ATM #20 Educating the Urban Poor

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Image credits, with thanks All images in this issue were taken by the ATM team

The Asian Trends Monitoring Bulletin focuses on

during their field visits to Jakarta, Manila, Hanoi, and

the analysis of pro-poor projects and innovative

Vientiane in 2012

approaches that will contribute to alleviate poverty.

The emphasis is put on identifying major trends

Permission is granted to use portions of this work

for the poor in rural and urban areas, highlighting

copyrighted by the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public

sustainable and scalable concepts, and analysing

Policy. Please follow the suggested citation:

how these could impact the future of Asia’s wellbeing and future development.

When citing individual articles Indrakesuma, T., & Loh, J. (2013). Educating the poor:

The Asian Trends Monitoring Bulletin are designed

past, present, future. In Asian Trends Monitoring

to encourage dialogue and debate about critical

Bulletin (2013), Bulletin 20: Educating the Urban

issues that affect Asia’s ability to reduce poverty and

Poor (pp. 6-7). Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy,

increase awareness of the implications for pro-poor

Singapore.

policy and policy development.

When citing the entire bulletinAsian Trends

The ATM Urban Poverty Series

Disclaimer

Monitoring Bulletin (2013), Bulletin 20: Educating the

The opinions expressed in the Asian Trends Monitoring

Urban Poor (pp. 6-7). Lee Kuan Yew School of Public

Download all previous ATM Bulletins from our website: www.asiantrendsmonitoring.com

Bulletin are those of the analysts and do not

Policy, Singapore.

necessarily reflect those of the sponsor organisations.

When citing our survey data Frequency

Asian Trends Monitoring (2012). A dataset on urban

The Asian Trends Monitoring Bulletin will be produced

poverty and service provision. Lee Kuan Yew School

eight times a year and can be downloaded for free at

of Public Policy, National University of Singapore.

http://www.asiantrendsmonitoring.com/downloads Please acknowledge the source and email a copy of Principal Investigators

the book, periodical or electronic document in which

Darryl S.L Jarvis

the material appears to chris.k@nus.edu.sg or send to

Phua Kai Hong T S Gopi Rethinaraj

Chris Koh Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy

Jakarta's Poor

Manila's Poor

Empowering Hanoi's Poor

Vientiane - Poor But Different

Research Associates

469C Bukit Timah Toad

Johannes Loh

Singapore 259772

Taufik Indrakesuma Nicola Pocock

3

Educating the Urban Poor

by Taufik Indrakesuma & Johannes Loh

Education is a vital tool for breaking the vicious cycle of poverty. Indeed, it is often claimed that educated children will be able to earn more money in the long run, eventually lifting the entire family out of poverty. This, in turn, leads to the future generations being better educated and able to enhance the financial well-being of families and communities.

• A school that works together with a microfinance institution to teach children from poor families the value of savings; and • Schools built for trash-picker communities that live in landfills.

The data and case studies that are used in this bulletin are the result of primary data collection and field research. This year’s research on urban

However, reality is rarely that simple. A 2006 OECD reporti on education

poverty entailed travelling to four of Southeast Asia’s major cities: Jakarta,

notes that economic and social disadvantages are equally important ele-

Manila, Hanoi, and Vientiane. In this issue, we compare the major challenges

ments to consider as they can severely hamper the educational experience

faced by officials in these four cities in the field of education as well as their

of learners. While social disadvantages influence test scores and educa-

innovative solutions.

tional achievements in the developed world, in the developing countries of

We invite you to share the ATM Bulletin with colleagues interested in pro-

Southeast Asia, economic and social disadvantages are severe impediments

poor issues in Southeast Asia. The Bulletin is also available for download at

to even accessing and attending school.

www.asiantrendsmonitoring.com/download, where you can subscribe

Despite efforts by nearly all governments across Southeast Asia to pro-

to future issues. We encourage you to regularly visit our website for more

vide access to free education until secondary level, there remain several

updates and recent video uploads in our blog. Thank you again for support-

stumbling blocks that lead to low enrollment rates and unsatisfactory edu-

ing the ATM Bulletin, and as always, we gladly welcome your feedback.

cational outcomes. For example, there are often additional costs beyond the tuition expenses, including the opportunity cost of foregone income from the child working to support a parents business or engage in independent economic activity. Poor service delivery represents another problem, where subsidies and other forms of assistance do not reach the poorest households.

Contents 4 s Southeast Asia: A general overview of education

by Taufik Indrakesuma and Johannes Loh

6 s Educating the poor: past, present, future

by Taufik Indrakesuma and Johannes Loh

8 s The opportunity costs of education

by Taufik Indrakesuma and Johannes Loh

12 s Educating “non-existent” children

Suggested citation

In order to fill the provision gap left by the government, non-governmental organizations have been active in creating schools for the poor.

When citing individual articles

Numerous organizations have developed alternative models of education

• Indrakesuma, T., & Loh, J. (2013). Educating the poor: past,

provision, adapting their schools to the unique circumstances of poor com-

present, future. In Asian Trends Monitoring Bulletin (2013),

munities. Some organizations find ways to accommodate their students’

Bulletin 20: Educating the Urban Poor (pp. 6-7). Lee Kuan

work schedules, while others modify the curriculum to include a heavier

Yew School of Public Policy, Singapore.

vocational component. In this issue of the ATM we take an in-depth look at alternative future scenarios that might arise from the adoption of conventional and alternative models in educating poor communities.

This issue also highlights the unique experiences of people and organizations we engaged with in researching educational provision and the experience of poor communities. Case studies in the bulletin include: • An NGO that provides several schools for a large slum area;

When citing the entire bulletin • Asian Trends Monitoring Bulletin (2013), Bulletin 20: Educating the Urban Poor (pp. 6-7). Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, Singapore.

When citing our survey data • Asian Trends Monitoring (2012). A dataset on urban poverty and service provision. Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy,

by Taufik Indrakesuma and Johannes Loh

National University of Singapore.

14 s The curriculum conundrum

by Taufik Indrakesuma and Johannes Loh

Researcher Johannes Loh poses with schoolchildren in Jakarta.

i Machin, Stephen (2006). “Social disadvantage and education experiences”. OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers. Accessed from: http://www.oecd.org/social/ socialpoliciesanddata/36165298.pdf

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Primary school students in Vientiane, enjoying their afternoon break.

Southeast Asia: A general overview of education

by Taufik Indrakesuma & Johannes Loh

Figure1. Government spending in different sectorsiii

Education is considered one of the cornerstones of modern society. Once considered a privilege of the elite, it is now viewed as a basic human right that governments are desperately trying to provide to their constituencies.

Education policies all around Southeast Asia reflect this prioritization, with education taking up an increasingly large share of government spending. For example, Indonesian law now mandates that educational spending should comprise at least 20% of the national budgetii.

Government spending in Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, and the Philippines are at similarly high levels, each above 15%. This level of expenditure is higher than other important sectors such as health and defense spending. Figure 1 shows a comparison of central government spending in the different sectors.

This increased spending has manifested itself in several policies that make formal education more accessible for the poor. The Philippines has a nationwide free education policy for primary school level, Indonesia and Thailand ii

Indonesian constitutional court decree 13/PUU-VI I 2008

provide free education up to secondary school,

Despite the large amounts of attention and

while countries like Laos and Vietnam provide

spending, there are still huge gaps in provision.

school fee subsidies for the poorest households

In major urban centers like Jakarta and Manila,

in each district. Other school expenses such as

hundreds of school-age children are unable

textbooks are circumvented by government

to attend school, despite free basic education

funding to improve public school libraries.

and other similar blanket policies. In the Asian

iii

World Development Indicators Global Development Finance (WDI GDF) data, World Bank (WB)

Trends Monitoring Bulletin’s survey on urban

accessing good schools. The evidence in the

finding good quality schools for their children.

poverty, out of 804 households with children

field suggests that these policies are not work-

This suggests that either the assistance is not

in Jakarta, Manila, Hanoi, and Vientiane, 201

ing effectively. Figures 2 and 3 below shows that

enough, e.g. subsidized school fees are still too

households had at least one child under 16 who

the current education policy regimes in these

expensive, or that the assistance is simply inac-

was out of school.

cities are still unable to help the bottom of the

cessible to these households. ATM

The ATM survey revealed that poor com-

pyramid. Many households in our sample strug-

munities in these major cities still have trouble

gle with paying school-related expenses and

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Educating the poor: past, present, future

by Taufik Indrakesuma & Johannes Loh

As the statistics presented in the previous sec-

Sohail Inayatullah (2008), analyzes a problem

past are the traditions and historical factors that

tion indicate, the poor at bottom of the pyra-

through three time frames: future, present,

act as a barrier to change.

mid are still unable to access education. Costs

past. The “pulls of the future” are the ideals and

In the case of education policies in Southeast

are still too high and subsidies are not reaching

images of the future that people envision and

Asia, the futures triangle takes shape as shown

the households that need it the most. In order to

base current policies around. The pushes of the

below.

determine the root causes of the problems and

present are the emerging issues and trends that

There are several historical factors that influ-

the necessary solutions, it is useful to use ana-

are influencing the status quo and that could be

ence today’s education policies. For example,

lytical tools such as the futures triangle.

either supporting or hindering society’s move

the current format of one-size-fits-all national

towards the future images. The weights of the

education provision model is a Western import

The futures triangle, as conceptualized by

that has persisted for decades. The traditional

vision: the “Rise of Asia”. Asia’s growing stock

made up of migrants who do not have official

shape and structure of classrooms, the social

in the world’s power structure has compelled

residency status in these cities. Thus, the house-

norms for teachers and students, and the assess-

Asian countries to focus more resources on their

holds are not eligible for education subsidies

ment criteria are all inherited from past genera-

best and brightest, in order to be able to com-

and the children are unable to attend schools.

tions and are rarely evaluated for relevance in

pete with the best and the brightest of the rest

From this futures triangle, we have distilled

today’s society. This can become a hindrance

of the world. This is what futurists refer to as a

three major problems that we believe are most

when considering innovations that break away

“used future”, where the visualized end goal is

important to address in order to improve educa-

from traditional education structures.

arbitrarily determined and not compatible with

tion provision in Southeast Asia.

There are also new and emerging issues that

reality. Now, the poor require education that

1. Economic incentives of families must

challenge the existing education paradigms and

will equip them with the skills to enter the work

be taken into account when design-

policies. Large numbers of people are flooding

force and escape poverty. This kind of alterna-

ing education policy. This includes the

major cities in search of jobs, without the skills

tive goal to education requires not only the

incentive for child labor and the cost/

to actually obtain them. As a consequence,

extra resources that are currently being spent

benefit calculations of sending a child

many parents at the bottom of the income pyr-

elsewhere, but also a complete paradigm shift

to school.

amid cannot make enough to afford urban life,

in education policy makers.

2. The land tenure issue must be

forcing the children to leave school and help

Analyses can be drawn from linkages

addressed or bypassed in order to

with earning money. This is exacerbated by the

between past, present, and future. For exam-

open education access to all children.

intensifying education “arms-race” of the mid-

ple, historical rural traditions of child labor are

Traditional service provision models

dle class and growing global competitive pres-

brought to the city by the influx of rural-urban

must be revised, or alternative provi-

sures, which perpetually raises the minimum

migrants. This leads to a higher incidence

sion sources must be found.

education requirements of decent jobs. If these

of child labor, which is problematic not only

3. A new future image is needed that is

patterns continue, the poor children of today

because urban labor conditions can be less safe

more inclusive of alternative pathways

will find attractive jobs to be increasingly out

than rural labor conditions, but also because

out of poverty. It is not enough to talk

of reach. On a macro scale, this means that the

the long hours of work pull the children out of

about education for the purpose of

growth of megacities such as Jakarta and Manila

school almost permanently. The team has heard

improving the competitiveness of

may become stunted by a widening mismatch

first-hand accounts of this, where children in

the top of the pyramid. Curriculums

of skills in demand and available labour on the

Manila’s trash collector community are sent to

must be restructured or diversified in

ground.

work in hazardous dump sites as soon as they

order to provide a more relevant and

are strong enough to carry a burlap sack.

meaningful education to poor house-

These realities are in sharp contrast to the idealistic images that people associate with

The emerging issue of rural-urban migration

holds. In the long run, this would also

education. The world today envisions a future

also clashes with the traditional service provi-

contribute to a more balanced labour

where children are shaped by the education

sion model. Education subsidies (as well as pub-

force composition with likely benefits

system as “reformed citizens”: well-educated,

lic services in general) are usually distributed

for the country’s overall productivity.

well-informed, and able to transition into a

based on census and residential data. However,

ATM

decent white-collar job. This region in partic-

most households that are at the bottom of the

ular is also preoccupied with another future

pyramid and require the most help are usually

Some alternative curriculums teach practical skills such as gardening.

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Laos are beginning to dedicate more government spending on making education cheaper, with free education being offered to the poorest households in each neighborhood (see ATM #18 - Hanoi’s Poor, p.8 : The Poor List).

Despite all these efforts to reduce education expenses for poor households, school enrollment is not yet universal. Even where enrollment is nearly universal, quality of education is by no means guaranteed.

The ATM team’s investigation into the matter through interviews with parents of poor families and surveys of poor households reveals that the problem is not a lack of parental awareness or negligence. In fact, the survey results in all four cities indicate that parents place a high value on their children’s education, and believe that if their children go to school, they will have a brighter future in the long run. The problem, however, is still related to costs.

Despite government subsidies for tuition Even makeshift school buildings can become excellent venues for learning.

fees, other expenditures related to school remain high. Sending a child to school entails additional expenses for transportation, school

The opportunity costs of education

uniforms, textbooks, and other school supplies. Most countries, unfortunately, do not include these items in their subsidy schemes.

by Taufik Indrakesuma & Johannes Loh

Some households we interviewed reported that these expenses are exacerbated by the rapid

All around Southeast Asia, governments at all

changes in school curriculums, which means

levels have attempted to lower the cost of edu-

that younger siblings cannot use the old text-

cation. Indonesia has instated free education

books of their older siblings and are forced to

for all children up to the ninth year of school

buy new ones.

. The Philippines has a similar free education

However, one of the largest cost is the intan-

policy, where primary and secondary education

gible “opportunity cost” of foregone income.

has been free of charge since the Free Public

Many of the poorest households cannot survive

Secondary Education Act of 1988. Thailand

on the parents’ income alone. This means that

is, perhaps, the best example of free educa-

much of the time, the children have to work as

tion provision. Not only does the government

well, earning additional money through beg-

guarantee twelve years of free basic educa-

ging, collecting rubbish, or assisting in their

tion, it also provides free textbooks and other

parents’ businesses. Thus, any time spent in

educational supplies for the students. Even

school is seen as time that is not spent work-

less developed countries such as Vietnam and

ing. The long-term payoffs of a good education

vii

The difficulty in prioritizing education In Phonethong Village, Vientiane, the team interviewed a woman named Malychanh who was one of the poorest residents of the village. She lives with her husband who sells trinkets out of a pushcart in the nearby market, and her four children. Malychanh herself only works during harvesting season, harvesting rice crops from large farms and getting paid in rice.

Because of this working arrangement, although the family has enough food to survive, there is not much money for other necessities. One of those necessities that have become unaffordable is sending her children to school. One of her daughters has graduated secondary school and wants to attend university, but the family can barely afford it.

Malychanh also said that things will become even more complicated soon, as her youngest daughter is almost 6 years old, and will start attending primary school. Although the school itself is free of charge, she said that other expenses such as textbooks, uniforms, meals and transportation still add up to quite a hefty sum, which represents an insurmountable challenge to the household’s budget.

Finally, when asked whether, in the event of a cash windfall, she would prioritize spending the money on sending her children to better schools, she thought long and hard before answering that she would have to prioritize opening a small business ahead of her children’s education.

suddenly pale in comparison to the immediate vii

Indonesian National Education System Law of 2003

ix

World Development Indicators Global Development Finance (WDI GDF) data, World Bank (WB)

x

World Development Indicators Global Development Finance (WDI GDF) data, World Bank (WB)

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need to put food on the table.

One solution that government agencies have used to address opportunity costs is conditional cash transfers. Indonesia, Cambodia, and the Philippines have implemented CCT programs linked to education behaviors. The Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program (P4), for example, requires an 85% attendance record for all school age children in the household as one of the conditions for payment. Cambodia’s CCT program, the Cambodia Education Sector Support Project, was made specifically to improve school attendance, and includes passing grades as one of the conditionsxiii. Indonesia has a CCT program that is community-based, which encourages households to monitor and assist each other in making sure that all children in the community are in school.

For years, NGOs and other stakeholders in the education sector have experimented with their own alternative solutions for poor communities unable to attend government schools due to either financial or physical restrictions. Each of the organizations that the ATM team spoke to had their own unique solutions. Sekolah Kami, a school in Jakarta, compromises through shortening school hours, allowing children to work after school hours (see box "Sekolah Kami").

The Philippine Christian Foundation (see Box " The Philippine Christian Foundation") attempts to incentivize school attendance by providing work opportunities for mothers within the school’s premises. ATM xiii

World Bank. Cambodia: Education Sector Support Project.

Conditional cash transfers are a type of cash payment with prerequisites or conditions. These cash payments are only made to households that can fulfill conditions that usually include child welfare improvements, including vaccinations and routine medical checkups for young children, and routine school attendance for both boys and girls.

Sekolah Kami Sekolah Kami, or “our school”, is a school that was built on top of a

time provides their children with valuable knowledge and skills

landfill to the east of Jakarta in 2007 by Dr. Irina Amongpradja. The

The second aspect is Sekolah Kami’s customized curriculum.

school can hold up to 150 students, and has been the sole beacon

Sekolah Kami does not follow the Indonesian national primary

of hope for the residents of the surrounding slums. (For more gen-

school curriculum. Although some conventional components such

eral information about the school, refer to ATM Bulletin #16: Jakarta’s

as mathematics, Indonesian and English are present, the school

Poor.)

focuses the children’s education on practical skills. Younger children

The school system itself presents a unique approach to educat-

are taught gardening and organic soap-making, while the older chil-

ing the poor and dealing with the opportunity costs of education.

dren are taught to sew and to make handicrafts from recycled mate-

There are two vital aspects of the Sekolah Kami approach that make

rials. This way, students are able to apply the things they learn in

it appealing to the poor: its stance towards working children and its

school to earn money on the side – perhaps much more than they

custom curriculum.

would earn as trash collectors. The children are able to get an edu-

The approach that Sekolah Kami takes towards working children

cation, learning English and mathematics alongside their practical

is that of compromise and pragmatism. As a school that caters to

skills, and the parents are happy because the flow of income may

a trash collector community, Dr. Irina recognizes that parents need

actually increase at the same time.

their children’s assistance in order to earn enough money. Children

The drawbacks to this method are obvious. Less classroom time

as young as six years old have to spend most of their days out in the

means fewer lessons, and an abridged formal component of the cur-

landfills or the surrounding streets to find recyclables and other valu-

riculum means that it will be difficult for the children of Sekolah Kami

ables in the rubbish. As such, keeping the children in school for the

to continue to formal secondary schools unless they cover a signifi-

usual six to eight hours per day is out of the question for these par-

cant amount of extra ground. Thus, graduates of Sekolah Kami are

ents. This is why Sekolah Kami’s school day is only four hours long.

equipped with not much more than the practical skills and a basic

Children are in school from 8AM to noon, at which point they can

understanding of reading, writing, and mathematics. This method

go home and proceed to help their parents with their work. This

becomes a means to make small improvements in the lives of poor

method lowers the parental resistance to school, as the parents do

families, but does not give them the ability to fully escape poverty.

not feel like they are being denied an income stream, but at the same

However, perhaps those small improvements are enough for now.

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over 10,000 poor households live with nowhere

The Philippine Christian Foundation

near enough schools, compelled the Urban Poor

PCF’s staff.

Even the PCF livelihood programs are consistent with this belief.

The livelihood program trains people in the art of making recycled

Jane Walker runs the Philippine Christian Foundation (PCF), a Manila-

handicrafts from aluminum pull tabs and other recycled materials.

based charity that set up a school for a trash collector community liv-

These handicrafts are then sold to both local and international mar-

ing near the Smokey Mountain dump site. The school is able to take

kets, with a fair share of the proceeds going to the workers. Only the

in around 100 students and has become a major asset to the slums

parents can participate in the program, whereas the children are not

around Smokey Mountain. (For more information on the Philippine

allowed. “We provide work for their parents in order to get them to

Christian Foundation, refer to ATM Bulletin #17: Manila’s Poor)

better accept their children’s enrollment in school. If the parents can

One of the big differences between PCF’s education model and

make enough money, the children will not be forced to help.” This

other organizations that we interviewed in the four cities is that

offer has been taken up enthusiastically by the mothers and helped

PCF’s schools do not tailor their curriculum to the more immediate

to lower absenteeism rates by 40%.

income-generation needs of the poor. Rather, they teach the con-

This model shows that the opportunity costs of sending chil-

ventional curriculum, albeit modified with a focus on building self-

dren to school can be overcome with a hardline stance of no child

esteem and “dreaming big”. Where most other NGO schools provide

labor. However, being unwilling to compromise on child labor comes

financial support for its graduates to start their own businesses, PCF

necessitates the provision of alternate sources of income for the par-

instead offers university scholarships to its brightest students.

ents. Not all organizations will be able to provide jobs for the parents

“I do not believe in child labor, and neither does my organiza-

of their students, and not even PCF is able to provide jobs for all of

tion,” Walker said. In fact, a quick visit to the PCF website showed

the parents. Thus, while this method is not easily replicable, it nev-

a very prominent display of the statement “END CHILD LABOR” on

ertheless fills a significant educational gap in Tondo’s trash-picker

the front page. This paradigm represents the driving motivation for

community.

Educating “non-existent” children

by Taufik Indrakesuma & Johannes Loh

Consortium to start up a number of schools in the district (see box "Urban Poor Consortium").

These are not insignificant numbers of children, and population growth is sure to exacerbate the problem.

As more poor people move into cities and slums continue to grow, the reliance on NGOs to provide schools for slums becomes unsustainable, due to limited funding and insufficient scale. Policy makers must find solutions that work in the long term. One of the favored solutions of government officials that the team has spoken to is slum relocation, which moves the

Urban Poor Consortium

households to public housing estates that are

informal classrooms that teach alternative curriculums. UPC believes that there is not much merit to teaching the conventional

closer to public schools. However, as the team

Penjaringan district in North Jakarta

Indonesian curriculum, as the students are

has argued several times in past bulletins, slum

is home to one of the largest and poor-

unlikely to continue to formal education.

relocation is not only problematic in execution

est slums in Jakarta. In this otherwise

Instead, the curriculum taught is focused

but also unpopular.

service-deprived slum, there are over ten

on

creativity,

entrepreneurship,

and

One policy alternative is for governments

small schools where poor children can

practical skills that can be used to earn a

to, without the end goal of relocation, con-

experience an education for free. These

decent income.

duct proper information gathering of slums,

schools were founded by the Urban Poor

Our UPC source informed us that the

e.g. with a census or special surveys. If govern-

Consortium (UPC), a Jakarta-based pro-

success of the schools attracted the atten-

ments have better information about the popu-

poor NGO that specializes in advocacy but

tion of the city government, convinc-

lation, including the number of school age chil-

also dabbles in service provision.

ing the government to approach UPC

dren residing in the slums, the government can

According to UPC, public facilities in

and offer a takeover of the schools and

then build enough schools and provide enough

Penjaringan, including public schools, are

a conversion to the formal public educa-

funding to subsidize school fees in the neigh-

very rare because it is not a formal resi-

tion curriculum. This would be the ideal

borhoods. This circumvents the need to relocate

dential area. Most of the dwellings in the

transition for a small NGO-run school:

and formalize the residency status of the comresidency status. This means that millions of

that are willing to take in children from “illegal”

area are built on top of reclaimed marsh-

the government, with more resources at

As mentioned in a previous section, most of

munities. However, the biggest drawback to this

poor people who moved to the city in search of

households.

land, making it extremely flood-prone and

its disposal, would be better able to sus-

Southeast Asia already has some sort of edu-

system is the high mobility and turnover of slum

a better living are forced to live without formal

In the field, the ATM team identified sev-

unsafe for habitation. The services that do

tain the school in the long run. However,

cation subsidy for poor households. Indonesia,

communities. Most NGOs that work in slums

residency status. They often do not have legal

eral schools that were founded specifically to

exist are poorly maintained, as there is not

UPC rejected the offer, citing its general

Philippines, and Thailand already have their

have mentioned that people move in and out

tenure over their places of residence in the city,

cater to slums because the city governments

much funding allocated to improving con-

distrust of the government and desire to

nationwide free education policies, while

constantly – the neighborhoods they serve can

making it even more difficult to prove their eli-

did not have accurate data on the population

ditions in informal slums.

maintain its alternative curriculum. This is

countries like Laos and Vietnam have special

have completely different inhabitants from one

gibility for government services, such as educa-

and have not provided schools for the neigh-

One of the most pressing concerns of

quite clearly a missed opportunity due to

schemes in place for the poorest households.

year to the next. This makes it difficult to keep

tion subsidies.

borhood. The West Bekasi dumpsite in Jakarta,

UPC was the complete lack of school facili-

a lack of willingness to compromise from

However, in the major cities of these countries,

track of the community’s children; slum reloca-

In some slums in major cities, the problem is

where Sekolah Kami (see box "Sekolah Kami")

ties for the hundreds of children living in

both sides. Governments should be more

there are still many children who cannot access

tion would encourage settling in one area for an

even worse. Because these slums are not built

operates, is home to over 100 households with

the area. Public schools are very far away

open to the alternative methods of NGOs,

these services, because they are not legal resi-

extended period of time, giving stability for the

on formal residential zones, the government

over 300 children. Over 1,000 children live in

from the slums, making it unfeasible for

while NGOs should be more willing to

dents of the city.

children’s schooling.

does not have an obligation to build schools

the dumpsite in Tondo, Manila, where PCF (see

children to attend. UPC decided to inter-

consider the longer term benefits of gov-

In many of these major cities, governments

Another option is to support the NGO-run

for the families in the slums. Thus, the children

box "Philippines Christian Foundation") runs its

vene by using volunteer teachers to start

ernment cooperation.

have been trying to curb migration levels by

schools with government funding. This allows

making it more difficult for people to gain

have to rely on schools run by charities or NGOs

school. Penjaringan district in Jakarta, where

NGOs to continue their operations and build on

14

15

their existing relationships with the communi-

to government schools which are seen as dis-

Consortium in Jakarta, such a deal could not

for tertiary education, will not be of much prac-

ties, while the government fulfills its responsibil-

tant and bureaucratic. However, this requires a

be struck. If the NGO-run school is designed

tical use or in many cases exceed the children’s

ity by supporting the organizations financially.

willingness, on the part of the NGOs, to coop-

to follow standard curriculum from the begin-

existing knowledge base.

This may be effective because NGO schools are

erate with the government and, on the part

ning, the obstacles for government cooperation

generally well received because they ensure

of the government, to allow the NGO schools

would be lower. ATM

parental and community support through dia-

to continue their operations, customized cur-

relevant to children from extremely poor back-

logues and direct involvement, as opposed

riculums and all. In the case of the Urban Poor

grounds. The team visited several NGO schools

On the other hand, there is the choice of creating a customized curriculum that is more

that chose this model. Sekolah Kami in Jakarta teaches a curriculum full of practical skills, like soap-making and sewing. The KOTO organization in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City (read ATM #18 on Hanoi’s Poor) takes unschooled street children and trains them in hospitality and culinary skills.

This model works better in the short run, as attending school gives immediate payoffs in terms of increased income potential. Children who are taught practical skills or trained in a

The team interviews students about their education and their future aspirations.

The curriculum conundrum

by Taufik Indrakesuma & Johannes Loh

The ATM team observed that the many NGO

adopted the national public school curricu-

acknowledge the unique circumstances of

schools took very different approaches with

lum, such as PCF’s school in Manila. In addi-

children from poor households. The equality

regards to curriculums. Some NGOs chose to

tion, all public schools in poor neighborhoods

of opportunity approach does not take into

adopt the formal education curriculum in order

also still follow the formal curriculum. This mea-

account the lower likelihood that such children

to allow their students to take standardized

sure is one that favors equality of opportunities,

will continue their formal education beyond

examinations and remain within the formal

because it treats poor children the same way it

primary or secondary school. Although teach-

education system. Other NGOs chose “alterna-

would treat other children. Poor children who

ing them the formal curriculum theoretically

tive” paths with fully-customized curriculums

are taught the national curriculum will be able

gives them the opportunity to continue to high

that are tailored to the likely needs of children

to take national examinations and will be able to

school or university, it rarely actually happens.

from poorer families. There were also some

continue down the formal education path. If the

Often, the cost barriers of continuing education

who adopted a “hybrid” model that included

children can make it through the formal educa-

to that level (both actual school fees and oppor-

elements of the formal curriculum while pro-

tion path, it equips them better for decent jobs

tunity costs) are insurmountable, which leads

viding additional lessons outside the formal

and gives them more opportunities to lift their

children to opt out and start working instead. In

curriculum.

families out of poverty.

this case, the formal curriculum, full of theoreti-

However, some schools that we saw also

However, this is a method that does not

cal knowledge and tailored to prepare students

Teaching practical skills can give significant income boosts to poor households.

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particular vocation are able to use their new knowhow to earn a living. This makes them an asset to their families because it boosts their family’s income. So, it can be said that the knowledge of soap-making or craftsmanship is much more valuable in the short run than the potential to attend university somewhere down the line.

However, this model also puts the children into a long-term disadvantage. Focusing lessons on making handicrafts means that the children are pigeon-holed into that way of life in the future. Not having the potential to continue to higher levels of education means that the income potential of these youngsters can-

Ekphattana Microfinance Institute

not get much larger than whatever amount they

that its clients are not only lenders, but also savers. “The problem

can make from their practical skills. This may be

with the Lao people is that saving is not really part of the culture,”

enough to support their parents’ incomes while

said Chantha Mingboupha, Deputy Director of EMI. The ATM survey Some additions to school curriculum can be neither academic nor

findings supported these claims, with 53% of respondents citing that

vocational, but rather life skills that would be useful in the long run.

they do not save regularly.

For example, in the field of microfinance, one of the biggest chal-

The education program entails weekly visits to the school to give

lenges that microfinance providers face is the unreliable behavior

lessons about the importance of savings, as well as a mandatory daily

of their clients. Households in poor communities are unlikely to be

savings of 1000 kip (US$ 12.5 cents) per student per day. Students are

financially literate, let alone financially responsible. Thus, one micro-

shown the potential amount of money that can be saved over the

finance organization in Vientiane decided to nip the problem in the

course of the year as a way to build motivation and discipline.

bud and teach financial literacy to children.

they are young, but may not be enough to raise their own families in better conditions. This method, then, needs to be complemented with adult learning programs that can fill the gaps and provide different skills later on in life.

There are some other organizations that focus on neither the public school curriculum nor practical skills. For example, a Manila-

The pilot program for EMI’s financial training for children was

Ekphattana Microfinance Institute is the first and largest microfi-

launched in Sokpaluang Primary School in Vientiane. Because it was

nance provider in Lao PDR. It is also one that puts much emphasis on

a pilot program, the organization could not take the risk of starting

financial education of poor communities. It runs several financial lit-

in a “poor” school. However, Mingboupha said that the education

eracy training programs every month for both potential and current

program, if successful, could be spread to more schools, including

clients. Because the organization is looking to become a 100% sav-

ones with primarily poor students.

based organization called Childhope Asia runs “open classrooms” where social workers go to poor neighborhoods and teach the local street children. Although they teach reading, writing, and basic arithmetic, they focus their sessions on teaching values and social norms, building

ings-based MFI and wants to continue its expansion, it is important

self-esteem, and providing psychosocial counseling. In this case, Childhope Asia’s knowledge of the local conditions (the families of these street children do not provide a real support network, often involving abusive adults) gives their method an advantage because it caters to the most pressing needs of the children. It is not designed to replace formal school. In this case, teaching values and building self-esteem may actually ease the transition into a formal eduA teacher in Jakarta explains the merits of teaching children about gardening.

cation setting, making the students more comfortable with daily social interactions of formal schools. ATM

18

With proper interventions, these children can be guaranteed a better future.

19

20

Principal Investigators

Research Associates

Phua Kai Hong is a tenured professor at the LKY School

Johannes Loh is working as a Research Associate at the

of Public Policy and formerly held a joint appointment as

Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy. He holds a Master’s

Associate Professor and Head, Health Services Research

degree in Public Policy from the Hertie School of Public

Unit in the Faculty of Medicine. He is frequently con-

Policy in Berlin, and a Bachelor of Arts in Integrated

sulted by governments within the region and interna-

Social Science from Jacobs University Bremen. His previ-

tional organisations, including the Red Cross, UNESCAP,

ous research experience includes aid governance, visual

WHO and World Bank. He has lectured and published

political communication and public sector reform in

widely on policy issues of population aging, health-

developing countries. Prior to joining the Lee Kuan Yew

care management and comparative health systems in

School of Public Policy he has also worked for the United

the emerging economies of Asia. He is the current Chair of the Asia-Pacific Health

Nations Environment Programme in Geneva, Transparency International Nepal, and

Economics Network (APHEN), founder member of the Asian Health Systems Reform

the Centre on Asia and Globalisation in Singapore. His email is johannes.loh@nus.

Network (DRAGONET), Editorial Advisory Board Member of Research in Healthcare

edu.sg and you can follow his updates on trends in pro-poor policies in the region on

Financial Management and an Associate Editor of the Singapore Economic Review.

Twitter @AsianTrendsMon.

His email address is spppkh@nus.edu.sg T S Gopi Rethinaraj joined the Lee Kuan Yew School

Taufik Indrakesuma is a research associate at the Lee

of Public Policy as Assistant Professor in July 2005.

Kuan Yew School of Public Policy. He is a recent gradu-

He received his PhD in nuclear engineering from the

ate of the Master in Public Policy programme at the

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Before

Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy. He also holds a

coming to Singapore, he was involved in research and

Bachelor in Economics degree from the University of

teaching activities at the Programme in Arms Control,

Indonesia, specialising in environmental economics.

Disarmament and International Security, a multi-disciplin-

Taufik has previously worked as a Programme Manager

ary teaching and research programme at Illinois devoted

at the Association for Critical Thinking, an NGO dedicated

to military and non-military security policy issues. His

to proliferating critical thinking and human rights aware-

doctoral dissertation, “Modeling Global and Regional Energy Futures,” explored the

ness in the Indonesian education system. His research interests include behavioural

intersection between energy econometrics, climate policy and nuclear energy futures.

economics, energy policy, climate change mitigation and adaptation as well as urban

He also worked as a science reporter for the Mumbai edition of The Indian Express

development policy. His email is taufik.i@nus.edu.sg

from 1995 to 1999, and has written on science, technology, and security issues for various Indian and British publications. In 1999, he received a visiting fellowship from the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Chicago, for the investigative reporting on South Asian nuclear security. His current teaching and research interests include energy security, climate policy, energy technology assessment, nuclear fuel cycle policies and international security. He is completing a major research monograph "Historical Energy Statistics: Global, Regional, and National Trends since Industrialisation" to be published in Summer 2012. His email address is spptsgr@nus.edu.sg

The Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy is an autonomous, professional graduate school of the National University of Singapore.

Its mission is to help educate and train the next generation of Asian policymakers and leaders, with the objective of raising the standards of governance throughout the region, improving the lives of its people and, in so doing, contribute to the transformation of Asia. For more details on the LKY School, please visit www.spp.nus.edu.sg