FurtherAcknowledgements:
ChiefEditors: AmaniandSophiaM
Illustrator: Anoushka
HeadofBiology: Anagha
HeadofChemistry: Solène
HeadofPhysics: Diora
Sub-editors: ZaraA,Tanya,Isabella
Thebibliographycanbefoundonpage46.
Although we often think of aerobic respiration as adefiningcharacteristic of eukaryotic organisms, there are in factmanyanaerobiceukaryotes,which only perform anaerobic respiration, such as the protist Trichomonas vaginalis [1]. Without going into too much detail here, Trichomonas vaginalis is a parasitic protist, that causes trichomoniasis, an STD, and is knowntolackmitochondria.Itinstead performs anaerobic respiration, using a different pathway and an organelle knownasahydrogenosome,
H.salmonicola,onesuchmyxozoa,has been found to lack genes related to aerobic respiration and mitochondrial genome replication, instead housing structures known as mitochondrionrelated organelles (MROs). MROs are organelles that evolved independently from mitochondria in eukaryotes that live in low-oxygen conditions [4].MROs can be classified into five types: aerobic mitochondria, anaerobic mitochondria, hydrogenproducing mitochondria, hydrogenosomes,andmitosomes[5].
However, it was only recently that the firstanimalthatcompletelylackedthe ability to respire aerobically was found, this being Henneguya salmonicola [2]. H. salmonicola is a parasite found on salmonid fish, such as salmon and trout,and is a member of the subphylum Myxozoa. Myxozoa is a diverse group of over 2,000 species of microscopic parasites that infect both invertebrate and vertebrate hosts. They are thought to be closely related to cnidarians [3] (such as jellyfish and hydroids), albeit with a much more reduced structure. Myxozoa have one of the smallest reported animal genomes and mostly existasjustafewcellsinsize.
Aerobic mitochondria release energy through performing oxidative phosphorylation - the third and last stageof cellular respiration.Oxidative phosphorylation consists of two components, namely the electron transport chain, and chemiosmosis. In simple terms, the electron transport chain,oftenabbreviatedtotheETC,is a series of protein complexes found on the inner membrane of mitochondria. As the name suggests, in the ETC, electrons are passed from one molecule to another, through redoxreactions.Eachtransferreleases energy which is then used to form an electrochemical gradient. Then, in chemiosmosis,whichistheprocessof diffusion of ions (in this case H+ ions) across selectively permeable membranes, the energy stored in the electrochemical gradient is used to produceamoleculeofATP,bymaking a high-energy phosphoanhydride bond. Energy can then be released when this phosphoanhydride bond is
broken, and the ATP molecule is converted into an ADP molecule and phosphategroup.
Anaerobic mitochondria are often facultatively anaerobic, meaning that they can release energy both in oxygen-rich, and low-oxygen conditions. In oxygen-rich conditions, suchmitochondriarespireaerobically, using the same mechanism as standard aerobic mitochondria. However,in hypoxic conditions,these mitochondria shift to an electron transport chain that uses an endogenously produced electron acceptor. Facultatively anaerobic mitochondria are often present in eukaryotes who experience a hypoxic period, or whose life cycle have an anaerobicphase.
The next category of MROs is hydrogenosomes. Hydrogenosomes share similarities with mitochondria, suchasthe presence of ATP synthase, but they lack the ability to perform oxidative phosphorylation. Hydrogenosomesarethoughttohave originatedfrommitochondriathatlost the ability to perform oxidative phosphorylation and instead became specializedinproducingH2.
Finally, Mitosomes are thought to be the most reduced form of MROs, lacking in ATP synthase and other mitochondrial proteins. They specialise in iron-sulphur cluster assembly. Iron-sulphur clusters are characteristic of iron-sulphur proteins, which are found in many metabolic pathways - in particular, in the redox reactions of electron transport in the mitochondriaandchloroplasts.
The third category is hydrogenproducing mitochondria. These mitochondria encode the protonpumpingcomplexI,butlackgenesfor complexes III, IV,V.The implication of this is that hydrogen-producing mitochondria are unable to makeATP through chemiosmosis. They instead synthesise ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation via anaerobic pyruvate metabolism and H2 production. Substrate-level phosphorylationdiffersfromoxidative phosphorylation in that the ATP molecule is synthesised by the direct transfer of a phosphate group from a substratetoanADPmolecule.
Thereareafewthingsweknowabout theMROsof theH.salminicola.Firstly, it does not have a mitochondrial genome and lacks many of the genes required for the transcription and replication processes of the mitochondrial genome. The genes coding for the protein complexes involved in respiration pathways have also been found to be either missing or present only as pseudogenes, further supporting the claim that H. salminicola are unable to perform aerobic cellular respiration. However, many genes involved in key mitochondrial metabolic pathways have been identified, suggesting that theMROsperformawidevarietyof
functions. One surprising finding was that the MROs of H. salminicola had cristae, which are usually absent in anaerobic MROs. This, coupled with the identification of pseudogenes hints that the loss of mitochondrial DNAandaerobicrespirationmaybea recentevolutionaryevent.
The cause of this evolutionary change can be deduced from the life cycle of H. salminicola. In its fish host, H. salminicola undergoes proliferation and sporogenesis in pseudocysts (collections of fluid which are neither closed nor separated from nearby tissue by epithelial cells, unlike true cysts)intheanaerobicwhitemuscleof the fish. Its other, invertebrate, host is probably an annelid from the family
Naididae. Members of the Naididae are known to be able to grow and reproduce in anoxic environments[6]. Therefore, the nature of these hosts shows that the loss of the mitochondrialgenome,andtheability torespireaerobicallyinH.salmonicola was probably driven by the hypoxic environments it inhabits. Additionally, the loss of superfluous genes is also thought to have an evolutionary advantage. This is due to the bioenergetic cost of a gene being higher in organisms with smaller genomes[7].Thebioenergeticcostof a gene which can be split into the genomic, transcription and protein levels, poses a significant burden to small organisms, such as H. salmonicola,whichcomesinataround 10 micrometres in diameter, being composedoffewerthantencells.
These results highlight a discovery about organisms and are helping to reshape the way we think about and further our understanding of other organisms. In terms of applications, they may also open the way to new treatment options against H. salmonicola, as anaerobic protoctists areknowntobeweakagainstspecific drugs. -Sara
Borntokill?Arecentstudyconducted on prisoners has discovered the existence of the ‘psycho genes’; the MAOA-LvariantandtheCDH13gene. The low activity MAOA gene, also known as MAOA-L, is one of the main plausible aetiologies of criminal behaviour with the genetics of Ted Bundy, one of the most notorious serial killers, supporting this theory. However, studies of serial killers have also revealed the presence of neurological abnormalities, that of a decrease in the activity of the prefrontal cortex, a smaller amygdala, and reduced grey matter; many such as Jeffrey Dahmer have developed theseabnormalitiesasaresultofbrain injuries from extreme physical abuse. It is also argued that serial killers are products of their environment because a common denominator between most serial killers is that extreme abuse was a prominent part of their childhood. And so, are serial killers just unfortunate victims of genetic and neurological malfunctions, products of their environment, or just inherently born evil?
The MAOA gene encodes for the enzyme monoamine oxidase which has a key role in inactivating and breaking down neurotransmitters in the brain. A low activity of this gene, also known as the MAOA-L polymorphism (genetic variant), decreases the metabolism of monoamine oxidase and so increases the levels of neurotransmitters like 5-
hydroxytryptamine also known as serotonin, and dopamine in the brain. Therefore, individuals with this lowactivity polymorphism of the MAOA gene exhibit a greater proclivity to violence and aggression, making low monoamine metabolism a credible factor in the aetiology of extreme criminal violence. Furthermore, another study found that those with MAOA-L had a smaller limbic system, whichcomprisesof thehippocampus, amygdala, and the hypothalamus, which is involved in behaviour and emotion. When performing a variety of tests, it was evident that those with MAOA-L had a greater difficulty in controlling strong emotional impulses.
The low-activity polymorphism of the MAOA gene also answers the questionastowhythenumberofmale serial killers is higher than female serialkillers.Thisisduetothelocation of a particular flavin. Flavins are molecules that are required by most organisms to carry out important catalytic processes and the gene for the flavin of monoamine oxidase is found on the human X chromosome andsotheMAOAgeneislinkedtothe X chromosome. Due to this, women are ‘protected’ from engaging in violent acts as they have two X chromosomes which mean that their levels of MAOA is higher, resulting in a lower likelihood of impulsive criminal violence whereas men only have one X chromosome which increases the chance of having a low activityMAOApolymorphism.
However,thereisonemajorlimitation tothistheory. MAOA-Lpolymorphism occurs in approximately 40% of the population, but serial killers only form around 0.0006-0.0012% of the population.Thisstatisticsuggeststhat theMAOAgenemerelyinfluencesthe behaviourofaserialkillerbutdoesnot determine it, implying that there is another plausible factor that works together with the MAOA abnormality toexplaintheirviolent nature.
A study was conducted on the genotypes of a large group of criminals who had committed several andsevereviolentcrimesinFinland.
causing an abnormal and disturbed neural connectivity. It was found that CDH13 is a gene associated with ADHD,adisorderthatiscloselylinked toviolentcrime.MenwhohaveADHD have a 2-3 times higher chance of being arrested and found guilty of crimes than those who do not have ADHD. It is reasonable to believe that theCDH13genecorrelatestothelack of impulse control as this is one of the mainsymptomsofADHD.Therefore,it is possible that the CDH13 gene and impulsive and aggressive behaviour arelinked.
The graph above is known as the Manhattanplotandshowsthegenetic variations of the violent criminals. Here, one can see that the highest cluster is visible in chromosome 16, showingthatthisiswherethegreatest genetic variation occurs. The highest point on the graph represents the greatestgeneticvariationandthisisat the locus (specific region on a chromosome) 16q23.3. This locus 16q23.3 was the location of the gene CDH13 and was found in multiple offenders in the group who had committedmorethan1murder.
The CDH13 gene codes for Tcadherin, a neuronal membrane adhesion protein, which is involved with the proliferation of neurons,
However, again there is a limitation to this theory in that not everyone with the CDH13 gene are serial killers or violent criminals. In terms of genetics, there is an important distinction to be made. Genes do not determine behaviour and so no genes nor their polymorphismscanexplaintheviolent nature that serial killers show. Genes can only influence behaviour, suggesting that there is another plausible factor that when combined withgenetics,providesthefullanswer toexplainthenatureofserialkillers.
This PET scan below shows the brains ofaserialkillerontheright,incontrast toaneurotypicalhumanontheleft.
Here, warmer colours (red/orange/yellow) indicate areas of the brain with high activity whereas colder colours (green/blue) indicate areas of the brain with low activity. From this image, we can see that the prefrontalcortex,whichisatthetopof theimage,isinactiveinthescanofthe serialkiller.Theprefrontalcortexplays a role in cognitive function, such as impulse control, and so an inactive prefrontal cortex may lead to impulsivityandviolence.
Theamygdalaisapartofthebrainthat processes fearful and threatening stimuli. Many serial killers have a smaller amygdala, and many seem to have a decreased connectivity between this part and the prefrontal cortex. When there is a low neural connection between these two regions,theamygdala'sprocessingof fearful and threatening stimuli does not result in any strongly felt painful feelings. This neural dysfunction may help to explain why serial killers who commit violent crimes do not feel remorse. A main example of these neurological abnormalities can be seen in Richard Ramirez’s brain and theeventscausingthese.Attheageof 2, Ramirez suffered a brain injury, due to experiencing physical abuse from his father that nearly killed him, leaving him with neurological changes.Shortly after thoseevents he experienced seizures, which indicates damagetothefrontal lobe.Lastlydue to drug abuse throughout his life, it would have stunted his neurological growth, especially to the hippocampus and the pre-frontal region. These neurological abnormalities which he developed duetoextremephysicalabusemaybe
the answer to his violent desire and urgetokill.
Furthermore, DRD4 is a dopamine receptor gene that encodes for the synthesis of receptors that promote postsynaptic detection of the neurotransmitter dopamine. It has been hypothesized that DRD4 may play a role in violence and other antisocial behaviours due to it promoting high levels of dopamine which is linked to impulsive traits and violent behaviour. With all this evidence linking these specific neurological abnormalities to violent criminal behaviour, it seems that this theory provides a clear explanation of the nature of serial killers. However, not all serial killers display neurological dysfunction as for example, though Ted Bundy had the MAOA gene, when scientists examinedhisbrain,it wasfoundtobe completely normal with no injuries, abnormalitiesordysfunction,showing that neurological abnormalities is not the sole explanation for the nature of serialkillers.
Environment
It is important to understand that not all children who are abused become serial killers and not all serial killers have been abused as a child. However, there is a link between childhood
abuse and the violence from serial killers which is not mere coincidence. The serial killer Richard Ramirez had a troubled upbringing and was subjected to severe beatings from his father. John Wayne Gacy was a serial killer found guilty of torturing and killing 33 men, and his drunken father emotionally and physically abused
him since the age of 4. Recent studies have shown that for infants, until the age of three, the right hemisphere of their brain, which is involved in emotional processing, is dominant in termsofgrowth.Itisonlyaftertheage ofthreethatthelefthemisphereofthe brain begins to grow and catch up to the development of the right hemisphere.Brainimageshaveshown thatneglect,stress,ormaltreatmentin thefirst3yearsofcancausereduction in brain volumes as well as cause significant neurological abnormalities such as a smaller limbic system. This implies that the neglect and abuse an infant might face at a young age results in neurological abnormalities that may lead toimpulsivity and cause aviolentnatureinthem.
The studies that have been discussed here do show that there is definitive proofthatacombinationoftheMAOA gene, the CDH13 gene, neurological
abnormalities as well as childhood experiences is what make a serial killer,butthisvariesdependingonthe individual. As Federal Bureau of Investigation profiler Jim Clemente hassaidthatforserialkillers, “Genetics loads the gun, their personality and psychology aim it, and their experiences pull the trigger.” It is important to understand that genes, neurology, and experiences on their own are not responsible for somebody’sbehaviour,whichiswhyit was shocking to find out that a convicted murderer’s sentence was lessenedonthegroundsthathehada version of the MAOA gene as genes are not responsible for behaviour. In conclusion, further research must be conducted to come to a definitive answer on what makes a serial killer, but the factors discussed here are definitelyapartofthisanswer.
-TharunyaIn genomic imprinting, whether a geneisexpressedisdependentonifit was inherited from the mother or the father. It is an epigenetic phenomenon; so, it does not involve changes to the DNA sequence, meaningthat it is somethinginherited outsideofyourgenes.Alsoreferredto astheparent-of-origineffect,itoccurs duringtheprocessof gametogenesis, whenacellundergoesmeiosistoform gametes.
A gene can be silenced or “switched off” by undergoing the process of DNA methylation: where the gene expression is reduced by adding methylgroupstocytosinenucleotides in CG (cytosine-guanine) dinucleotides. In this way, the methyl groups added to the parental copy of a gene serve as a label, to send a message to the cell not to transcribe this specific gene. This serves also to identify the gene as originating from eitherthemotherorthefather.During DNA replication, the methylation is retained, so the epigenetic tag is not lost during cell division. The mechanisms of genomic imprinting make it a dynamic process, as it is essential that the imprints can either re-surfaceorbedeletedthrougheach generation,sothatimprintedgenesin one person can be transcribed (expressed)againintheiroffspring. There are a variety of epigenetic modifications, however it is a rare occurrence for genomic imprinting to take place; as of 2019, there have been 260 imprinted genes identified in mice, and a further 228 in humans. They are only on small areas on some chromosomes; these genes are generally located in one of two
clusters: either on the short arm of chromosome 11, or the long arm of chromosome 15. Furthermore, the principal that these genes are not transcribed means that they are decided before a child is conceived andwillneverbeused.
The function of most mammalian imprinted genes involves helping control embryonic growth and development. However, genomic imprinting can also be a cause of disease, for example through uniparentaldisomy(UPD);thisiswhen a person receives two copies of a chromosome from the same parent, and no copy from the other parent, and the gene involved is imprinted. Uniparental disomy can be a contributortoavarietyofneurological disorders.
Onediseasethatisaresultoferrorsin genomic imprinting is Angelman Syndrome, a genetic neurological disorder. It is caused by genetic information missing on chromosome 15, more specifically in the UBE3A gene, where naturally the maternal copy of this gene is the only one active, as the copy from the father is
either silenced or imprinted. Therefore, if a problem occurs within thematernallyinheritedgene,suchas mutationordeletion,thegenecannot function normally, consequently leading to Angelman Syndrome. As a developmental disorder limited speech and learning disabilities are long term effects of Angelman Syndrome; and ataxia, scoliosis, and abnormal sleep-wake patterns are alsosymptoms.
Whiletherearelessthan100genesin humansinwhichimprintingcanoccur, errors are still a possibility, because, duetogenomicimprintingactingasa
form of regulation of the transcription of genes, it controls whether or not certain genes are turned “on” and “off”. Instead of one gene being imprinted and another being expressed, both can be expressed, or both can be silenced, or the gene meanttobesilencedisexpressedand the gene meant to be expressed is silenced.
- Kate
When we discuss asexual reproduction, the first thing that comes to mind are strawberries and bacteria,butwhataboutturkeys?
This form of reproduction is called parthenogenesis, and other complex organisms like fish, snakes and pigeons can do this too. Biologist Richard Owen defined it as “procreation without the immediate influenceof amale.”
Sexual reproduction ensures genetic variation, allowing adaptation and making extinction by disease less likely due. Asexual reproduction allows more rapid population growth, more efficiency and only requires one parent. As a result, this allows endangered species to continue producing offspring despite a lack of matesorinharshenvironments.Italso allowsarapidincreaseinpopulation.
In 1952,embryonic growthwasfound in unfertilised Beltsville Small White turkeyeggs.
of abortive parthenogenesis. These had the karyotype of a diploid male, also known as facultative arrhenotoky (asexual reproduction of an organism to create male offspring which is also capable of sexual reproduction). Thelytoky is when only females develop, and deuterotoky, either sex maydevelop.
The process is possible through apomixis, where the egg, or oocyte, replicates by mitosis, resulting in two diploid cells rather than haploid cells created by meiosis. As a result, the offspring would be a clone. It could alsooccurthroughautomixis,wherea haploid egg is created through meiosis, and is transformed into a diploid cell through chromosome duplicationorfusionwithapolarbody Thelatterisformedduetoasymmetric cytokinesis,resultingintheoocyteand smaller cells, known as the polar bodies. Due to the involvement of meiosis, these offspring are not geneticallyidenticaltotheparent.
Gynogenesis is also possible, where the presence of sperm cells are necessary to stimulate the developmentoftheeggcell,butthere is no fertilisation, and so offspring are producedthroughparthenogenesis.
This specific flock is known to suffer frominfertility.Thiswasthefirstrecord
-AnaghaGenomicsmanifestsitselfinthefuture of medicine, a future in which an individual will have the ability to receive treatment or advice entirely specific to the chemical makeup of their body, with the process of sequencing one’s genome estimated to be as common as the practice of taking blood testsi by the 2030s. Through this process, doctors can identify specific genes that suggest strong correlation to risk of mutations in protein formation, for example, using technology to analyse the huge data sets. This, in turn, allows health services to identify an issue almost instantly and confront the source of theproblem,beforeithastheabilityto develop into something difficult to treat.
As more and more patients have their genes sequenced in the future, the global data set will expand, allowing scientists to further their understanding of certain cancers,and thus helping targeted drug development. For example, haematological cancers (cancers in the blood), can be “informed, and sometimes explicitly decided, by genetic abnormalitiesii”, therefore by analysing an individual’s genome, these abnormalities can be instantly detected.
An example of this detection is the case of chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML), a cancer in which one’s bone marrow produces an extensive number of white blood cellsiii. Due to thissurgeinwhitebloodcells,thereis an abundance of granulocytes, an abnormal, anomalous form of white blood cell. These, in turn, can dominate within blood vessels, allowing little to no space for healthy whitebloodcells,redbloodcells,and platelets, making one more susceptible to infection or anaemia. CML is a disease in which approximately 90-95%iv of patients carry a mutated gene, the so-called Philadelphia chromosome, a shortened chromosome which affects cell growth, survival, and activation of transcriptionfactorsv
This anomalous gene, the BCR-ABL mutatedgene,isonethatinvolvesthe
fusion of theAbelson gene(ABL) with the breakpoint cluster region gene (BCR)vi, which, when identifiedvii , can lead to diagnosis. With the median ageof diagnosisbeing56yearsoldviii , if a patient has the opportunity to sequence their genome at a younger age, this diagnosis becomes more efficient and more effective, as with cancers like these, attacking it quickly gives the highest probability of success.
Anomalies within a genetic code do not only provide insight into risk of certain conditions, like mutation and cancer, but also allow better prediction as to how the body will reacttoacertaindrug.
This is especially potent when examining the effect of certain drugs on pregnant women’s embryos, in which congenital anomalies, abnormal structural or functional developmentinanembryo,appearto have connection to genetics. Teratogenic drugs (drugs that can cause congenital anomalies) prescribed for mothers to take for the duration of their pregnancy are very common, and are a huge cause of infant mortalityix. Genomics comes into play here, as the presence of certain genetic material in the DNAof themother,aswellastheembryo,can allow doctors to predict whether a drug has these teratogenic abilities.A
study conducted in Norway found the genetic variant in SLC6A4, for instance, had strong correlation with ‘drug teratogenicity’ from antidepressants that a mother could betakingx
Therefore, by sequencing a mother’s genome, greater care can be taken in what drugsare administered to her to avoid these congenital anomalies from occurring during an embryo’s development. This affects, more widely,theissueofinfantmortality,not onlyonaglobalscale,butwithrespect to the effect on the mother’s mental wellbeing. If it survives, congenital anomalies can manifest themselves in various conditions such as Down’s syndrome, problems with the heart, and neural tube defectsxi, thus also helping to alleviate some of the sufferingofthechilditself.
Conclusion
Overall, it is clear that sequencing an individual’s genome comes with a multitudeofbenefits,fromthewaywe treat a disease, to predicting it early, and preventing it from occurring. We are currently at the beginning of the rise of genomics in medicine, however, as more and more of us contribute to the global data set, the future of personalised medicine is closertobecomingareality.
-SophiaM
Some organisms such as birds, bacteria and insects can sense the Earth’s magnetic field to compute direction, altitude, or location. This mechanism is referred to as magnetoreception and helps organisms to navigate while moving from one place to another. Magnetoreception is considered as the greatest mystery in sensory biologyasthesensoryreceptorthatis responsible for the mechanism has remained unidentified. Despite some contradictory reports, it has been generally accepted that humans are unable to sense the geomagnetic field.
However, over the years, several hypothesises have been put forward to explain the phenomenon of unknown sensory unit. One of the popular theories is the presence of cryptochromes, a class of blue lightsensitive flavoproteins, that are found in the human eye and have also been observed in both plants and other animalspecies.Thistheoryisbasedon the fundamentals of quantum mechanics, which involves the interaction of a pair of radicals, molecules with unpaired electrons, when exposed to light. Recently, an intensive in vitro analysis of a European Robin’s cryptochrome-4 revealed that that protein is magnetically sensitive and provides
evidence of how avian magnetoreception may work.[1] Another theory suggests that microscopic particles of the mineral magnetite are present in certain receptor cells and work as biological compasses. Such minerals have been identified in the beak of homing pigeons, chickens, and other species of migratory birds, all of which have shown the ability to detect magnetic fields.[2] Furthermore, recent findings havediscoveredwaysthatmayexplain how magnetoreception works. Is it possible that humans may possess a sixthsensewithknowingit?
As mentioned earlier, the cryptochrome theory of magnetoreception is based on quantum mechanics. Cryptochromes are typically found in the retinas of birds and several other groups of animals. They are a class of flavoproteins which are particularly sensitivetobluelightandareinvolved in circadian rhythms (natural internal cycles of the body such as the sleepwake cycle) and the sensing of magnetic fields. This mechanism requiresapairoftworeactiveradicals, whichare moleculesthat have at least one unpaired valence electron, under the presence of light.[1] They are easily influenced by the orientation of the Earth’s magnetic field through Zeeman and hyperfine interactions
whichinvolvetheelectronspinningto the preferred direction of the magnetic field.As a result,this acts as a magnetic compass. An in vitro analysis of a crytochrome-4 of a European Robin has revealed that when the cryptochrome was exposed to blue light, it shifted into an active state where the electron became unpaired and therefore, acted as a magnetic compass due to its sensitivitytotheEarth’smagneticfield. Additionally, the magnetic field was able to act upon the unpaired electronsandgovernhowlongittook for the radicals to revert to their normal,inactivestate.[3]
Katrin Stapput, a biologist from GoetheUniversity,Frankfurt,Germany was able to examine how this ability depended on a clear image from the right eye. Goggles were put on the robins with clear foil on one side and frosted foil on the other. As a result, both sides of the goggles allowed 70% of the light to travel through but the frosted foil disrupted the clarity of visual senses.The robins were kept in cagesuntiltheywerereadytomigrate and let loose in funnel-shaped cages thatwerelinedwithcorrectionfluid.As they orientated themselves and changed course, they created scratches on the cage walls in which Stapput was able to plot which direction they were heading to.[1] These scratches revealed that if either the vision of both eyes were clear or the vision of the left eye was frosted, the robins would still fly in a straight trajectory towards North. However, if their right eye’s vision became disrupted, the robins would become
disorientated, heading in completely randomdirections.
This experiment showed that other thanexposureof bluelight,theability to sense magnetic fields in birds also depended on clear vision in the right eye and provided evidence of how quantum mechanics can explain magnetoreception. However, this experiment and other research conducted on the cryptochrome theoryofsensingmagneticfieldsdoes not rule out the alternative hypothesis which involves small crystals of magnetite commonly found in the beaks of small birds such as pigeons. Furthermore, the same cryptochrome was isolated from chickens and pigeons,twonon-migratorybirds,and were shown to be less sensitive to magneticfields.Thissuggeststhatthe cryptochrome in robins are specialisedformagnetoreceptionasa response to adapt to their migration routes.
Tiny crystals of single-domain magnetite can be found in the beaks
of migrating birds as well as in bacteria, protoctists and in nearly every major group of animals.[2] Magnetite is a mineral which is primarily composed of iron oxide, containing equal amounts of iron (II) and iron (III). What makes magnetite particularlyspecialisthatitisthemost magnetic of all naturally occurring minerals on Earth and is defined as ferrimagnetic. Ferrimagnetism is a class of materials where permanent magnetism occurs. As a result, the magnetic fields associated with individual atoms spontaneously align themselves,either parallel to or in the samedirection.
Another example of magnetite being present is in magnetotactic bacteria (MBT) which are a widespread and diverse group of prokaryotes, that biomineralises an unique organelle in their cells, known as a magnetosome. Themagnetosomessynthesiseachain of intracellular magnetite crystals. These act as internal compasses that help to align the bacteria’s swimming direction to the geomagnetic field lines.[5] This is because they possess magnetic material, hence, they are affected by the magnetic field’s strength and direction.These bacteria can use magnetosomes to find the optimumconditionsrequired for their enzyme activity, their growth and survival.
Examples like these may be able to explain how other different species of organisms are able to navigate throughtheEarth’smagneticfieldand have motivated researchers to search for the presence of magnetite in vertebrates, including humans,
whales, and birds. However, if indeed a magnetite based magnetoreceptor does exists, it is yet to be proven with scientificevidence.
Although it has been generally accepted that human do not possess the ability to detect magnetic fields, therehavebeenmajoradvancesinthe understanding of animals sensing magnetic fields. A recent experiment was conducted at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), Pasadena, where researchers investigated the magnetic effects on the human brain. An isolated, radio frequency-shielded chamber was wrapped with three nested sets of orthogonal square coils, where each coilwaswrapped aroundaconductor carryingcurrent.Asaresult,thisledto magnetic fields being generated within the chamber. Participants sat upright in a wooden chair on a platform electrically isolated from the
coilsystemwiththeir headpositioned near the centre of the uniform field region of the magnetic field. Throughout the experiment, participants sat with their eyes closed intotaldarkness,whiletheresearchers wereabletoadjusttheelectriccurrent running through the coils, allowing themtopointthemagneticfieldinany direction. This experiment had stimulated a magnetic field that was equal in strength to the Earth’s, and it was reported that alpha waves in the human brain had faded after specific fieldrotations.[7]
Therefore, this implies that there may beanotherunknownsensor,similarto a magnetite sensor in humans, transducing the magnetic fields. This couldalsobeevidencethatpeopledo indeed respond to the Earth’s magnetic field without being consciouslyawareofit.
Alpha waves dominate the human brainwhenitisstationary,buttypically fades when the person uses the senses such as touching, seeing, or hearing.
In conclusion, there have been many theories to suggest how magnetoreception works and although there is no definite answer, there has been progress over the recent years which have led us closer to finding the truth, if humans at all possessasixthsense.
-Trina
It is not news that in our society, the number of people who tend to be more comfortable using their right hand (constituting around 85% of the human population) greatly outnumbersthosepreferringtheirleft. Itisnotknownexactlywhenthistraitof handedness, or laterality (the preference shown by animal for one sideofitsbodyovertheother,suchas right-handedness or left-footedness) arose. However, early hominin fossils, suchasthatofthe1.6-million-year-old Nariokotome Boy (a Homo ergaster skeleton, found in Kenya in 1984), signify that handedness even existed then in other species - this fossil was evidently right-handed as its ulna was longer than the usual of its species, and there were deeper bone insertions of its deltoid muscles. Studies of Neanderthal skeletons has
alsorevealedthatthemajorityofthem were also right-handed, showing greater strength in their right hands, presumably from throwing weapons while hunting. [1] Since handedness has been in existence for so long, it leads us to wonder if there is any evolutionaryadvantagetobeingrighthanded, seeing as the majority of humans are. Furthermore, how is this traitpassedon?
Large numbers of studies have been conducted investigating the different possible determiners of laterality in individuals,andifthereareanytrends incognitivevariationsthatpeopleofa certainhandpreferencemayshare.[2] Inthepast,scientists believedthatthe two hemispheres of the brain carried out the same functions and worked in the same way, however now that has beenprovedwrong;thedevelopment of independent yet collaborative functions of the left and right hemispheres taking place simultaneously is called lateralisation. Therearemanyprovenadvantagesto having a lateralised brain, above all having an increased cognitive ability. A study [Rogers et al. (2004)], investigating the effect of brain lateralisationontheabilityofchicksto identify predators. One group of chicks was exposed to light before theyhatched,andanothergroupwere keptinthedarkwhilehatching.[3]This meant the chicks in the dark lacked visual lateralisation, as light exposure in the embryo stimulates visual lateralisation in chicks. [4]. Each chick
was then given a situation where they were to find grains stuck in pebbles, taking their attention away from the silhouette of an approaching predator. The study showed that the lateralised chicks detected the predator much more quickly, and quickerontheleftsidesoftheirbrains that the right sides. However, both sides of the brains of all the nonlateralised chicks detected the predator around the same speed as theslowerrightsidesofthelateralised chicks, indicating how the lateralised chicks were able to use the different processingabilitiesof thetwosidesof theirbrains(theleftsideforidentifying grains amongst pebbles and the right to detect the predator) whereas the non-lateralisedchickswerenotableto do this. More interestingly, these chicks were much more startled upon seeingthesilhouette, alludingto their inability to focus on monitoring the predator at the same time as feeding on the grains. [5] This shows how lateralisation would have had an evolutionary advantage in animals living in the wild, including humans, increasing vigilance and ability to assesssituationsmoreaccurately.
The trait of handedness itself is determined by the left side of the brain, and is associated with language-related areas. In particular, one genome-wide association study (GWAS) [Brandler, et al. (2013)] studied individuals with reading disabilities, and found common variants in certain genes shown by these people. They discovered that the variant most associated with their disabilities was in the gene PCSK6– it is an enzyme that cleaves the morphogen, NODAL, into an active form.Inaplethoraofdifferentspecies,
NODAL is an important factor in the development of left/right asymmetry, and without it, PCSK6 knockout mice (where the PCSK6 gene has been inactivated)showdefectssuchassitus inversus (when internal organs’ positionsarereversedaboutavertical line of symmetry) and heterotaxia (abnormal arrangement of organs in theupperbody). [6]
AnotherGWAS[deKoveletal.(2019)] suggested that the gene MAP2 was a significant factor in determining handednessspecifically;itisknownto play a part in neurogenesis and the development of brain structures and motor skills. This was also seen to be expressed largely in the right hippocampus than the left as a rat develops [Moskal et al. (2006)] This evidence proved to be reliable enough to the researchers in the former study to conclude that this is the most important protein-coding
gene for left handedness, as the correlation was found in hundreds of thousands of individuals of studied individuals.[7][8]
Thepossibleprenatal factorsinvolved in determining handedness have also been explored [Fujioka et al. (2021)], such as foetal position (how/what direction the foetus lies in the uterus) and presentation (which part of the foetus’ body leads out of the birth canal) [9], as well as number of weeks of gestation, the handedness of the parents and the time of year it was born. Children from the EDEN study (where pregnant women from two French university hospitals in Nancy and Poitiers were monitored over three years from 2003-2006, in order toinvestigatepre-nataland post-natal factors affecting child growth) were recruited and their handedness was monitoredwhenthey werefive.Other data was also analysed, including if they had been born before 37 weeks of pregnancy, and they found a link between the father’s handedness and the child’s handedness (however, peculiarly, no link between the mother’s and the child’s) They noted how the percentage of left handed children was greater amongst those who had fathers who were not right handed,compared tothosewithright handed fathers, and that girls born prematurely were significantly less lateralised when born than premature boys and babies who were not premature, and also that babies born in winter and autumn were somewhat less lateralised than those born in springandsummer.[10]
Although there may be shorter term causes of handedness,scientists have consideredthefactthattherealsomay be an evolutionary advantage to beingright-handed.
Oneexplanationsuggeststhatitisdue to different movements of our hands in carrying out certain tasks: rotating your hand from the palm facing downwards to it facing upwards is knowntoanatomistsassupinationand the opposite movement is called pronation.Supinationrequirestheuse of our bicep muscles whereas pronation does not, therefore supination is more powerful than pronation – therefore it has been consideredifearlyhomininsmayhave needed to use their right hands in order to use certain tools, such as those requiring clockwise rotation, and if this was passed on through generationsasotheraspectsofculture were also passed on. [11] Although it could have been a survival disadvantage at the time, lefthandedness has not been proven to affect health, contrary to inaccurate conclusions of some studies in the past. These studies suggested links between left-handedness and breast cancer, learning disorders and decreased life expectancy, however these are conditions/situations which have a wide array of different factors
affecting them, including genetic historyof (non-left-handed)ancestors, diseases caught, diet, and if they smoke,invalidatingtheseconclusions.
[12]
Toconclude,handednessdependson a range of different long-term and short-term factors which are mostly out of our control. However, in the past, it was not uncommon for righthandedness to be forced in some schoolsinsomecountries,particularly when teaching children how to write.
[13] In fact, before the late 20th century, there were many false theoriessurroundinglefthandedness, suchasthatitwasasignof theDevil’s work and witchcraft, or that it was a warning sign of mental illness. Nowadays,thesebeliefsaremuchless widespread.[14]
-Kat
In1963,ErastoMpemba,a13-year-old student at Magamba secondary school in Tanzania, made an unusual discovery; while in cooking class makingicecream,hehadjustboileda mixture of milk and sugar when he realized that space in the classfreezer was rapidly filling up. Not wanting to miss out on the last available tray Mpemba placed his mixture in the freezer without first letting it cool to room temperature. About an hour later,Mpembacheckedthefreezer,he discovered that his mixture had already frozen solid while those of his classmates,which had been placed in thefreezeratroomtemperature,were still liquid. Intrigued Mpemba consulted a friend, an ice-cream vendor, who revealed that he always placed his ice cream mixture into the freezer hot because it froze faster that way.1
Some years later, as a student at Maguawa high school in Iringa, Mpemba brought up this unusual incident in his physics class to which the teacher explained that such a phenomenon contradicted Newton’s lawof coolingandthatMpembamust have been mistaken. Consequently, Mpemba decided to investigate for himself convincing the school’s kitchenstafftolethimusetheirfreezer for his experiments. His initial results seemedtoindicatethattheeffectwas indeed real but, without more
sophisticated equipment, he could notbescientificallysure.
Shortlythereafter,MpembametDenis Osborne, a visiting lecturer from the university of Dar es Salaam, who was equally intrigued by this seemingly contradictory phenomenon.Together, they conducted a series of controlled freezing experiments,publishing their results in the journal ‘Physics Education’ in 1969. Ever since, the phenomenon of hot water freezing fasterthancoldwaterhasbeenknown astheMpembaeffect.1
Despite the apparent conclusiveness of Mpemba and Osbourne’s experiments, scientists are unable to agree whether the Mpemba effect actually exists, due to the fact that no controlledscientificdiscoveryhasever beenabletoreplicatetheirresults.On the other hand, substantial experimental and anecdotal evidence suggests that under certain circumstances, hot water can in fact freeze faster than cold water. Thus, with this inexplicably contradictory body of evidence,the Mpemba effect is one of the most elusive and hotly contested phenomena in the modern scientificcommunity.
At first glance the Mpemba effect would appear to be impossible as it violates the first law of
thermodynamics and Newton’s law of cooling.These state,respectively,that thetotalchangeinenergyof asystem equals the energy added or lost plus the work performed on or by the system, and that an object’s rate of cooling is directly proportional to the difference in temperature between it and its surroundings.Therefore,when twosamplesofwaterthatareidentical exceptfortheirinitial temperatureare placedinidenticalcoolingconditions, theyshouldcoolatthesamerate,with the colder water always freezing first because of its lower initial thermal energy.
Nevertheless, Mpemba was far from the first to observe this phenomenon, with versions of the Mpemba effect being reported throughout history. In his treatise on meteorology, written around 350 BCE, the Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote: “The fact that the water has previously been warmed contributed to its freezing quickly: for so it cools sooner. Hence many people, when they want to cool waterquickly,beginbyputtingitinthe sun.”2 In1620,theEnglishphilosopher Francis Bacon wrote in his treatise, NovumOrganum,“slightlytepidwater freezed more easily than that which is utterly cold.”3 While in 1637, French philosopher Rene Descartes wrote in his discourse on the method: “One can see by experience that water that hasbeenkeptonafireforalongtime freezes faster than other, the reason beingthatthoseofitsparticlesthatare least able to stop bending evaporate whilethewaterisbeingheated.”
A major factor in the confusion surroundingthe Mpembaeffect isthe vague and nonspecific manner in which it is typically phrased. For example, scientists cannot agree on the exact definition of freezing in this context and whether it refers to the moment when the water reaches an average temperature of zero degrees Celsius, the moment ice begins to form or the moment the sample freezes solid. Equally ambiguous is whether the effect is visible in experimentscontrollingthedifference in temperature between the two samples, or those conducted within a specificrangeoftemperatures.Finally, the historical examples previously listed did not specify whether the waterwasactuallywarmwhencooling startedorhadsimplybeenwarmedat some point in the past, a distinction which completely changes the parameters of the phenomenon, and which could nullify the supporting evidence. Because of this ambiguity, the majority of experiments conducted on the Mpemba effect have used completely different methodologies, with few attempting toreplicatepreciselythemethodsand results of another.This has resulted in a body of data that is very difficult to comparedirectly,furtheraddingtothe confusion.4
MpembaandOsborne’soriginal1969 experiment involved pouring 70 millilitres of water at various temperatures into 100 millilitre beakers and placing these in the iceboxofadomesticrefrigerator.They found that the time until start of
freezing was the longest at an initial temperature of 25 degrees Celsius and shortest at a temperature of 90 degrees, with the relationship between temperature and freezing timefollowingaclearlydefinedcurve. Due to the relatively basic nature of this experimental setup, some early sceptics of the Mpemba effect attempted to explain the phenomenonasresultingfromflawsin Mpemba and Osborne’s methodology. For example, some have pointed out that domestic heaters use thermostats to keep the internaltemperatureconstantandthat the introduction of a hotter liquid would cause the refrigeration system to remove heat at a faster rate. However, once the hotter liquid reached the same initial temperature as the colder liquid, then the cooling curves from that point on would theoretically be the same and since it would take more time to remove the excess heat from the hotter sample, overallit would cool more slowly than the cooler sample. Another theory centres on the formation of frost on the inside surface of the freezer cabinetwhichnormallyinsulatesthese samples from the freezer wall. A hot sample would cause this frost to melt resultinginbettercontactbetweenthe sample and the freezer wall and the more efficient heat transfer via conduction. However, Osborne and Mpemba accounted for this effect by placing their samples on a sheet of Styrofoam, insulating them from the freezer walls. Consequently, it is clear that something else is taking place causingthisunusualeffect.5
There has been no shortage of proposed explanations for the Mpemba effect, none of which has ever been conclusively confirmed by experiments. One of the earliest suggestions was that the hot water loses heat faster through evaporation. But while follow-on experiments by Osbourne and Mpemba demonstrated that adding a layer of oiltothesamplesdelayedtheonsetof freezing by several hours, later experiments controlling for evaporationrevealedthatthisprocess onlyaccountsforasmallproportionof the totaleffect (30%at most).Another theory championed by scientists like Jonathan Katz, centres on the presence of dissolved salts and gases in the water which can potentially delay the onset of freezing. Heating water before cooling it causes the substances to be released from the solution thus it is not the temperature of the water itself which matters but the fact that it was heated something prior to the start of cooling. This fits with the historical accounts of the effect,suchasAristotle’s,whichsimply states that the water had previously been warmed and not that it was warmer at the start of the cooling.But onceagainexperimentalevidence for this mechanism has been inconclusive.6
Yet another theory involves convection currents within the water. The previously mentioned evaporation theory relies on the fact thatwarmwaterislessdensethancold
water,meaningthat the warmer water moleculesinthesamplerisetothetop of the container where they can evaporateandcarryawayheatintothe environment. However, water is a peculiar substance at temperatures below 4 degrees Celsius; cold water actually becomes less dense than warm water (just as ice is even less dense), leading to the formation of a ‘cold top’, an insulating layer of water thatpartiallypreventsfurtherheatloss and delays the onset of freezing. According to this theory, the strong convectioncurrentspresentinwarmer water impede the formation of the ‘cold top’ allowing heat to escape morequicklyfromthesample.7
Butdespitetheseanddozensofother theories, for example that micro bubbles found in hot water aid with convective heat transfer, and that hydrogen bonding between water moleculesvarieswithtemperature,the fact remains that the experimental datadoesnotsupporttheexistenceof the Mpemba effect at all. In a 2016 study, researchers H. Burridge and P. Linden compared the results of 12 freezing experiments including their own and found - with the sole exception of Mpemba and Osbourne’s original data - none showed any observable negative correlation between starting temperatures and freezing time.8 The supposed effect has also been dismissed as a particularly persistent example of ‘pathological science,’ which has been defined as “the science of things that aren’t so” 9 or “when well-intentioned scientists
spend extended time and resources studying a phenomenon that isn’t real.” 10 Thepairalsocitedpolywater,a fourth phase of water supposedly discovered in the late 1960s and ‘water memory,’ the purported ability of water to retain the memory of substances dissolved in it, even after those substances have been diluted out, other examples of ‘pathological water science.’ Thus, according to EltonandSpencer,theMpembaeffect islittlemorethanascientificphantom; scientists have been unproductively chasingforthelast50years.11
However, studies have shed some light onto how this phenomenon might have come to be. In 1995, experimentsconductedbyresearcher David Auerbach of the Max Planck institute suggested that the Mpemba effect might truly be a result of the phenomenon
‘supercooling.’12 Supercooling is the processwherebywatercanbecooled well below its freezing point without solidifying. Typically, water forms an ice crystal (the lowest energy state) when it reaches its freezing point, which is only possible if it first encounters some irregularity in their surroundings(anucleationsite),which thus forces it to arrange in a certain way.However,if nosuchirregularityis encountered, the molecules continue tocoolbelowzerowhilstremainingin the liquid phase for a while longer. In thisunstablestate,aslightdisturbance like shaking the container or adding animpuritytocreateanicenucleation site can cause the water to spontaneously freeze. Supercooling
requiresrelativelycalmwatermeaning theconvectioncurrentsinwarmercan serve to interrupt its onset thus warm water may appear to freeze more quickly when, in reality, the colder waterhadlongagodroppedbelowits freezing point and simply become super-cooled before spontaneously freezing. This explanation may also hold true for water which has previously been heated but which is notwarmeratthetimecoolingbegins, as heating can cause certain minerals like magnesium carbonate to come out of a solution. The crystals can act as nucleation sites preventing the occurrence of supercooling. This explanation had been forwarded as early as the mid-18th century by Scottish physicist and chemist Joseph Black.Auerbachalsoobservedthathis samples tended to freeze from the outside in,giving the illusion of being fully frozen when in fact the centre of the sample was still liquid. This ambiguity in the observable point at whichfreezingoccursmayaccountfor atleastsomeof thevariabilityinother experimentalresults.
was uncovered by Dr James D. Brownridge,whoin2010attemptedto eliminate all extraneous factors present in previous experiments by placing ultrapure samples of distilled waterinsealedglassvials,suspending thembythreadsinavacuumchamber andcoolingthembyradiativecooling.
Like Auerbach, Brownridge observed that sometimes hotter samples froze faster than cooler samples, but only because the cooler samples
underwent supercooling. More importantly, however, Brownridge observed that this effect was random anddependententirelyonthespecific samplevialsbeingused.Eachvialhad an entirely different maximum temperature at which the water inside froze, a temperature determined by the presence of surface imperfections which acted like ice nucleation sites. Thus, one of the fundamental conditions of the Mpemba effect that hotandcold-watercontainersmustbe identical is impossible to attain in real life as different containers will inevitably have different nucleation sites and thus a different minimum freezing temperature. Therefore, it appears that Elton and Spencer are correct and the Mpemba effect is merely a phantom born from the inherent randomness of the universe.11
In 2012, The British Royal Society of Chemistry organised a widely publicised competition for papers which could definitively explain the Mpemba effect. The winning entry, submitted by Nicola Berkowitz at the University of Zagreb in Croatia, was perhaps less definitive than hoped, attributingtheeffecttoacombination of evaporation, the presence of dissolvedgasses,convectioncurrents and supercooling13. Yet despite the dearth of evidence for its existence, scientists continued fascination with the Mpemba effect should perhaps come as no surprise for, according to Elton and Spencer, “the idea that “waterisspecial”isabiasinstilledinus
by thousands of years of human culture…water does have many anomalouspropertiesandisspecialin many ways amongst liquids. Issues onlyoccurwhenpeoplelatchontothe idea that water is more special than it reallyisandthendonotproperly
criticize their ideas and only seek confirmation of them rather than falsification.”14
-NadiaMercury is an anomaly amongst metals because it is considered the only metal that is a liquid at room temperature. The Greek name for mercury, hydrargyrum, means liquid silver, and this property of the metal has captured the minds of many civilizations around the world for thousands of years. Many believed thatitswonderousphysicalproperties meantthatitheldspiritualvalue 2.The Chinese first emperor,Qin Shi Huang, allegedly believed so strongly in its magical properties that he drank mercury,inthesearchforeternallife 1 .
Mercury has long had many practical applications. Before realising its toxicity,theRomansused theelement in their makeup and cosmetics, often leading to severe facial injuries and disfiguration. It wasn’t until the 18th century that a link between illnesses and mercury exposure was made. In light of this connection, the madness ofmanymillionaireswasthoughttobe caused by the excessive use of mercuric nitrate in the hat making industry,leadingtothecreationof the phrase ‘Mad as a Hatter’. Despite the hazards that have long been associated with mercury, it continued to be used in many everyday applications throughout the 20th century.2
Today, it is still used (safely) in amalgam fillings in dentistry, and as a
preservative ingredient in some mascaras.(AccordingtotheFDAithas “banned the use of mercury compounds in all cosmetics except those used around the eyes, where levels are limited to 65 parts per million”).3 It is also a commonly used as a catalyst in the chemical industry. Recently, a viable alternative to mercury can be found in the metal gallium, which has a melting point near to room temperature and does notshareitstoxicity.Butgalliumreacts readily with oxygen, forming a thin oxide crust on its surface,so it cannot readilyreplacemercuryinapplications thatrequireafree-flowingliquid.4 Still, mercury isbeing phased out of use in most products today, such as thermometers, where alcohol filled digital or thermistor-based instrumentsarecommon.
Why is mercury a liquid at room temperature?
Metals tend to have high melting points because their atoms form strongmetallicbondswitheachother. However,mercurymeltsat–38.9oC.5
Why is this? Mercury atoms do not form strong metallic bonds with one another, in comparison to other metals,aselectronsarenotreadilylost from mercury’s valence shell. This is because of its atomic structure: [Kr] 4d10 4f14 5s2 5p6 5d10 6s2 . 6
Electrons are not readily lost from mercury’svalenceshell,firstlybecause mercury atoms are relatively small, because the filled 4f shell cannot shield valence electrons from the highly positive nucleus. The electrons in the 6s (outermost) shell are attracted to the strongly positive nucleus charge and are drawn closer to the nucleus at the centre of the atoms, decreasing its atomic radius. Additionally,unlike gold and thallium, mercury has a full outer shell of electrons, making its valence shell highlystable.Asaresult,theelectrons in the orbital are paired up with each other and are reluctant to be shared amongneighbouringmercuryatoms.6 7
However, there is also another factor which results in mercury being in a liquid state a room temperature. According to special relativity, the apparent mass of an object increases asitsvelocityapproachesthespeedof light (7).Additionally,fromNielsBohr's theory of atomic structure we know that the velocity of an electron is proportional to the atomic number of an element.As mercury atoms have a high atomic number of 80, Bohr’s theory determines that velocity of the 1s electron increases to 58% of the speedoflight.Thus,itsmassincreases to 1.23 times its rest mass, according to relativity. Since the radius of an
electron orbital is inversely proportional to the mass, this mass increase results in a 23% decrease in theorbitalradius.Thisshrinkageeffect means that orbitals are closer to the nucleus and results in stronger attraction between the nucleus and the electrons; this affects all orbitals, includingtheoutermost6sorbital8
Overall, a filled 6s orbital and relativistic shrinkage means mercury does not easily lose its outer shell electrons to form metallic bonds between its atoms.Instead of forming bonds between neighbouring mercury atoms, the electrons stay associated with their own nuclei, and weaker forces such as van der Waals bonds hold the atoms together 8. It is clear that Mercury’s unique atomic structure and the impact of relativity on the atom makes real outlier amongstmetalsoftheperiodictable.
Thalidomide is a medicinal drug, derivedfromglutamicacid,createdin the 1950s by the German company Chemie Grünenthal GmbH. In recent decades, scientists discovered that C13H10N2O4 (thalidomide) has teratogenic properties, meaning the substance can cause developmental malformations in the body. It also has cancer-targeted properties (immunomodulatory and antiangiogenic) as well as reducing inflammation. In the 1950s, thalidomide had no lethal effect on animalsinanimaltestingprocesses,so it was assumed that the drug would not harm humans either. However, at the time, scientists in Chemie Grünenthal GmbH had not yet realised that its chemical teratogenic properties could be passed through the placental barrier and harm a foetus. Due to their unawareness of this in the 1950s, thalidomide was often used without a doctor’s prescription for sedative purposes, andtoalsotreatcolds,nausea,andflu in pregnant women1 This led to the breaking of the anomalous thalidomidescandal.
The thalidomide tragedy occurred in the late 1950s and early 1960s, when pregnant women who took thalidomide for nausea or as a sedativehad babieswithdefectives.It is estimated that an anomalously high number of 10000 babies, whose mothers took thalidomide, were born worldwide with disabilities. Thalidomide molecules resulted in a wide range of possible disabilities in these babies, such as the absence of limbs, shortened limbs, damaged eyes and ears, disfigured faces, internal organ damage, brain damage, and malformed hands. This was extremely abnormal to have so many babies with defects, and it took chemists over 5 years to link thalidomide medicine with these disabled babies. To this day, fewer than 3000 people have survived the tragedy. The main problems that suffering people experience are reduced mobility, pain, numbness, and bad mental health. Over 60 years after thalidomide caused birth defects, chemists understood why thalidomide caused such extreme harm. Thalidomide molecules stimulate the degradation of transcription factors (cell proteins that turn DNA to RNA), particularly in the zinc-finger protein SALL4. A foetus’s development is affected by the chemicalbreakdown ofSALL4:itslimbsbecomemisshapen and its organs are faulty. Therefore, the countless number of pregnant women who took thalidomide resulted in an unusually large-scale “tragedy” of defective children. The
effect of thalidomide medicine when exposedtoafoetusmaybecompared to several people who have a SALL4 mutation, who also have similar defects. "The similarities [...] are striking," said Eric Fischer, PhD, of Dana-Farber Cancer Institute. "They makethecaseevenmorestronglythat disruptionofSALL4isattherootofthe devastation produced by thalidomide medicineinthe1950s.”2
Why did it take five years to link the defective babies with thalidomide?
It took five years for the medical experts Dr Widukind Lenze and Dr William McBride to connect thalidomide taken by pregnant women with the newborn children’s deformities. It took a long time for a fewreasons.Firstly,thaliodomidetook different names in different countries, so it was difficult to pin down which medicine was causing the anomalously great number of defective babies. Secondly, doctors were slow to link the tragedy with thalidomide medicine because it affected a range of limbs and organs, anddidnothaveonespecificeffecton the body. Thalidomide also had some damaging effects that were comparable to genetic disorders like hypochrondroplasia, which causes disproportionally short limbs, so doctors often assumed these babies justhadahereditarycondition.
Australian doctor William McBride published a letter which made the connection between thalidomide medicine and foetal development
public in 19613. As a result, Chemie Grünenthal removed thalidomide from being distributed on 26th November 1961. The thalidomide tragedy led to more effective toxicity testing systems, and safer medicines arenowdesignedbecauseofmodern understanding of thalidomide’s molecular targets. Thalidomide can only be prescribed strictly by adoctor in the UK, and people are now made aware of the risks. Pregnant women are not allowed to take thalidomide. Medicinesbeyondthalidomidecanno longer be approved solely on animal testing, because medicines do not have the same effect on humans and animals.
Since 1967, thalidomide medicine is used as a leprosy treatment in lots of countriesafterbeingapproved bythe WHO. Leprosy is an infection caused by the growth of Mycobacterium leprae. In 1964, Dr Jacob Sheskin found that thalidomide healed his leprosy patient’sskinlesionsin3days, and the patient’s leprosy returned when he stopped taking thalidomide. Althoughthalidomidemedicinecould notcureleprosy,it
restrained the illness. In recent years, thalidomide has been used to treat multiple myeloma cancer. Thalidomide kills myeloma cells, however patients are still warned of the drug’s risks, such the possible formation of blood clots and birth defects.
-Jiya
Definition of anomalous: ‘inconsistent with or deviating from what is usual, normal,orexpected’1
When we hear the word anomaly in chemistry,we tend to associate it with anerrorinanexperiment,afaultinthe experiment. However, in the case of polyethyleneoraswecommonlyrefer to it as polythene, this anomalous resultchangedtheworldofpolymeric materialsforthebetter.
‘He who never made a mistake never madeadiscovery’-SamuelSmiles
In 1899, Hans Von Pechmann (a German scientist) allegedly made the first discovery of some variation of polythene. By heating diazomethane, hediscoveredawhitesubstanceatthe bottom of his test tube (polymethylene), unaware that this discovery would pave the way for futurediscoveriesandinnovationsthat would ultimately lead to the fabricationofpolythene.Unliketypical polythene, this white waxy substance wasdeemedimpracticalduetoitslack of versatility, making it almost impossibletoproduceplasticsfromit. Like with any other experimental ‘error’, scientists continued to explore thisnewsubstanceingreaterdepth.
‘The important thing is to not stop questioning’-AlbertEinstein
Polythene in the form we know of today was officially discovered in 1933, by Eric Fawcett and Reginald Gibson (chemists who worked at Imperial Chemical Industries) by accident. It occurred upon ingenuously experimenting with gasses at very high pressures. A mixtureofethyleneandbenzaldehyde was heated at 170 degrees at a pressure of 1,900 atmospheres. Every prior experiment had caused explosions, causing doubt and speculation when this reaction appearedtobetame.2 Uponreturning to the lab, they discovered a white substance (similar to that of Von Pechmann’s)thattooktheappearance of sugar but ultimately turned out to bepolytheneitself.
understanding of the process of making polythene was understood, more experiments were carried out to optimise the production of it, with scientists such as Karl Ziegler attempting to use room temperature andnormalatmosphericconditionsto obtain a higher density polythene.3 In 1963 Ziegler actually won the Nobel prize in chemistry due to his innovation and advancement in this long-termprocess.
During Karl Ziegler’s investigations of polythene, he developed the idea of polythene existing in various forms,
proving that there are linear chains of ethylene molecules, creating highdensity polyethylene as well as branched chains,creating low-density polyethylene.4 This extraordinary progress highlightshow critical it isto continue working with anomalies rather than turning a blind eye to them,astheymaywellleadtothenext greatest invention. For years, polythenehasnowbeeninlargescale production, with over 80 million tonnesbeingproducedayear,making it the most popular material for makingplasticsintheworld.
-Erin
Whilstbeingabundantthroughoutthe planet and our own cells, and being diverse in its range of uses, water is a highly complex liquid of which we are still exploring the causes of its properties, containing surprising properties that contribute to its many functions, making it essential for all livingthings.
Arguablythemostnotableanomalyin the behaviour of water is its density maximum, the highest attainable density of a substance in its specific conditions, at 4 °C. This subsequently causes water to contract between 0 and 4 °C a piece of information anomalous to theories regarding the ideathat,whenheated,mostmaterials will expand, in reaction to an increase in heat energy (converted into kinetic energy) which causes an increase in motion of particles of matter and the distance between its atoms. The density of water being higher at 4 °C than at 0 is also the property that allows ice to float, with its density being 9% that of water. This feature is just a result of the vastly differing structures of ice and water, where the water molecules in ice orientate themselvesinalatticestructure,which allows particles to develop a greater distance between then which, consequently, increases volume and decreases density in comparison to water in its liquid state, which, relative toice,allowsforparticlesmoreclosely packed in their random arrangement, thusincreasingitsdensityasaliquid.
The main reason we can owe the ability of water to be so versatile is its hydrogen bonds, a type of intermolecular force that forms a specific dipole-dipole attraction between a hydrogen atom bonded to a highly electronegative atom (specifically Nitrogen – 3.04, Oxygen3.44, or Fluorine- 3.98 ) and another electronegative atom with a lone pair ofelectrons.
Hydrogen bonding between two differentwatermolecules,resultsinits properties including its adhesive and cohesive properties, and its high latent heat of vaporisation, to name just a few. These properties are consideredmoreextremewhenwater is supercooled, where it is cooled at standard pressure down to its crystal homogeneous nucleation, where, in a givenvolumeofwater,asmallnumber of its molecules arrange themselves into acrystalline formation(allowingit to remain water at temperatures below its freezing point). It was then foundthatsupercooledwatertooknot only one form, but two, using infrared spectroscopy. An infrared
spectrometer can analyse a compound by passing rays of infrared radiation through a sample of it, at various frequencies, to measure the absorptions made by each type of bond in the compound, producing a spectrum, and from it, it was possible tounderstandhowthestructureofthe O-H bonds in water evolved through cycles of rapid heating and cooling. It was found that the two forms the structure of water could take as a supercooledliquidwerealow-density and high-density structure, which can coexistwithoneanotherinamolecule of water. This was discovered despite the difficulty to investigate these anomaliesasasupercooledliquiddue to the nucleation occurring extremely rapidlyinthelowtemperatures.
It is these properties that have made watersuchavitalaspecttoallformsof life. Whether this is its cohesive properties, causing water molecules to remain at the liquid-gas interface and its consequent high surface tension, a property evident in the movementofwaterinthexylemtissue of plants, or even its ability to expand when frozen, providing it with a lower density than liquid water, acting as an insulating layer for marine organisms in the Arctic. It is undeniable that water, with all of its anomalies, is a universalnecessity
-Navya
The new Avatar is the latest in a long trend of science fiction movies which explores extra-terrestrial life. It shows us an inhabited planet not unlike Earth, with an advanced ecosystem and intelligent alien species. This genre delves deep into the question of whether there truly is life on other planets, and whether we will ever know?
The definition of a habitable planet is one that can sustain life for a significantperiodof time.Foraplanet tosustainlife,itmusthaveliquidwater. Water isespecially important,asit isa solvent capable of dissolving many substances. Thus, it is the perfect mediumfortransportingsubstancesin andoutofcells.However,forscientists onEarthtobeabletodetectthiswater
from space,it must be on the planet’s surface, although this condition is confined to our understanding of life on Earth. As researchers learn more and discover new environments in which life can sustain itself, the requirements for life on other planets may be redefined. Water may not be the only liquid that can support life, which is why scientists are also investigating methane and ammonia, aspotentialsubstitutes.
The region around a star where liquid watercanexiston aplanet’ssurfaceis called the “habitable zone.” Another nameforthisregionisthe“Goldilocks zone,” as it is ‘just the right’ distance from its star for the water to exist on the surface. Thus, astronomers limit their search to planets in this region when checking for habitable planets.
In fact, scientists have pinpointed a fewplanetswhichcouldbehabitable; 2 of these ‘exoplanets’ are located 16 light-years away, orbiting the red dwarfGJ1002(picturedbelow).
The closest exoplanet we know of is Proxima Centauri b (Proxima b) which orbitsthereddwarf ProximaCentauri. This star is only 4.2 light-years away. Does this mean it is possible to travel to other inhabitable planets, and potentiallyfindotherlife?
The big question is: is there extraterrestrial life? It seems egotistical to believe that we are the only living beings in this huge Universe, even if weareyettodiscoverothers.Wehave already sent spacecrafts out of our solar system (Voyager 1 & 2), with messages from Earth, to let other intelligent life forms know that we exist. However, not all astronomers agree with this definition of the boundaryofthesolarsystem.Another opinion is that the boundary is where the Sun’s gravity is no longer dominant; a point beyond the Oort cloud. As the Voyagers are currently travelling at 35,000 miles per hour, it will take them almost 40,000 years to reach this boundary, by which point Earth will have ceased to exist as we knowit.Thus,scientistswanttoknowif generationsinthenearerfuturewillbe able to find extra-terrestrial life. Once weknowifandwhereitexists,thenext step is trying to find a way to communicate,ortotravelthere.
Transporting humans through interstellar space would be dangerous,asthespacecraftwouldbe travelling at extremely high speeds to ensurethatitreachestheplanetwithin a human’s lifetime. A grain of matter whichistravellingat90%thespeedof light has the same amount of kinetic energyasasmallnuclearbomb.Ifthis were to hit a spacecraft, which is also travelling at high speeds,the collision would be fatal.Our technology isalso not advanced enough to allow humans to survive the acceleration neededtoachieveintergalactictravel.
There is also a limit to how far we can reach. Due to the Universe constantly expanding, each point within it is getting further away from every other point.Even if we were to develop this technologyinacouplehundredyears, there would be a point past which we could never go: imagine you wish to travel to a point 16 light years away.If you travel for 16 light years, at the speed of light, that point would have done the same amount of travelling. Thus,wecannoteverbreachthatgap. Thankfully, astronomers have noticed that there are ‘clusters’ within the Universe; celestial bodies that are close enough to each other that we canignorethisissue.Wewillalwaysbe abletotravelwithinourcluster,evenif it takes us a long time to develop machinerypowerfulenoughtotakeus there.
Ashortcut?
An intriguing solution to the limit problem is if we can find a shortcut throughtheuniverse:awormhole.The idea of a wormhole is like a tunnel, in that it connects two points through space,althoughwormholescouldalso potentially bend time.The hypothesis that wormholes exist is based on a special solution of the Einstein field equations, in general relativity. If we managed to find a wormhole, we would have the ability to reach much farther,dependingonwheretheother side of this wormhole is located. However, at present, this remains in therealmofsciencefiction,aswehave no way of knowing how these wormholes would work, and whether theywouldbesafe.
It may be seen as vanity for humanity tobelieveitistheonlyspeciesofhigh intelligence in the universe, and that ourplanetistheonlyinhabitableone. Even though we have no communication from or proof of alien species existing, scientists will continue to search for answers. The child-like dream of flying through space,inspiredbymedialikeBlake’s7 andStarWars,willforeverhaveaplace intheheartsofmany.Withourpresent technology it is impossible, but who knowswhatthefutureholds.
-Rali
Quantum entanglement is an inexplicable phenomenon, and arguably one of the most interesting parts of quantum physics. Quantum entanglement is when two particles are linked together no matter how much space there is between them. Thisconceptseemedsoother-worldly and strange that the great Albert Einstein himself called it “spooky action at a distance. Physicists are yet todiscovermuchaboutit,butthrough this article I discuss what we do know about it and the potential breakthroughsitbringstoscience.
Whatisit?
To illustrate to you what exactly thisis, Iwillusetheexampleof somefamous twins The “Jim twins” were separated atbirthinthe1940sbutstillmanaged to live similar lives.They lived very far apart but when they reconciled and compared their preferences and life stories, they found many similarities such as the name of their wives, sons and pets and many of their preferences, such as in cars, bringing up the question of nature versus nurture. Quantum entanglement is verymuchlikethis,justonthelevelof particles, not people. Two entangled particles are like twins, separated, but still managing to have identical properties and states to each other (e.g., the same direction of vibration). This connection between particles remains strong no matter how much distancethereisbetweenthem.
Now, this phenomenon was discovered by the sceptic himself, Albert Einstein and his colleagues. In 1935, they published a paper theorising this phenomenon. However, it seemed to go against some other concepts of quantum physics. For example, for information between entangled particles to be transferredsoquickly,itwouldhaveto be faster than the speed of light. Einstein had already discovered in his theoryofspecialrelativitythatnothing could travel faster than the speed of light. Nowadays, countless experiments have been conducted to prove that this strange phenomenon does indeed exist. Scientists entangle two particles and then send them to two different locations, taking measurements from each one. They alwaysfindthatthemeasurementsare the same. For example, in 2017, a ChineseSatellite,sentthreeentangled particles to three different locations, 1200 km apart from each other, the greatesteverdistance.
Now, understanding the concept of quantum superposition is crucial to understand quantum entanglement
This is when particles exist in more than one state at once until they are observed. This was most famously illustratedbySchrodinger’sCat,which was placed in a box with lethal radiation and was supposedly ‘both dead and alive’ at the same time.At a quantum level, this is the reality. All
particles are in multiple states at the same time. For example,photons,the particlesthatmakeuplight,haveboth horizontal and vertical states of polarisation until their polarisation is measured, at which point the photon will have only one of those states. So, entangled particles will both be in a state of superposition, until one of their states are measured, at which point they will both have the same state.
So, something as strange and spectacular as two entangled particles, is of particular interest to theoretical physicists. Some believe that space and time itself is a product of quantumentanglement.Aproblem that many physicists want to solve is the problem of a unifying theory. Thereiscurrentlythetheoryofgeneral relativity which describes the big things, and quantum theory which describes the small things. These theories are very different, and scientists want to find a theory that unifies them. Quantum entanglement might just be able to help with that, becauseitislinkedtospaceandtime. Quantum entanglement essentially ‘holdsthingstogether’intheuniverse, so it could be the key to unlocking a new theory that helps to describe the universe.
Quantum entanglement isalso crucial for things like quantum computing, and quantum transformation. This involves transferring information from
one place to another, and entanglement can help with this, as information is quickly transferred between two entangled particles, so that they can have the same properties. This is useful in cryptography, when a sender and a receiver. Entangled particles are used to create a link between the two, so that messages can be encoded and sent. If anyone tries to intercept this, the entanglement will break as when the particles are measured, they take one particular state - quantum superposition. This means that the sender and receiver will know when someone is trying to decode their messages.
There are few ways to entangle particles. The first is to cool the particles and keep them close together, allowing them to overlap theirquantumstates.Itisalsopossible to entangle particles through nuclear reactions. Some scientists also split photons into two, to make two particlesthatareentangled.
Quantum entanglement has many uses,andisoneof thecentralpartsof quantum physics. However, its occurrence still cannot be explained, and scientists are working on unlocking the science behind it, with the hope that this will unlock many moretruthsaboutouruniverse.
-Anantaa
For hundreds of years, researchers havebeentryingtofindanotherearth, another planet that supports life. And for hundreds of years, researchers havefailedtofindsuchaplanet,which leads to the question – is the earth an anomaly? Even though researchers have found traces of water on Mars, which could be an indication of life existingonthisplanet,theyhavebeen unable to find any other concrete signs of life, although the majority of the science world is extremely confident that life does exist in this universe. But are these planets that hostlifeanomalies?
As many have heard, the Earth is located in a place known as ‘The Goldilocks Zone’. This means that it is located a perfect distance from the sun to support life. Too close and we wouldallbeonfire,andtoofarandlife would not be able to evolve, and we would be an ice giant. So, statistically, there cannot be too many planets out there that are like our home planet. Another factor is the evolution of humans.Eveniftherehappenedtobe a planet that supported life, it is extremely unlikely that the life on that planet would be human. There were millions of stages of evolution that came before us, and even if the planetsareexactlythesameage,they are extremely unlikely to have human life.
Another point is that our solar system itselfislesscommon.Asprovenbythe James Webb Space Telescope
(JWST), the most common galaxy is a binary star system, with two central starsinsteadofone.Thismakesiteven more unlikely that a planet like ours exists, with the probabilities stacking up against us finding more human life inthisuniverse.
However, there is plenty of reason to believe the Earth is not anomalous. The universe is huge, and there is sufficient evidencetoprove that there aremany otheruniverseslikeoursout there. One common theory is the ‘bubble’ theory, the idea that each universe is in its own bubble, and therearebillionsofbubblesoutthere. This makes it highly likely that our planet is not anomalous, as there are billionsofplanetsoutthere,sofinding a planet exactly like ours would be an easy job, right? Unfortunately, all we havetoworkofffornowisthefactthat ourplanetistheonlyoneofitstype
The only true answer to this question is maybe. We cannot know whether the Earth is truly anomalous or not, unless we stumble upon an alien race thathasknowledgeofalltheuniverses out there. We must continue our research and wait until more signs showup.
-KhushiVThe Standard Model explains three of the four fundamental forces that govern the universe: electromagnetism, the strong force, and the weak force. However, despite its successes, there are a number of unsolved problems in the Standard Model,suchastheinabilitytoaccount for the dark matter and dark energy that are observed by astrophysicists and cosmologists, or the inability to describe physics beyond the Planck scale.
Another anomaly of the Standard Model is considered to be sterile neutrinos. Sterile neutrinos would prove that the Standard Model is incomplete, and force a major rethink of the laws that undergird the universe. They could also prove to be a potential candidate for the particles making up dark matter, which astronomers have yet to figure out entirely.
Neutrinos are small, almost massless particles that travel at near lightspeeds. Every time atomic nuclei come together (like in the sun) or break apart (like in a nuclear reactor), they produce neutrinos. Even a banana emits neutrinos they come from the natural radioactivity of the potassium in the fruit. Although they are abundant in the universe and can move as easily through lead as we
move through air, neutrinos are notoriouslydifficulttopindowndueto their lack of mass and electrical charge.
Particle physicists originally believed that neutrinos were massless. But in the 1990s, a team of Japanese scientists discovered that they have a very miniscule mass. This tiny bit of mass may explain why the universe is made up of matter, not antimatter, as early in the process of the Big Bang, there were equal amounts of matter and antimatter, but as the universe expanded and cooled, matter and antimatter were mostly annihilated. And a slight asymmetry favoured matter over antimatter. With many scientistsbelievingthat neutrinosmay have something to do with that process. Neutrinos are one of the fundamental particles in nature. They’re also particularly intriguing to physicists, with a number of unanswered questions surrounding them. These puzzles include why their masses are so vanishingly small and whether they are responsible for matter’sdominanceoverantimatterin our universe. There are three type of neutrinos: electron neutrinos, muon neutrinos and tau neutrinos ; each typealsohasanantimatterpartner,an antineutrino. Electron neutrinos or antineutrinosaregeneratedwhenever
neutrons change into protons or vice versa,twoformsofbetadecay.
Neutrinos have provided evidence that new physicsbeyond thestandard model exists. According to the standard model, these neutrinos (those very small, and neutral) are massless. The model does not predict that neutrinos have a non-zero mass and mix among the neutrinos in differentfamilies,althoughmixinghad long been anticipated as it parallels thebehaviourseenin quarks.Thefact that neutrinos do have a non-zero mass and mix has been shown to be trueexperimentally.
Sterile neutrinos are referred to as “sterile” because they would only interactwithotherparticlesviagravity, whereas,aspreviouslymentioned,the known three flavours can do so through the weak force as well. But they could affect other neutrinos because all neutrinos share the ability to “oscillate,” or change flavour. A particle that starts off as an electron neutrino, for instance, can turn into a tau or muon neutrino, and vice versa. Usually, this transformation takes place while neutrinos travel a certain distance, but it seemed to be happening more quickly at the experiments the Liquid Scintillator Neutrino Detector (LSND) at Los Alamos National Laboratory and its follow-up, the Mini Booster Neutrino Experiment (MiniBooNE) at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab) in Batavia, Ill. Scientists thoughtthatmuonneutrinosmightbe oscillating into sterile neutrinos and thenintoelectronneutrinos,aprocess that could happen faster than the simple muon-to-electron flavour
switch. If neutrinos oscillate into this fourth kind of neutrino, that could explain the rapid changes and the anomaliesseeninexperiments.
As well as this, scientists had long noticed a discrepancy between the predicted and actual number of antineutrinos, or the antimatter partners to neutrinos, produced in nuclear reactors. Sterile neutrinos were theoretically appealing in part because they share similar properties with, and could possibly explain, dark matter the mysterious substance thoughttomakeupmostofthematter in the universe. However, new data from nuclear reactors has begun to disprove the existence of sterile neutrinos.
In 2016, a huge subterranean experiment known as the IceCube NeutrinoObservatory cameup empty in its search for sterile neutrinos. That meantthatifsterileneutrinosdidexist, then they would have to exist in an energy range outside of most currently running neutrino experiments. Daya Bay produces nuclear power via the fission of radioactive elements such as uranium and plutonium. They analysed the ratio of neutrinos and antineutrinos produced at varying energies, and how many total neutrinos were produced, looking at the more than 2 million antineutrinos produced over four years of operation. The current study found that the number of antineutrinos generated from radioactive plutonium-239 matched theoretical predictions, but the antineutrino ratio produced by the decay of radioactive uranium-235 was significantly lower than predicted by models. If sterile neutrinos were behind this anomaly, there should be
the same fraction of missing antineutrinos emerging from the radioactive decay of plutonium as from uranium. Instead, it's likely the modelisthesourceoftheanomaly.
Whilstthisdoesn’tcompletelyruleout the existence of sterile neutrinos, scientists are investigating other
possibilities. These include things as intriguing as light created by other processes during neutrino collisions or as exotic as dark matter, unexplained physics related to the Higgsboson,orotherphysicsbeyond theStandardModel.
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