Oliver Cuddeford | Architectural Dissertation

HOW ARCHITECTURE WAS USED AS THE NAZI PARTY’S HIGHEST FORM OF PROPAGANDA

OLIVER LEWIS CUDDEFORD

DECLARATION

I, Oliver Lewis Cuddeford, confirm that this work submitted for assessment is my own and is expressed in my own words. Any use made within it of the works of other authors in any form (ideas, text, illustrations, etc.) Is properly acknowledged at the point of use. A list of the references employed is included as part of the work.

Signed: Date: 05/02/2023

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I give thanks to the people who have made this dissertation possible. Primarily, my supervisor, Dr. Adrian Pitts, and my module leader, Dr. Danilo Di Mascio. Thanks also to Amanda Tinker and the Academic support team.

Student ID: U2079256

THA1121: Architectural Dissertation

Supervisor: Adrian Pitts

Module Leader: Danilo Di Mascio

Word Count: 5,859

ABSTRACT AND TOPIC SELECTION

The subject of propaganda within the context of the Second World War is one which has been thoroughly explored in the traditional understanding of what constitutes propaganda - “Persuasive mass communication that filters and frames the issues of the day in a way that strongly favours particular interests; usually those of a government or corporation (compare agenda setting). Also, the intentional manipulation of public opinion through lies, half-truths, and the selective re-telling of history.” (Oxford Reference, 2022). The aim of this essay is to evaluate the use of architecture as a form of propaganda by the Nazi regime in terms of its proliferation, effectiveness, and lasting impact on our understanding of architecture as a tool to control the direction of a population’s thinking.

When the subject of propaganda is raised, the stereotypical typologies are posters, radio broadcasts, and state-run media formats. Rarely do we see the medium of architecture discussed as a form of propaganda or examine the social factors which can play a part in architectural design under a political regime. Just as any architecture responds to the needs of its occupants in a pragmatic sense, so too is an architectural style and the political narrative of its creators often one and the same. This essay will investigate how the neoclassical designs of Albert Speer stand as a metaphor for the conservative ideologies of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist Party of wartime Germany – how the Nazi way of thinking was translated into a tangible structure – and how architecture can draw upon historical precedents in an attempt to enhance the credibility of its designers.

My interest in this topic was born from an interest in Germania and Hitler’s post-war plans for the rebuilding of Germany. Many of Nazi Germany’s construction projects were of a scale unseen in the world before, such as the Schwerer Gustav cannon – a 1,350-tonne railway gun capable of firing shells weighing 7 tonnes each (Zaloga, 2016). Or the proposed Breitspurbahntranslating to ‘broad gauge railway’, Hitler’s land-based locomotive response to ocean liners which connected the British Empire at the time (Thies, 2013) (Gray, 2018).

FIGURE LIST

Figure 1: Albert Speer at the Nuremberg Trials -Retrieved from: https://collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/pa1043378

Figure 2: Albert Speer - Retrieved from: https://www.starsinsider.com/lifestyle/442728/the-awful-truth-about-albert-speer-hitlers-architect

Figure 3: Villa Savoye - Retrieved from: https://www.midcenturyhome.com/le-corbusiers-villa-savoye/

Figure 4: Albert Speer - Retrieved from: https://www.pinterest.co.uk/antoniosoaresal/arqalbert-speer-1905ger_1981gbr-architecture/

Figure 5: Olympiastadion with Golden Spiral Overlay - Author’s Own Image

Figure 6: Parthenon with Golden Spiral Overlay - Author’s Own Image

Figure 7: Hindenburg over Olympiastadion - Retrieved from: https://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/401101910534908562/

Figure 8: Olympiastadion from the Hindenburg - Retrieved from: https://www.alphacute.com/20-rarely-seen-historical-photos-that-will-leaveyou-speechless/

Figure 9: Model Volkshalle - Retrieved from: https://www.flickr.com/photos/glenhsparky/3529863171/

Figure 10: Volkshalle Interior -Retrieved from: https://www.cyburbia.org/forums/threads/adolf-and-albert-photos-and-commentary.10483/

Figure 11: Pantheon Section - Retrieved from: https://brewminate.com/the-roman-pantheon-eighth-wonder-of-the-ancient-world/

Figure 12: Berlin Soil Map - Retrieved from: https://www.berlin.de/umweltatlas/en/soil/soil-associations/2015/maps/artikel.926675.en.php

Figure 13: Heavy Load-bearing Body - Retrieved from: https://www.visitberlin.de/en/schwerbelastungskorper-heavy-load-bearing-body

Figure 14: Arch of Constantine - Retrieved from: https://www.thousandwonders.net/Roman+Forum

Figure 15: Hitler’s Sketch of Triumphal Arch - Retrieved from: https://artincontext.org/hitler-paintings/

Figure 16: Meknes, Volubilis - Roman Ruin - Retrieved from: https://www.trevorstravels.com/tag/roman-ruins/

Figure 17: Sabratha, Libya - Roman Ruin - Retrieved from: https://karnerkapers.blogspot.com/2011/02/leptislepcis-magna-libya.html

Model of Speer’s Volkshalle - Retrieved from: https://www.archhdaily.com/806680/unbuilt-nazi-pantheon-unpacking-albert-speer-volkshallegermania-jonathan-glancey

Schwerer Gustav Cannon - Retrieved from: https://www.ststworld.com/schwerer-gustav/

The Volkshalle: The Man in The High Castle - Retrieved from: https://thegasmask.artstation.com/projects/kKqd0

Casa Del Fascio - Retrieved from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalism_(architecture)#/media/File:Como_-_Casa_del_Fascio_-_27-09-2017.jpg

1938 University of Rome Campus - Retrieved from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalism_(architecture)#/media/File:RomeUniversity1938.jpg

The Volkshalle: The Man in The High Castle - Retrieved from: https://thegasmask.artstation.com/projects/kKqd0

Model of Germania - Retrieved from: https://alchetron.com/Welthauptstadt-Germania

North-South Axis Plan - Retrieved from: https://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/417145984207614389/

LITERATURE REVIEW

Among the most used sources for this work is an essay titled: ‘Hitler’s Germania: Propaganda Writ in Stone’ by Aaron Mumford Boehlert of the Bard College. This work is of critical importance within this research, as it is a well-written academic source with an extensive number of correctly cited references which created a steppingstone to a wide array of other helpful sources. Boehlert’s work is a comprehensive analysis of our understanding of Hitler’s plans for the rebuilding of Berlin into the ‘World Capital Germania’. His work sets out to discuss the appropriation of historical precedents and styles by the Nazi regime for the purpose of their own glorification. Through extensive analysis, his work, I believe, achieves this through the conclusion that the architectural works of the Nazis amount to the bastardisation of historical design philosophy and appropriation of history for the purposes of self-glorification.

Another source of notable importance in the writing of this essay is the personal memoirs of Albert Speer, Hitler’s chief architect and the designer responsible for the case studies which underpin this essay’s argument. The information gleaned from these memoirs is, in some ways, considered unreliable. As Speer was a member of the upper echelons of the Nazi Party (Brechten, 2017), who was captured and put on trial at Nuremberg, there have been accusations against Speer which state that the accounts in his memoirs have been skewed to paint himself as a figure with less personal responsibility for the events of the holocaust (Connoly, 2007). It seems unlikely that the information for this essay, extracted from his writing, has a motive to be altered, as this primarily uses his architectural descriptions and photographs, rather than his retelling of historical events where he has cause to skew his account. With this said, it is important to note that the merit of some of Speer’s claims has been cast into doubt by a large portion of the historiography. Further to this personal and political bias, it is important to note that Speer wrote his memoirs after his release from prison in 1966, over 20 years after the events he writes about, which could influence the accuracy of some of his statements. Irrespective of

this, his memoirs include several images of the models and plans he made, as well as, in the case of the Olympic stadium, photographs of the building as it was at the time. Through these images, certain written details can be corroborated.

Jonathan Glancey’s: ‘The Unbuilt Nazi Pantheon: Unpacking Albert Speer’s “Volkshalle” (2017)’ was another source used which was particularly helpful in understanding the latter of my two case studies. The article is an extract from Glancey’s book ‘What’s so great about the Eiffel Tower?’, an analytical book about historically important architecture. This source contained a concise collection of measurements of the Volkshalle, as well as some more opinionated statements, so distinguishing well-sourced factual statements from Glancey’s opinion was a necessary process when using this source. As such, since it is a small extract and interlaced with opinion, this source was used more to corroborate information from the other, more academic sources, such as Speer’s memoirs or Boehlert’s essay.

Another source which details the private meetings Hitler had with his closest allies has also been able to shed light on some of the details of his plans for Berlin, which is the focus of my latter case study. Titled:

‘Adolf Hitler. Monologues in the Führer’s Headquarters 1941–1944’ by Heinrich Heim and Werner Jochmann, these diaries kept during Hitler’s meetings are widely considered to be an accurate source and have provided some useful quotes in which Hitler discusses his goals for a revitalised Berlin with details not available from other sources.

Sources for this essay were ample for its limited scope, but I feel if I were to write more, more sources would be needed than are available to do the topic justice. Much of this can be owed to the destruction of the already limited records of plans and sketches. If I were given more time and scope, I would use more case studies of Speer’s works –specifically the Reich Chancellery, which I cut from this essay in order to give more detail to other areas. Analysing other examples of Fascist Architecture, such as from Mussolini’s Italy, or Stalin’s Russia, would also provide an interesting parallel for the subject of this essay.

This essay will also explore the thematic choices behind the architectural projects of the Third Reich, and how these choices convey the values and sentiments of the German high command as a propagandistic mechanism. Investigation of the aspects of the authoritarian regime’s architecture will be conducted through several case studies, analysing their forms and comparing them to their classical counterparts, such as Hadrian’s Pantheon, The Parthenon, and the Colosseum. This essay will also explore the concept of Ruin Value - the principle of designing the structure to inspire and impose upon people thousands of years after their construction, when they are left in ruin – a concept that Speer Figure 1) and Hitler developed due to Hitler’s wish to “transmit his time and its spirit to posterity.” (Boehlert, 2017).

The analysis of these forms and principles will reveal the degree to which the Third Reich’s architectural style was used to inspire awe and reverence in its people, and the design choices which were made to achieve that goal. Comparisons between the Roman Empire and Nazi Germany arise naturally and often in unexpected ways during the exploration of this topic, and Hitler often played on these comparisons to establish himself as a ruler with absolute power (Hitler, 1939), and his people as the cultural and technological leaders of their time –superior to all others.

Hitler’s interest in architecture precedes almost every event which made him historically significant (Hitler, 1939). From his youth, in which he famously aspired to become a renowned painter, many of his works of art held a particular architectural theme and used classical styling and technique – the memoirs of Albert Speer, who will soon be discussed at length, talk about Hitler’s hatred of the modern in art and architecture, and many modernist artworks were destroyed under his regime (Speer, 1970) (Hitler, 1939). From his rejection by Vienna’s Academy of Art, he was instead directed towards a career in architecture, where his talent for illustration was better suited (Hitler, 1939).

FIGURE 1: Albert Speer at the Nuremberg Trials

This essay will attempt to explore how Hitler and Speer’s aspirations were carved in stone, from the 1936 Olympic Stadium to the unbuilt megastructure of the Volkshalle, through the lens of architectural design and its intrinsic link to German fascist propaganda (Stuart, 2009).

Other regimes have used architecture as a propagandistic mechanism, such as the rise of Rationalist architecture in Fascist Italy in the early 20th Century. Mussolini’s regime supported and promoted the rationalist styling which favoured a logical and geometric approach to design and a break from traditional ornamentation – one such example is of the Casa del Fascio in Como, Italy. Rationalism in architecture is derived from Vitruvius’s De Architectura declaration that architecture is a science and thus can be perceived rationally (Pollio, 1968). Aligning one’s regime with architecture which is rational, geometric, and mathematical indicates a sense of conformity and uniformity. It degrades the value of individuality and promotes an image of unity.

In parallel to their German counterparts, many buildings commissioned by the Italian Fascist regime also featured more classical styling of Roman and Greek origin, evoking ideas of a purity of lineage and a return to more conservative and traditional values.

Casa Del Fascio, Como, Italy

1938 University of Rome Campus

METHODOLOGY STATEMENT

This essay is divided into chapters based on individual case studies where relevant, as well as historical figures and theories which are directly related to the arguments of this essay. The selection of these case studies came from a number of criteria, including the availability of relevant sources, and the relevance of these cases to the wider question and argument. Four case studies were initially selected based on these criteria but were later reduced to two to give the necessary depth of attention. Analysis of these case studies is based on their architectural characteristics, the architect who designed them, and the intended users of these buildings, or more specifically, the society which their designer envisioned they would be constructed for. Regarding case studies, the analysis of their architecture can be summarised by three components: materials, influences, and symbolism.

The Volkshalle: The Man in The High Castle

Hitler’s chief architect, Albert Speer (figure 1,2,4)(1905 – 1981), designed the majority of the Third Reich’s major building projects with the express intent of glorifying the Nazi regime and the German people (Ishida, 2020).

Albert Speer (Figure 1,2,4) began his career in architecture under Hitler in 1933 (Speer, 1970). His first project was to plan the renovation of the home of Karl Hanke, a Nazi official residing in Berlin. While the renovations amounted to little more than conferring on “wallpapers, draperies, and paints” (Speer, 1970). Yet, impressed with his work (Hitler, 1939), he was soon charged with redesigning the party headquarters in Berlin. While this role was, in Speer’s own words, “not so impressive; once again it came down to repainting the walls and making minor alterations.” (Speer, 1970). It is important to acknowledge the humble beginnings of the man who would one day be assigned the task of redesigning Berlin according to the future that the Nazis wished to create. He would, in time, become answerable only to Hitler, and command the power to hire and head-hunt any professionals and resources needed to carry out his assignments (Speer, 1970).

In redesigning the party headquarters, Speer was answerable directly to Joseph Goebbels, the German minister for propaganda (Thacker, 2009). Although he did not interact directly with Goebbels much in this role, this represented a significant advancement in Speer’s career as a young architect, and the party’s recognition that architecture was a tool to be used by the minister for propaganda, as much as any art form (Sooke, 2014). Upon Hitler’s inspection, Speer was proud to see that his work was appreciated and noticed by Hitler himself (Speer, 1970).

In 1936, Germany was to host the Olympic games. Adapting the designs of Werner March, Speer designed a stadium which reflected the conservative ideologies of the Nazis, unlike March’s concrete and glass. In her 2014 essay, entitled ‘Assessing the role of architecture as propaganda in the Third Reich’, Carolyn Woods discusses the

FIGURE 2: Albert Speer

philosophy of ‘Volksgemeinschaft’ (Woods, 2014) – the creation of a society with stronger unity and cohesion. She notes how Hitler and the Nazis came into power at a time when, under the Weimar Republic, political and economic instability held German society in a precarious and vulnerable position. As a tool of propaganda, one of the major values which neo-classical architecture embodies is that of stability and strength. Hallmarks of the style include the use of substantial loadbearing stone columns and foundations, which are inherently heavy and durable; rather than the delicate use of glass which was becoming more prevalent in contemporary architecture of the time, such as Le Corbusier’s modernist Villa Savoye (Figure 3) (Murphy, 2002) in France. Le Corbusier’s unorthodox design uses extensive glass elements and thin supports which arguably exude the qualities of transparency and weightlessness – a rather rigid dichotomy from the monumentality of Hitler’s regime.

FIGURE 3: Villa Savoye

FIGURE 4: Albert Speer

II: OLYMPIASTADION

The Olympic stadium for Berlin’s 1936 Olympic games was one of Speer’s earliest major works as Hitler’s chief architect (Speer, 1970). His design was adapted from that of another architect, Werner March (der Wissenschaft, 2004) (Lehmann, 2021), which originally used a concrete framework with glass partitions between sections which also acted as part of the façade, similar to the Vienna Stadium at the time (Speer, 1970). According to Speer’s memoirs, Hitler was greatly displeased with this styling to such an extent that he talked about pulling Germany out of the hosting of the Olympics. He is quoted by Speer as saying

“Cancel the Olympic Games” begin without [his] presence, since the Chief of State must open them” and that he (Speer, 1970). This is reminiscent of the previously mentioned 1931 Villa Savoye by Le Corbusier, a building which pioneered the fledgling modernist style (Rowe, 2011) of the 20th century through thin-framed glazed elements and narrow structural columns which, combined with the many overhangs of the upper floors, help the building to appear to lightly float off the ground, especially from afar.

Speer took the opportunity to propose his own neo-classical vision for the stadium (figure 7), using March’s concrete structure, which was already amid construction, but cladding it in natural stone, and adorning it with long banners of deep red emblazoned with swastikas, and removing the wider use of glass elements. Hitler took to the more classical aspects of this design and approved the finances needed to realise Speer’s vision (Speer, 1970), which was significantly more aligned with neo-classical design tropes such as the raw natural stone cladding and large structural columns, and with decorative stone cornices which border some of the horizontal layers of stonework. This style is reminiscent of the Ionic, one of the five orders of classical architecture (Jenkins, 2006) – the fluted stone columns of this style are also prevalent in other neo-classical works by Speer (Speer, 1970).

FIGURE 6: The Parthenon with Golden Spiral Overlay

FIGURE 5: Olympiastadion with Golden Spiral Overlay

The hierarchy of elements within the stadium’s façade (figure 5) also mimics that of the Greek Parthenon (figure 6), which closely resembles the Golden Ratio as a means of determining the proportions of each component of the structure (Akhtaruzzaman & Shafie, 2011). In the Parthenon, this entails large vertical columns which support a roof structure subdivided closely into the relative dimensions of the ‘golden spiral’ (Thapa & Thapa, 2018). The Golden Ratio is a mathematical term which relates to, among other things, a rectangle of aspect ratio 1:1.6180… - denoted by the Greek letter Φ (Phi) (Akhtaruzzaman & Shafie, 2011). This rectangle can be split along the long side into a square and smaller rectangle which is of the same aspect ratio. This process is infinitely repeatable, as the rectangles are subdivided into smaller and smaller repetitions of themselves (Akhtaruzzaman & Shafie, 2011). Drawing a curve which follows these subdivisions creates a spiral, known as the Golden Spiral. Some, including the architect Le Corbusier and artist Salvador Dali, have proposed that this ratio has intrinsic aesthetic properties and is associated with beauty (Fun, Usman, Utaberta, Araffin, & Sharif, 2021). Many have also speculated that the proportions of Leonardo Da Vinci’s Mona Lisa painting adhere to those of the Golden Spiral, although this is debated within the historiography (Markowsky, 1992). The significance of this in the context of this essay is the Ratio’s supposed connection to beauty and nature. As it has long been popularised that the Golden Ratio is intrinsically linked to beauty (for example, Gustav Theodor Fechner’s 1860s study on appealing aspect ratios, where he claimed the most popular choices closely approximated this ratio (Livio, 2002)), we can infer that using it as a basis for design might have been intended to produce an outcome which is based on physically appealing proportions which are found both in nature and in geometry (Akhtaruzzaman & Shafie, 2011).

FIGURE 7: Hindenburg over Olympiastadion

The implications of this may produce a design whose inherent beauty enhances its impact as a work of art and propaganda. With that said, it is important to note that some sources claim that the Golden Ratio is often attributed erroneously to certain works of art where there is no historical evidence its use was intentional (Markowsky, 1992). Irrespective of intention, there is a notable consistency which has been highlighted in Figures 5 and 6 which could indicate that the proportions of the Olympiastadion (figure 8) may have been influenced by those of the Parthenon.

FIGURE 8: Olympiastadion from the Hindenburg

Throughout the rise and fall of the Third Reich, propagandistic parallels between the German people and the Roman Empire were consistently engineered (Chapoutot, 2016). Not only in the architecture, but in their respective persecution of the Jewish people (Seaver, 1952). Through the grand classical architecture, the Nazis aligned their society with that of the Romans – just as the Romans were considered the height of civilisation in their time (Harper, 2017), so, too, did the Nazis wish to be seen as the greatest civilisation of their time (Speer, 1970).

To this end, Speer’s “greatest” assignment from Hitler came during his role as Berlin’s General Inspector of Building s (Speer, 1970). The wider project involved Berlin’s post-war transformation into what was to be known as “Welthaupstadt Germania”, which translates to “World Capital Germania” . Continuing the running parallels between the Romans and the Nazis, Hitler’s desire for a “1000-year Reich” (Hitler, 1939) reflects in part the nickname Rome bears - “The Eternal City” (Maier, 2020). This comparison alone is loaded both politically and historically as the lifespan of an empire can be associated with its power, stability, and prosperity (Bowersock, 1974) such as the Byzantine Empire which lasted from 285CE to 1453CE (World History Encyclopedia, 2022) and fostered an era of economic advancement (Pirenne, 1936). For Hitler to declare his world capital to last a millennium evokes the same greatness to which Rome owes its title. Hitler is quoted as saying:

“As the world capital, Berlin will only be comparable to ancient Egypt, Babylon, or Rome! What is London, what is Paris against it!” (Jochmann, 2000)

We can infer from this the sheer egotistical fanaticism Hitler had for classical civilisation and its associated architecture. The heart of Hitler’s new world capital would have been the Volkshalle, or People’s Hall (Figure 8) – an enormous domed structure inspired by Hadrian’s Pantheon in Rome (Speer, 1970)(Figure 11). Like many of Hitler’s architectural plans, his idea for the Volkshalle was based upon existing structures of notable grandeur and amplifying their scale as a major display of power – as Speer writes in his memoirs, Hitler directly

FIGURE 9: Model Volkshalle

referenced the Pantheon in his specifications for the Volkshalle (Speer, 1970)(figure 9, 10). As the most colossal piece of propaganda, the Volkshalle would have been the crowning jewel of Hitler’s political empire (Boehlert, 2017). Through his comparisons to Egypt, Babylon, and Rome, we can perceive that Hitler believed his people were to bear the torch of these historical peoples – that the German people were to carry the torch of human civilisation, just as the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans had done before (Mommsen, 1862). The Neo-Classical styling of Nazi architecture stands as a propagandistic testament to the belief in their civilisation, grandeur, and desire to form a lasting empire.

The Volkshalle was to be of a scale unseen in the world, even to this day (Glancey, 2017). The original inspiration came from Hitler, who initiated the project with his sketches, from a visit to Hadrian’s Pantheon in Rome. He said:

“From the time I experienced this building – no description, picture or photograph did it justice – I became interested in its history […] For a short while I stood in this space (the rotunda) – what majesty! I gazed at the large open oculus and saw the universe and sensed what had given this space the name Pantheon – God and the world are one.”

(Giesler, 2005)

Speer’s memoirs reveal that such a grand temple to the Gods captured the imagination of Hitler. Just as Augustus’s personal home was connected to the Temple of Apollo on the Palatine Hill in Rome, so, too, did Hitler instruct his Fuhrer Palace, his private home, to be linked directly to the Volkshalle (Speer, 1970) – a further propagandistic reference which frames Germany as a new empire; and Hitler, its emperor (Baranowski, 2011). In the TV adaptation of Phillip K. Dick’s fictional alternate America: “The Man in the High Castle” (Dick, 1962), Hitler’s personal quarters are housed within the Volkshalle itself (Percival, 2015).

He would, in many senses, mirror his imperial predecessors – but in a manner and scale which had never been seen in the world before (Boehlert, 2017) (DrGull1888, 2011).

FIGURE 10: Volkshalle Interior

As the centrepiece of Hitler’s Welthaupstadt, the Volkshalle was unmatched in its proposed scale (Glancey, 2017): an enormous podium of granite measuring 315m x 315m was to support the dome. The dome itself was then to be of a diameter of 250m, with an oculus (the central opening at the top of the dome) would have been of 46m in diameter – wide enough to encompass the dome adorning the roof of St. Peter’s Basilica, located in the Vatican City (Glancey, 2017). If built, this enormous space would comprise the largest enclosed space in the world, both at the time of its conception and today. If constructed, it would have sufficient floor space to accommodate over 180,000 people standing (Glancey, 2017). A structure of such immense scale would see the combined condensation of 180,000 breathing occupants form clouds and, subsequently, rainfall, within the space itself (Glancey, 2017). As a propaganda tool, no feat of design, engineering, and construction could possibly represent German cultural and technical superiority over the Volkshalle (Amado, Arevalo, Escoda, & Berkin) – no art, speech or indoctrination would influence and inspire to the extent that such a monument to Nazi values, hewn in stone, could provide (Kallis, 2005).

The entrance to the hall would have been flanked on either side by two enormous sculptures of Atlas (the mythological Greek Titan condemned to hold up the Heavens for eternity) on the left. The opposite side was to be marked with another statue depicting Tellus, or Terra Mater from the Latin for ‘Mother Earth’, who was in Roman mythology, the Earth Goddess (The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica , 2018).

On the opposite end of Berlin’s proposed North-South axis road, was to be the site of a great stone arch (Figure 14), not unlike the Arc De Triomphe of Paris , which was itself inspired by classical design characteristics (Tolfree, 2000). Known also as a triumphant arch, this structure was sketched by Hitler and designed to be the biggest monument of its kind (Kitchen, 2015). Hitler wanted an arch so large that the more famous Arc De Triomphe of Paris could comfortably sit within the opening of Germania’s arch (Kitchen, 2015) – another demonstration of how architectural scale was used as a propagandistic tool to display wealth, power, and technical skill . To this end, Speer

FIGURE 11: Hadrian’s Pantheon Section

began laying the groundwork and testing materials for this gargantuan structure (Copley, 2019). To this day, there still stands in Berlin a “Schwerbelastungskörper” – translated as a “heavy load-bearing body” (Copley, 2019)(Figure 13).

This consisted of an enormous cylinder of cast concrete weighing approximately 12 million kilograms or 12,000 tons (Copley, 2019). To this day, the structure still stands in Berlin and was used as a model to test the effects of such an enormous and concentrated load on the relatively soft Berlin soil (Figure 12), which is mostly made up of soil types known as lockersyrosem, regosol, and pararendzina , all loose soils which are often also make up swampy wetlands (Environmental Atlas Berlin, 2022). The design, like much of the Nazi’s designs, was heavily informed by neo-classical design tropes such as the semi-circular arch design, often used in Roman architecture (Makris & Alexakis, 2013), as well as stone columns for both structural and ornamental uses .

Sculptural reliefs, carved into the stone, are also shown in the sketch produced (Figure 15). While no arch was built, and the sketches are of low detail, the use of these design traits in other projects, such as the new Reich chancellery and Volkshalle can inform us as to how the arch might appear . Speer, in his memoirs, writes about his appreciation for Doric design elements in architecture, a style of ancient Greek origin (Jenkins, 2006). While no column styles were specified for the arch, it is possible that Speer would draw upon the Doric style of column, characterised by its simplicity compared to other designs, and its shaft with sixteen flutes (Jenkins, 2006). Unlike the pointed arch which often is associated with Christian and Islamic architecture (Draper, 2016), the semi-circular arch is firmly rooted in Roman styling, with many triumphal arches being of Roman origin (Frothingham Jr., 1904). While many of these great structures have decayed or been lost, one survivor in Rome is the Arch of Constantine. Hitler visited Rome on several occasions and, taking inspiration, sketched his arch with a notable resemblance to the Arch of Constantine (Figure 14). The carved relief in both arches is a significant overlap in design, although the planned Nazi arch would have used more full sculptural elements to convey a story, rather than purely carved reliefs as seen in the Arch of Constantine.

FIGURE 12: Berlin Soil Map

FIGURE 13: Heavy Load-bearing Body

The telling of a story through the visual medium of sculpture enshrines the arch as a public monument to the greatness of a people (WallaceHadrill, 1990).

As important as the structures themselves are, the planned use of large open boulevard spaces and wide streets, such as the NorthSouth axis which was to adjoin the Volkshalle with the Triumphal Arch are also relevant when discussing architecture and design as a propagandistic tool . Large open spaces, such as Nuremberg’s Zeppelinfeld (Zeppelin field), were used by the party as the grounds to host political rallies and speeches of enormous scale and importance (Speer, 1970). In Hitler’s plans for Berlin, substantial spaces were to be cleared in the centre of the city, around the Reichstag, and in front of the unbuilt Volkshalle, to address hundreds of thousands of Germans live (Speer, 1970).

To the party members, and members of German society, the propagandistic aspects of this thinking would not have been subtle . German greatness was a major theme in every one of Hitler’s speeches. It was preached in schools from a young age and was the highlight of every poster and piece of media (White, 1949). However, above all other propaganda forms , the neo-classical grandeur of Speer’s designs would evoke a particular sense of superiority and pride amongst Germans . Every one of Hitler’s planned structures for post-war Berlin was to be, in some capacity an imitation of the best of that which had come before, but on a scale meant to dwarf those inspirational source materials – the mark of their supposed superiority (Arnold, 2006).

FIGURE 15: Hitler’s Sketch of Triumphal Arch

FIGURE 14: Arch of Constantine

The connection between proposed Nazi architecture and its classical inspiration, such as the Olympiastadion and the Pantheon and Colosseum, or the Volkshalle and Hadrian’s Pantheon, runs deeper than simply imitating those structures in their prime. In designing a piece of propaganda which would outlive all those who conceived of it, Speer began sketching and considering his designs in a new state: one in which his buildings were decrepit, abandoned, and overgrown with plant life (Ishida, 2020). To some member s of the party, images depicting their buildings long after the ravages of time were considered blasphemous (Speer, 1970). To Speer and Hitler , however, considering a building’s aesthetic qualities in this state was an important component of their peoples’ legacy.

To Speer, and later, to Hitler himself, the “law of ruins”, as it became known, was an essential aspect of the design process (Lane, 1986). Just as many historically significant structures from classical civilisations still stand in parts today, so, too, would Speer’s designs still stand a thousand years after their construction – not as functional buildings, but as enormous fallen monuments to their civilisation. It was believed that these buildings, the cradle of Nazi existence, would serve as propaganda for thousands of years to come, and one day be observed by archaeologists and historians with the same curiosity, wonder, and reverence as ancient ruins are seen today. This obsession with defying the ruining hands of time and nature to leave behind an astounding memorial to one’s civilisation is nothing short of Ozymandian (Shelley, 1818) – a lasting mark of Nazi German society which would survive beyond their lifetime (Featherstone, 2006).

The decline of Roman influence and stability is attributed to a number of factors which range from political corruption to economic stagnation (Harper, 2017). In a similar vein, the decline of Nazi influence and stability was predestined from the time it began emulating its Roman predecessors – as an aggressive militant empire with no clear precedent for determining Hitler’s political successor, the third Reich would inevitably to succumb to resistance, rebellion, and internal power struggles at some point in its limited future. While the contemporary

FIGURE 16: Meknes, Volubilis - Roman Ruin

Nazi command did not necessarily envision their doom so imminently, the implementation of Ruin Value perhaps implies an understanding of the ephemeral nature of influence and power. Or perhaps it implies that Hitler and Speer knew that their architecture would need to change and evolve over time, and the buildings they designed would one day be abandoned in favour of structures which met the needs of the time, leaving only monuments behind. In any case, it demonstrates an attempt at foresight and lasting control.

When compared to other architectural styles, the erosion and collapse of stone causes a building to weather in a way which remains aesthetically appealing (figure 16, 17), as if nature is re-carving the stone over time. Unlike styles which Hitler was known to hate, such as the modernist style of Le Corbusier and Mies Van Der Rohe, who built the 1930 Villa Tugendhat, the slow decay of classical stone structures can appear elegant and perhaps even majestic when compared with the unceremonious shattering of glass and rusting of steel. In Harald Welzer’s writings: ‘Albert Speer’s Memories of the Future’, derived from ‘Narration, Identity and Historical Consciousness’, edited by Jurgen Straub, we can understand that when Speer was commissioned to restyle the Zeppelinfeld – the famous grounds for party rally speeches – a relatively new tram station was to be demolished to clear space for the field. Welzer writes: ‘When Speer passed by the wrecked reinforced concrete construction, out of which the iron components protruded and had already begun to rust, he shuddered at the thought that the buildings he had designed for the new Reich would at some point in history also be in such a wretched condition’ (Welzer, 2005). Welzer further writes that Speer’s Theory of Ruin Value was ‘nothing other than an aesthetic calculation of decay’ which entails designing with materials and structures which have a well-understood progression of decay, such that in a thousand years, they would resemble Roman ruins (Welzer, 2005). In this sense, these buildings would, in their life, serve as functional nerve centres of the Nazi government and a propagandistic testament to their values. By that same token, in their decay, they would stand as beautiful monuments of historical significance. By virtue of the sheer volume of hard-wearing stone, such

buildings can remain for thousands of years – representing a will for permanence and a relentless resistance to the passage of time.

FIGURE 17: Sabratha, Libya - Roman Ruin

The analysis of the findings of this essay are divided in accordance with its initial aims: to evaluate the proliferation, effectiveness, and lasting impact on our understanding of architecture as a tool to control the direction of a population’s thinking. The proliferation of Nazi architectural propaganda can be considered nothing short of absolute failure, owed entirely to the outcome of the Second World War. As the saying goes, ‘History is Written by the Victors’, and so, too, do the victors decide what remains standing when the dust has settled. As such, virtually all Nazi-built architecture was destroyed by the Allies post-war. Even the Reichstag – the German Parliament - a building which is not of Nazi origin, has been modified with its dome reconstructed in glass as a symbol of the transparency of today’s German government – a direct rejection of Nazi thought in all its forms.

The effectiveness of architecture as propaganda under the Third Reich, however, is not so easily dismissed. A large extent of the popularity of nationalism is the perception that the problems found in the world are the result of changes which defy conservative thinking, such as immigration, globalisation, and more liberal policies. The architecture of Nazi Germany was a statement and a promise hewn in stone – the promise that the problems of a modernising world can be remedied with a return to tradition. Contemporary accounts which show packed rallies, women fawning over Hitler, proud men in uniforms, copies of Mein Kampf gifted to every married couple, and portraits of Hitler in every home are more than exaggerated propaganda (Speer, 1970). They tell a stark tale of the utter grip the Nazis had on the thoughts and perceptions of the German people. Much of this control, this essay argues, is the result of the built environment which the Nazis inhabited, as well as the world they planned to build (Amado, Arevalo, Escoda, & Berkin).

Model of Germania

The final aspect: the lasting impact on our understanding of architecture as a tool to control the direction of a population’s thinking, is a more complex answer. Around the world, governments are still housed in buildings, and all buildings have a style. Therefore, one can analyse these styles and infer traits which are valued by their occupants. Two contrasting examples of this are the UK Houses of Parliament, and the Scottish Parliament. Where the former looms somewhat ominously, and is impenetrable to the naked eye, with a chamber divided into halves so as to indicate the divided views of the two main parties, the latter is circular in layout with vast glazed elements to promote the concepts of transparency and equality. Of course, the latter was built some 170 years after the former (The Editors of the Encyclopaedia Britannica , 2023), and needs change with time. Their design reflects the values of their designer and in this sense, the lasting impact of architecture as a means to reflect political ideologies has been innately successful, if wholly unoriginal to the Nazis.

To conclude, Nazi architecture reflects a strong infatuation with perceived past glories, and Hitler’s hatred and resistance to a fledgling modernist movement in the art and architecture communities, and the wider world. As tools of propaganda, this essay argues that the works of the 1936 Olympiastadion and the unbuilt Volkshalle and Triumphal Arch of Germania create a strong metaphor for imperial grandeur and prosperity, and their materiality, form, and tectonics are symbolic of strength and resilience in the face of the uncertain economic and political turmoil to which the Nazis owe their rise. We may infer that their designs, drawing from classical mythology, sculpture, and form, are intended as successors to a lineage of strong and prosperous empires in the European continent which date back as far as the Ancient Greeks. Yet, while these ideas may have been impactful in their own time, the architectural mark left by the Nazis has all but been erased from the Earth. We can conclude, therefore, that if the purpose of propaganda is to passively transmit an idea, then Nazi architectural propaganda can be safely declared as an absolute failure.

North-South Axis Model

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