Chapter 1 THE IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

i nt roduc t i on

T HE URGE TO B UI L D SUSTAI NAB L E

Nor we g i a n U ni ve rs i t y o f Sci e nce a nd Tec hn o lo gy NO- 7491 Tro ndhe i m , N o r way D e pa rtm e nt o f A rchi te ct ure a nd Te ch no lo gy M a ste r the s i s i n Susta i na bl e A rchi tec t ure ( M SSUSARC )

Authors:

F l o r i a n B etat f l o r i a nbetat @gm ail.co m M a r i ja Kat r ÄŤ n a D am b e m a r i j a kat r i na @gmail.co m

S u pe r vi s or:

Co- s upe r vi so r :

D ate : 01. 06. 2 0 1 9

I

Pa s i A a l to De pa r t m e nt o f A rc hitec t ure an d Tec h no lo gy Fa cul t y o f A rchi tec t ure and D es ign N o r we gi a n U ni ve rsit y o f Sc ien c e and Tec hn o lo gy To mmy K l e i ve n De pa r t m e nt o f A rc hitec t ure an d Tec h no lo gy Fa cul t y o f A rchi tec t ure and D es ign N o r we gi a n U ni ve rsit y o f Sc ien c e and Tec hn o lo gy

a bs trac t As a result of global warming and environmental pollution already a serious impact for man and nature can be observed. Yet, these impacts will grow much worse if the way one lives does not change swiftly. This thesis has been written as a response to the urgency of climate change prevention and environmental pollution reduction. While the need to act in both of the fields is large, the matters of ‘how’ are one of the main questions. Over the last years, multiple policies and legislations have been developed that guide, limit and restrict actions in the most influential sectors. Yet, further limitations are to expect in near future. Since the building sector has a very high environmental impact and is thus strongly affected by legal matters, possible future challenges in countries with low income such as Latvia will be expected. This fact was strongly motivating to identify strategies on how residential building in rural Latvia can stay affordable while increasing its sustainability, thus, reducing the potential financial burden and making a sustainable development accessible for everyone.

The presented thesis approaches the topic in five chapters in five different ways.

Such an approach allows to identify methods and benefits in multiple layers.

Firstly, the thesis starts by explaining the urgency of building sustainable and the challenges that come along with that. Subsequently, in-depth research in the second chapter helps to develop a wider knowledge and understanding of the context. In addition, it highlights key factors on the topics that will help to preserve cultural values and increase sustainability as well as various other benefits.

The gained knowledge and the key factors are used in chapter three for the development of guidelines for a residential building in Latvia. Ideally, these can be used by other planners as a draft for further building developments. In chapter four, the guidelines are tested on a possible construction system. This developed system should be seen to represent one of many ways to enable sustainable and affordable building in Latvia.

Lastly, the work is tested and illustrated in chapter five with the help of a scenario based planning. Such approach allows to test the developed work to the cultural setting, the building ’s lifetime and the functionality of the developed construction system. Additionally, the playful manner used in this illustration should enable the reader to visualize the vision the authors of this work have in mind.

Taken together, with this thesis it was possible to identify the many advantages that can be taken from sustainable building for one’s own benefit. Furthermore, it was possible to show that choosing environmentally friendly solutions can go along with cost reduction in short and long term. Intriguingly, the results indicate how great levels of sustainability can be achieved even in countries with reduced income if the relevant knowledge and the know-how is communicated to the general public.

II

III

ackno w le d ge me n t s F i rst a nd fore m o st we wo ul d l i ke to ex pres s o ur s inc ere grat it ud e to o ur s up e r vi so r Pa s i A a l to a nd co -s uper v iso r To mmy K leiven fo r t heir conti nuous s uppo r t a nd i ns pi rat i o n. We are ver y glad abo ut t he m ul ti pl e ex tens i ve di s cus s i o ns , w hi ch helped us to f ind and keep t he foc us for our wo r k. Mo re ove r, e a ch o f th e guid anc es we lef t wit h a new we a l th o f i nfo r m at i o n, a ddi t i o nal mo t ivat io n fo r o u r f ur t her work a n d re se a rch, a s we l l a s new v isio ns fo r t h e f ut ure.

A nothe r tha nks go e s to t he wo r kers o f t he buildin g au t ho r it y o f Ga rka l ne ( Ga r ka l ne s N ova da B ūv valde) fo r t heir high effo r t s in provi d i ng us w i t h ex pl a nat i o ns and info r m at io ns regarding t he exi sti n g a nd upco m i ng cha nge s i n t he Lat v ian bu ilding laws.

A ddi ti ona l l y, we wo ul d l i ke to ex press o ur grat it ude toward s t he worke rs of the N at i o na l He r i ta ge B o ard o f Lat v ia ( N ac io nālā Kult ūras Ma ntojum a Pā r va l de ) fo r prov i di ng us wit h ex tensive info r m at io n an d hi stori ca l i l l u st rat i o ns re ga rdi ng t he Lat v ian buildin g t radit io ns.

F urthe rm ore , o ur wa r m t ha nks go es to o ur families fo r t heir never en di ng s uppo r t , t he i r be l i ev i ng i n o ur wo r k and t heir pat ienc e in di s c us s i ng w i t h us a ny to pi cs re l at i ng to sustainabilit y. E s p ec ially, we have to h i g hl i ght Jur i s Da m bi s , w ho as prac t ic ing arc hitec t was ab le to g i ve u s m a ny i ns i ght s i n t he cur rent building prac t ic e. I n addit io n , he s up porte d us by s ha r i ng hi s bro ad k n owledge abo u t m ater ials and cost savi ng st rate gi e s a nd by gi ving ver y co n st r uc t ive feedb ac k duri ng th e deve l o pm e nt o f t he co nst r uc t io n system. A spec ial t hanks goe s a l s o to He i ke B etat fo r he r gra mm at ical and st y list ic co r rec t io ns.

La stl y, ou r g rat i t ude go e s towa rds o ur f r iends Kat r īna Stepiņa, Ādam s Muzi ka nts a nd Jā ni s Put ni ņš w ho h elped dur ing t his pro c es s by al ways havi ng a n o pe n e a r a nd s ha ring t h eir t r uly ins pir in g o p inio ns and vi si on s abo ut s usta i na bi l i t y i n Lat v ia.

Tha nk you.

IV

thes i s st r u c t u re The aim of the thesis is to identify strategies how building in Latvia can stay affordable while increasing its sustainability.

Chapter 1: First, the issue is addressed by a literature research, which is pointing out the impact greenhouse gas emissions and environmental pollution have and the resulting urgency to change current building and living habits.

Chapter 2: The second chapter deals with the numerous factors which influence sustainable and affordable building in Latvia. By considering the topics separately it is possible to extract special demands on the design (key design factors), which are relevant for increasing affordability and sustainability.

Chapter 3: The guidelines for sustainable building in Latvia are firstly based on the key design factors gained in the previous chapter and try to combine and summarize the different topic-related demands. Each guideline has listed all the topics from second chapter, which are influential. This allows to obtain background information to a specific guideline and its relevance, as well. These guidelines should help future planners to develop more sustainable projects for Latvia.

Chapter 4: An example for a country-specific, affordable and sustainable construction system was designed according to the guidelines. It was used to test and improve the guidelines by adding research by design thinking to the previous traditional research. By using this method it helped to obtain knowledge that would be hard to acquire through only text.

Chapter 5: The construction system and its performance during a full buildings lifetime gets tested for different scenarios, which at the end highlight the advantages sustainable building can provide. Therefore, the desired outcome is that current or future homeowners feel inspired and motivated to carry out upcoming building works with special attention to sustainability.

V

c ha pte r 1 T H E URG E TO B UIL D SUSTAINAB L E

stat ing o f t he researc h is su e

c ha pte r 2 T H E CO NT E X T F O R B UIL DI N G SUSTAINAB L E IN L AT VIA

deter minat io n o f co unt r y- s p ec if ic key design fac to rs

c ha pte r 3 G UIDE L INE S F O R B UIL DI N G SUSTAINAB L E IN L AT VIA

de r ivat io n o f guidelin es for co ntex t- related, s ustainable b uilding

c ha pte r 4 A P O SSIB L E CO NST RUCT I ON SYST E M F O R L AT VIA

develo pment o f a ve rsat ile, co unt r y- s pec if ic co nst r uc t io n system

c ha pte r 5 A P RO J E CT A N D SCE NARIO - BA S ED ANALYSIS OF THE CO NST RUCT I ON SYST E M

test ing o f t he co nst r uc t io n system i n s everal s it uat io n s

VI

Ta b l e o f c on t e n t s T H E U R GE TO B U I L D SUSTA I N A BL E A bstrac t A c k n owl e d ge m e nt s T h e s i s st r u c t u re Intro du c t i on Prefac e T he u rge to b ui l d s usta i na bl e Bi b l i og ra p hy - c h a pte r I

II IV V 1 1 1 5

T H E C ON TE X T F O R BU I LD I N G SUSTA I N A B LE IN L ATV I A Re a d e r m a n u a l Po l i ti ca l contex t A1 E U - w i d e a nd nati o n a l a pp ro ac hes U n i ve rsa l su sta i n a b l e st rate g i e s B 1 Pa s s i ve de s i g n strate g i e s B 2 D e s i g n fo r d i s a s s e m bl y B 3 Ty po l o g i ca l f l ex i bi l i ty Latvi an contex t C 1 Ave ra ge i n co m e C 2 D e m o g ra phi c s C 3 I nf ra str u c ture C 4 Re newa bl e e ne rg y C 5 B ui l di n g c u l ture C 6 S usta i na bl e m ate r i a l s Bi b l i og ra p hy - c h a pte r I I

7 9

9

15 15 17 21 25 25 27 29 31 35 43 49

G UIDEL I N E S FOR BUILDING SUSTA I N A BL E IN L ATV I A Rea d e r m a n u a l Gu i d e li n e s G ro und d eve l o pm e nt B uildi n g i n ge n e ra l B uildi n g str uc tu re B uildi n g e nve l o p e B uildi n g s e r v i c e s S pace p l a n Bi b l i og ra p hy - c h a pte r I I I

51 53 53 55 56 60 61 63 66

A P O S S I BL E CO NS TR U C TI ON SYST E M F OR L AT V I A P refa c e C o n str u c t i on syste m S t ruct ure B uildi ng e nve l o pe B uildi ng s e r v i c e s S pace p l a n Bi b l i og ra p hy - c h a pte r I V

67 68 68 82 87 89 92

A P ROJ EC T A N D SCE N A R I O-BA S ED ANALY S I S OF THE CO NS T R U C T I ON SYST E M P refa c e Sc e n a r i o I Sc e n a r i o I I Epilogue Bi b l i og ra p hy - c h a pte r V

93 95 113 125 128

1 Pref a c e T hi s t hesis was prod uc e d w i th the i nte nti o n to demonstrate a p o ssibl e way how to ta c k l e cl i mate change and e nv i ro nm e nta l po l l uti o n wi t h a n archite ct ural a ppro a c h. W i th thi s wo r k we wi s h to ide nt if y t h e c ha l l e nge s the co untr y L at vi a fa ce s in vario u s s e c to rs a nd tra c k h ow they affe ct t h e building pra c ti c e . We w i s h to ana l ys e and pro duc e s u g ge sti o ns fo r a n acce s s i b le sustainable a p pro a c h that do e s n o t impos e a financial burd e n o n the i nha b i ta nts .

We have cho se n rura l L atv i a a s the g l o b a l setti ng o f t he t he sis, yet avo i d e d a ny f ur the r locati on spe cificat io n to e na bl e ge n e ra l sug gestio ns and analys i s o f th e co ntex t w hi c h coul d be ap plie d co unt r y w i de .

Our cho ice of co unt r y ha s be e n affe c te d by o ur wi s h to wo rk in t h e f ur th e r ye a rs i n the North- E u ro pe an sett ing . A s a re s ul t we have recogni ze d t he challenge s a co untr y s u c h a s L at vi a i s facin g alo ng s i d e the Euro pe a n a nd gl oba l cl im ate change a c ti o ns . A n d, the refo re , we w i s h to asse ss and wo r k o n the po s s i b l e sol ut i ons so t hat n o o ne i s l ef t be hi nd i n the susta i nab le d eve lopm ent.

We a ck now le d ge t hat a rc h i te c ture a nd susta i nab ilit y are co nti n uo us pro c e s s e s , the refore t he t he sis sho u l d b e s e e n a s the f i rst edi ti on o f a wo rk that ne e d s co nti nuo us fee dba ck and updat in g ove r the ye a rs .

Th e ur g e t o bui ld s u s ta in a b le Over the past decades, the topic of climate change has evolved in its importance and urgency. It has been described by scientists as process induced by human caused amplification of the greenhouse effect (IPCC, 2018). Already in 1958 the american climate scientist Charles David Keeling discovered the rise of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere (National Geographic Society, 2018). Furthermore, the discovered data and the further research in the following years proved that the increase of CO2 levels in the atmosphere are caused by the use of fossil fuels such as coal and oil (Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019). Since CO2 is a heat trapping gas (NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 2019a), rise of global average temperature could be observed.

Since 1880’s, the start of industrialisation, the temperature has risen by 0.8°C (IPCC, 2018). As a result, the melting of ice sheets can be observed

(NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 2019b), the sea level is rising (NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 2019c) and a reduction of around 12.8% per decade of arctic sea ice minimum is recorded (NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 2019d). All this causes further effects on the environment we live in. The limitation of global warming below 2°C as stated in the Paris Agreement or even below 1.5°C as stated in the latest IPCC report would help to limit the climate imposed risks on humans such as extreme heat waves, increase of heavy precipitation and flooding (IPCC, 2018).

Nevertheless, as stated in the IPCC Global Warming 1.5°C special report, the current National Determined Contributions (NDC ’s), developed after the Paris Agreement by all the member states, do not limit warming to 1.5°C. Moreover, they extend only to 2030, leaving many factors still open. (IPCC, 2018) This leads to the need of reviewing the sectors with impact on the climate change and search of additional ways of achieving the goal. Besides, dealing with environment should not be seen only as restrictive action, moreover, it should be seen as redevelopment with long term impact and fueling for sustainable and resilient future developments.

Yet, to develop a sustainable approach, it is first and foremost important to understand what ‘sustainability ’ and ‘sustainable development ’ as such mean.

“Sus tainable de ve lopme nt is a de ve lopme nt that me e ts the ne e ds for the pre s e nt w ithout c ompromis ing the ability of future ge ne r ations to me e t the ir ow n ne e ds .” ( U ni ted Nati o ns, 1 9 8 7 ) The current and most up-to-date explanation of sustainable development and international core values can be seen under the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDG’s) including topics from poverty eradication, quality of education, life on land and below water to sustainable cities and communities and clean energy. Sustainable development includes in itself a balance between economic, social and environmental dimensions (United Nations, 2015)

The approach of this thesis is to tackle the SDG’s from the architecture point of view and search for possible approaches in the building sector, since in 2014, the building sector accounted for 31% of total global final energy use, 54% of final electricity demand, and 8% of energy-related CO2 emissions (excluding indirect emissions due to electricity consumption) (IPCC, 2018).

Furthermore, the waste generation, microplastics and other environment influential factors are rather high from the building sector. As residential building is not to separate from living and the basic human needs for shelter, it cannot be restricted or avoided as such but has to be adjusted.

In general, there are two ways how to deal with the topic of sustainable architecture: the first one which embodies the notion that the design of buildings should fundamentally take account of their relationship with and the impact on the natural environment. The second which deals

with reducing the reliance on fossil fuels in building operation. (Knudstrup et al., 2009) For obvious reasons policies and regulations focus on the second approach with an emphasis on energy efficiency and energy consumption, as results can be relatively easy perceived and measured. Long-term, more indirect, and qualitative aspects whose impacts are harder to detect are represented less in policies and regulations (Krokfors, 2017).

According to the recent IPCC report, the global growth of energy consumption has occurred due to the increasing living standards together with population and economic growth, improved access to electricity, increased use of electrical appliances and cooling (IPCC, 2018). The largest energy saving potential can still be found in the heating and cooling demand, even though the efficiency of building envelopes and energy efficiency is already addressed for a long time (IPCC, 2018).

Though and as already stated before, the growth

plasitc wa ste at a L at v ian bea c h

4 of energy consumption has happened due to the growth of population. Therefore, accordingly the efficiency should continuously improve with population and economic growth to prevent the overall load from growing. However, such approach has its limits. (Krokfors, 2017) The IPCC report provides options for further greenhouse gas (GHG) savings such as reducing the energy embodied in building materials, in particular with the use of biobased materials and wood construction (IPCC, 2018). Yet, according to the current tendencies: there would be needed significant changes in technology and in economic policies, and there should be a narrowing of consumer demand and an enormous international effort for reducing the intensity of resource use, in order to avoid the collapse of natural resources and stay within the limits set by the environment (Krokfors, 2017).

The issue we face today in the building field is seeing housing as a replaceable and purpose-built end product with a lifespan of around 50 years. If the building is not able to accommodate changes and stay meaningful for the users, it is very likely to be demolished. Thus, recycling is promoted as a solution for the wasteful use of resources. (Krokfors, 2017) “[. . . ] but unt i l t h e p ro d u c tio n o f an y ki nd o f pro d u c ts rea ch e s th e same l e v e l o f m eta b o lis m a s n a tu re th a t c re a t e s no w a s te (Mc D o n o u g h & B r a ung a r t 2 0 0 2 ), rec y clin g can no t so l v e t he p ro b le m o f o v er con sum i ng . ” (Krok fors, 2017) The ta s k is in t he co ntex t o f c l i m ate c ha nge to not l oos e also t he fo c us o n wa ste p ro duc ti o n and di ffe re nt k ind s of e nv i ro nm e nta l p o l l uti o n .

The s econd pro ble m s usta i na bl e deve l o pm e nts face i s t he im ple m e ntati o n o f a ppro a c he s i n a countr y spe cific leve l.

“The di l e m m a t h a t te c h n o lo g ica l pro g re ss a nd c ul tu r a l a d a p ta tio n are dr i f t i ng a pa r t. ” (Bahne r et al. , 20 1 7 )

T he tec hnol ogi ca l a nd genera l contempora r y devel opm ents, codes a nd sta nda rds shoul d be ta i l ored to the l oca l contex t i n order to ga i n not onl y publ i c support but a l so the a bi l i ty of rea l i sati on.

To a c hi eve the c urrent c l i m ate ta rgets, stronger enforc ement of bui l di ng codes woul d be needed. T hus requi ri ng a n i nc rea sed ta i l ori ng to the contex t a nd i nspec ti on. T hi s ca n l ea d to strong c ha l l enges i n countri es wi th reduc ed f i na nc i a l ca pa bi l i ti es. W hat i s most, the effo rts ca n be m a l a da pti ve a nd even prevent bui l di ngs or l a nd use f rom evol v i ng i n order to reduc e the c l i m ate i mpa c ts. ( IPCC, 2 0 1 8 ) Al though the IPCC report spea ks of devel opi ng countri es, the resul t ca n be si mi l a r i n other countri es a s wel l , where l a c k of ta i l ori ng a nd f i na nc es c l a sh. As suc h, the a i m of the U N SDG ’s to not l et a nyone behi nd i n the susta i na bl e devel opm ent woul d fa i l ( U ni ted Nati o ns, 2 0 1 8 ) .

T hi s poi nts out the rel eva nc e of devel opi ng a pproa c hes a nd system s that a l l ow to reduc e costs a nd f i t requi rements to l oca l contex ts, resul ti ng in an a c c essi bl e susta i na bl e devel opm ent.

T he thi rd l a rge c ha l l enge susta i na bl e devel opm ents fa c es i s the communi cati on of a i m s a nd a c ti ons to the genera l publ i c . T he publ i c atti tudes, soc i a l va l ues a nd pra c ti c es a m ong other thi ngs have been i denti f i ed a s the fa c tors that hi nder the tra nsi ti on f rom c l i mate c ha nge preventi on pl a nni ng to the i m pl ementati o n of pra c ti ca l pol i c y ( IPCC, 2 0 1 8 ) .

Si nc e peopl e a re m ore l i kel y to a c t on c l i m ate c ha nge i f the i ndi v i dua l benef i ts woul d exc eed the costs of the ta ken a c ti ons, i t i s rel eva nt to poi nt out suc h m atters i n com m uni cati on, gui del i nes a nd pol i c i es ( IPCC, 2 0 1 8 ) . Yet no a c ti on ca n be ta ken i f the f i na nc i a l state i s restri c ti ve. T herefore the a i m of thi s work i s to hi ghl i ght the i mmedi ate a nd l ong term cost sav i ng opti ons a m ong other benef i ts a nd, f i rst a nd forem ost, m a ke peopl e feel a bl e to a c t on c l i m ate protec ti on m ea sures a s sug gested by the IPCC report ( IPCC, 2 0 1 8 ) . La stl y, si nc e i ndi v i dua l s a c ti ons a re m ore ba sed on fa c tors suc h a s va l ues, i deol ogy a nd worl dv i ews ( IPCC, 2 0 1 8 ) , hi gh em pha si s i n the work wi l l be put on ta i l ori ng uni versa l a nd Europe-wi de susta i na bl e devel opm ent a pproa c hes to the countr y spec i f i c contex t of Latv i a , espec i a l l y to m ul ti pl e soc i a l , demogra phi c a nd econom i c fa c tors.

chapter I

b i b l i o g ra p h y L ITE RATURE B ahne r, O. , Böttger, M. ( 2017) , “ Ne ue S ta nd a rds: Ze h n The s e n zum Wo hne n”. 2 nd e di t i o n. Ge r m a ny: Jov i s Ve r l a g G mbH. E nc yc lo pædia Britannica ( 2019) , “ Ke e l i ng C ur ve ”, ava i l abl e at : htt ps : / / w w w. br i ta nni ca. co m /s c i e nc e / Ke e l i ng Cu r ve ( accessed 2019) .

I PCC (2 0 18), “Global warm i n g of 1.5° C . A n I P C C S pe ci a l Re po r t o n t he i m pac t s o f g l o ba l wa r m i ng o f 1 . 5 °C a bove pre -industrial levels a nd re l ate d gl oba l gre e n hou se gas e m i s s i o n pat hways , i n t he co ntex t o f st re ngt he ni ng t he gl obal response to the thre at o f cl i mate ch a n ge, s ustai nabl e deve l o pm e nt , a nd effo r t s to e ra di cate pove r ty.” [V. Masson-D e l motte , P. Zha i , H . O. Pör tne r, D. Ro be r t s , J. Ske a, P. R . Shukl a , A . Pi ra ni , W. M o ufouma-Okia, C. Pé a n, R . P i dcock , S . C onn ors, J. B . R . M att hews , Y. C he n, X . Z ho u, M . I . Go m i s , E . L o nnoy, T. M aycock, M. Tig nor, T. Wate r f i e l d ( e ds.) ]. I n Pre ss.

Kn udst r up, M.- A . , Ring Han se n, H . T. a nd B r un sga a rd, C . ( 20 0 9 ) , “Appro ac he s to t he de s i g n o f s ustai na bl e ho us i ng w it h l ow CO2 emission i n D e nm a r k ,” Re newa b l e En e rgy, 3 4 ( 9 ) .

Kro k fo rs, K. ( 2017) , “ Tim e for spa ce : ty pol ogi ca l l y f l ex i bl e and re s i l i e nt bui l di ng s a nd t he e m e rge nc e o f t he c re at i ve dweller ”, A a l to U ni ve rsi ty, ava i l a b l e at: htt ps : / /aal to do c . a a l to .f i / ha ndl e / 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 / 2 6 5 6 5 (ac c e ssed 2019).

N A SA’s J et Propulsion La borator y ( 2019a ) , “A rcti c S e a I c e M i ni m um ”, ava i l a bl e at : htt ps : / /c l i m ate . nas a . gov / vital-sig ns/arctic- sea- i ce / ( a cce sse d 2019) .

N A SA’s Jet Propulsion La borator y ( 2019b) , vital-sig ns/carbon- diox i de / ( a cce sse d 2019) .

“ C a r bon

D i ox i de ”,

ava i l a bl e

at:

htt ps : / /c l i m ate . na s a. gov /

N A SA’s Jet Propulsion La bo rator y ( 2019c) , “ I ce S he ets ”, avai l abl e at : https : / /c l i m ate . na s a. gov / v i ta l - s i g ns / ic e -sheets/ (accessed 2019) .

N A SA’s Jet Propulsion L a borator y ( 2019d ) , “ S e a Leve l ”, ava i l a bl e at : https : / /c l i m ate . nas a . gov / v i tal - s i g ns / se a-level/ (accessed 2 019) .

N at io nal Geog raphic S oci ety ( 2018) , “ Th e Ke e l i n g C ur ve ”, ava i l a bl e at : htt ps : / / w w w. nat i o nal ge o g raphi c . o rg / e nc yc lopedia/keeling -cur ve / ( a cce sse d 2019) .

U nite d Nations ( 1987) , “ Re por t o f the Wo r l d C ommi ssi o n o n E nv i ro nm e nt a nd D eve l o pm e nt : Our C o m m o n F u t ure”, available at: f i l e :/ / / C :/ U se rs/ f l or i / D ow nl o ads /o ur _ co m m o n_ f ut ure br undt l a ndre po r t 1 9 8 7 . pdf (ac c e ssed 2019).

U nite d N ations (2015) , “A / R ES/ 70/ 1 Tra n sfor mi n g our wo r l d: t he 2 0 3 0 Age nda fo r Sustai na bl e D eve l o pm e nt ”, available at: https:/ / w w w.un.org /e n/ deve l opme nt / de s a/ po pul at i o n/ m i g rati o n/ge ne ral as s e m bl y/ do c s / g l o b a l co m p a c t /A _ R ES _ 7 0 _ 1 _ E . p d f ? f b c l i d = I w A R 1 5 S d A l U D z F R P Bx 8 R l Oz i - 3 N j F F 9 p b 3 L Z J k Za Z 8 I Gx 6 Kv n l k w U y j Z p 5 GYQ (accessed 2019).

U nite d N ations ( 2018) , “ The S usta i na bl e D eve l op m e nt G o a l s Re po r t 2 0 1 8 ”, ava i l a bl e at : htt ps : / / unstats . un.o rg / sdgs /files/report/2018 / The S usta i na bl e D eve l op m e ntG o al s Re po r t 2 0 1 8 - E N . pdf ( ac c e s s e d 2 0 1 9 ) .

PHOTO GRA P HS cover page P.III P.V P.2 P.3

open so u rce , https:/ / m om e nti .l v/ open so urce , https:/ / mom e nti .l v/ open source , https:/ / mom e nti .l v/ U nited Nati ons ( 2015) , “ S usta i na b l e D eve l o pm e nt Go a l s ki c k o ff w i t h star t o f new ye ar ”, ava i l a b l e at: https:/ / w w w.un.org /s usta i nabl e deve l o pm e nt / bl o g / 2 0 1 5 / 1 2 /s ustai na bl e deve l op me nt-goa l s-k i ck-off-wi th-sta r t- o f- new-ye ar / ( ac c e s s e d 2 0 1 9 ) , balticwo rd. ( 2018) , “ Pro bl e m of pl a st i c waste i n t he B al t i c o n t he r i s e ”, ava i l a bl e at : https:/ / ba l ti cword.e u/ probl e m-of-p l ast i c - waste - i n- t he - ba l ti c - o n- the - r i s e / (accessed 2019) .

6

1 st c ha pte r o f : A C C ES S I B LE SU STA I N A B I L I T Y FOR L AT V I A : res id e n tia l b u ilding in r ur al c onte xt M a ste r the s i s i n Susta i na bl e Arc hi tec ture by : F l o r i a n B etat & Ma ri j a Katri na Da m be s up e r v i s o rs : Pa s i Aa l to & Tom my Kl ei ven N T N U, D e pa r tm ent of Arc hi tec ture a nd Tec hno l ogy Jun e , 2 0 1 9