss the problem of reduction, it would be appropriate to discuss it in brief and give an example for demonstrating why the reduction is taken as a problematic issue.

Let us continue to discuss the problem with an example. As all we know, water consists

entirely of H2O molecules. For the proponents of Reductionism, a water molecule is identical to two hydrogen molecules and one oxygen.

“There are not two different things, water and H2O molecules; there is only one thing, water, consisting entirely of H2O molecules.” [4]. On the other hand, the opponents of Reductionism maintain that a water molecule is not identical to two hydrogen molecules and one oxygen. It is always more than a combination of these molecules. That is to say, the water molecule is more than a H2O molecule, because it has a property like fluidity which neither hydrogen nor oxygen has. Fluidity is an emergent property and the existence of such an emergent property proves that reduction of water into H2O molecules is not possible. Hence, the assertion that the mind and the mental states can be reduced into the brain and neuro-physiological states in the brain is not acceptable.

Similarly, Hilary Putnam argues that reduction of the mind into the brain is not possible because the reduction among them can be carried out in more than one possible way. For example, when we say that someone is in pain, it is highly difficult to prove that the pain is perfectly identical to only one particular event (or a process) in the brain [2]. Besides, the argument from introspection has been offered by Dualists as an argument against Materialism in order to demonstrate that the mind cannot be reduced in the brain. “Mental states and properties, as revealed in introspection, appears radically different from any neurophysiological states or properties” [7]. That is, seeing (or experiencing) a beautiful red rose is obviously not identical to seeing what goes on in the brain. This argument also implies that two persons can have qualitatively different experiences even though the number of neurophysiological states in their brain is similar (or the same). Hence the argument from introspection demonstrates that the inner states of one’s mind are not identical to the physical states of her/his brain. Hence, the reduction of mind into the brain is impossible.

Despite the fact that, it is difficult to assume that the reality and irreducibility of the mind and mental states prove that the mind and the mental states are something more than or different from the brain and the brain system.

While there is a clear relationship between brain and mind, we have to accept the dualism if we say that the mental phenomena are irreducible to physical phenomena.

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On the other hand, if the reduction of mind into the brain is taken to be possible, then it will be seen that Materialism offers a straightforward solution to the mind-body problem and the problem of mental causation. Since mind and mental states are taken to be nothing more than neurological processes in the brain, there is no special difficulty in explaining (or understanding) causal relation which holds between the mind and body. That is, to say that a mental state causes a physical event will be to say that one neurological event causes another one if the mind can be reduced into the brain and the neurophysiological processes in the brain [3].

Our current conception of mind in cognitive science is that the brain is a machine which is a completely deterministic system. As a physical object, the brain obeys the laws (or rules) of physical realm and its working rules have been determined by the nature (or laws of nature). In other saying, the brain is the slave of physical realm (or its environment). So, at the most basic level, it cannot be conceivable to assume that the brain is non- deterministic. To admit the existence of a non-deterministic brain is an illusion. Quantum mechanics and randomness cannot be an answer to the claim that the brain is deterministic, because quantum mechanics gives us randomness, but not freedom. Such a conception fits well with materialist accounts [4].

So, accepting materialist accounts concerning the mind/ body problem leads to certain (fundamental) philosophical problems. When saying that all mental states are identical to the states of the brain, what would the concepts like consciousness and will (or volition) mean? Especially, concerning the problem of will (or free will) what would materialist accounts say?

Materialism suggests that the mind and mental states can be reduced into the brain and the neurophysiological processes in the brain.

Hence, the brain and the neurophysiological processes in the brain causally determine a person’s decision and will (or volition). Our mental states cannot causally be sufficient to determine all of our voluntary actions. Will (or volition) and decision are just functions of the human brain (of the prefrontal cortex of human brain) [6]. That is, the states of a person’s mind are entirely causally determined by her/ his brain, so her/ his will (or volition) cannot be sufficient to determine her/ his decisions and actions. According to Materialism, without any exception, all mental states are entirely deter-

mined by the states of the brain. Thus for example, conscious or unconscious, all of our mental states like ‘pains’, ‘thoughts’, and ‘feelings’ are determined by the activities going on in our brains. If there occurs any change in our brain activity, then our mental states would change. More specifically, materialist accounts claim that our decisions can be changed by interfering with our brains in various ways, such as electrically stimulating the frontal lobes or parietal cortex of our brains [6].

In recent years, the outcomes of researches on the brain are consistent with the views of materialism which proposes that all mental states including consciousness and free will are entirely determined by the brain. These researches corroborate that the free will is no more than an illusion and that our actions are initiated by brain activity long before we become aware of our intention to act. More precisely, the researches confirm that “the outcome of a decision can be encoded in brain activity of prefrontal and parietal cortex up to 10 second before it enters awareness” [9]. In other saying, the experiments conducted in these researches demonstrate that our brain had already (unconsciously) made a decision even before we became aware of it, because during these experiments, it had been recorded that the brain activity consistently preceded the conscious decision [9]. Another conclusion drawn from these experiments, the researchers can predict that what people would choose before they themselves realized that they have made a decision.

The say that the mind causally effects the body is simply a confusion of correlations with causation. The mind and mental states cannot cause the body’s movement or cannot determine one’s decision. To accept the opposite is an illusion. Such illusion has been demonstrated by the researches on brain damages. These researches proves that the brain is reason for will.

According to these researches, “people with serious damage to that brain region [the prefrontal cortex of the brain] lack free will: they are swayed by the stimuli impinging on them.

Thus, the removal or disconnection of significant portions of nervous tissue in the prefrontal cortex causes ‘environmental dependency syndrome’- an irreversible disorder.” [6].

Hence, empirical evidence arising from current researches in cognitive science gives a very strong support to Materialism. Unlike Dualism, Materialism can consistently give the explana-

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tion for the will by saying that free will is an illusion.

References [1]

4. Conclusion We have to accept the result that the mind and the mental states emerges as a result of physical and neurophysiological processes in the brain if we admit that the mind and all mental states within all capacities (such as cognition, emotion, will, etc.) can be reduced into the physical (or biological) brain. If oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s will is reduced to neurophysiological processes in the brain, who will decide the actions on which the mind or especially will is based? Is that if our brains, our minds? When it is taken into consideration that our brains, being a physical entity, cannot be in out of physical realm and has to obey physical rules, can one speak of free will in the actions that our brains decide on?

Because of being incapable to offer a solution to the problem of mental causation, Dualism cannot explain how the will determines our physical actions. Conversely, Materialism seems to be consistent in replying these questions stated above.

[2]

[3] [4] [5] [6]

[7] [8]

[9]

David M. Armstrong, The Mind- Body Problem: An Opinionated Introduction, Colorado: Westview Press, 1999.

Hilary Putnam, Brains and Behaviour, in Philosophy of Mind: A Contemporary Introduction, Edited by John Heil, London and New York: Routledge, 2000.

John Heil, Philosophy of Mind: A Contemporary Introduction, London and New York: Routledge, 2000.

John R. Searle, Mind: A Brief Introduction, New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.

J. J. C. Smart, Sensations and Brain Processes, Philosophical Review, 1959: xx-xx Mario Bunge, Matter and Mind: A Philosophical Inquiry (Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, Vol: 287], London and New York: Springer, 2010.

Paul M. Churchland, Matter and Consciousness, Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1998.

Rene Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, Edited and with an introduction by Stanley Tweyman, London and New York: Routledge, 1993.

Soon, C. S., Brass, M., Heinze, H.-J. & Haynes, J.-D., Unconscious determinants of free decisions in the human brain, Nature Neurosci, doi: 10.1038/nn.2112, 2008, 543- 545.

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Fact and Value Paradox in Social Sciences M. Ali Sarı (Assoc. Prof.)

Pamukkale University, Department of Philosophy masari@pau.edu.tr Abstract: In this study primarily we will try to determine boundaries of debate on the distinction between fact and value. Although debate is a logical debate we will try to show that it has semantic epistemological and ontological dimensions to support this argument. In particular, it can be said that understandings evaluating fact and value distinction as a contradiction approached the issue from naturalistic and the positivistic perspective and accordingly they return discussion to Hume and reduce to a matter of reasoning. However, one way of positing an explanatory thesis regarding the fact and value matter entails a conception more than reduction of matter to pure logic problem or a language / meaning problem. It will be more comprehensive and useful to deal with fact and value terms with a holistic approach especially involving ontological point of view.

Key Words: Fact and Value Problem, Fact and Value Distinction, Fact and Value Contradiction, Fact and Value Impartibility.

1- Introduction Is there a distinction between statements voicing facts and value and value judgments statement? Such questions form the debate about fact and value relationship in general.

Debate on whether there is a distinction between 'Fact and value' or “fact judgments and value judgments” in one sense coincides with primordial discrimination and relationship between natural world and human world.

Considering the separation between natural world and human world actually debate on what knowledge and science are may also be considered in this frame. When we look at the whole history of philosophy it is clear that there is a problem regarding world where human deed (acts) take place. In particular, rise of natural science with the new era and the claim that information put forward by these sciences carries a certain set of objective characteristics constitutes an example for sciences which may be concerned about the human world. The conception here is as following: at this point, humans know the world formed of natural phenomena at the degree of objectivity. Could it be case for the human world as well? Can there be a science that studies the human world likewise sciences that study the natural phenomena? Thus, one of the problems manifested at the point of establishing a science examining human world is object of this science. This means that; from one aspect human world is a world with characteristics different from natural phenomena and this world expresses not “what is there?” but “what should be there?” Talking

about what should be means talking about “value” and “evaluation.”

Thus, with regard to the relationship between fact and value problem following can be said to be fundamental questions. Is fact / value distinction facts/ value dichotomy? If there is such a distinction, what is the basis? If there is a basis for this distinction could it be an ontological and epistemological basis? In other words is basic distinction between fact and value epistemological or ontological? Is it possible to derive propositions stating value from factual propositions which are descriptive through deduction? Whether such a proposition is possible or not, what is the basis? In other words what is the internal structure of the logical relationship or break between the value and fact?

In this study primarily we will try to determine boundaries of debate on the distinction between fact and value. Although debate is a logical debate we will try to show that it has semantic, epistemological and ontological dimensions to support this argument. In particular, it can be said that understandings evaluating fact and value distinction as a contradiction approached the issue from naturalistic and the positivistic perspective and accordingly they return discussion to a matter of reasoning. On the other hand, in terms of pragmatist approach examining issue as a matter of truthiness Putnam's main arguments against fact and value distinction will be presented considering Putnam has separate opinions. With all these it is said that: One way of giving an explanatory thesis regarding the fact and value is not to reduce matter to logic

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problem or language problem. It will be more comprehensive and useful to deal with fact and value terms with a holistic approach especially involving ontological point of view.

2- ‘What are 'Fact' and 'Value'?

In general fact expresses things which are in the world that can be reached by senses; perceived by senses; that can be observed and tested; having a reality in outside world and that is happening. Because fact is based on sense and test it can be said that fact states what is there and what is happening.

On the other hand, 'value' is a more problematic concept compared to fact.

Therefore there are value descriptions different from each other. Value compared with fact is related to “what should be” instead of “what is?” In short, value is defined as irreducible goodness and evil actions of an object.

Accordingly, a value judgment is an irreducible judgment about good, evil, etc. of something or a judgment equivalent "what should be done" or "what should not be done."

[1] For example Frankena divides philosophical explanation of the concept of value as abstract and concrete. [2] [3] In general value as an abstract concept, unlike descriptive predicates, is used for all kinds of predicates reporting positive and negative attitudes. According to Frankena as a concrete concept value is used for a thing that is evaluated, judged to be valuable, or considered as good and desirable. [2] It judges as “values of that human" or "his value system" and it may indicate something thought to be good by a human and it may also indicate thing people think correct or they are accountable. Behind such a use of term according to Frankena there is implicit acceptance of the opinion that nothing has objective value. In such a use because value is considered to be product of the human mind it varies according to culture and person. [3] [2] This distinction between fact and value also constitutes a basis for distinction between facts and value judgments. Obviously factual propositions are indicated by a factual object.

In this context determination of the truthiness value of a proposition is based on extralinguistic reality. According to understanding accepted as one of basic approaches about what truthiness is and claims truthiness is

correspondence, truthiness value of a proposition is determined by the corresponding facts. [1] According to approach defined truthiness as "consistency" if a theory will be consistent in this case facts constitute ontological connection requested by current theories.

According to these definitions an explanation about judgments informing fact and value albeit it I is superficial can be asserted.

Accordingly, objects in question have a number of features. One of them is goodness or badness of the object. For example, murder of a Y person by X person 'using a knife' can be explained as bad morally. Even it can be said that information regarding murder of Y by X is valuable for police but on the other hand bad for X. When we examine such an example, there is no logical relationship between fact that X killed Y and that said the action performed using blade, etc. [1] In other words, X may accept that committed action and on the other hand deny that this is committed by means of a knife and there is no any contradiction.

Likewise there is no relationship between assertion that X killed one and this action is wrong morally. There is no logical contradiction between X accepted this action and denial that this is wrong morally. In a similar manner, it is logically possible that X performed this action but it is useless information for police. [1] It can be said that fact /value contradiction understanding is often only used to show understanding expressed by factual judgments.

Even it is claimed that value judgments are not cognitive. In other words, objects which are subject of value judgment are assumed not to be proven with evidence (irreducible good and evil). On the other hand, in terms of cognitive position of judgment it cannot be said that it is linked to a pre-judged provision. If value judgments are descriptive) in other words, if there is a factual situation that determines the value of the judgment, and then a value claim shows a fact about an object. Accordingly, it is quite possible that facts related to values in general may be subtypes of facts. Here relationship between facts about hedgehogs and subtype facts may be shown as a similar relationship. [1] [4]

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If values judgments are not descriptive that is there is no factual situation that determines truthiness or truthiness of value judgments then explanation of fact/value differentiation is very simple. In fact/value distinction problem, area of judgments that may be right or wrong throws out judgments stating value necessarily.

From the perspective that truthiness value of judgments should be based on a factual situation that determines it; the term 'value' is a feature of the facts. Accordingly, fact also relates to language and reality outside meaning. Facts determine meaning of the language and truthiness of value in terms of judgment.

3- Historical Background While in general positivism and specifically logical positivism understanding science as knowledge and natural sciences accept values as normative argue that there is a gap between value and fact that cannot be closed.

Pragmatists claim that there is no significant gap between fact and value and such a distinction is unclear and blurred. Critical theorists openly criticize positivism to undermine discrimination between fact and value.

Roughly approaches that could be called positivist and realist claim that origin of distinction between fact and value is based on distinction of D. Hume “is-ought”. According to orthodox approaches in Treatise, III, Pt. I, Section I Hume asked whether value can be derived from with a logical validity criterion.

Hume makes a determination in "Treatise" as follows: "In every system of morality that I met until now this issue caught my attention always: The author reveals the existence of a God by following standard reasoning methods for a certain time and makes some observations regarding human activities. But all of a sudden I am surprised that instead of "is" and "is not" factual propositions with judgment expressions like "ought" or "ought not" valued containing proposition. Although this change is such a change that cannot be recognized this is the final result. [5] Because such "ought" or "ought not" terms express a number of relations it is necessary to monitor and explain situation. At the same time it is necessary to explain what kinds of deduction can this new relationship established between

two things that are completely different". [5] In this text Hume draws attention to relationship between fact and value or propositions describing status of fact and propositions asserting value and at the same time he says that it is necessary to structure of value based propositions. In this context problem in question for value based propositions for Hume is how to obtain these propositions from factual propositions.

Therefore answers given to basic questions after Hume about fact and value in can be counted as following.

(A) It is not possible to derive value from fact logically: The claims contained in this understanding have empiric and positivist basic framework. (ı) Value Subjectivism: Judgments expressing value are problematic. Value related questions cannot be answered objectively. (ıı) Fact Objectivism: Judgments stating fact can be expressed in an objective manner.

Empirical problems are solvable.

(B) It is possible to derive value from fact reasonably: (ı) Value Naturalism: Judgments stating value can be clearly (slightly) inferred from factual judgments. (ıı) Value Reductionism: Value judgments can be reduced to factual judgments clearly.

(A) It is not possible to derive fact from the value logically: Logical Empiricists for example R. Carnap, H. Reichenbach, etc., don’t acknowledge value propositions as true and meaningful propositions because they are ethical and normative propositions. Carnap's position in this respect is close to emotivism. Because ethical judgments are statements indicating more sentiment. A. J. Ayer from logical empiricist tradition in emotivist ethical understanding claims that 'value' cannot be derived from fact in any way and indicates that there is a logical disconnection between them based on said text of Hume. [6] According to Reichenbach, normative ethics is separate from "scientific philosophy" in terms of being an area of ancient metaphysics.

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According to this perspective, values and norms cannot express action directly, necessarily and descriptively. [7] R. M. Hare one of the leading figures of the normative ethics expresses thesis that it is not possible to derive "values" from "facts" through deduction as "Hume's Law". [2] [8] "If we accept answers of questions about management and arrangement of selections of human, namely 'what shall I do?' as a part of moral judgment function then it will be clear that no moral judgment may be a merely factual proposition.

This is derived from following rule: “no result expressing commandments cannot be derived from set of premises not containing at least one commandment in logically valid way.

According to Hare basis of Hume's famous observation about the impossibility of deriving value based proposition from factual propositions lies in this logic rule". [8] [2] Thus Hare, claiming that there is a logical gap between value and fact he says that this is based on a logical rule that belongs to Hume.

Therefore in terms of understanding accepting that there is no relationship and logical disconnect between value and fact it is not possible to derive value from fact. Deduction of value from fact is not valid in any way. In such a deduction if a descriptive proposition that can be defined as factual is used in a premise position then value based inference is invalid due to its proposition. In short, deriving a value based inference based on a factual proposition is an invalid inference.

For example; Premise: X hurts people.

Inference: So I shouldn’t do X. In above inference –there are many such examples- our proposition as premise expresses fact. Such a proposition is a fact based descriptive proposition. As it is known, such propositions are propositions stating situation. The premise determines the nature of a situation. However, inference derived from this proposition expresses a duty or responsibility instead of specifying a situation.

In short proposition put forward as an inference emerges as a proposition expressing a character not available in premise. In a valid deduction inference should be included in premise even as implicitly.

Claims that value cannot be derived from fact can be expressed in the following format: (1) Factual judgments are provable objectively and accurately value judgments are subjective and not accurate.

If claim that knowledge is related to fact is considered in terms of realism then ethical insights which are not cognitive (non-cognitive view of ethics) will be in opposite symmetry with proposition (1). The position of pragmatic approach in such a situation accepts fallibility of propositions expressing both fact and value and opposition to critical information and investigation.

(2) Facts and value judgments have the same position in terms of accurate assessment and grounding.

Such an argument is supported by two separate ethical understanding approaching value and fact distinction from cognitive (ethical cognitivism) point of view. One of them is ethical intuitionism approach of G. E. Moore and another one is naturalist reductionism.

According to Moore value is conceived via intuition directly and ability to comprehend value is available in human as a possibility. [2] [7] Evil, goodness, truth and falsehood of a number of behaviors can be known through intuition clearly and distinctly. Moral values known through intuition, non-natural ethical properties are known by birth simply and clearly. Therefore, they do not require to be validated cognitively. According to Moore, is not possible to identify “good” as a moral value. Then why good cannot be defined?

According to Moore good cannot be defined not because it is unknown but because it is a simple concept like "yellow color." [9] Moore's basic argument here is that "true definition of an object is associated with that object being complex." For example definition of a horse it is possible to reduce it to indefinable and simple qualities and items.

Terms describing these simple features expressing the horse are now indefinable. It is not possible to identify them. These are simple concepts that we understand and we reason and it is not possible to explain them to a person who doesn’t grasp them with any description.

According to Moore good is also not a complex concept that can be defined but a simple concept. [9] [2]

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According to Moore describing concepts expressing value like good as complex concepts means "naturalistic fallacy."

Naturalistic fallacy is erroneous in identifying a simple concept like good with other concepts. For example, those describing good as 'pleasure' try to identify good with other concepts. The basic mistake here is “failure to distinguish single and indefinable quality like good". [9] [2]

The basic claim of this argument is that: Facts, "are not in a self-separable world in our world of actions". [10] For us, the world is always linked to a value-laden conceptualization framework Therefore this world is a “manmade world” depending on our assessments made of our natural actions. So that fact and value like ethics and science are inextricably bound to our actions in our world full of lives.

[10]

On the other "naturalistic reductionism" understanding try to describe value with natural physical and mental default properties like need, pleasure and happiness. As an example of reductionism evolutionist ethics describes the good as a state of an entity under survival conditions. [7] Although naturalistic reductionism (unlike Moore) has a fallible attitude in epistemology, as moral realism it puts forward discussable metaphysical assumptions in terms of existence and reality of moral qualities, human will and freedom of actions. Therefore, according to moral realism qualities defined generally as value and individually as moral values have natural reality and thus they are based on fact. Thus propositions expressing value are not different than factual propositions in terms of justification and verification. Therefore reductionist approaches are in complete contrast with Moore's "naturalistic fallacy" argument.

(B) It is possible to derive value from the fact reasonably:

According to 'moral subjectivism supporting (2) argument claiming that relationship between fact and value is symmetrical judgments stating value can be true or wrong in relation to person's assessment: synonym of a judgment like "X is good" is "I love X" or "X is important." [7] According to the subjectivist epistemology "p is true" means "I believe P." One of the most important representatives of moral subjectivist approach, C. S. F. Schiller supports the thesis that fact and value are symmetrical. According to Schiller (2) argument can be made consistent with the argument (1) with a proper foundation. Schiller claims that such a subjectivism can be defended through "humanism" concept in terms of showing the relationship between fact and value. [7] (3) Facts and value are in the same position in terms of human actions.

There are two prominent proponents of this approach. One of them is A. MacIntyre and G. Hunter. Both thinkers think that those claiming that value cannot be derived from fact logically misinterpreted Hume. For them, Hume has already derived value from the fact in his understanding of morality with various means.

It was therefore not a problem for Hume to derive value from fact. [11] MacIntyre asserts that concept of deduction used by Hume in said paragraph was not used in current technical sense. According to him, Hume didn’t express a valid inference format in the sense understood today but he expresses an ordinary inference format.

Therefore MacIntyre pointed out that a single paragraph is not adequate to understand Hume correctly about fact and value rather entire moral philosophy of Hume should be considered in detail. Hunter also has a similar understanding as MacIntyre and said that Hume didn’t say that value cannot be derived from the fact. He only said that previous authors have failed to explain how it is possible make such deduction. [12] According to Hunter, Hume tried to explain how it is possible. [2] 4- Uncertainty of Value and Fact Distinction and Pragmatic Approach According to pragmatic approach covering W. James and H. Putnam there is no sharp distinction between fact and value. Fact and value are distinction is a blurred distinction in many ways. Main thesis of James here is that truthiness and value are identical to each other.

[1] [13] In his book named "The Meaning of Truth" James claims about trueness that “significant moment in our experience is basically connected to another one by directing us there." According to this "trueness" is based

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on the basis of being "valuable." According to the usefulness and truthiness of the basic approach is a direct correlation James said.

Therefore, "true" and "benefit" terms can be interchangeably used. The relationship between true and benefit can be expressed simply as follows: "It is true, because it is useful," "It is useful, because it is true."

According to James there is no difference between the two judgments.

In his book named The Collapse of the Fact/Value Distinction (2002) and 6 and 9 sections of his work titled "Reason, Truth and History", Putnam criticizes the fact and value distinction sharply by explaining uncertainty of fact and value distinction with his arguments.

Sami Philström defends Putnam's theory of fact and value distinction in his work titled Pragmatic Moral Realism (2005) as a part of his project called "naturalizing transcendental philosophy." [14] According to S. Philström arguments put forward by Putnam regarding the distinction between fact and value constitute interconnected critiques which are fairly complex and interwoven.

Putnam begins his work The Collapse of the Fact/Value Distinction (2002) (p. Viii) with a warning: "If value and fact is separated from each other even if for once they can no longer be unified." [15] This argument for Putnam is in no way convincing because things always coexist in reality (for example substance and form in Aristotle's metaphysics, relation of weight and height in body). Thus conceptually distinction between fact and value is possible however objects have factual and value properties or factual beliefs and evaluations can be found in a combination and interaction in human existence. [7] On the other hand, Putnam asserts that fact and value judgments distinction is useful in some points. However, such a distinction does not constitute a metaphysical basis in any way. In other words, a distinction should not be glorified for duality and separation to classify all judgments absolutely and consuming mode.

[15] [16] Regarding the uncertainty of distinction between fact and value, an understanding led also by Putnam is an understanding that; “factual claims indicate value claims." In its essence whenever this understanding makes

descriptive judgments, person making such claims assume necessarily many value claims at the same time." Putnam's example about this issue is as follows: "The cat is on the mat."

When a person makes such a statement, such person uses many conceptual resources about terms “cat” and “mat” provided by a special culture, assuming some elements of that culture. At this point we have a category of cat in the first instance. If we expand it further it can be said that we have category of animal and non-animal. Because cat is on the mat shows that we have a mat category based on our feature that we can distinguish animate and inanimate objects and at the same time we distinguish inanimate ones as artificial and non-artificial. At the same time we are also very much interested about the purpose and nature of artificial things. Due to a mat where there is not anything else but a cat on it and because we are interested in spatial relationships we have a top category. [1] [15] Accordingly, it can be said that all actions, behaviors and judgments express certain values and selections of subject. Any act, behavior or expression is sometimes consistent with some values it may also be consistent with other values. For example "I can make the distinction a good distinction between "animal" and "non-animals" because I think that it is a good distinction of even if I don’t think it is a good distinction only to convince others. [1] Originally thing causing my attitude as a factual problem as is incomprehensible at least behaviorally. In brief Putnam tried to say that here: If we have value judgments then these value judgments should be shown in our actions in a manner. Because expression, saying, claiming etc. things are also types of action they should be reflected value judgments in a way.

One of the arguments Putnam put forward in order to show the uncertainty of the distinction between fact and value is the argument that "some factual claims are also value claims".

[1] The argument Putnam refused here is "two components theory." According to this theory terms which are not self-clear can be defined through other terms semantically. For example the term 'single' can be resolved in terms like 'unmarried, 'man' and 'lawyer' ‘attorney’ practitioner and within 'law' terms. Now Putnam's examples related to this argument are formed of arguments like "He is

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unsympathetic" and "That woman does everything for money". [1] These statements suggest some information about a person that can be described as good or bad. According to Putnam to distinguish evaluative from factual it is necessary to redefine factual in a language that does not contain any evaluative claim.

However, this is not possible. Any resolution made within physical language fails in grasping the meaning of "unsympathetic". [1] For example, any part of the movement describing "action" does not mean the same thing with "action." According to Smith the issue here is: any "... application requirements are valid within ordinary language predicate which is not well linked to those having physical condition." Smith argues that by this it is meant that: "If there are two components of 'X is sympathetic then the single definition that can give factual meaning of the proposition is only that it is true that X is sympathetic. And such a case invalidates the factual component idea". [1] Thus, Putnam's objection is that: If we separate the factual one from evaluative content of a term, by using the term we can show only "factual component."

For Putnam any such initiative should assume possibility of such a distinction clearly. In other words, facts and values are ontologically different and therefore "two component theories" may not be put forward as an argument for separation of fact and value.

One of understandings Putnam refuses in terms of fact and value distinction is the attempt to justify value and value judgments through "moral subjectivism." While Putnam tries to stay away from such relativity he prefers a position expressing objectivity without objects.

[17] At this point, the way Putnam refers to solve the problem of fact and value is external realism concept. [7] [15]. According to understanding assuming truthiness as ideal rational acceptability truthiness may be applied symmetrically to all propositions including factual and value propositions. Measure here offered for truthiness is acceptance of truth through a consensus. One of those adopted such a truthiness approach is J. Habermas.

According to this approach such a consensus telling what truth is objective. Such a consensus is characterized by ideal rational conditions and formed by a community of researchers. Habermas defines community of researchers who accept said rules as a

community sharing free, democratic and neutral communication and discussion responsibility. [18] However, according to Putnam, Habermas's understanding describes a value-free thesis that is limited with norms. On the other hand according to another format of externalist realism, objects and facts are relative in terms of our conceptual world.

Accordingly, facts carry a meaning with regards to language and conceptual practices.

In particular, acknowledgement of scientific "truths" is fully value based because they are based on assessments such as congruence, simplicity and projected success. In this context problem of relationship between scientific facts and theories arises. It is claimed that a number of concepts, principles and rules that are involved in scientific theories express value much more than fact. According to Philstrรถm world or ontological structure of world is always relative in terms of human acts. [14] 5- Conclusion In this study the problem dealt with is that: what is fact and value problem, limits of the debate and basic approaches to the problem developed main understandings. Considering what problem of fact and value the problem is addressed primarily in terms of logical aspects that is to say as a reasoning problem. At this point it can be said that problem of fact and value is defined as whether it is possible to derive value judgments from descriptive factual propositions through a deduction.

Discussion in this context includes questions such as; if such an inference is possible; how is it possible and if not possible then why it is not possible?

In quest of answers to such questions, whether positive or negative, it can be said that discussion is reduced to a semantic problem.

Some approaches have reduced the problem to problem of meaning based on an approach reflecting language analysis in order to establish fact and value relationship. On the other hand, some discourses have approached the issue in terms of moral philosophy. In particular, Putnam's approach as an attempt to eliminate fact and value distinction is an understanding addressing the issue in many dimensions. Putnam tried to examine the issue from semantic dimension to ontological and epistemological dimensions and revealed

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uncertainty of this distinction. As a result, it can be said that some approaches trying to develop a solution for distinction between fact and value addressed the problem in terms of

certain assumptions instead of a holistic approach. Thus fact and value debate stands as a problem difficult and fuzzy to be understood.

References

[12] G. Hunter, , “Hume on ‘is’ and ‘ought’”, The Is-Ought Question: A Collection of Papers on the Central Problems of Moral Philosophy, London, (1969), 59-61

[1] J.P. Smith, Olgu-Değer Ayrılmazlığı Varsayımı, (Çev. Emin Çelebi), Isparta, flsf dergisi, (2010), 9, 99-117.

[2] R. Kılıç, Olgu ve Değer Problemi, Ankara, Ankara Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, (1996), 355-402.

[3] W.K. Frankena, “Value and Valuation”, Encyclopedia of Philosophy, vol. III, (1967), 229-30.

London,

[4] C.R. Pigden, “Naturalism” in Singer. P (ed.), A Companion to Ethics, Oxford, Blackwell, (1993), 421-31.

[5] D. Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature, Oxford, Clarendon Press, (1978), ııı,i, 469-470.

[13] W. James, The Meaning of Truth, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, (1978), 98.

[14] S. Philström, Pragmatic Moral Realism: A Transcendental Defence, Amsterdam: Rodopi, (2005), 28.

[15] H. Putnam, The Collapse of the Fact/Value Distinction, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, (2002), viii.

[16] C. Hookway, “Dichotomies; Facts and Epistemic Values”, in Rivas Montroy et al., (2008), 55-69.

[6] A. J. Ayer, Logical Positivism, Glencoe, III, (1959), 22-23.

[17] H. Putnam, Ethics without Ontology, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, (2002), 108.

[7] I. Niiniluoto, Facts and Values-A Useful Distinction, First Nordic Pragmatism Conference, Helsinki, (2008).

[18] J. Habermas, Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action, Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, (1990).

[8] R.M. Hare, Freedom and Reason, Oxford, (1961), 108, 186.

[9] G. E. Moore, Principia Ethica, Cambridge, (1978), 10, 59.

[10] S. Philström, Naturalizing the Transcendental: A Pragmatic View, Amherst, Prometheus/Humanity Books, (2003).

[11] A.C. MacIntyre, “Hume on ‘is’ and ‘ought’”, The Is-Ought Question: A Collection of Papers on the Central Problems of Moral Philosophy, London, (1969), 32-48.

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Comparison of Environmental Information and Behavioral Level of Classroom Teachers in Turkey: Bursa City Example Assoc. Prof. Ph. D. Elif KARAKURT TOSUN Uludag University, Social Sciences Vocational School ekarakurt@uludag.edu.tr Abstract The teachers who will give environmental education to children are supposed to have knowledge about the basic issues regarding the environment, to be at a certain sensitivity level about the environmental issues, to assume active roles in the process of reducing the environmental problems and, in this acpect in their daily lives, to exhibit behaviours towards protecting the environmental values. The classroom teachers educating the children at the age of primary school being "environmentally literate" and these teachers educating their students in this direction will be one of the components contributing to the protection of the environmental values, creation of the awareness concerning the environmental issues and eventually, construction of a sustainable furture. In the research carried out with the classroom teachers at the primary schools and depending on the basis of vol untariness within the scope of "Environmental Knowledge and Environmental Behavior of the Classroom Te achers Survey"", an environmental literacy survey has been applied to 310 teachers.

Key Words. Environmental literacy, Classroom teachers, Bursa, Environmental knowledge, Environmentally beneficial behaviour.

1.

Introduction

The classroom teachers are - since there is no compelling nature arrangement regarding the children go to the kindergartens in Turkey and hence there are not compulsory kindergartensthe first educators that individuals encounter in the formal education system after their families.

When the possibilities that the families might not always be knowledgeable and sensitive for the environmental values and problems are taken into consideration, the classroom teachers come into importance. The primary school period which is a period when the social relations and personalities of children improves and the sensitivity of the educators in this period for the environment is of a great importance in this context.

At the present time, during the period in which environmental education has been accepted as the most effective way of avoiding the environmental problems threatening the lives of human beings and all of the creatures in the environmental system (Teksöz, Şahin Ertepınar, 2010; UNESCO, 1978), the environmental awareness levels of the

instructors who will give this education to the individuals is also being discussel. The studies conducted in the academic world has revealed that the environmental levels of the teachers who give environmental education to the individuals, particularly to the children, is not sufficient (Kışoğlu, 2009; Sevinç and all, 2008; Tuncer and all, 2008; Erten, 2005).

Due to the limited academic studies towards the teachers especially during the primary school period when the personality development is realized and the permanent behavior patterns are shaped, the environmental awareness levels of the classroom teachers have been dicussed in this study.

2.

Environmental Awareness

The environmental awareness is a form of behavior, attitude and thinking that the individuals and the communities are supposed to possess in order to have a balanced relationship with the environment (Çepel, 1995). On the basis of this, without destroying the environment, people's internalization of the principle to benefit from it lies.

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Environmental awareness consists of three layers related with each other: environmental knowledge, attitude about the sustainability of environmental systems and environmentally beneficial behavior. In other words, the environmental awareness is composed of thoughts including decisions related with the environment, principles, comments, behaviours which are the transfer of these thoughts to the life and various emotions related with all of these. These three dimensions do not always improve at the same rate. For example, even though there are people who have knowledge related with the environment but cannot transform this into behaviors, the individiuals who are worried about the destruction of the environment but do not exhibit the required behaviors towards protecting it also exist.

In order to have the environmental awareness develop in the inviduals, an effective environmental education should be given to the children beginning from the early ages. With the environmental education which will begin in the family, later on will continue without intervals within the formal education system, the individuals will gain a general knowledge about the functioning of the environmental system, will be in positive attitude at the point of protecting the environmental values, and eventually, will shape the behaviors in their daily lives in this context.

The basic concepts related to the environment and the positive behaviors towards the the environment should primarily shape and be acquired in the family basis. Within the the framework of the natural flow of the daily life in the family, the child acquires the basic behavior patterns through the way of observation and imitation. The educators and the teachers with whom the children meet after the family are also of importance as much as the families at least. For this, the educators and the teachers who will give this education to them should primarily have knowledge about the basic issues related to the environment, be at a certain awareness level about the environmental problems, assume active role in process of reducing the environmental problems and accordingly exhibit behaviors towards protecting the environmental values in their daily lives. As an extention of this idea, in the 1990 US National Environmental Act, it has been aimed to provide the teachers with

environmental educations at the local and national level, to integrate into the environmental education programs. According to this, as the pre-requisite for the environmental education programs launched at the national level to reach their goals, it has been determined that the teachers who will give the environmental education are required to be adequately educated about the environmental values (Chepesiuk, 2007).

3.

Method

This study aimed to compare the classroom teacher of environmental knowledge and environmentally beneficial behavior. This study was carried out in Bursa - Osmangazi County of the city. In the Bursa - Osmangazi County, 1824 classroom teachers have been serving. 310 of these teachers face to face survey was conducted.

Initially, the written permission has been taken from the Bursa - Osmangazi County National Education Directorate for the purpose of implementing the "Environmental Knowledge and Environmental Behavior of the Classroom Teachers Survey" developed by the researchers with the methods mentioned above.

With this permission document received, the primary schools in Osmangazi County have been vizited and the school administrators have been interviewed. Work has been conducted in 18 primary schools 2 of which are private and 16 of which are public primary schools. Within the context of "Environmental Literacy of the Classroom Teachers Survey", in the field study conducted with the classroom teachers at the primary schools on the basis of voluntariness, 173 female and 137 male classroom teachers have been interviewed. The interviews lasted approximately 30 - 35 minutes.

3.1.

Validity and Reliability Analysis

In the "Environmental Literacy of the Classroom Teachers Survey", two diffrent dimensions as behaviour determination and knowledge are included. Cronbach's alpha coefficients calculated for these dimensions are given in the following table. As seen on the table, the Cronbach Alpha values for these two dimensions are above 70%.

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Table 1: Values of cronbach Dimension Items Environmental behavior detection 20 4.

Mean 3,74

C.Alpha 0,88

Findings

The findings obtained in this study are classified into three groups.

The 55, 8% of the teachers participated in the field study are women, the 37, 7% is between the ages of 39-46. The 90, 6% of the teachers

4.1.

Demographic Findings

are not members of any NGO, the 33.9% of them have been working for 15-19 years (See, Table 2).

Table 2: Demographic characteristics of the classroom teachers Gender Female Male Age 22-30 age 21-38 age 39-46 age 47- 54 age 55 age and above Total

4.2.

Frequency 173 137 Frequency 37 87 117 52 17 310

% 55,8 44,2 % 11,9 28,1 37,7 16,8 5,5 100,0

Findings Related to Environmental Knowledge

In the questionnaire, there are 30 information questions for the purpose of evaluating the knowledge of the classroom teachers about the environmental system (See Chart 1). The number of the correct answers given to the questions have been designated as the environmental knowledge level score.

According to this, for environmental knowledge

NGOâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Membership Yes No Tenure 0-4 year 5-9 year 10-14 year 15- 19 year 20 year and above Total

Frequency 29 281 Frequency 25 37 63 105 80 310

% 9,4 90,6 % 8,1 11,9 20,3 33,9 25,8 100,0

24.57 (Âą4.5ss) as the average score, 5 as the minimum score and 33 as the maximum score have been found.

Whether or not the environmental knowledge differ according to gender has been analyzed with two independent sampling "t Test", and as the result of the analysis it has been revealed that the average of the environmental knowledge score does not differ according to gender (t=0,554; p=0,580).

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Which is the main cause of acid rain ?

What is the official name of the authorized institution on environmental issues in Turkey?

What time is World Environment Day ?

What is ecology ?

Which is the most important source of carbon monoxide ?

Why sea water rises due to global warming ?

Which is the main cause of acid rain ?

What is the harm of the construction of the dam on the river?

What is the main purpose of recycling?

Which material is lost in the long term in nature ?

Which is not the world's layer ?

Which is renewable sources ?

Which is hazardous waste ?

Which is not an alternative source of energy?

How many people live in clean water problem ?

How many people live in hunger ?

What is the most common cause of the extinction of animal species?

What gives the most damage to the environment in the long term?

Nuclear waste is kept by which method ?

What is endemic plants ?

What is the CED Report ?

What is the ecological footprint ?

Which is not used in calculating the ecological footprint ?

Where is the place described as the lungs of the world ?

Which animal habitats due to tourism endangered ?

How much of the agricultural land suffers erosion in Turkey ?

Which is not a result of natural events in Turkey?

Where is the wetland area protected by the Ramsar Convention ?

Where is the richest region in terms of biological diversity in Bursa?

Which it does not take place in the UNESCO World Heritage List ?

Chart 1: Teachers ' environmental knowledge levels The average of correct responses to environmental information test of classroom teachers is shown in Chart 1. According to Chart 1, the highest percentage of teachers

correct answer to the question; â&#x20AC;&#x153;Organisms and their physical environment which examines their relationship with each other?â&#x20AC;?

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Table 3: Organisms and their physical environment which examines other?

Frequency Zoology 5 Pathlogy 1 Ecology 292 Botanical 9 I don’t know 3 Total 310 94.2 % of the classroom teachers surveyed know the definition of the concept of ecology.

Zoology

Pathlogy

their relationship with each % 1,6 0,3 94,2 2,9 1,0 100,0

This situation parallels the male and female teachers (Figure 1).

Ecology Female

Botanical Male

I don't know

Figure 1: Know the definition of ecology by gender of teachers According to Chart 1, at least at the rate of the teachers the correct answer for their question is: “It is not the places located in the UNESCO World Heritage List in Bursa?”

Bursa Han District, Historical Bazaar, Grand Mosque and Cumalıkızık Village has been included in the UNESCO World Heritage

List in 2014. Classroom teachers participating in the survey “which of the following is not the kind of place which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Bursa?” were asked in the form. The rate of giving the correct answer to this question is 33.2%.

Table 4: It is not the places located in the UNESCO World Heritage List in Bursa?

Frequency % Cumalıkızık Village 30 9,7 Historical Khan District 23 7,4 Green Mosque 103 33,2 Historical Bazaar 62 20,0 I don’t know 92 29,7 Total 310 100,0 Male and female classroom teachers in this regard the information in parallel (See Figure 2).

Cumalıkızık Village

Historical Khan District

Green Mosque Female

Historical Bazaar

I don't know

Men

Figure 2: It is not the places located in the UNESCO World Heritage List in Bursa?

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4.3.

The Findings Related to the Beneficial Behaviours Towards the Environment

environment, the analysis have been conducted in this regard in order to determine whether or not the environmental literacy differs according to the period of working time and gender which is the basic matter of the research. Whether or not the beneficial behaviours of the classroom teachers differ according to gender has been analyzed with two independent sampling "t Test". According to the results of the research, the beneficial behaviours towards the environment differ according to gender (t=6,159; sig:0,000). This diffrenece has come out in favour of female classroom teachers.

(MeanDifference: 0,323).

In order to assess whether or not the classroom teachers perform beneficial behaviours towards the environment, a 23-item scale has been created. The answers given to the items are in the form of 1 "never", 2 "rarely", 3 "sometimes", 4 "often" and 5 "always". The Figure 1 showing the items included in the scale created and the avarages related with the responses given is placed below: In the evaluation of the beneficial behaviours of the classroom teachers towards the

Table 5: Group statistics Behavior

Gender Female Male

N 173 137

Mean 4,0012 3,6782

Std. Deviation ,46032 ,45609

Table 6: Independent sample test Leveneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Test for Equality of Variances F Sig. Behavior

Equality of Assumed Equality of Variances

,644

,423

Behavior of classroom teachers situated in Chart 2 were examined in three dimensions. The behavior of the average teacher in three dimensions (5 on the scale) is as follows.

t- test for Equality of Means T

df 308

Sig. (2 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; tailed) ,000

Mean Difference ,32291

Std. Error Difference ,05243

6,159 6,165

293,103

,000

,32291

,5238

These three dimensions between the class teachers and the families of the homes concerning it is environmentally beneficial behaviors observed more frequently.

Behavior on issues related to daily life Professions - personal development and behavior in social issues Behavior on issues related to family and home

3,86 3,13 4,24

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I do not use the products produced by giving damage to the animals and natural environment In order to heat my house, I prefer maintaining the temperature of the house by paying attention to the insulation instead of increasing the temperature of the boiler.

I don't need I don't do clothes shopping and cosmetics.

When I do shopping for food, I make up a shopping list.

Hotels, restaurants in places like toilet paper, napkins and paper towels I use sparingly.

I prefer to buy products that have recyclable packaging.

I use the electronic devices in my house in a way that they will consume less energy.

I use cloth bags instead of plastic bags in my shop and I take them with me in my shop.

I prefer walking or riding a bike instead of using a car or the public transportation to access the short distances.

I make food for my family I prefer to be in the shopping of the products being produced in Bursa.

In order to create environmental awareness in the district where I live, on the site and at my school, I demand from the authoritative units.

I don't use it I prefer to deliver to the needy instead of throwing stuff or clothes.

When buying white goods, the price is higher even though they prefer to consume less energy.

I will organize nature trips my students to gain knowledge about the natural world .

For the purpose of creating environmental awareness in my students, I give various homeworks and research topics to them.

In daily life, I usually use public transport.

I turn off the unused lights and taps at home/school My friends / my students / family I'll warn as a result of actions that are damaging to the environment.

I prefer having them repaired before buying the new one when the electrical appliances.

I follow the periodicals and books in order to increase my knowledge on the issues such as our world, natural environment and environmental problems.

I prefer to buy environmentally friendly products even if I were to pay more.

They contribute reused by decomposing garbage in the house.

I voluntarily serve in the activities carried out by various institutions and organizations for the purpose of promotion of the environmental awareness in the social structure.

I tell my students that the natural resources should be used efficiently.

As specified in the curriculum, I give place for the issues of environment and nature in classroom environment as much as I can.

Chart 2: The avarage of the beneficial behaviours of the classroom teachers towards the environment

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As to be seen on the Chart 2, the environmentally beneficial behaviour which

Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always Total

Table 7: Light / Taps Off Frequency % 0 0 2 0,6 10 3,2 67 21,6 231 74,5 310 100,0

As seen on the Table 7, the 74.5% of the classroom teachers have indicated that they always turn off the lights and the taps which are left open. When evaluated in the context of

Rare

received the highest score is as follows: "I turn off the unused lights and taps at home/school."

Sometimes Female

gender, it is observed that the answers of both male and female teachers have concentrared on the always option. (See, Figure 3)

Often Male

Always

Figure 3: Teachers' turning off the unused lights/ taps according to their gender Again, as to be seen on Chart 1, one the environmentally beneficial behaviours that received lowest score is like that: "I voluntarily accept duty in the works carried out by means of various institutions and

organizations in order to create and promote environmental awareness in the social structure and give support to these works."

Table 8: Voluntary work in order to create environmental awareness Frequency % Never 64 20,6 Rare 99 31,9 Sometimes 95 30,6 Often 36 11,6 Always 16 5,2 Total 310 100,0 When the classromm teachers are asked how often they fulfill the behavior "I voluntarily take part in the activities and support these activities which are carried out by various institutions and organizations in order to be able to create and spread environmental awareness in the social

structure, 31.9% of the classroom teachers have given the answer rare, and the 30.6% of them have given the answer sometimes. The rate of the teachers who replied as "often" and "always" has remained at the level of 16.8%.

(Table 8)

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Never

Rare

Sometimes

Female

Often

Always

Male

Figure 4: Voluntary work of the classroom teachers on the environmental issues according to their gender Volunteer work with membership of NGOs have been investigated in order to determine in the environmental area, it was thought that whether or not they perform any activity at the there is a connection between. Therefore, the operational level within the body of any nonNGO memberships of the classroom teacher are government organization conducting works in discussed. The NGO memberships of the the issues related with the environment. classroom teachers who have parcipated in the Accordingly, the NGO memberships of the field study and responded the questionnaire classroom teachers are as follows:

Yes

No

Chart 3: The NGOâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s memberships of the classroom teachers When the non-government organizations of which the classroom teachers are the members, while the 90,6%of the classroom teachers are not the members of any NGOs, the 9,4% of them are the members of an NGO. While a great number of classroom teachers who are member of an NGO are the mebers of a labour union related with the profession of teaching, and while only 1 classroom teacher each is the member of a citizen association and The Turkish Education Foundation, 5 classroom teachers (1.6%) are members of one nongovernment organization (TEMA) conducting activities related with the environment.

5.

Result

The data of the field research carried out for the classroom teachers in the Osmangazi town of the city of Bursa in order to analyze the information about the invironmental issues and environmentally beneficial behaviors of the classroom teachers can be summarized as follows: a. The classroom teachers have a general knowledge level about the environmental issues, problems and values. (In the knowledge test, The average of the teachers out of 33 full points is at the level of 24.57%).

b. Knowledge level about the environmental issues in the male and female classroom teachers are parallel with each other. c. The environmentally beneficial behaviors of the teachers have been examined in three dimensions: their behaviors related with the issues about their daily lives, their professions-personal development behaviors in social issues and their behaviors related with the issues about their families and homes. When the environmentally beneficial behaviors of the teachers are examined- it is seen that their level of awareness in the matters related with their families-homes is higher. The lowest score in the category of environmentally beneficial behaviors is related to their behaviors about their professions-personal developmentssocial isuues. d. When how often the classroom teachers participated in the field research engage in activities within the framework of facility that the proffession of teaching offers in order to have their students acquire environmental awareness; It is seen that the frequency of including the issues environment and natural habitat (the total of often and always behaviors is 75.5%), fulfilling the behaviors for informing the students

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e.

about the importance of conserving the natural resources and recycling (the total of often and always behaviors is 77.5%) is quite high, but that they fulfill the behaviors for enabling them to observe the natural events on the spot by organizing technical trips (the total of seldom and somtimes behaviors is 76.8%), and the behavior that the teachers follow publications in order to increase their own personal knowledge about the natural environmentenvironmental issues (the total of seldom and somtimes behaviors is 67.1%) in a very low level.

Among the behaviours included in the questionaire, the behavior that the classroom teachers fulfill the least is in the form of "I voluntarily serve within the body of NGOs in order to to raise environmental awareness in the community" with an avarage of 2.49. Only the 16.8% of the teachers who answered the questionaire have stated that they often and always participate in the voluntary activities in order to create environmental awareness in social structure. Besides,

while the 90.6% of the classroom teachers have stated that they are not a member of any NGO, the 9.4% have stated that they are a member of an NGO. 5 of the classroom teachers who have stated that they have NGO memberships (1.6%) are members of an NGO involved in activities related with the environment.

As a result, it can be said from the survey data that the existence of information about the environmental system and the environmental issues in the individuals is not capable of transforming this information into environmentally beneficial behavior. But the transformation of the information of the classroom teachers who the teachers with whom the children first meet after their families into beneficial behavior is of importance at the point of being a role model for their students.

Because, issues such as observation, imitation etc. come to foreground as much as the information given during process of bringing in attitudes in children's education. Therefore, the educators are primarily required to be an appropriate role model in relation with the given education.

Resources 1 G. Teksöz, E. Şahin and H. Ertepınar, Environmental Literacy, Teachers and Sustainable Future, Hacettepe University Journal of Education, 39 (2010), 307-320.

2 G. Tuncer, G. Tekkaya, S. Sungur, J. Çakıroğlu and E. Şahin, Environmental Literacy of Future Teachers as a Key for Sustainable Future. XIII. IOSTE, 21-26 September (2008), Izmir.

3 M. Kısoğlu, The Student - Centered Teaching Student Teachers Investigation of Effect of Environmental Literacy Levels, Ph.D. Dissertation, Atatürk University, Erzurum, 2009.

4 M. Morrone, K. Mancl, and K. Carr, Development of a Metric to Test Group Differences in Ecological Knowledge as One Component of Environmental Literacy. The Journal of Environmental Education, 32(4), 2001, 33-42.

5 N. Çepel, Environmental Protection and Ecology Glossary, Tema Publications, Istanbul, 1995.

6 R. Chepesiuk, Environmental Literacy: Knowledge for a Healthier Public, Environmental Health Perspectives, 115 (10) (2007), 494 - 499.

7 S. Erten, Preschool Teacher Candidates on Their Eco-friendly Behavior Investigation, Hacettepe University Journal of Education, 28 (2005), 91-110.

8 S. Erten, S, 5. Students in the Class “of Trash Reduction” an Instructional Model for Acquiring Awareness. Hacettepe University Journal of Education, 25 (2003), 94-103.

9 S. Erten, P. Ozdemir, and T. Güler, The Level of Environmental Awareness and Environmental Education in the Schools Teachers in Preschool Educational Institutions of the Status of the Determination, OMEP: World Council and Conference, 2003.

10 V. Sevinç, F. Balkan Kıyıcı, S. Sevinç Altaş and N. Altınöz, Determination of the Science Teachers' Environmental Literacy Level, International Conferance New Horizons in Education, 2009.

11 UNESCO, The Tbilisi Decleration: Final Report Intergovernmental Conference on Environmental Education, UNESCO and UNEP, 1998. http://www.gdrc.org/uem/ee/EETbilisi_1977.pdf (Access Date: 25.05.2015)

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The Determination of Views of Mental Retardation Practicum Students about the Community Service Practices Course Tuna Şahsuvaroğlu, Aydan Aydın, Cennet Tuba Arslantürk Tuna Şahsuvaroğlu, Marmara University, Department of Special Education tsahsuvaroglu@marmara.edu.tr

Abstract. The aim of this research study is to identify how the community service practices course started to be implemented in the 2008-2009 academic year was perceived by the teacher candidates of mental retardation practicum students, and to reveal whether their perceptions vary depending on various variables. The participants are 111 third grade mental retardation practicum students studying in the Special Education Department at the Education Faculty of Marmara University in the 2013-2014 academic year. In order to investigate how mental retardation practicum students perceive the community service practices course after they took the course, the "Scale for Students’ Perceptions of Community Service Practices Course" was used. The relational screening model was applied in this study, and the results of the study were discussed in relation to the relevant literature.

Keywords: Community Service Course, Mental Retardation Practicum Students

1. Introduction In addition to having professional knowledge, it is important for candidate teachers, who will educate the future generations, to have training in line with the interest of the public.

Throughout the undergraduate education, being familiar with the needs of the society and gaining awareness about these needs while obtaining pedagogical content knowledge will positively affect the personal development of the candidate teachers. Especially for the candidate teachers who will teach individuals with special needs, it is essential to become familiar with their field, realize the problems and take part in projects leading to solutions to these problems.

Community Service Practices (CSP) course enables candidate teachers to familiarize with the society, realize the needs, participate in the projects and to find solutions through learning by experience. Having been incorporated into the teacher education programs in the 2006– 2007 academic year, the CSP course was first implemented in the 2008-2009 academic year.

Taught for one semester in each of the department in education faculties in Turkey, the CSP course is a compulsory three-hour course (i.e., 1 hour theoretical and 2 hours practical) with 2 credits. The aim of this course is to

prepare teacher candidates to identify the current problems of the society; to prepare projects to determine the present problems of the society and to produce solutions to them; to contribute to academic activities, such as panels, conferences, congresses, symposia as audience, organizer or speaker; to take place in several projects in a social responsibility perspective voluntarily; to help students gain basic knowledge and skills related to the application of them in schools (Higher Education Council, 2006).

Additionally, the experience gained by means of the community service practices can be regarded as a tool to establish and maintain a significant common life relationship among the university, the educational environment, the teacher candidates as well as the local communities [44]. The purpose of the CSP course and other social activities in teacher education programs is to help individuals to become socialized [11]. The content of the CSP course includes scientific and social activities carried out by candidate teachers [39]. Now that a teacher must be equipped with the potential to identify the present problems in the society and to prepare projects aiming to solve these problems, the CSP course was rightly incorporated into teacher education programs [18]. On the other hand, the benefits of the

97

experience gained throughout the CSP course can be categorized under three groups as the benefits for the student, for the institutions and in a larger scale, for the society [2]. It is also argued that in addition to the theoretical courses offered to teacher candidates, the practiceoriented activities are considerably important for professional development [38]. It is thought by the participants in a study that the CSP course generally aims to raise awareness about problems in the society and to help them deal with these problems [6].

In the studies pertaining to the opinions of candidate teachers taking the Community Service Practices course, it was revealed that the course contributes to their personal development, positively influences their development of communication and social skills, enhances their humanitarian and moral values, helps them become aware and sensitive about the problems in the society; therefore, it would be fair to suggest that teacher candidates generally hold positive attitudes towards the course [33-28-3-13-23-39-16-20-46-43-12-32, 22]. Moreover, it is pointed out in the literature that teacher candidates attending the Community Service Practices course can improve their perspectives related to the experiences and the needs of the others and learn more about themselves [10].

The CSP course is especially important for the teacher candidates in the Department of Special Education/Mentally Disabled Teacher Education in terms of establishing relationships both with the disabled individuals and their parents. Thanks to this course, it is possible to realize what kind of problems and needs mentally disabled individuals have.

Additionally, candidate teachers can contact with the nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), get the opportunity to gain experience

in such organizations and take part in social projects. In order to receive feedback and to indentify teacher candidates' wants and needs regarding the CSP course, which was initiated in our department in the year when it was first incorporated into the teacher education programs in Turkey, there is a need to reveal teacher candidates' perceptions about the course. It is likely that the findings of the study will help researchers make necessary changes in the course, and this study will contribute to the literature as no previous studies was encountered in the field of special education.

2. Aim The aim of this study is to explore how the Community Service Practices course is perceived by the teacher candidates who will teach mentally disabled individuals and to reveal whether their perceptions vary depending on different variables.

3. Method 3.1 Research Design. The Relational Screening model was used in this study. In this model, the existing situation related to the problem is described as it is [4].

3.2 Participants. In this study, the participants are 111 third-year teacher candidates (daytime and evening education students) enrolled at the Department of Special Education at the Education Faculty of Marmara University in the 2013-2014 academic year. All the participants took the Community Service Practices course.

The demographic information about the participants is illustrated in Table 1.

Table 1. Demographic Information about Candidate Teachers of Mentally-handicapped Age 16-18 19-21 22-24 24-â&#x2020;&#x2018; Total

n 1 61 43 4 109

% 0,9 55,9 39,4 3,6

Type of Education Daytime Education Evening Education Total

n 48 61 109

% 44 56

n

%

Whether the Family has Disabled Person

Gender Female Male Total

n 61 48 109

% 56 44

Membership to NGO Yes No Total

n 22 87 109

% 20 80

98

Yes No Total

23 86 109

21 79

*2 scales were ignored because they were incomplete.

3.3 Data Collection Instruments.

3.3.1. Personal Information Form. In the form prepared by the researchers, the following variables were included: gender, age, whether they are members of non-governmental organizations, the type of education they are enrolled (i.e., daytime, evening) and whether they have disabled individuals in their families.

3.3.2. Scale for Studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Perceptions of Community Service Practices Course. The scale developed by Elma and his associates (2010) was aimed to investigate how candidate teachers perceive the Community Service Practices course. As a result of the factor analysis, the scale was found to have 5 factors, and these factors reflect five of the fundamental dimensions of the scale. It includes sub-dimensions such as socialization,

personal development, course perceptions, organization and consultation. The factor load values of the items in the scale were found to be between 0.54 and 0.89, and the alpha internal consistency coefficient was .88.

4. Findings The perceptions of the teacher candidates about the CSP course was evaluated at the item level, and the item mean scores of the items in each of the five sub-dimensions are demonstrated on the table below. T-test was applied so as to reveal whether the teacher candidates' perceptions vary depending on the variables of gender, age, whether they are members of non-governmental organizations, the type of education they are enrolled and whether they have disabled individuals in their families.

Items - I had the chance to communicate with people at different ages.

- I think this course contributes to the social solidarity.

- I think the course gave the opportunity to meet people from different segments of the society.

- I became aware of my responsibilities as a member of the society.

- I became aware of the fact that I can offer solutions about problems in the society.

- I became aware of the importance of being a member of a non-governmental organization.

- I widened my social circle thanks to this course.

- I realized how far I am from the social life thanks to this course.

- This course strengthened my human relations.

- I think this course will be beneficial for my professional life.

- I became aware of my leadership traits in this course.

- My self-confidence increased thanks to this course.

- This course changed my perspective on life.

- I think this course enhanced my empathy skills.

- I think students' views should be prioritized in terms of project selection.

- I think students should make decisions about the practice groups.

- I enjoyed this course.

- I think this course should not be restricted to one semester.

- I think sufficient information was not given about the course.

- I think the course reached its goal.

- I think the institutions to visit should be determined by the instructor offering the course.

- I think this course is unnecessary*.

- I had the chance to become familiar with different organizations.

- I learned about the procedures in organizations.

- I think that the staffs in official organziations are positive towards the practice.

- I encountered problems in the institutions I visited as I could not clearly explain the aim and content of the course.

1,69 3,65 3,72 3,61 3,35 2,77 2,79 2,55 3,61 3,77 3,04 3,32 3,01 3,68 4,20 3,95 3,44 2,91 3,71 3,40 3,04 2,13 3,77 3,68 2,77 2,88

SS ,930 1,168 1,110 1,051 1,084 1,134 1,106 1,189 1,064 1,169 1,168 1,129 1,084 1,092 ,838 1,102 1,276 1,357 1,171 1,356 1,390 1,277 1,146 1,002 1,247 1,150

Consul tation

- I think the instructor in charge of the practice should be from our department.

- I think the instructor do not do the requirements of the course.

4,24 3,28

,803 1,30

Course Perception

Personal Development

Socialization Institution

Table 2. Item Mean Scores of the Perceptions about the Scale's Sub-dimensions (N=109)

* Reverse-coded item

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Teacher candidates' perceptions about the CSP course was investigated under five subdimensions: socialization, personal development, course perception, organization and consultation. In the socialization dimension, the item that was the most commonly agreed was “I think the course gave the opportunity to meet people from different segments of the society.” ( =3,72) while the least frequently agreed item was “I had the chance to communicate with people at different ages.” ( =1,69). On the other hand, in the personal development dimension, the item that was the most frequent agreed by the candidate teachers was “I think this course will be beneficial for my professional life.” ( =3,77) while the least agreed item was “This course changed my perspective on life.” ( =3,01). In the course perceptions dimension, the item that was the most commonly agreed was “I think students' views should be prioritized in terms of project selection.”

( =4,20); on the contrary, the item “I think this course is unnecessary” was the least frequently agreed one ( =2,13). In the organization dimension, the item that was the most agreed by the teacher candidates was “I had the chance to become familiar with different organizations.” ( =3,77); on the other hand, the least agreed item was “I think that the staff in official organizations are positive towards the practice.” ( =2,77). Finally, in the consultation dimension, the highest level of agreement was with the item “I think the instructor in charge of the practice should be from our department.” ( =4,24); in contrast, the lowest level of agreement was with the item “I think the instructor do not do the requirements of the course.” ( =3,28). Table 2 demonstrates the means of the teacher candidates' responses about the dimensions of socialization, personal development, course perception, institution and consultation.

Table 3. The Results of the T-test Applied to Reveal Whether Perceptions about Sub-dimensions of the Scale Vary Depending on the Gender and Type of Education Variables Sub-dimensions

Gender

N

Socialization

Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Type of Education

61 48 61 48 61 48 61 48 61 48 61 48 N

Personal Development Course Perception Organization Consultation Total Score Sub-dimensions

21.90 20.22 16.13 14.04 19.55 18.87 10.88 10.31 4.67 4.62 73.14 68.08

S

sd

t

p

5.98 5.99 5.55 4.73 3.99 3.99 2.21 2.73 1.60 1.84 14.41 14.74 S

106

1.37

106

1.97 2.01 .79

.17 .17 .05 .04* .42 .42 .31 .32 .97 .97 .09 .10 p

106 106 106

1.01 .99 .02

106

1.66

sd

t

Socialization

Daytime Evening

48 61

21.50 20.90

5.43 6.47

107

.51

.60

Personal Development

Daytime Evening

48 61

13.93 16.21

4.33 5.77

107

2.27

.02*

Course Perception

Daytime Evening

48 61

18.77 19.63

3.78 4.13

107

1.12

.26

Organization

Daytime Evening

48 61

10.58 10.67

2.71 2.26

107

.18

.85

Consultation

Daytime Evening

48 61

4.58 4.70

1.87 1.57

107

.36

.71

Total Score

Daytime Evening

48 61

69.37 72.13

11.54 16.78

107

.97

.33

100

As a result of the analysis, it was realized that in terms of the gender variable [t(106)= 1.97, p>0.05] there is significant difference in the perceptions of the candidate teachers of mentally handicapped in the personal development dimension. It was found that the perceptions of the female teacher candidates related to the personal development dimension ( =16,13) are more positive than those of male participants ( =14,04). The analysis also revealed that there is no significant difference in the perceptions of teacher candidates in the other following dimensions depending on the gender variable: socialization [t(106)= 1.37, p>0.05], course perception [t(106)= .79, p>0.05], and organization [t(106)= 1.37, p>1.01] consultation [t(106)= .02, p>0.05]. It was also found that there is a significant difference in the perceptions of candidate teachers of mentally handicapped in the personal development dimension in terms of the type of education variable [t(107)= 2.27, p>0.05]. It was revealed that the perception of evening students about the personal development dimension ( =16,21) are more positive than the perceptions of daytime students( =13,93).

On the other hand, there is no significant difference in candidate teachers' perceptions in the following other dimensions in terms of the type of education variable: Socialization [t(107)= .51, p>0.05], course perception [t(107)= 1.12, p>0.05], organization [t(107)= .18, p>1.01] and consultation [t(107)= .36, p>0.05].

5. Discussion and Suggestions This study aims to investigate how candidate teachers of mentally handicapped perceive the Community Service Practices course and to explore whether these perceptions vary depending on different variables. In the socialization sub-dimension, the findings of the study show that the item which was the most frequently agreed was “I think the course gave the opportunity to meet people from different segments of the society”. This finding is in line with other similar studies in the literature [131, 42]. It was indicated that CSP increases students' awareness and sensitiveness about community service [21], leads students to become more sensitive about problems in the society and more aware of their social responsibilities [22]. Additionally, it was maintained that the students taking part in

CSP programs can have positive perceptions about the society, are better at getting to know people, establishing relationships and cooperating with them; furthermore, their communication and socials skills are improved [37, 32]. The item with the highest level of agreement in the personal development dimension of the scale was “I think this course will be beneficial for my professional life.”

This result can be justified by referring to the opportunities the CSP course offers to teacher candidates so that they can become familiar with their field and gain relevant experience.

It can be assumed that both reaching disabled individuals and interacting with nongovernmental organizations can strengthen the positive perceptions about the benefits of the course. The finding indicating that the CSP course contributes to the personal development of the teacher candidates is also supported by other studies in the relevant literature [38-23-13-13-43-36-21, 41].

Furthermore, the CSP course enables teacher candidates to feel themselves satisfied, peaceful and proud. It is pointed out that the activities carried out within the Community Service Practices course pave the way for the awareness of serving the public [30-21-9, 5].

In the perception dimension of the scale, the most frequently agreed item was “I think students' views should be prioritized in terms of project selection.” It is noteworthy that teacher candidate would like to use their own discretion in an activity aiming to enable them to serve the public because it would be fair to state that they can work more enthusiastically and efficiently on a project when they volunteer to do or find interesting. In the literature, it is suggested that teacher candidates should prefer to be active in the process of selecting the projects [13]. Also, it was pointed out that the CSP course is necessary in teacher education, and it increases teacher candidates' social sensitivity and responsibilities [14-15-37-3-31-43-21-24, 45].

The item that was the most commonly agreed by the teacher candidates in the organization dimension of the scale was “I had the chance to become familiar with different organizations.”

Familiarizing teacher candidates with different organizations and procedures will contribute to the improvement of skills, such as solving problems that emerge

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in government agencies and managing crisis [19, 16].

In addition, the course will pave the way for opportunities that will prepare teacher candidates for their professional life [8-27, 45].

In the consultation dimension, the item that was the most frequently agreed was “I think the instructor in charge of the practice should be from our department.” This finding is in parallel with the results of other studies [1413-1-34, 21]. The reason of this finding can be related to the tendency of teacher candidates to work with instructors whom they know and can easily reach.

In terms of the gender variable, which is one of the demographic variables in this study, it was found that female teacher candidates have more positive perceptions than their male counterparts about the personal development dimension of the scale. While the results of some studies corroborate this finding [17, 22], some other studies demonstrated that the perceptions about the CSP course do not vary depending on the gender variable [7-1, 40].

Depending on the other variables, no significant difference was found in the perceptions of the teacher candidates.

In terms of the type of education variable, it was found that the perceptions of the teacher candidates enrolled at evening classes are more positive in the personal development dimension than those of the daytime students.

This situation can be justified with the fact that evening students must pay university fees, and these programs are the second universities of some of these students; therefore, they take the Community Service Practices course more seriously. It can be argued that because of these reasons, these students are more motivated to improve themselves.

No significant differences were found in the teacher candidates' perceptions in terms of the other variables. However, in another study, it was revealed that last year daytime students have more positive perceptions than the evening students [1]. These inconsistent findings can be related to the limited number of departments offering evening classes and to the lack of research findings that can be compared.

In further studies, it can be recommended that the perceptions of teacher candidates should be investigated in terms of different variables. Especially in the field of special education, it is thought that the CSP course may influence their attitudes towards their field. Therefore, future studies can focus on the effects of the CSP course on teacher candidates' attitudes, perspectives and their perceptions about empathy, sensitivity and competency. Moreover, the perceptions of teacher candidates who will teach students with different disabilities can be compared.

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The Effect Of Strength Training In Dry Land And Aquatic On Static, Semi-Dynamic And Dynamic Balance In Elderly Male With Knee Osteoarthritis

A.GรถkhanYAZICI1, M. Mohammadi2* 1. Associate Professor in Physical Education & Sport Sciences, ATATURK University, TURKEY 2. PhD. Student in Sports Biomechanics, ATATURK University, TURKEY *Corresponding Author, E-mail: (mohsen64_m@yahoo.com), TEL: 00905075509267

Abstract. Osteoarthritis (OA) is the single most common cause of disability in older adults. The objective of this study was the comparison of the effect of strength training on dry land and aquatic after ten weeks on static, semidynamic and dynamic balance in an elderly male with knee OA. The 39 elderly male with Knee OA participated in this study. They were randomly divided into strength training on dry land (14 cases) and in aquatic (11 cases) and control (14 cases) groups. Evaluation of static balance was performed by Sharpened Romberg test (SRT), semi-dynamic by Star Excursion Balance Test (SEBT) and the dynamic balance was studied by Berg Balance Scale (BBS). All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS statistical software version19. According to the results of the present research, the results of this study revealed that a significant increase in the semi-dynamic and dynamic balance after strength training in dry land and aquatic in the elderly male with knee OA. Keywords: Strength Training, Balance, Elderly Men, Knee Osteoarthritis (OA)

1. Introduction Osteoarthritis (OA) is the single most common cause of disability in older adults, and most patients with the condition will be managed in the community and primary care (26). Primary OA describes a common group of joint conditions in which cartilage and bone are affected. The sites most frequently affected are hand, knee, hip, and spine. Risk factors include systemic features such as age, sex and race as well as local factors including joint alignment and muscle strength. This is important because treatment has largely been confined to palliation with analgesics and subsequent joint replacement (18). The central pathologic features of OA are the loss of hyaline articular cartilage and changes in the subchondral bone (22).

The knee is the third organ to afflict with OA after fingers and vertebrate and 1/3of people aging more than 65 are facing radiologic changes in knee OA (9). Furthermore, Arthritis, especially knee Arthritis occurs more in old ages and by growing old

(32). A number of occupational and no occupational risk factors are related to the development and progress of knee OA, with the proportion of radiographic knee OA in men due to job activities reaching 15 to 30% (17). Knee OA is associated with quadriceps atrophy and weakness, so muscle strengthening is an important point in the rehabilitation process (36).

Since pain and joint stiffness make it often difficult to use conventional strength exercises, neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) including a various stimulating technique for quadriceps muscle may be an alternative approach for these patients (25). Knee OA is an important cause of disability in older people due to chronic joint pain, loss of range of motion, and muscle weakness (36).

The aging process includes erosive, gradual and irrecoverable changes in body systems and this is the reason which decreases the life quality and movement operation of the old people(Heathcote). Balance deficit is one of the main risk factors that affect falling among elderly (10). Balance is a complex motor skill that describes the dynamics of body pos-

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ture in preventing falling (19). Punakallio defines balance as static, the ability to maintain the center of pressure (COP) within a base of support (BOS) and dynamic, active movement of COP while standing, walking or performing any other skill (30).

There are a number of controlled clinical studies demonstrating the efficacy of exercise for persons with OA, that these benefits include improvement in physical function and reduction in impairment through increased range of motion and flexibility, muscle strength, endurance, and power, and improvement in gait, pain control, and activities of daily living (15, 35).

A decrease in physical activity may lead to an increased loss of bone mineral and an increase in the incidence of osteoporotic fractures. Cross-sectional studies show that athletes, especially those who are strength trained, have greater bone mineral densities than nonathletes and that strength, muscle mass, and maximal oxygen uptake correlate with bone density (12,14,27).

The type of sports activity may be an important factor in achieving a high peak bone mass and reducing osteoporosis risk (3). Longitudinal training studies indicate that strength training and highimpact endurance training increases bone density (7,29). Nowadays, the advantages of participating in physical activities are so well proved that many statements recommend them in preventing chronic diseases such as OA. Aquatics-based exercise programs also appears to be an effective therapy for persons with systemic joint diseases. Although there are a limited number of studies evaluating the effectiveness of aquatic exercise for rheumatic disease, those that have been conducted consistently show positive objective and subjective outcomes (6). The results showed that participating in an exercise in water program on a regular basis can be considered as an effective and reliable method to decrease pain, promote the operation of knee and the old men life's quality (21). The aquatic environment has unique properties that can be used to gain a range of exercise benefits (5).

Experimental attempts including control conditions are still limited and do not enable researchers to draw clear conclusions regarding the effectiveness of strength training on dry land and aquatic on improving static, semi-dynamic and dynamic balance in the elderly male with knee OA. Hence, the objective of this study was the comparison of the effect of strength training on dry land and aquatic after ten weeks on static, semi-dynamic and dynamic balance in the elderly male with knee OA.

2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Subjects The 39 elderly male with Knee OA participated in this study had an average age of 61 / 1 Âą 3/8 years, the height of 163 / 1 Âą 0/2 cm and weight 69 / 1 Âą 3/4 kg. The subjects were recruited from a social club with regular social activities. They were randomly divided into strength training on dry land (14 cases) and in aquatic (11 cases) and control (14 cases) groups. Each subject was questioned about them passed medical history. The subjects received a stipend to cover their travel expenses and time. Prior to the study, procedures and guidelines were presented orally and in written form. Subjects agreeing to participate signed an institutionally approved consent form.

2.2. Data Collection Anthropometric characteristics including height and weight were measured and recorded. Measuring of variables was performed before (pre-test) and after (post-test) the protocol. The experimental group (in dry land and aquatic) participated in strength training for ten weeks, three sessions per week and one hour per session, while the control group did not participate in any strength training and not to participate a regular exercise program or a sport, during the study. Evaluation of static balance was performed by Sharpened Romberg test (SRT), semi-dynamic by Star Excursion Balance Test (SEBT) and dynamic balance were studied by Berg Balance Scale (BBS). After completion of initial measurements, experimental groups participation in strength training. On the day after the end of the strength training, SRT, SEBT and BBT were repeated. Strength training was performed by the subjects under the supervision of athletic trainer.

2.3. Strength Training on Dry Land A 10-minute warm-up session was performed at the start of each session. The warm-up consisted of walking and recreational activities to bring variety to the exercise sessions. The stretching exercises consisted of a series of four repetitions of active static stretching, each lasting 1 min and respecting the tension limit of each individual, with 1 min of relaxation between repetitions. The exercises were performed with both limbs twice. The type of stretching, duration, and a number of repetitions were adapted from Chan, Hong and Robinson (11), Feland et al (16), and Taylor et al (33), respectively. The following lower limb muscle groups were stretched: knee extensors and ankle dorsiflexors in the upright standing position; knee flexors and ankle plantar flexors using a non-elastic band in the supine position with extended knee and ankle dorsiflexion of the

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stretched limb, according to the modified methods of Chan, Hong and Robinson and Feland et al.. During knee flexor stretching, the hip and knees of the contralateral limb were flexed (23).

2.4. Strength Training on Aquatic The water level was kept at the xiphoid process, and the temperature, at 28 30 C. Each session included a 10-min warm-up, 20 min of aerobic activities, and 20 min of species lower limb strength exercises. Stretching exercises were performed in the last 10 min of the session as a cool down activity. The strength activities involved hip and knee extension, extension, dorsal and plantar- extension of the ankle (knee extension, hip extension, adduction and abduction with extended knee, double knee lifts, and side press kicks) while holding on the pool edge (34).

These exercises were performed for 40 s with a rest interval of 20 s at a moderate speed (8).

Sharpened Romberg test (SRT) Ø Have the applicant stand in heel to toe position, with their arms folded across chest and eyes closed Ø Time the duration that they are able to maintain their balance Ø The test ceases at 30 sec or loss of balance (excessive sway, loss of balance, stepping during test, opening eyes)

Ø If can hold for 30 secs in the first trial other trials not needed Ø Complete 3 trials if the applicant is unable to hold the position for 30 seconds in the first 2 trails Ø Record the duration of each trial (2).

2.5. Star Excursion Balance Test (SEBT) The SEBT was performed with the participants standing in the middle of a grid formed by eight lines extending out at 45° from each other (see Figure 1). The participant was asked to reach as far as possible along each of the eight lines, make a light touch on the line, and return the reaching leg back to the center while maintaining a single-leg stance with the other leg in the center of the grid. Participants were instructed to make a light touch on the ground with the most distal part of the reaching leg and return to a double-leg stance without allowing the contact to affect overall balance. The terminology of excursion directions is based on the direction of reach in relation to the stance leg. When reaching the lateral and posterolateral directions, participants must reach behind the stance leg to complete the task (28).

Figure1. Reaching directions for the SEBT 2.6. Berg Balance Scale (BBS) The Berg Balance Scale (BBS) was developed to measure balance among older people with impairment in balance function by assessing the performance of functional tasks. 14-item the scale designed to measure the balance of the older adult in a clinical setting. The BBS consists of 14 tasks of varied difficulty, all graded on a 5-point ordinal scale

(0–4) in accordance with detailed descriptions. Lower points are given for people in need of supervision or assistance, or if specific time or distance requirements are not met. In this study, the Swedish version of the BBS was used (13).

2.7. Statistical Analysis All data were analyzed using SPSS version 19.

The data were tested for normal distribution with the

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Shapiro-Wilk test. The paired sample t-test and ANOVA test were used. Significances were set at the P<0.05 level. The examination of differences between pairs of groups after the ANOVA test was Scheffe post hoc analysis.

3. Results The age, height, and weight for experimental and control groups are presented in table 1.

Table1. Characteristics of subjects (mead and standard deviation) Group N Age(yr) Height(cm) Dry land 14 62 / 6 ± 1/1 163 / 5 ± 0/7 Aquatic 11 60 / 8 ± 1 164 / 2 ± 0/1 Control 14 61 / 1 ± 1/2 163 / 8 ± 0/3 Table 2 shows for normal distribution with the Shapiro-Wilk test before performed exercise in groups. The result of the analysis indicated that there

Weight(kg) 72 / 1 ± 1/2 69 / 4 ± 3/3 68 / 6 ± 1/7

was no significant difference in three variables in three groups.

Table2. The result of analysis for normal distribution with Shapiro-Wilk test Test Group Dry land SRT Aquatic Control Dry land SEBT Aquatic Control Dry land BBS Aquatic Control

p 0.59 0.64 0.57 0.55 0.62 0.57 0.61 0.62 0.54

* Significance level set to: P≤ 0.05.

Table 3 compares for SRT, SEBT and BBS data of subjects in the pre and post-test for three groups.

The result of the analysis indicated that there was no significant difference in pre and post-test of SRT

data in three groups. Also, the significant difference no found between pre and post-test of SEBT and BBS data in the control group. Significant differences found between pre and post-test of SEBT and BBS data in dry land and aquatic groups (P < 0/05).

Table3. T-test for comparing groups Test Group Dry land SRT Aquatic Control Dry land SEBT Aquatic Control Dry land BBS Aquatic Control

SRT, SEBT and BBS data of subjects in the pre-test and post-test for three Pre test 9.10±1.25 10.55±2.60 11.05±1.85 9.22±2.10 8.53±1.30 8.40±2.80 9.15±2.20 11.01±1.50 11.25±2.30

Post test 10.01±2.30 11.45±2.05 10.62±2.82 13.01±0.63 10.01±1.05 8.75±1.50 12.05±1.01 15.15±1.05 11.05±2.95

D.F 13 10 13 13 10 13 13 10 13

T 1.72 1.89 1.59 13.24 8.95 0.9 8.72 9.21 1.06

p 0.41 0.44 0.36 0.89 * 0.65 * 0.2 0.69 * 0.71* 0.3

* P value set to 0.05.

Table 4 compares for SRT data in of subjects in three groups. The result of the analysis indicated that

there was no significant difference between three groups of SRT data.

Table4. ANOVA test for comparing SRT data of subjects in three groups ANOVA SS D.F MS BG 106.71 38 32.61 WG 47.12 2 5.26 T 153.83 30

F 4.72

Sig. 0.1

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Table 5 compares for SEBT data in of subjects in three groups. The Significant difference found between dry land and control groups of SEBT data (P<0/05). Also, the significant difference found be-

tween aquatic and control groups of SEBT data (P < 0/05). The result of the analysis indicated that there was no significant difference between dry land and aquatic groups of SEBT data.

Table5. ANOVA test for comparing SEBT data of subjects in three groups ANOVA SS D.F MS BG 148.25 38 40.23 WG 71.10 2 8.18 T 219.35 30

F 10.01

Sig.

0/00*

* P value set to 0.05.

Table 6 compares for BBS data in of subjects in three groups. The Significant difference found between dry land and control groups of BBS data (P<0/05). Also, the significant difference found be-

tween aquatic and control groups of BBS data (P<0/05). The result of the analysis indicated that there was no significant difference between dry land and aquatic groups of BBS data.

Table6. ANOVA test for comparing BBS data of subjects in three groups ANOVA SS D.F MS BG 131.42 38 56.15 WG 59.37 2 6.29 T 190.79 30

F 13.25

Sig.

0/00*

* P value set to 0.05.

4. Discussion For many older adults, growing older seems to involve an inevitable loss of strength, energy, and vigor. The frailty and decreased energy we associate with aging, such as difficulty walking for distances, climbing stairs, or carrying groceries, are largely due to muscle loss. One of the best ways to keep muscles healthy and strong is through exercises called strength training sometimes known as weight lifting or resistance training (31). Hence, the objective of this study was the comparison of the effect of strength training on dry land and aquatic after ten weeks on static, semi-dynamic and dynamic balance in the elderly male with knee OA. In this respect, the results revealed a significant difference between pre and post-test of SEBT and BBS data in dry land and aquatic groups. Conducting a strength training period on dry land and aquatic after ten weeks increased the semi-dynamic and dynamic balance of subjects.

The total, there was an improvement in balance of experimental groups. The results of the present research are consistent with previous findings indicating an improvement of balance in elderly adults after conducting a training period (1, 2).

In the scientific literature for elderly adults, there is valid data regarding the length of strength training program between 6 to 12 week (5, 8). We carried out ten weeks program and found a significant difference in semi-dynamic and dynamic balance for the elderly male. Therefore, we may suggest that this length of the strength training program could be suf-

ficient to balance improvements for the elderly male with knee OA. Previous research indicates that regular participation in physical activity has a positive impact on the muscle strength in an elderly male with knee OA (1, 3). Improvement of strength in the lower limb, as well as the increase of coordination in these muscles, has improved gait ability and balance of subjects (24). In another study in which the effects of Pilatesbased exercise on dynamic balance in healthy adults were investigated, dynamic balance increased (24).

The consistent results of our study with previous studies (1, 2) which indicated that various exercise programs in different environments can improve the balance in age groups.

Strength training can also reduce the signs and symptoms of many diseases, example: Reduces pain and stiffness, and increases strength and flexibility in Arthritis and Builds bone density and reduces the risk for falls in Osteoporosis.

Strength training requires little time and minimal equipment. Ä°n the elderly male with knee OA, bones are increasingly thin and fragile. Hence, Exercises recommended by physiotherapists and exercise physiologists can improve general health, muscle strength, balance and posture to prevent falls and reduce the risk of further fractures.

5. Conclusion According to the results of the present research, the results of this study revealed that a significant increase in the semi-dynamic and dynamic balance-

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after strength training in dry land and aquatic in the elderly male with knee OA, which supported previous findings (4, 1) in the relevant literature. Therefore, strength training in dry land and aquatic is appropriate equally for improving semi-dynamic and dynamic balance in the elderly male with knee OA.

Acknowledgements The authors of this article would like to express their appreciation to the dear subjects who helped us collect this data by their participation in the study.

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The Evaluation of Interactive Digital Storybooks by Preschool Teachers Duygu Şahan1 and Mustafa Gönülal2 Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University sahanduygu@yahoo.com.tr mustafagonulal@comu.edu.tr

Abstract. The purpose of this study is the evaluation of interactive digital storybooks by preschool teachers. The research was designed as case study in qualitative research desings. The group of participants consist of 25 female teachers who work in a nursery which is located in South Marmara and one of the biggest preschool institutions in Turkey. Primarily, a presentation was made to the participants during 40 minutes and secondly the questions that occured in their minds were answered and finally the forums were distributed. The filled forums were collected and analyzed. In analysis result, the teachers specified that these books are advantageous for children, families and teachers in aspects like attractivity, addressing more than one sense organs, visuality, providing effective and active learning; and specified that these books are disadvantageous in aspects like anti-socialization-inactivation, habit-addiction, laziness, the possibility of alienation to the normal (printed) books, preventing linguistic development, containing subliminal messages. They expressed that it is suitable for preschool ages and said it can be used beginning from 2-3 ages to the beginning of primary school but many teachers could not explain why they think so. The teachers saying that we live in the technology age expressed that the technology must be benefited but rather than leaving the child alone with it, it must be under control of the family and there must be a time restriction.

Keywords: Interactive digital storybooks, interactive reading, digital storybooks, interactivity 2.0

1. Introduction

Resulting from technology involves human life and develops, developments and changes take place in all areas of life. These technological developments and changes which affect all areas of our lives like transportation, communication, education; are becoming indispensables of our lives on the one hand, on the other hand they are always the agenda with their benefits and harms. Education takes place

at the beginning of this agenda, "education technologies" is one of the most discussed subjects.

In these days that technological changes affect learning tools, besides the conventional printed materials, digital books and interactive e-books, which are the last circles of this change, with their rich content and the autonomy that they present to the learners, are becoming important learning tools as well.

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The interactive e-book is defined as “digital books that user and digital book can interact, (1) digital books that their elements can interact between each other and their environment and also can be in interaction with other users, by which, many communication tools can be used together (2) (Bozkurt and Bozkaya, 2013) It is said that the reading activites that child sees in his family atmosphere directly affects his life, (Burges, 2005, Wiegel et al., 2006, Vellutino and Scanlon, 2001), it can be said that if these reading activities are realized interactively, it can be very beneficial. The performed studies also support this case and show that reading interactively has many positive results. It was seen that these type of studies are both useful for the children at risk (Klesius and Griffith, 1996: Levin and Aram, 2010) and for the children who have reading troubles.

(Holdaway, 1979; Snow & Ninio,1986; akt: Klesius and Griffith, 1996; ) Furthermore, in the result of the researchs made, it was seen that this has positive results in also remembering the readings. (Ertem, 2011).

Today’s technological developments require an update for old interactive methods and make "interactivity 2.0" even "interactivity 3.0" necessary for present-day children. Because these children called as digital generation, Z generation or digital natives (Prensky, 2001) grow up in an enviroment that technological equipments are used since birth and their interests and expectations are in this direction. Therefore, it can be said that, interactive digital storybooks are digital reading environments which appeal to today’s preschool children’s interests and expectations; make them ready to their technological literacy in an enjoyable way, and if correctly designed and used, can provide a rapid progress to them in technological literacy at first and in many other areas as well.

When making an investigation upon the literature, the interactive reading studies are subjects on which many people worked on for a long time. (Pinhanez et al, 2000, Fails, Druin and Guha, 2014, Gaeta et al.,2014, Thue and Halldórsson, 2015). Yet, it is seen that the re-

cent studies done upon interactive digital storybooks are quite a few (Saad et al, 2014, Walker, 2015.)

It was seen that, the opinions of especially preschool teachers who are always in a close relation with children are very important but any study on this was not conducted yet. For these reasons, the evaluation of interactive digital storybooks is provided by preschool teachers.

1.1. The Purpose of the Research The purpose of this study is the evaluation of the interactive digital storybooks by preschool teachers. In accordance with this main objective, following questions were asked: 1. According to the preschool teachers, what are the advantages of interactive digital storybooks?

2. According to the preschool teachers, what are the disadvantages of interactive digital storybooks?

3. According to the preschool teachers, interactive digital storybooks can be used as from what age?

4. According to the preschool teachers, what will the interactive digital storybooks’ future status be like?

2. Method In this section, information about the research model, population and sample, collection and analysis of research data, was given.

2.1. Research Model Qualitative research is an approach to detect and understand the meanings that individuals or groups attribute to a social or humanistic problem. (Creswell, 2014). Therefore, the qualitative method was used in the study. In addition, the case study was prefered as the design. Because the case studies are the research designs used in many fields especially like evaluation processes and the researcher deeply analyze a situation, an event, an action and a process. (Yin, 2009).

2.2. The Participants 113

The group of participants consist of 25 female teachers who work in a nursery which is located in South Marmara and one of the biggest preschool institutions of Turkey.

2.3. Data Collection Tool As data collection tool, structured interview form was used. After making a literature scan, considering the questions might occur in teachers mind, the questions were properly prepared and a pilot study was performed. Through getting an expert’s opinions, the unclear questions were edited and implemented.

2.4. Data Collection Process Firstly, gone to the nursery that the teachers work and a meeting was held with the teachers by the researchers. The teachers were asked if they already knew this application and it was concluded that only 7 (N=25) of the teachers who participated in the research knew/used this application and they did not have enough information about it. Secondly, after the introduction, a 40 minutes practical presentation was made about the interactive digital storybooks. During the presentation, the teachers, using the interactive digital storybooks on both their own smart phones and researchers' smart phones and/or tablets, learnt what kind of features they have and by asking the questions which occured in their minds to the researchers simultaneously, they were informed about both how to get and how to use the application. It took aproximately 75 minutes with data collection process, presentation, questions and answers and filling the forums.

2.5. Data Analysis Data were analyzed by descriptive analysis method. Because the purpose of the descriptive analysis is presenting the data to the reader as arranged and interpreted. (Yıldırım ve Şimşek, 2011).

In the study, initially, the data was collected from the teachers and the forums were encoded by the researchers respectively. The obtained codes were compared and took their final forms.

3. Findings and Comments In this section of the study, the findings within the subgoals of the research were presented.

3.1. The findings and the comments about the ‘’ According to the preschool teachers, what are the advantages of interactive digital storybooks?’’ question: In the interview with the teachers, when we analyze the answers given to the ‘’ What are the advantages of interactive digital storybooks?’’ question, the teachers specified that these books have advantages like attractivity (11) addressing more than one sense organs (10), visuality (9), providing effective and active learning (6), supporting linguistic development (5), being funny (5), getting feedback immediately (3), concretisation (1) for children, families and teachers.

It was seen that, the subjects mostly emphasized by the teachers are attractivity, addressing more than one sense organs and visuality. In this subject, it was seen that, teachers mostly emphasized on the sounds on the books, mobility, interactivity. For example, the teacher coded as T4, saying “ it is attractive and makes sensation. It helps the children to learn more effectively by touching and hearing” expressed that these books both make sensation and provide effective learning. A teacher who earlier used the interactive books in his class (T7) expressed that these books drew the attention of the students with these words “ Our English education set ‘Captain Jack’ has an interactive cd. It draws more attention of children. Because it is compatible with the smart board, all of them could try and play.”

The opinions of other teachers who saw these applications for the first time and who think that they draw the attention of the students are as follows; “The sounds, the games, the actions and the effects in the story draws the attention of the 114

children. By this way, they can learn much easier and it can help them to learn without getting bored” (T17).

“For children with high visual intelligence there is a need to go beyond the conventional educational methods.

Its advantage is drawing the attraction and appealing to them. Children don’t like a simple presentation of the things they listen. In the simplest term, while even a puppet gives colour, interactive story is a great blessing.” (T8).

“The child visualizes the story much better. Because it is colourful, it draws attention. ” (T2).

One of the subjects that the teachers mostly emphasized on is the addressing more than one sense organs. One of them said “ Not only one sense, it addresses multiple senses. It is advantageous because it has both auditory, visual and thinking activities.” (T14), another of them specified that the multiple stimulants have impact on success saying “I believe that if the permanent and healthy learning is supported with the multiple stimulants, the success will be achieved. ” (T16) And a small number of teachers (1) touch on the concepts like technology and concretization and underline; the necessity of benefiting from technology, the importance of concretization for those group of age children, these electronical books address present-day children by saying " Present-day children like interactive education, not 100% interactive education but must benefit from technology, I really enjoy concretization of abstract concepts" (T1).

Another teacher (T3) who emphasizes the technology, said "The stories which aimed at using technology in a good way and which are educator, especially in English; both are helpful and funny"; and underlines that the practical activities should be performed in the field by saying "we should see how it will benefit by using with the children".

3.2. Findings and comment related to the question "What are the disadvantages of

the interactive digital storybooks according to preschool teachers?"

When it is asked to the teachers "What are the disadvantages of these books?", they gave answers such as; anti-socializationinactivation (8), habit-addiction (6), laziness (5), restriction on imagination (4), distractibility/lack of attention (4), possibility of alienating to normal (pressed) books (4), preventing linguistic development (2), weakening drawing ability (1), containing subliminal messages (1), being not economical (1), effecting family relations (1).

Teachers' expressions about the most emphasized and complained issue when it comes to the usage of technology at small ages; anti-socialization and technology addiction are as follows: The teacher coded as T5 expressed that the children who are deeply involved in technology have communicational troubles by saying: "The children who spend more time with electronical devices can not communicate to the environment after a while, they can not even say "welcome" to a guest coming their home".

In the same way, teacher coded as T23, said that the children should not be left alone with technology uncontrolled and without setting time restrictions by using expressions like: "It must be used controlled and by setting time well, it may distract too much from the social environment."

Other expressions about this subject are as follows: "I think it may cause distractibility and anti-socialization at the child if it is used uncontrolled and too much." (T24) "I think it inactivates the child because it locks the child to the screen and makes him obey the directions." T(20)

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The addiction of the children to the computers will increase. To interest with the mobile character instead of listening the story will decrease thier concentration. Game addiction will increase. T(8) Some of the teachers talked about interactive digital books may alienate children to pressed books and expressed their personal opinions as follows: "Reducing reading from normal (printed) books, may decrease their interests at this point. I think it would be better that they read normal storybooks or listen from someone they like." T(8) "Because of it's far from classical printed books, the pleasure coming from touching the book gets lost. It is negative to make the children meet with tablets and technological devices too early." T(10) A teacher (T2), who thinks technology effects family relations, said: "Parents work until the evening. When they come home, they may have 3-4 hours to see their children. If then children gets the tablets and parents deal with their mobile phones, alienations may occur."and adds: "I think the children should feel the smell of the book, should listen from the voice of parents or anybody they liked."

Another teacher (T3) who thinks these books have disadvantages, expressed his ideas as follows: "I think these are the disadvantages; it may have negative effects on children's linguistic development. Because the sound may prevent children to make mind exercises like personification and vocalizing. When we give the storybooks to the children, they may create a story by imagination. But it is needed to think and observe that how it will be with interactive storybooks. It is needed to observe how an activity like this will be, in a period that we try to keep children away from technology. I think it

may have a negative effect on children's linguistic development.

3.3. Findings and comments regarding the question " according to preschool teachers: A number of different answers were given to the question "from what age the interactive storybooks should be started to use?". Teachers offered suggestions such as 2-3 years old (10), 4-5 years old (8), 6 years old (1), 7 years old (1). And some teachers (5) said they can not know.

Teacher coded as T17 said: "3-6 ages can use, because it is suitable to development level of preschool children" and another teacher coded as T7 said: "It can be used since the start of preschool education. The 0-6 age era that children's intelligence improves most is, valuable. Serious improvements can be made with high quality interactive books. They can continue using until the end of educational lives."

Teacher coded as T2 underlined the necessity that children should be under control of the parents in these type of applications, and said: "In 4-5 age group children, it can be used at school, without playing the effects. The tablet should not be given to the child at home. If the family wants to apply, the story should be followed by parents or an another family member. " It was seen that most of the teachers (N=20) gave an answer to the question "from what age the interactive storybooks should be started to use?", but when asked "why from that age", most of them (N=13) could not make a statement.

3.4. Findings and comments regarding the question: "What will be the status of interactive digital storybooks in the future?"

To the question about the status of interactive digital storybooks in the future, after telling advantages and disadvantages; feedbacks indicating they will develop and be used more given by the teachers. The teacher coded as T24, expressed that they will be used in more 116

areas through the technological developments, with richer content. The teacher coded as T6 said: "These books may address all age groups by improving. This increases usage areas. They can make children more equipped against technology. I think they will be released with more developments later on."

The teacher coded as T20 indicated that we are in technology age and made comments such as: "I think they will become more popular. Because our age is technology age. Every day a new thing is being released. Normal story books will become extinct. We will not narrate them by reading. Speaking-narrating stories are being released and they will become more popular."

In the same way, the teacher coded as T7 said "It is technology age. Children are prone to technology whether we want it or not. So i think they should be developed." and touched on a different point, made a suggestion: "Storybooks proper to our own ethics and national values, should be created. " Some teachers like T3, stated to wait and see and said: "We have already been nested with technology. When we start to use interactive storybooks to the children, we will be more comfortable against the life. Interesting! Perhaps we need to try for 2-3 years, we will wait and see."

4. Conclusion and Suggestions The main goal of this research is to determine the opinions of preschool teachers about interactive storybooks. After the conversations made with the teachers who attended the research, these results were reached overall: •

Teachers described the advantages of the interactive storybooks as: "attractivity, addressing more than one sense organs, visuality, providing effective and active learning, easing and endearing learning, supporting linguistic development, funny, educatory, contributing physical development, getting feedback immediately."

•

Teachers described the disadvantages of the interactive storybooks as: "antisocialising children, habit-dediction, causing laziness, restricting imagination, causing lack of attention, decrease interest to normal books, preventing physical development, lack of inspection, preventing linguistic development, weakening drawing ability, containing subliminal messages, being not economical."

•

In the research, it is seen that the answers teachers gave to the question ""from what age the interactive storybooks should be started to use?" are as, 2-3 years old, 4-5 years old, 6 years old and 7 years old. 5 teachers could not make any comments about this matter or gave an significant answer to consider.

•

Finally, teachers expressed that interactive storybooks have a bright future and they will become more popular and used more effectively in time. After analysing all the answers given by the teachers, the opinion that interactive storybooks can be used after removing negative features and not totally ignoring printed books, under the control of the family, was reached.

Suggestions • The effects of these books may be analyzed in detail through doing an experimental study.

• In the research, it is seen that the teachers do not have much information about interactive storybooks. So, a seminar may be hold for teachers and parents in the schools and they may given information about what the interactive studybooks exactly are, how they are used and how frequent they should be used.

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•

•

Interactive studybooks may be improved and its standarts may determine by considering children's development.

This research investigated only teachers' opinions. But it is thought to be helpful to get the opinions of the other elements of education, parents and experts.

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