NIPS Food Production Manual

Food Production Manual

CULINARY HISTORY

The phrase “a brief history of culinary preparation” is, at best, misleading and, at worst, a bald faced lie. It is not possible to do justice, in a brief manner, to a subject, which is equivalent to the history of human race. This art and science began more than 300,000 years ago when, according to carbon dating, man began to use fire for the preparation of food. There have been very few discoveries or inventions of humanity since fire that have been not affected, in some manner, the preparation of food.

When was salt first used in food preparation? How did various spices and herbs begin to be used? These and many other questions concerning the history of food preparation cannot be answered. However, as archaeology has slowly uncovered the ancient civilization around the world, it has unearthed an increasingly large body of knowledge concerning the world over.

When humans first used herbs and spices is not known, but their importance in the ancient world is known. The acquisition of these and other foodstuffs was a prime factor in the development of trade routes throughout both the western and eastern hemispheres. Alexander the great brought to Greece spices from the Orient and melons and other fruits from Persia. The trade routes begun by Alexander were later used by the Ptolemys of Egypt and by the Roman Empire. Spices and herbs hold a special place in the history of mankind, having been as eagerly sought as gold, silver and jewels.

A less glamorous culinary cousin of spices, grain has always been the key to the might of nations. The treasures of Africa were not simply gold, ivory and jewels of Rome. Africa was more important as the breadbasket of the Empire. The pound of grain, which was the right of every citizen of Rome, came from the fertile fields of North Africa. It was to protect these shipments of grain that the Roman Empire cleared the Mediterranean Sea of pirates and built a system of roads, many parts are still in use today.

Historically, the procuring of various foods has always been of great significance for the Roman Empire it was gram, or the English Empire tea and sugar. Culinary development initially was tied to developments within an individual country or region; however as each region came in contact with people from other areas, ideas were exchanged. The result was a traceable progression in the development of food preparation from the Egyptians, to the Assyrians, to the Babylonians, to the Greeks, to the Romans, and then directs forerunners of the French kitchen. The French kitchen is the cornerstone for most historians of the beginning of modern dining in the western world.

A pattern of refinement and development of culinary preparation began with the early Egyptians rulers and continued to the time of Persians. The Greeks refined the tradition of cooking; in fact Greek contribution towards the kitchen was frying pan and few other things. The citizens of early Rome were admirers of all things Greek.

But the development of cuisine in the region of Rome is an example of how cuisine’s have developed in regions all over the world. In the Roman Empire there were two levels of culinary development taking place simultaneously. The one most often discussed is that of the ruling elite and their effect on foods. The Romans are to be credited with introducing to the rest of Europe a sense of culinary art.

At the age of 14 years a young man name Grillaume of Tirel was a kitchen boy who cooked huge roast in front of the open fire. This young boy was destined to be the founder of the movement towards the modern French kitchen.

Throughout the twentieth century the kitchen and menu have been streamlined. Preparations have come to be viewed from the standpoint of nutritional value as well as taste. There is no question that the history of culinary preparation has just begun, whether the issue is kitchen organization, style of service, cuisine and many other issues.

THE ORIGIN OF CLASSICAL AND MODERN CUISINE

Quantity cookery has existed for thousand of years, as long as there have been large groups of people to feed, such as armies. Nut modern food service began at the time of the French revolution in 1793. Before this time, the great chefs were employed in the houses of the French nobility. With the revolution and the end of the monarchy, many chefs suddenly out of work opened restaurants in and around Paris to support themselves.

The great chef of this time was Marie-Antoine Carême (1784-1833), whose career spanned the first 30 years of the 19th century. Carême is credited as the founder of classical cuisine. As young man he learned all the branches of cooking, and he dedicated his career to refining and organizing culinary techniques. His many books contain the first really systematic account of cooking principles, recipes and menu making.

As a chef to kings, head of state, and wealthy patrons. Carême became famous as the creator of elaborate, elegant display pieces, the ancestors of our modern wedding cakes, sugar sculptures, and ice and tallow carvings. But it was Carême’s practical and theoretical work as an author and chef that was responsible, to a large extent, for bringing cooking out of the middle ages and into the modern period.

ESCOFFIER

Georges Auguste Escoffier (1847-1935) was the great chef of this century and is revered by chefs and gourmets as the father of twentieth-century cookery. His two main contributions were the simplification of classical cuisine and the classical menu and the reorganization of the kitchen.

It is hard to believe that Escoffier’s elaborate multi-course banquets are a simplification of anything. But in the typical banquet menu of the eighteenth century, each course consisted of as many as 20 separate dishes or more! Mostly a variety of meats and poultry, all placed on the table at once. Guests help themselves to the few dishes they could reach. Carême began the reform, but Escoffier brought the menu into the twentieth century.

Escoffier rejected what he called the “general confusion” of the old menus in which sheer quantity seemed to be the most important factor. Instead he called for order and diversity and emphasized the careful selection of one another harmoniously and that would delight the taste with their delicacy and simplicity.

Escoffier’s books and recipes are still important reference works for professional chefs. The basic cooking methods and preparations we study today are based on Escoffier’s work.

Escoffier’s second major achievement, the reorganization of the kitchen, resulted in a streamlined workplace that was better suited for turning out the simplified dishes and menus that he instituted. The system he established is still in use today, especially in some large hotels and full-service restaurants.

MODERN DEVELOPMENTS

Today’s kitchens look much different from those of Escoffier’s day, even though our basic cooking principles are the same. Also, the dishes we eat have gradually changed, due to the innovations and creativity of modern chefs. The process of simplification and refinement, to which Carême and Escoffier made monumental contributions, is still going on, adapting classical cooking to modern conditions and tastes.

Many developments in the twentieth century have made changes in the food service industry.

Development of New Equipment

We take for granted such basic equipment as gas and electric ranges and ovens and electric refrigerators. But even these essential tools did not exist until fairly recently. The easily controlled heat of modern cooking equipment, as well as motorized food cutters, mixers, and other processing equipment, has greatly simplified food production.

Research and technology continue to produce sophisticated tools for the kitchen. Some of these products, such as tilting skillets and steam-jacketed kettles, can do many jobs and are popular in many kitchens. Others can do specialized tasks rapidly and efficiently, but their usefulness depends on volume, because they are designed to do only a few jobs.

Modern equipments has enabled many food service operations to change their production methods. With sophisticated cooling, freezing, and heating equipment, it is possible to do some preparation farther in advance and in large quantities. Some large multiunit operations prepare food for all their units in one large central commissary. The food is prepared in quantity, packaged, chilled of frozen, and then heated or cooked to order in the individual units.

Development and Availability of New Food Products

Modern refrigeration and rapid changes in eating habits. For the first time, fresh foods of all kinds meats, fish, vegetables, and fruits became available all year. Exotic delicacies can now be shipped from anywhere in the world and arrive fresh and in peak condition.

The development of preservation techniques, not just refrigeration but also freeze drying, vacuum packing, and irradiation, increased the availability of most foods and has also made affordable some foods that were once rare and expensive.

Techniques of food preservation also have had another effect. It has now become possible to do some or most of the preparation and processing of foods before shipping rather than in the food service operation itself. Thus, convenience foods have accounted for an increasing share of the total food market.

Some professional cooks think of new convenience food products and new equipment as a threat to their own positions. They fear that these products will eliminate the need for skilled chefs, because everything will be prepared or will be done by machine. However, it still requires skill and knowledge to handle convenience products properly.

The quality of the product as served depends on how well the cook handles it. Furthermore, many new food products and new types of equipment are intended to do work that takes little or no skill, such as peeling potatoes or puréeing vegetables. Convenience foods and advanced equipment free cooks from some of the drudgery so that they have more time to spend on those jobs that require skill and experience.

Sanitary and Nutritional Awareness

The development of the sciences of microbiology and nutrition had a great impact on food service. One hundred years ago there was little understanding of the causes of food poisoning and food spoilage. Food handling practices have come a long way since Escoffier’s day.

There was also little knowledge of nutritional principles in the last century. Today, nutrition is an important part of a cook’s training. Customers are also more knowledgeable, and the demand for healthful, well-balanced menus is growing.

Modern Cooking Styles

All these developments have helped change cooking styles, menus, and heating habits. The evolution of cuisine that has been going on for hundreds of years still continues. Changes occur not only because of our reactions to culinary traditions.

Two opposing forces can be seen at work throughout the history of cooking. One is the urge to simplify, to eliminate complexity and ornamentation, and instead to emphasize the plain, natural tastes of basic, fresh ingredients. The other is the urge to invent, to highlight the creativity of the chef, with an accent on fancier, more complicated presentations and procedures. Both these forces are valid and healthy; they continually refresh and renew the art of cooking.

Recently history provides an example of these trends. Reacting to what they saw as heavy, stodgy, overly complicated classical cuisine, a number of French chefs in the late 1960s and early 1970s become famous for a style called nouvelle cuisine (“new cooking”). They rejected many traditional principles, such as a dependence on flour to thicken sauces, and instead urged simpler, more natural flavours and preparations, with lighter sauces and seasonings and shorter cooking times. Very quickly, however, this new, “simpler” style became extravagant and complicated, famous for strange combinations of foods and fussy, ornate arrangements and designs. By the 1980s, many people were already saying that nouvelle cuisine was dead.

It isn’t dead, of course, any more than the cuisine of Escoffier is dead. The best achievements of nouvelle cuisine have taken a permanent place in the classical tradition. Meanwhile, many of the excesses have already been forgotten. It is probably fair to say that most of the best new ideas and the lasting accomplishments have been those of classically trained chefs with a solid grounding in the basics.

In America, the traditional dishes and regional specialties are the product of cooking traditions brought over by immigrant settlers, combined with the indigenous ingredients of a bountiful land. For many years, critics often argued that most American menus offered the same monotonous, mediocre food. Recently, by contrast, American cooking has become fashionable, and almost any local specialty is declared “classic”. The fact is, however, that in any country one finds both good and bad food. It takes a skilled cook with a knowledge of the basics to prepare exceptional food, whether it is American, classical French, or any other.

The growth of American food service holds great promise for new cooks and chefs. Technology will continue to make rapid changes in our industry, and men and women are needed who can adapt to these changes and respond to new challenges. Although automation and convenience foods will no doubt grow in importance, there will always be a need for imaginative chefs who can create new dishes and develop new techniques and styles and for skilled cooks who can apply both old and new techniques to produce highquality foods in all kinds of facilities, from restaurants and hotels to schools and hospitals.

Haute Cuisine

Haute cuisine has been a main point of focus for many French chefs over the past several centuries, with traditions being passed on and adjusted from La Varenne to Careme to Escoffier. Francois Pierre La Varenne is in many ways the godfather of modern French cuisine, and was the author of what is considered by many chefs and historians to be the first true French cookbook. His work is much responsible for the creation of haute cuisine as we know it today.

The concept

French cooks learned a significant amount from the Italians, who were historically far more advanced in the culinary arts. Up until La Varenne started practicing the culinary trade in the 17th century, French meals often consisted of grandiose portions. The style of haute cuisine was in immediate juxtaposition to this traditional dining ideology. Haute cuisine put less emphasis on the quantity of food, and instead focused on moderate portions with high-quality ingredients. Translated to “high cuisine,” this movement was in some ways inherently bourgeoisie, which is perhaps why many famous French chefs worked for noble clientele

After the French Revolution, Marie-Antoine Careme continued the notion of haute cuisine with an emphasis on mother sauces. Many consider Careme the founder of contemporary French gastronomy, and, like La Varenne, he served as a private chef for the wealthy. Careme produced hundreds of sauces throughout his career, and continued to focus on food as an art form.

Careme’s work set the stage for Auguste Escoffier, who not only modernized the culinary concepts of his predecessors, but also contributed to kitchen efficiency. To create haute cuisine on a larger scale, Escoffier developed a brigade system in the kitchen, in which five stations are used to fulfil different cooking tasks. Escoffier was the house chef in several legendary high-end hotels, specifically in London, essentially becoming the personal cook for noblemen in the city.

Today, the rich history set forth by these chefs continues to influence contemporary culinary minds. French haute cuisine to this day emphasizes small menus with high-end ingredients and refinement.

Nouvelle Cuisine

Today nouvelle cuisine refers to a trend of opinion that appeared in France in the 1960s. At the time, it caught on rapidly and was a great international success. Among the precursors of the movement were Fernand Point, Alex Humbert , André Guillot, and Jean Delaveyne.

Nouvelle cuisine has several characteristics. Most important were the quality and the freshness of the products chefs used. They went shopping to the market every morning and

looked for the best products, and never used any preservatives, deep frozen food, or any product that was not absolutely fresh. They did not offer a menu card with a long list of dishes that never changed, the reason being that such a long list required having a great quantity of products available. As a result the leftovers would necessarily lose their freshness and thus could not be used. Instead, they offered a reduced number of recipes that kept changi

In the new style of preparations, there were no used in the dishes any more. Sometimes, short juices, quickly made, were turned into a small quantity of sauce, which was to be served on fresh

The spices banished from the French cuisine since the seventeenth century were now back in use; contrary to the Middle Ages, they were no longer used in large quantities, but in small touches and only to rouse the flavors that would blend with those of the products.

The new chefs stressed the importance of nutrition and its consequence for people's health. As a result, less food was served; of course what each dish lacked in quantity had to be replaced by better quality and a better esthetic presentation.

Personal Hygiene

The first step to preventing food-borne disease is good personal hygiene. Even when we are healthy, we have bacteria all over our skin and in our nose and mouth. Some of these bacteria, if given a chance to grow in food, will make people ill.

1.Do not work with food if you have any communicable disease or infection.

2.Bathe or shower daily.

3.Wear clean uniforms and aprons.

4.Keep hair neat and clean; always wear a hat or hairnet.

5.Wash hands and exposed parts of arms before work and as often as necessary during work.

6.Cover coughs and sneezes, then wash hands.

7.Keep your hands away from your face, eyes, hair and arms.

8.Keep fingernails clean and short; do not wear nail polish.

9.Do not smoke or chew gum while on duty.

10.Cover cuts or sores with clean bandages.

Food Handling and Preparation

Keep food safe from harmful bacteria. Follow these four simple steps:

• Clean: Wash hands and surfaces often.

• Separate:

• Cook: Cook to proper temperature.

• Chill: Refrigerate promptly.

Cleaning and Sanitizing Equipment

Cleaning means killing disease-causing bacteria. Two ways of killing bacteria are by heat and by

Procedure for Manual Dishwashing

1.Scrape and rinse.

2.Wash. Use warm water (43ºC to 49ºC) and a good detergent.

3.Rinse. Use clean, warm water to rinse off detergent.

4.Sanitize. Place utensils in a rack and immerse in hot water at 77ºC for 30 seconds.

5.Drain and air dry.

Cleaning and Sanitizng Stationary Equipment and Work Surfaces

1.Unplug electric equipment before cleaning.

2.Disassemble equipment when possible. (All immiscible parts should be cleanedand sanitized like kitchen utensils.)

3.Wash all food contact surfaces with a double-strength sanitizing solution and withclean cloths used only for this purpose.

4.Allow to air dry.

The HACCP System: Setting up a System

for Food Safety

One effective food safety system is called the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point System (HACCP). The purpose of the HACCP System is to identify, monitor and control dangers of food contamination.

CLASSICAL KITCHEN BRIGADE OR ORGANIZATION CHART

Executive chef (chef de cuisine) SAUCE COOK / CHEF SAUCIE R

ROAST COOK / CHEF RÔTISS EUR

Apprentice Trainees

COMMI

STAFF COOK

Apprenti ce

HIERARCHY AND KITCHEN STAFFING

Hierarchy refers to the flow of authority from top to bottom in an organization and with respect to the kitchen. It refers to the flow of authority commencing from executive chef and goes to the bottom i.e. Kitchen helpers. Kitchen staffing refers to not only assigning the positions but also filling them with the suitable manpower. Staffing is the actual strength of the employees working at different levels, which depends upon the various factors as:

•The extent of the menu and the market a kitchen is serving.

•Use of prepared convenience foods.

•Types of equipments available.

•Need of skill involved at the various levels.

•The size of the establishment.

Kitchen Organisation :

The organisation of the hotel and restaurant kitchen depends upon the:

•Size of the operation

•Type of the menu

•Type of the service

•Type of clientele

ROLES OF

1)Planning menu: he has to take into consideration all the factors which influence the planning of menus and the chef has to take a critical note of all the activities which are important in the menu planning. Care should be taken of various things such as eating trends, raw materials availability and variety of the meals.

2)Forecasting: before indenting and buying, the chef must be able to produce the accurate estimates of the volume of production. He must consider the following poi

a)Previous year’s sales during the same time period.

b)Sales forecast from f & b service departments.

c)Volumes of daily enquiries for the parties.

d)Chef’s own experience.

3)Purchase: the food cost will go up if the purchasing is not done in an optimum manner. Excessive raw materials results in pilferages whereas shortage of raw materials results in the loss of business and decreases the no. Of clientele.

4)Planning work schedule: it is the duty of the executive chef to ensure that the schedule of work is planned in such a way that enough work forces are available all the time. So, the work schedule should be properly planned in order to ensure man power availability during the peak season and festival time.

5)Staff hiring: although the final decision rests with the personnel manager but the details of the staff hiring are given by the executive chef because he is the one who is actually taking part in the day to day operation.

6)Training: the chef will give the demonstration of the new dishes which he wants to introduce in the menu. So, its duty to plan the training program’s not only for the new comers but also for the existing staff.

7)Supervision of the staff: it is the duty of the chef to delegate the authority amongst the various chefs working under him to ensure that the staff is performing duties as per his expectation.

8)He is responsible for the overall working of the kitchen.

9)He is one who is responsible for maintaining close liaison with the other departments to ensure the balance in the operations.

10)He represents his team to the management. So, it is his duty to convey the feelings of the staff members under him to the top management and hence ensure a good employer employee relationship.

11)He presides ove

12)He is responsible for the aesthetic upkeep of the kitchen department.

13)He is responsible for organizing festivals in the organization.

14)He is responsible for ensuring a proper pest control procedure to be followed during a given time period.

15)He is responsible for maintain the discipline and decorum in the kitchen.

16)Ha has to have a real commitment in terms of efforts and willingness to learn the skills involved.

17)He is familiar with the safe preparatory techniques for handling food and equipment.

18)He is responsible for ensuring the high standards of personal hygiene and hygiene of food and equipment.

19)He is very creative, innovative and dedicated in his work.

20)He is very cooperative, courteous and honest when it comes to work.

DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF VARIOUS CHEFS

•SOUS CHEF: He is the right hand of the executive chef and is generally responsible for the day to day functioning of the kitchen. His duties are almost same as that of the executive chef. He supervises the practical activities of the kitchen. He is answerable to the executive chef regarding the daily activities. In the large organization the no. Of sous chef can vary depending upon separate kitchen for separate restaurant.

• CHEF DE PARTIE (CDP): For different section in the kitchen, there are different CDP’s who generally work with the help of the different apprentices and commis. Various cdp’s and their duties are as follows:

• SAUCE COOK / CHEF SAUCIER: He prepare the “entrée” i.e. To see all the meat, poultry, and game birds (like turkey, pigeon etc.) Especially those which are not roasted or grilled. He prepare his own mise en place (putting every thing on place) i.e. Preparing for something in advance like cutting, chopping and collecting the necessary ingredients for many items. He can receive the prepared cuts of meat from the larder department.

•ROAST COOK / CHEF RÔTISSEUR: He is responsible for the preparation of all the roast and grill items. This section also contains the deep frying section and also prepares accompaniments, sauces and garnishes for roast and grills.

•FISH COOK / CHEF POISSONNIER: Except for the deep fried and grilled fish all the fish preparation are prepared here along with the accompaniments, sauces and garnishes. So a thorough knowledge of various recipes and their accompaniments is a must in this department.

•GRILL COOK / CHEF GRILLARDIN: He is the in charge of grilling of various dishes. Sometimes these chefs work under roast section.

•VEGETABLE COOK / CHEF ENTREMETTIER: All the vegetable and potato other than deep fried prepared here under this section

•SOUP COOK / CHEF POTAGE: These sections prepare all the soups and their accompaniments and the garnishes are also prepared by this chef. Great care should be taken because it gives the impression about the meals which are to be followed.

•LARDER COOK / CHEF GARDE MANGER: the cold section of the kitchen which is generally concerned with the pre preparation of the food which is cooked by other department. This includes the preparation of game, poultry, and fish. Cleaning and portioning of meat is also done in this section. Also, this department is responsible for the preparation of hors de oeeuvres, salads, canapés, sandwiches and butchery section etc. So, the work of this department is unending and continuous throughout the operations.

•INDIAN SECTION COOK: is responsible for the preparation of all indian dishes given in menu, which include tandoor, halwai, curry, rice, vegetables etc.

•PASTRY COOK /CHEF PATISSEUR: His work is specialised and all the continental sweets, pastries and bakery product prepared by the pastry section.

•RELIEF COOK / CHEF TOURANT: He is a relief cook takes over a section when a particular cdp goes on leave or has an off day. He is generally a senior chef who is all rounder. He has got knowledge of all the departments

•BREAKFAST COOK / CHEF DE PETIT DE JEUNER: His duty starts very early. He is responsible for complete breakfast service after his work, he prepare mise en place with the next cook.

•STAFFS COOK: He generally prepare for the staff.

•COMMIS: This people help in doing mise en place.

COOPERATION OF KITCHEN WITH OTHER DEPARTMENTS

Cooperation with front office

•Front office will communicate arrival and departure list which will help to forecast about the quantities to cook.

•With the association assistance of front office kitchen people promote sales by explaining the guest as to what is available and where it is available.

•Front office gives the list of V.I.P. arrivals in order to increase the reputation of the establishment.

Cooperation with house keeping

It is mainly for the supply of linen i.e. Aprons, kitchen towels, dusters etc and to keep the kitchen clean.

Cooperation with f & b service

There should be a close liaison b/w f &b service and the kitchen staff because f & b personal are involved in the selling of the products made by the kitchen department. It is the duty of the f & b personal to give the intimation about the various parties to be hosted in future and in turn it is the duty of the kitchen people to provide food at right time in hygiene condition. Also f & b personal must be aware as to how much time does a dish require to get ready because they are the ones who are directly associated with the guests.

Cooperation with maintenance

Maintenance will keep the equipment in working condition. Further this department maintains all the electrical fittings. Also they introduce as well instruct about the use of new equipment.

Cooperation with store / purchase

This department will provide all the raw materials as required by the chef. The chef must indent in time to insure that the purchase personal get sufficient time to procure the raw materials. The chef also gives purchase specification from time to time depending upon the recipe requirement.

Cooperation with management: Department must cooperate with the management and should provider the things results which the management want to have i.e. As per the menu requirements. Further the department should in cooperate the new changes, which the management suggests so a good cooperation b/w the kitchen staff and the management should be promoted.

FOOD COMMODITIES

1.What are food commodities?

Products or raw materials that can be bought or sold. They are:



Wheat, rice & cereals  Meat & poultry  Seafood  Eggs  Cheese & milk  Legumes, vegetables & fruit

2.WHEAT, RICE & CEREALS

Wheat

• Main cereal food in many Western countries.

• Grown in regions such as USA, Canada, Europe, Russia, Egypt and India.

Types of Flour

Soft, weak flour, low in protein cookies, cakes, crackers &

Hard, strong flour, high in protein (made from hard red winter wheat)

Hard, strong flour, high in protein (made from hard red spring wheat)

White wheat flour (made from hard white wheat)

Durum flour (made from durum wheat)

Wholegrain & wholemeal flour

For making pan breads, pizza crusts & rolls

Mainly for making breads

For making the same products as soft & hard red wheat

Durum flour (made from durum wheat)

For making breads & muffins

Nutrients in Wheat

• CarbohydratesIron

• Phosphorus

• Calcium

• Fibre

• Proteins

• Fats

• B vitamins

• Vitamin E

Using Wheat in Cooking

• When heat is applied in a baked product, the proteins coagulate to give final structure of the product.

• The starch granules absorb water, swell & burst, resulting in a moist product.

• Commonly used as the main ingredient for cakes, biscuits, pastries, bread & snack items.

Rice

• Staple food in several Asian countries, particularly China, India, Japan & Korea.

• Structure is similar to wheat.

• Can be short grained (fluffy when cooked)

Types of Rice



Polished rice  Unpolished rice  Glutinous rice

Nutrients in Rice

• Carbohydrates

• Proteins

• Fats

• B vitamins

• Carbohydrates

• Proteins

• Fats

• B vitamins

Using Rice in Cooking

• When cooked in water, the grains absorb water & swell.

• If correct amount of water is used : light, fluffy & glutinous rice is produced

• If too much water is used : rice turns mushy

• Consumed as cooked plain rice or made into rice products such as dumplings, porridge, rice crispers or long tong.

• Cereals

• Seed grains of cultivated grasses.

• Most common staple food in most countries as they are relatively inexpensive & easy to grow.

• Types of Cereals

Types Maize (corn)

Oat

Barley Similar to other cereals

Rye Similar to other cereals

Legumes, Vegetables & Fruit

cob’

Used in soups & cereals for making thickening agent

Used in cakes, biscuits &

For making oat porridge, muesli &

Used in barley drinks, soups and local desserts

Added to cattle feed & used in the whisky making industry

For making breads, biscuits & pancakes

• Plants with seeds that grow in special fruits known as pods

• Legumes pods

• Pulses edible dried seeds within the pods

Types of Legumes & Pulses

Legumes

French beans Long beans Pulses Peas Lentils Peanuts

Nutrients in Legumes & Pulses

• Carbohydrates

• Proteins

• Fats

• Fibre

• Vitamin B group

• Iron

• Calcium

• Potassium

Using Legumes & Pulses in Cooking

• Pulses need to be soaked in water prior to cooking causes them to swell & soften easier to cook, usually by boiling or simmering.

• Used in soups, stews, salads & dhal curries.

• Used to make tofu, soya milk, tempeh, soya sauce & salted soya beans.

• Text

• Vegetables

• Plants or plant parts that are used as food Types of Vegetables

Leaves

Stems

Tubers

Roots

Types of Vegetables

Celery, asparagus

Potato, sweet potato, yam, tapioca, water chestnut

Carrot, turnip

Nutrients

Vitamin A, C, E & K, calcium, iron, sulphur, phosphorus

Vitamin A, B1, B2, B6, folic acid, potassium

Carbohydrates, vitamin C

Carbohydrates, vitamin A, B6 & C, calcium

Types Examples Nutrients

Bulbs

Flowers

Fruits

Onion, garlic

Cauliflower, broccoli

Tomato, cucumber, eggplant

Carbohydrates, vitamin A, B6 & C, calcium

Vitamin A, B group, C & E, folic acid, potassium, phosphorus, magnesium

Vitamin A, B group & C, potassium

Using Vegetables in Cooking

• Vegetables are cooked to make them more digestible.

• During cooking, volume of vegetables is reduced as the fibres are soften. Heat also causes starch grains to swell & gelatinise.

• When green vegetables are cooked, they initially appear to become greener due to chlorophyll pigments. Upon long period of cooking, the pigments break downs to appear yellowish.

• Leafy vegetables may be stir fried or boiled & eaten with the liquid.

• Root vegetables may be baked, roasted, braised or pressured cooked.

• Soft vegetables such as tomatoes & fresh mushrooms may be grilled.

• Fruit

• Prized for its refreshing flavour & sweetness

• Most fruit, when ripe, can be eaten at any time or after a meal as a dessert. Others are better afte

Types of Fruit

Stone fruit

Fleshy fruit Apple, pear, pineapple, papaya, banana, melon

Berry fruit Strawberry, blackcurrant, raspberry, gooseberry

Citrus fruit Orange, lemon, tangerine, lime

Nutrients in Fruit

•

•

•

•

•

•

• Phosphorus

•

• Water

Using Fruit in Cooking

• Fruit is usually eaten raw, either on its own or in salads.

• May also be cooked by stewing, baking, frying & boiling.

• Can be used in pie fillings, pies, puddings, fritters & jams. May be chopped or pureed before use.

• During cooking, pectin in acidic fruit dissolves in the warm acid condition, softening the tissues. Cellulose walls are also softened. Soluble nutrients are found in the liquid, which should be eaten with the fruit.

• Boiling inactivates the enzymes in the fruit, preventing it from turning brown

COOKING METHODS

Basically there are three types of cooking methods those are further classified into other semi cooking methods. Those are mentioned below: Conduction Convection Radiation

These may be combined either one or two or all three for e.g. in baking a cake, converted heat cooks the mixture, then the cake comes in contact with the cooking utensil. Heat is also transferred by conduction. The browning of cake is by radiation. A brief description of all three methods:

Conduction: it is the passage of heat through a solid or one solid to another provided they are in contact, pot on a hot plate. Some materials retain heat better than others e.g. copper.

Convection: it involves the transfer of heat in liquids and gases. In heating liquids or gases, convection currents are produced which distribute the heat for e.g. water is heated in a sauce pan.

Radiation: it is the passage of heat in straight rays from a hot object. Any object in the part of the rays become hot e.g. gas and electric grills.

These methods are classified into other semi

Conduction: Convection: Radiation: Baking

Or Dry: Baking, Broiling

Medium of fat:

1) Roasting: Spit, Tandoor, Pot And Oven

2) Grilling: Open Grilling, Salamander

3) Frying: Deep Frying, Shallow Frying

Medium of liquids: Braising, Stewing, Poaching, Boiling, Steaming: direct, indirect

Baking: it is cooking of food by the action of dry heat in an oven. The degree of dryness of heat may be modified by the amount of steam produced from the items baked. Bread rolls, cakes, pastries, puddings potatoes, vegetables are baked.

Broiling: Broiling is cooking by direct heat and is used synonymously with grilling. It could be done by source of heat above or below. It is dry cooking and can be done on a grid (iron bars) or pan broiled, where the food is cooked uncovered. The pan or grill is oiled slightly to prevent sticking excess fat removed. Stirred eggs (oeuf sur le plat) is an e.g. of broiling.

Roasting: it is method of cooking which is done in an open fire. Large pieces of meats are cooked over an open fire, a practice which would be reasonably called grilling or perphas barbecuing today. There are three traditional methods of roasting:

Pot roasting: cooking is done in a covered pot or pan. Only good quality meat i.e small joints and birds are used. It is placed in the thick med pot and skewers placed at the bottom to prevent the heat from sticking to the pan. Fat should cover the bottom of the pan. Cover the pot with the well fitting lid and cook on slow fire.

(b) Oven roasting: the aid of fat and first class meat, poultry and certain vegetables are used .the raw meat joints is trimmed and tied if necessary to retain the shape. it is put in to hot fat and all sides are browned to seal the juice, salt could sprinkled later on. The average time for cooking is 15 minute per (445gm). For small joints heat must be constant, and for large joints at first should be strong heat (4500F) and then reduced to 300 F. After 15 minutes aromatic vegetables should be added for flavouring during th

(c) Spit roasting: it is the original from roasting. The same principle of seasoning, basting and cooking with a fierce heat is done. It is cooking by direct heat, basted with fat. A spit is constantly revolved to ensure of small pieces of meat are used and the meat pieces should be succulent (juicy).

(d) Poeling: it is similar to pot roasting. The difference is that it is cooked entirely in butter. Usually poultry and game are poeled. The poultry is wrapped with thin slices of pork fat, covered with or without buttered paper, placed in a pot and basted with melted butter while it is cooking, covered with a tight fitting lid.

(e) Encasserole: the food item is poeled, only in butter, without the addition of vegetables. When the cooking is done, the food items withdrawn for a moment and some excellent brown stock are poured. The piece is put into the earthen utensil and kept hot in a bain marie and served in the same dish.

(f) Encocotte: the procedure is the same as encasserole, except that the food item is garnished with vegetables such as mushrooms, the bottoms of artichokes, small onions, carrots and turnips etc. which are turned (shaped) and cooked in buttered before being used.

4) Grilling: cooking by the grilling method began years ago, when meat was first placed near or over an open fire. The food is placed on grill bars, and subjected to the action of radiation which could be from below or above. The sources of heat may be from charcoal, coke, gas or electricity. In an authentic grill the heat is located below the grill bars and if the source of heat is above the grill bars the grilling equipment is called salamander. The grill bars should be cleaned and oiled otherwise the bars will rust and food will stick. Usually small items are grilled. The meat is cut, trimmed and slightly flattened with a bat. Then the meat should be seasoned with salt and pepper and brushed on both sides with oil. The meat is then grilled on the grill bars, turned when half cooked brushing oil occasionally and cooked to required degree. The French terms for grilling:

Au blue rare, very underdone Saignant underdone A point just done (medium) Biencuit

4) Frying: food is fried when it is placed or immersed in oil or fat at a sufficiently high temperature, used to brown the surface at least and partially or completely cook the interior of food. Frying adds flavour to otherwise bland and tender foods. It also creates a crisp crunchy texture. Two types of frying are:

(1) Deep frying: it is a quick method of frying and a popular method for Indian cuisine. The temperature for deep fryer is 90ºc The food is immersed in hot fat, it is essential that the fat is of a good quality having a high smoking point food (fried) have a good appearance .some of the fried food are : chicken and mutton cutlets, pakodas, macchi pakodas, vadas etc.

(2) Shallow frying: generally used for frying, as this method completes the cooking of the dish. The presentation side should always be fried first and then turned, both sides are browned evenly. For bacon and sausages as they have sufficient fat, do not add additional fat.

Sautéing: sautéing comes under shallow frying .the word sautéing comes from the French word “sautoir” which means “to jump” food items. They are placed in a heavy bottomed pan with a little hot fat and the pan with the items is shaken and flipped occasionally over the fire.

6) Braising: this is a combine method of roasting and stewing. In a pan with a tight fitting lid or casserole, braising is done to prevent evaporation. So that the food retains its own juices together with the article added for flavouring e.g. bacon, ham, vegetables and herbs. The meat and poultry used for braising is mature. It is a long method of cooking. The meat is first browned in its own fat or small amount of hot fat. This seals the pores and thus juices are retained.

7) Stewing: it is time consuming method of cooking, but the advantage is that the coarser, older and cheaper types of poultry and meats are used as they are unsuitable for grilling and roasting. Cheaper cuts of meat and certain fish dishes are prepared by this method, as it renders, tenders and palatable.

Stewing is gentle simmering in a small quantity of water, stock or sauce until the cut food items are tender and both liquid and food are served together. Stewing is done in covered saucepans on the top of the cooker.

8) Poaching: poaching is cooking gently in water which is just below boiling point (930.970C). The liquid is half as close to boiling point as possible without there being any perceptible movement of the liquid.

Fish Poaching: Poaching Whole fish must be placed into cold liquor to poach. Cuts of fish must be placed into boiling liquor; temperature should be lowered and allowed to poach.

Egg poaching: the liquid for poaching eggs at one side of the pan should simmering and fresh eggs must be added one at a time, this will help to get the rough shape. Placing them into liquid without any movement will result in flat eggs.

9) Boiling: it is cooking by immersing the food in a pan of liquid, which must be kept boiling all the time (quite a number of bubbles should be seen on top). Boiling is restricted for meat and poultry for first few minutes in order to seal the pores, to retain natural juices and then gentle boiling must take place which is known as simmering at 820 900C. Boiling temperature is 1000C (2120F). Vegetables are boiled at 1000C. Blanching is used when food needs to be pre cooked or partly cooked. The liquid in which the food is boiled is known as pot liquor as it contains some nourishment and flavour.

10) Steaming it is a method of cooking food by using moist heat. It is of two types: direct and indirect. Indirect steaming is done when the food is placed in a closed pan, which is surrounded by plenty of steam from fast boiling water or in a steamer. The food item could be protected with grease proof paper or cloth or aluminum foil to prevent water getting into the pudding.

STOCKS

DEFINITION:

It is a liquid in which meat or meat bones, fish or fish bones and various vegetables have been cooked to extract flavour. Fonds de cuisine is a kitchen stock.

Stocks are also known as bouillon.

WHY WE USE THE STOCKS FOR PREPARATION

Nutritional value

Strongly flavoured liquids.

These are important foundation liquids used for soups, sauces, gravies, stews curries etc.

THE PROCESS OF MAKING STOCKS

Simmer for the long time (both food and cold water used for stock).

Simmering process draw out the flavour and nutrients value into the liquids.

After cooking, it is properly stored for a day. It ripens and gives a fuller flavour.

PRECAUTIONS, WE MUST KEPT AT THE TIME OF MAKING STOCKS

All fat should be removed from bones at the outset, as the stock becomes very greasy and becomes rancid soon.

Marrow must be removed and put aside for use as a separate dish (marrow toast) or as a garnish (petite marmite French soup)

Stock should only simmer, if allowed to boil, the particles of fat cause an emulsification and it becomes milky or cloudy.

Bouquet garni should be tied to a handle of the stock pot. Cut large pieces of vegetables, should be added later on, as it flavors the stock, if leave for a long period, it begins discolouring the stock.

The scum should be discarded.

For storing, the stock should be strained and the liquid should be cooled. No fat should be allowed to remain on the surface.

Stock could be stored in a refrigerator or cold room.

Stock turn cloudy, if boiled too rapidly and if a lid is used and not carefully strained and not skimmed properly

COMPOSITION OF STOCK

BONES: - Bones are the major ingredient of stocks (except water, of course). Most of the flavor and body of stocks are derived from the bones of beef, veal, chicken, fish, and, occasionally, lamb, pork, ham, and game.

MEAT: -Because of its cost, meat is rarely used in stock making anymore. (Exception: Chicken hearts and gizzards are often used in chicken stock.)

MIREPOIX: Aromatic vegetables are the second most important contributors of flavor to stocks. (In the case of vegetable stocks, they are the most important). Mirepoix (meer pwah) is a combination of onions, carrots, and celery. It is a basic flavoring preparation that is used in all areas of cooking, not only for flavoring stocks but also for sauces, soups, meats, poultry, fish, and vegetables.

ACID PRODUCTS: Acids help dissolve connective tissues. Thus, they are sometimes used in stock making to extra Tomato products contribute flavor and some acid to brown stocks. They are not used for white stocks because they would give an undesirable color.

CRAPS AND LEFTOVERS: clean, wholeso . If done correctly, stock making is a good way of utilizing trimmings that would otherwise be thrown out.

SEASONINGS AND SPICES: is usually not added when making stocks. Stocks are never used as is but are reduced, concentrated, and combined with other ingredients. If salt were added, it might become too concentrated. Some chefs salt stocks very lightly because they feel it aids in extracting flavor. Herbs and spices should be used only lightly. They should never dominate a stock or have a pronounced flavor. Bouquet Garni includes: Thyme, Bay leaves, Peppercorns, Parsley, stems, Cloves, whole Garlic (optional).

TYPES OF STOCKS

There are two types of stocks: White stock Brown stock white beef stock brown beef stock white mutton stock brown mutton stock white veal stock brown veal stock white chicken stock brown chicken stock white fish stock

These contains flavour, albumen and gelatine.

BASIC AROMATICS ARE USED IN STOCKS

CARROTS TURNIPS PARSLEY LEEKS CELERY ONION BAYLEAF

Bones should be placed in cold water and then brought to boil. The layer of coagulated albumen that forms on the surface should be removed.

GLAZES/FUMET

DEFINITION:

Glazes are used for enhancing the flavour of sauces, enriching sautéd meats and for decorating finished hot or cold dishes. It gives a brilliant and unctuous (oily) coating to dishes and improves their appearance.

TYPES OF GLAZES

MEAT GLAZES: The brown stock is put in a large stew pan on an open fire and reduce, skimming the scum that comes up, as the volume reduces, smaller stew pan should be used and heat lowered. It should be strained through a muslin cloth. For testing a wooden spoon should be dipped into the reduce stock and it has an even coat, then the glaze is ready. Strain in a bowl and placed in a cold place.

CHICKEN GLAZES: Chicken stock is used and prepared in the same way as the meat glaze.

FISH GLAZES: Fish fumet is prepared the same way as the fish stock and it is the reduce quantity of fish stock. It is less concentrated and its flavour is more delicate than that of meat glaze.

1. CHINOIS: It is a conical strainer which used for staining stocks, consommés, etc.

2. STORAGE: The correct storage temperature for stocks is 10C 40C, the holding temperature for warm emulsion sauces is 300C 370C.

SOUP

INTRODUCTION:

Soup is a replenishing, aromatized and complete meal. Soups play a very important role on the menu and are served as appetizer to stimulate the appetite for the rest of the heavier foods to follow. Soups are served as a second course after the serving of hor’s d’oeuvres. If hor’s d’oeuvres is not served then the soups are served as a first course.

DEFINITION

“Soups may be defined as the semi liquid or liquid mixture of the ingredients for e.g. meat, vegetables, sea food, spices and herbs etc. Soups must have a good texture and the consistency.”

o MEAT/SEA FOOD: - Meat or sea foods are used to make different kind of soups for e. g. cream of chicken soup, consommé soup etc, which are not only useful to build human bodies but also having the nutritional value.

o VEGETABLES: en increased due to its nutritional value and moreover to secure the life from numerous kinds of diseases. The vegetarian people are fond of the vegetarian soups for e.g. cream of tomato soup, cream of spinach soup etc.

o EGGS: Eggs play a vital role in making of different kind of soups for e. g. consommé in which egg white is used. In soups, eggs are also used for the garnishes purpose. o BOUQUET GARNI o MIREPOIX o ACID INGREDIENTS o SEASONING

THICKENING AGENTS: 1. Ccontinental: -

starch

beurre manie

egg yolk and cream

2. Indian : Bread crumbs:To use, mix with cold water or other cold liquid until smooth. Stir into the hot liquid. Bring to a boil and simmer until the liquid turns clear and there is no starchy taste. Do not boil for a long period or the starch may break down and the liquid become thin. Sauces thickened with cornstarch may thin out if held on the steam table for long periods. Cornstarch is used extensively in sweet sauces to accompany certain meats as well as in desserts and dessert sauces. It has roughly twice the thickening power of flour.

Arrowroot: - itis used like cornstarch, but it gives an even clearer sauce. Its use is limited by its high cost. Nevertheless, because of its quality, it is the preferred starch for thickening jus lié. It is less likely than cornstarch to break down when heated for a long time.

Waxy maizeis used for sauces that are to be frozen. Flour and other starches break down and lose their thickening power when frozen. Waxy maize does not. It is handled like cornstarch.

Roux Proportions in Sauces

Instant starcheshave been cooked, or gelatinized, and then redried. Thus, they can thicken a cold liquid without heating. These starches are rarely used in sauce making but are frequently used in the bakeshop.

Bread crumbsand other e they have already been cooked, like instant starches. Bread crumbs may be used when smoothness of texture is not desired. A common example is the use of gingersnap crumbs to thicken sauerbraten gravy.

Vegetable purées, ground nuts, and other solids lso be used. A simple tomato sauce is basically a seasoned vegetable purée. The sauce gets its texture from the thickness of the main ingredient. No additional thickener is needed.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOUPS:

The soups are classified into four categori

THIN/PASSED SOUPS:

Thin soups are also known as clear soups as they are strained and prepared without the mixing of starch. It is a thin nutritious liquid and garnished with small cuts of vegetables or meat items, for example consommé. Consommé is derived from a French word “consummate” which means “Perfect”. It is strongly flavour liquid prepared from meat bones, egg white, bouquet garni, mirepoix and water/stock, etc. Put all the ingredients on flame and when starts boiling, slow the flame for simmering, remove the scums on top with the help of strainer or ladle while cooking. When the soup is cooked and clear, strain it from muslin cloth.

The name of consommé gets from the additional ingredients & sometimes it is named after historical figures, people or events. Consommé is also known by using the different types of garnishes. The consommé soup can be served hot or cold.

Types of consommé

Historic figures, people and/or events

Garnishes

tapioca garnished with Andalouse Consommé blended with tomato puree garnished with dices of royal and dices of tomato, juliennes of ham, boiled rice,

Alexandra

Bretonne garnished with juliennes of leeks, celery, onions

Colbert Consommé garnished with printaniere of vegetables and

Garnishes Ingredients

Breton

Juliennes of celery, onions & leeks

Brunnoise Small diced vegetables

Dubarry Flowerettes of cauliflower

Florentine Juliennes (strips) of blanched spinach

Julienne Juliennes of cut vegetables (3 cm strips)

Madrilène

Tomato dices and green peas

Paysanne Uniform size cut fresh vegetables

Printaniere Mixed fresh spring vegetables, cut into small dices

St. Germain Fresh green peas

Celestine

Juliennes of thin pancakes

Cereals Rice & barley

Diablotin

Diamonds of cheese biscuits

Egg drops Pour into the boiling consommé, beaten eggs

Royal Dices of savoury egg custard (egg, stock & seasoning poached)

tapioca Pearls of tapioca

vermicelli Fine noodles 27

UNPASSED SOUP:

Broths and bouillon are unpassed soup. Practically both are same and interchangeable.Bouillon comes from the word “boil”. It has a strong meaty flavour and a clear soup with pieces of vegetables, meat, sea food etc. floating on top.

Broths are similar to bouillon but the difference is liquid, broth is having a little cloudy liquid and contains all type of vegetables, meat, chicken etc. these are cut into regular shapes, Floating on top. Broths usually have the cheaper cuts of meat, Such as the scrag end of mutton, boiling fowls etc.

Popular broths are: Scotch broth, mutton broth, chicken broth, soup bonne femme, petite marmite and soup paysanne.

THICK SOUPS

These are the thick soups and are thickened with the help of cream, puree, cornstarch etc. the thick soups wh Puree Cream Veloute Bisques Chowders

PUREES

The starchy vegetables for e. g. leguminous plants, potatoes or cereals are used to make thick soups and they need not require any thickening agents as they are self thickeners. But many other vegetables requires thickening agents as their puree do not cohere for e.g. carrots, pumpkins, turnips, peas, celery, leafy greens etc. The purees are strained with a siever or strainers and then cooked till done. The consistency of soup is thick, water or stock is the liquids which are used to cook the soups. The soup is served with fried golden brown croutons (fried small dices of bread). Common puree soups are:

· Puree parmentiere

· Pea soup

Lentils puree

Tomato soup

CREAM SOUPS

They are prepared of puree of vegetables, meat, fish, or poultry. These soups are thickened with béchamel sauce or given a cream finish. Milk is also used to dilute and attain the correct consistency.

While making cream soups by using veloute or cream, curdling happens normally because cream soups contain milk or cream or both that’s why curdling is a common problem. To avoid curdling there are few steps mentioned below:

1. Do not combine milk and simmering soup stock without the presence of roux or other starch. Do one of the following: Thicken the stock before adding milk. Thicken the milk before adding it to the

2. Do not add cold milk or cream to simmering soup. Do one of the following: Heat the milk in a separate saucepan. Temper the milk by gradually adding some of the hot soup to it. Then add it to the rest of the soup.

3. Do not boil soups after milk or cream has been added.

QUALITY STANDARDS FOR CREAM SOUPS

1.Thickness. About the consistency of heavy, cream. Not too thick.

2.Texture. Smooth, no graininess or lumps (except garnish, of course).

3.Taste. Distinct flavor of the main ingredient (Asparagus in cream of asparagus, etc), No starchy taste from uncooked roux.

There are various cream soups for e. g: -

Cream of chicken soup

Cream of lentil soup

Cream of mushroom soup

Cream of tomato soup etc

VELOUTÉS

Veloutés are different from purees as they are made up with the combination of thickening elements and a roux. Velouté is made by preparing roux and adding stock and the pureed vegetables or meat and hot milk is blended to attain a smooth soup. Velouté as a soup is same as the other Velouté. The stock or white consommé is used to dilute the mixture of puree and Velouté is added to correct consistency. Finishing is done to by a liaison that is cream and egg yolk as it enhances the taste and texture. Few examples of Velouté soups:

Chicken Velouté soup 

Celery Velouté soup 

Almond Velouté soup

BISQUES

These are made from the shellfish puree, thickened with rice or cream but today thickened with roux. It is thick rice cream soup with small particles of cooked shellfish floating on top to add flavor and colour. To enhance the flavor of soup the wine is added.

Some of the example of bisque soups:

Shrimp bisque soup

Crayfish bisque soup

Lobster bisque soup

CHOWDERS

Chowder soups are originated from America. They are thick and heavy soups and thickened with the use of potatoes, as they are used to make chowder soups. Chowder soups are prepared with the using ingredients such as potatoes, onions, pieces of bacon, various seasoning and seafood. They can be two types of based either tomatoes or milk. Crackers are added before serving the soup. The examples of chowder soups are:

Potato chowder

Clam chowder

Seafood chowder

Oyster chowder

COLD SOUPS

Cold soups are those soups which include the natural gelatin’s jellies to make meat stocks or by addition of gelatin powder or those that are thickened with a starch or puree. Cold consommé madrilène is popular cold soup. Vichyssoise is a cold soup and a rich cream of potato soup and garnish with chopped chives. Andalouse gazpacho is a refreshing tomato and cucumber soup with a garnish of thin strips of pimentos, cumin seeds for flavour accompanied with croutons. Now, it has become a pattern of the parties in the summer to serve cold soups. So without cold soups the summer menu is incomplete.

INTERNATIONAL SOUPS

There are numerous varieties of international soups such as cold, hot, thin or thick etc. international soups are those soups which are originated from the different places and locality within the different countries. These soups are basically having a great tradition and that’s why they are known by their country. They are placed in a different category, as they have different origins. Some of famous international soups are:

Name of soups Origin

Minestrone Italy

Green turtle soup England

French onion soup France

Petite marmite France

Scotch broth

Mulligatawny

Gazpacho and Olla Podrida

Manhattan clam chowder

Camaro

Laberkroedel

Paprika

Bortsch Polonais

Hotch Pot Flamanda

Cock a leekie

Creole

SAUCE

Sauce is a liquid or semi liquid mixture with a keen sense of smell, delicates sense of taste a light strong hand for the blending all contribute to the perfect sauce. A perfect has a colourful appearance, is growing in its niche smoothness, the texture is that of velvet and it has a defined taste. It has a nutritional value, natural flavour and complements the food. It accompanies rather than mask its taste. Sauce is a flavour cooked usually thickens liquid used to season other food. It adds to richness, moisture, flavour, colour and brightness also. A sauce is a liquid which has thicken with

1. Roux

2. Starch 3. Beurrenair 4. Egg. Yolk 5. Blood 6. Cream

Importance of sauce

a. Enhance and flavour.

b. Some sauce helps in digest e.g. Mint sauce, apple sauce served with roast pork. c. It gives to nutritional value of the food, white sauce added to creaminess to the dry food. d. Serve as accompaniment, sometime gives a contrast taste to another good (Real mouth palatability). Example

e. Cranberry sauce with roast turkey.

f. Sometime it gives the name of dish e.g. when the Madeira wine added in brown sauce, the name of the dish is ca g. Enhance nutritional value of the food or dish. Gives and contrast or balance and bland food e.g. Devil sauce served with eggs gives proper.

Sauce

Stock/ Liquid Base Butter/Oil Base

Tomato Sauce Veloute Sauce Bechamel Sauce Espagnole/ Brown Sauca Hollandaise Sauce Mayonnaise Sauce

A.Béchamel/white sauce:

Definition

One kind of basic mother sauce which is prepared by the use of milk and white roux combination. Also known as a cream sauce, basically used for vegetarian dish preparation. Example: Vegetable al gratin.

Béchamel/white sauce (1 ltr.)

Sl. No. Ingredients Quantity 1 Flour 90grm.

As per requirement

Method

i. Melt the butter in a thick bottom pan.

ii. Add flour and mixed it.

iii. Cooked for a few minutes over a gentle heat without colouring (white roux).

iv. Remove from the heat.

v. Gradually add the warm milk and stair still smooth.

vi. Add the onion and clove, bay leaf.

vii. Allow the simmer for 30 min.

viii. Remove the onion and pass the since in conical strainer.

Derivative of white/Béchamel Sauce:

SL. No.

Name of the sauce Ingredients

01 Morney

50gm cheese+1 egg yolk

Mixed well in the boiling sauce but unstaring. It necessary but do not recoil.

02

03

04

05 Parsley sauce

06 Mustard sauce

1 tbs fine chopped fresh parsley + ½ lit of white sauce.

Diluted English mustard + white sauce.

Use of sauce

Serve with different types of veg. fish preparation. Exam. Mixed veg with morney sauce, veg at gratin fish morney.

Served with fried fish preparation. Exam. Fish cut late serve with anchovy sauce (accompaniment).

Serve with roast preparation. Exam.Roast mutton and egg.

Served with roast mutton.

Serve with pork preparation and boiled fish. Exam. Fish arsley.

Served with grilled herrings.

Definition

The another name of veloute sauce is basic blond sauce. It is one kinds of mother sauce and prepared from blond (light brown), roux and stock. Veloute gets its name from the types of stock used. Exam. Fish veloute fish stock and veloute sauce Chicken veloute Chicken stock and blonde roux

Veloute Sauce (1 ltr.)

Sl. No. Ingredients

Quantity

Method

1

Flour 90 100grm. 2 Butter 90 100grm. 3 Stock (chicken, fish, veal) 1 ltr. 4

i. Melt the butter in a thin bottom pan, ii. Add the flour and mixed it. iii. Cooked to a sandy texture over gentle heat without colour or little bit of colour (bland roux).

iv. Allow to cool. v. Gradients add the boiling stock, stir until smooth and allow simmering approxe 1 hrs. vi. Pass through a conical strainer.

Derivative of Veloute Sauce:

Sl. No. Name of the Sauce Ingredients Use

1 Caper Sauce

Veloute sauce + melt from moton stock with the addition of 1 tbs of caper.

2 Supreme sauce

3

4

5

Half lit of chicken veloute + 25gm mushroom + 60 ml cream + 1 egg yolk + Few drop of lemon juice.

Serve with boiled leg of moton.

Served with boiled chicken and fish.

Served with boiled chicken or poach egg.

Serve with boiled chicken and sweet bread.

Serve with boiled chicken.

C. Espanola Sauce/ Brown Sauce:

Definition

Brown sauce is made from brown roux and brown stock or glaze of brown stock. It is one of most widely used basic or mother sauce and demy glaze is a derivative of brown stock and is widely used for the preparation of other brown sauce derivative.

Espanola Sauce/ Brown Sauce (1 ltr.)

Sl. No.

Ingredients

Quantity

1 Flour 70grm. 2 Butter 70grm.

Method

Put the butter in thick bottom pan.

1 Add the flour and cooked to a light brown colour and stair. 2. Cool and mixed it in the tomato puree. 3. Gradually mixed the boiling stock and bring in the boil. 4. Washed, peel and mirepoxing the vegetable. 5. Lightly brown in a little fat in a frying pan (Roast the vegetable). 6. Drain of the fat and add to the sauce. 7. Simmer gently for 3 4 hrs. And strain.

Recipe of demy glaze (1 lit):

Sl. No. Ingredients

Quantity 01 Brown sauce 1 lit 02 1st class brown sauce 1 lit

This is refined sauce and it is made it is made by simmering of 1 lit of brown stock and 1 lit of brown sauce and reduced by a half, skim of all ingredients and they rise on the surface of the sauce during the cooking and pass through a strainer, recoil and collect the seasoning.

Derivative of Brown Sauce:

Sl. No. 01

Use for preparation of other sauces and preparation.

02 fried stock preparation.

03

04

Charcutiere

05

Devil sauce

Same as Robert sauce but adding 25gm. Slice or Julian of gherkins.

Chop salads + paper + white wine + vinegar + demy glaze.

06

Chasseur

07

Madeira

Butter + chop mushroom + chop salads + white wine + tomato sauce + demy glaze.

Demy glaze + Madeira wine.

with fried chopped pork (pork bauna).

Grilled pork or grilled pork chop.

Serve with grilled or fried fish and meat preparation.

Serve with stacks preparation and poultry egg also.

Small item or veal, beef, poultry, game and eggs. (starter course)

Definition

It is a red kitchen sauce and some piquancy. It is served with lots with the pasta related dish. Ravi-oil or Spaghetti, eggs, fish and meat preparation and it is also used for increasing the colour of preparation.

Tomato Sauce/Red Sauce (1 ltr.)

Sl. No.

Ingredients Quantity

1 Flour 10grm. 2 Butter 100grm. 3 Tomato Puree 50grm. 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Method

i. Melt the butter in a sauté pan.

ii. Add the mire proxy veg. and bacon cude and sauté.

iii. Mixed in the flour and cooked to a scanty texture and allow to lightly colouring (Blond roux).

iv. Mixed the tomato puree and cold it.

v. Gradually add the boiling stock and simmer for 1 hour.

vi. Correct the seasoning and cold it.

vii. Pass through a conical strainer.

Derivative of tomato sauce:

SL. No. Name of Sauce Ingredients Use

1 Barbeque Sauce

Tomato sauce + Tomato Ketchup + vinegar + sugar. Serve with barbeque meal.

2 Portuguese

Tomato sauce + white wine + Tomato concase + garlic. Serve with shell fish and meat preparation.

3 with roasted liver lamp preparation.

4

with egg fish and various types of Hors D'oeuvre.

5

Bretonneau Sauce

Tomato sauce + sauté Chop onion + white wine + strain + butter + fresh parsley chop. Serve with haricots.

E.Hollandaise Sauce/Hot Sauce:

Definition

It is a warm, yellow and rich sauce. It contains a high percentage of fat and egg yolk. The name of the technique is called ‘emulsion’ (means mixture of butter, lemon juice and egg yolk). It is served with grilled and baked related fish, veg. and eggs and it is also used as an accompaniment of continental veg.

Hollandaise Sauce/Hot Sauce (1ltr.)

Sl. No. Ingredients Quantity 1 Egg yolk 2 no.

Method

i. Melt butter in a pan and kept aside.

ii. Placed curse paper corn and vinegar in a pan and reduced completely.

iii. Add 1tbs cold water.

iv. Mixed the egg yolk and whisk properly.

v. Placed to a gentle heat and whisk continuously till to a sabayon consistency (thick or sauce like consistency).

vi. Then gradually add the melted butter until it is blended and forms a smooth sauce. Then add few drop of lemon juice.

vii. Strain through a fine strainer and curette the seasoning.

viii. Store at 300 370C.

Derivative of Hollandaise Sauce:

SL.

No. Name of Sauce

01 Béarnaise Sauce

Ingredients Use

Hollandaise sauce + chop shallots + chop Tarragona + chervils.

Serve with grilled fish or grilled meat. Ex. Steak preparation.

Hollandaise sauce + grated orange rind (zest) + orange juice. Serve with hot veg. (Asparagus hot). 03

02 Maltaise Sauce

Hollandaise sauce + nut Serve with poached 04 or sauté meat. 05 with sauté meat. 06 with Cold

Various Kinds of butter Sauce:

A. Beurre

Ing: Butter + chop parsley + lemon juice + seasoning. Use: Serve with grilled meat, fish and fried dish.

B. Anchovy Butter:

Ing: Butter + Anchovy essence + Seasoning. Use: Serve with grilled or fried fish.

C. Shrimp Butter:

Ing: Butter + fine chopped cooked shrimp + lemon juice. Use: Serve with shell fish.

D. Beurre noir (Black butter):

Ing: Black the butter in the gentle heat and get even black colour. Use: Serve with fried fish.

E. Peuree Nosiest (Brown Butter):

Ing: Brown the butter in gentle heat and get even to brown colour. Use: Serve with fried fish.

F. Garlic Butter:

Ing: Butter + garlic paste with adding of lemon juice. Use: Serve with grilled stacks.

Miscellaneous Sauce: A. Bread Sauce

Method:

i. Simmer milk with the onion for 15 minutes. ii. Remove the onion, mix the bread crumes, and simmer for 2 3 minutes. iii. Add the seasoning agent and make a correct consistency. iv. Mixed well when serving.

Use: Serve with roast chicken and game.

B. Apple Sauce:

SL No. Ingredients Quantity

01 Cooking apple 400gm 02 Sugar 25gm 03 Butter 25gm

Method

i. Peel and wash the apple. ii. Place with the sugar, butter and water in a saucepan with tight filling lid. iii. Cooking and make a puree. iv. Pass through a strainer.

Use Serve with roast pork and duck.

C. Cranberry Sauce

Method

i. Boiled together in a suitable pan until soft. ii. Pass through a strainer.

Use Serve with roast turkey.

D. Horse-radish Sauce:

SL No. Ingredients Quantity 01 Grated horse radish 50gm 02 Vinegar 1tbs 03 Salt, pepper To taste 04 Lightly whipped cream

Method

i. Wash and peel the horse radish. ii. Mixed all the ingredients together to make a right consistency.

Use Serve with roast beef.

Note:

Why the sauce is curden?

The cur den Hollandaise sauce is caused by the rapidly adding of butter or become of access heat which will cause the albumin in the egg yolk to harden shortly and separated from the liquid part.

How to rectify it?

If the sauce is cur den, placed 1 tbs of boiling water in a clean pan and gradually add in the cur den of sauce. In this method is failure then take a clean pan and placed an egg yolk then add 1 dessert spoon of water and whisk highly over a gentle heat until slightly thicken.

F.Mayonnaise Sauce (Cold Sauce): Definition

It is basic called and used as a salad dressing and as a accompaniment. It has a wide variety of use, particularly in horsed oeuvre and salad purpose. It is rich sauce as it is thicken with egg yolk and has a high percentage of fat. Sometime it thickens with gelatin and it used as shiny flavourful coating to decorate cold dish and buffets.

Mayonnaise Sauce (Cold Sauce)

Method

i. Placed vinegar, egg yolk and seasoning in a bowl and whisked properly. ii. Gradually add oil very slowly and whisked continuously.

iii. Correct the seasoning and consistency.

Note:

Mayonnaise sauce curden for several reason-

1. If the oil is added to quickly.

2. If the oil is to cold.

3. If the sauce is not sufficiently whisk.

The method of recitation of the cur den of Mayonnaise sauce:

1. Take a clean bowl and add 1 tbs of boiling water and gradually whisk in the cur den of mayonnaise sauce.

2. Take another clean bowl with egg yolk, whisk properly, the added the cur den of mayonnaise sauce.

E. Mint Sauce:-

SL No. Ingredients Quantity

01 Mint juice 5 6 tbs

02 Easter sugar 2 dsp. 03 Vinegar 250 ml.

Method

Mixed the mint juice with sugar. Place in a china bowl and add the vinegar.

Use Serve with roast lamp and mutton.

F. Curry Sauce

10 Coconut 10gm. 11 Salt To Taste

Method

Gently cook the onion and garlic in a fat small sauté pan without colouring. Mixed the flour and the curry powder. Cook for few minutes and make a scanty texture. Mixed the tomato puree, Stair and cool it. Gradually add the boiling stock. Add the remaining ingredients. Simmer for 30 minutes. Skim and correct the seasoning.

Use Serve with prawn, shrimp, egg and vegetable.

Salads

Salad a combination of raw and/or cooked ingredients, usually served cold with a dressing.

Kinds of Salads:

Protein salads usually served as a main dish ( 2 types)Protein food cut up into small pieces and mixed with a dressing (chicken ham crab and egg)

Protein food cut into strips or slices and arranged on plate with cold vegetables or fruit (chef’s salad)

Pasta Salads served as an accompaniment

Usually contain cooked pasta, vegetables and a dressing. May contain a protein Toss the ingredients together with the dressing several hours prior to serving to allow the flavors to blend.

Vegetable salads

Meant to stimulate the appetite Salad greens, raw vegetables or cold cooked vegetables

Tossed salad, coleslaw and three bean salad

Fruit salad

Arrange fruit on plate and add c

May use fresh, canned or frozen fruit

Gelatin salads

May contain fruit, vegetables, protein foods or a combination of all three. Ingredients are suspended in a flavored liquid thicken w Do not use fresh pineapple, kiwi or papayas in a gelatin salad. They contain enzymes that will prevent the gelatin from setting.

Parts of a salad:

Base foundation upon which you place the salad ingredients Provides contrast in color with the body of the salad

Often use salad greens (keeps serving dish from looking bare)

Body Main part of the salad

Type of salad determines the body of the salad.

Dressing a sauce served on or with a salad

Adds flavor and sometimes serves as a garnish. Avoid too much dressing

Garnish optional Main purpose is to add eye appeal

Should be simple and complement the other ingredients.

Preparing Salad Greens: Must be treated carefully to preserve texture and nutrients.

Trim all bruised and inedible portions

To remove the core from iceberg strike the bottom of the head sharply against the counter and remove core with fingers.

Wash green to remove all soil and pesticides

Wrap greens loosely in plastic wrap or bag

To prevent nutrient loss do not clean too far in advance

Never cut salad greens, but tear them. Cutting can cause bruising.

Preparing other ingredients:

Wash all fruits and vegetables Do not soak

Drain canned fruits and vegetables before using

Use ingredients as soon as possible to prevent nutrient loss.

Salad dressing:

French combination of oil, vinegar and seasonings. Will separate. Must be shaken before using (temporary emulsion)

Mayonnaise combination of vinegar, oil, seasoning and egg yolk. Uncooked. Does not separate (permanent emulsion)

Cooked salad dressing Looks like mayonnaise but is thickened with food starch. Also contains milk, acid ingredient and a small amount of oil. (permanent emulsion)

Notes

Treat apples, peaches, bananas and pears with lemon juice to prevent enzymatic browning Consider flavors, textures and color when you choose salad ingredients

Salads can be served at different couses of the Menu:

An appetizer

An entrée

A main course

An accompaniment to the main course

A dessert

- On the buffet as part of the salad bar

As a sandwich filling

As a plate garnish

TYPES OF SALAD

There are two types of salad:

Leaf/Simple or Green Salad Compound /Mixed Salad

LEAF SALAD

A simple salad is a variety of one or more greens. A mild dressing such as a light Vinaigrette is used so the delicate taste of the greens is not masked. Various types of greens are now available locally and would include: 48

LETTUCE:

Cos Romaine Bibb Iceberg - Limestone Curly Chinese Lolorosso Butterhead Crisphead Oak Leaf Ruby

OTHERS: Escarole Chicory Endive Belgian endive Red/white cabbage Spinach Cress Arugula Radiccio

Leaf salads are usually served as an accompaniment to the main course and rarely as any other course.

BASIC PROCEDURE FOR LEAF SALADS:

1.Wash the greens thoroughly in several changes of water.

2.Drain the greens well. Poor draining will result in watered down dressing.

3.Crisp the greens. Place them in a colander in the refrigerator.

4.Cut or tear into bite size pieces.

5.Mix the greens well. Toss gently till uniformly mixed.

6.Plate the salads. Use cold plates please! Not those just out of the dishwasher.

7.Refrigerate.

8.Add dressing just before serving along with garnish. Dressed greens wilt rapidly.

COMPOUND SALADS

Are made up of four parts: BASE: normally on of the above greens. It gives definition to the placement of the salad on the plate. A green lettuce leaf is used as an under liner for the salad. Shredded greens can also be utilized and this will give height and dimension to the plate.

BODY: This is the main ingredient in the salad and will generally give the name to the salad. The body must be the main ingredient and will be placed on top of the base. The body could be made up of just on ingredient or in some cases, several.

DRESSING: is used to enhance and add to the taste and flavor of the body. It makes the salad more palate pleasing. The dressing may be tossed with the body of the salad, or served as an accompaniment poured over the salad at the table. The dressing is made up of four parts:

THE OIL: This could include a plain refined, odorless oil or a more exotic one such as Avocado oil, Olive oil, Olive oil with herbs, Sesame seed oil, Walnut oil, peanut oil, corn oil, almond oil & soybean oil.

THE ACIDIC MEDIUM: Is normally vinegar, red or white. However, Lemon/Lime juice, Yogurt (curds), Red and White Wine can also be used. The popular vinegars include Cider Vinegar, Malt Vinegar, Wine Vinegar, Wine Vinegar, Chili Vinegar and Rice Vinegar.

THE SEASONING: Would include varieties of

THE FLAVOR ENHANCERS: These will include MSG, Spice Powders, Herbs, Garlic, Proprietary Sauces, Fruit Juices & Cream.

CLASSICAL SALAD DRESSINGS:

1.FRENCH: 1 part vinegar : 2 parts oil + salt , pepper, french mustard.

2.ENGLISH: 2 parts vinegar : 1 part oil + salt, pepper, caster sugar, english mustard.

3.AMERICAN: Equal parts of oil and vinegar + salt. Pepper, english mustard and additional

4.MAYONNAISE: Mayonnaise sauce thinned down with vinegar or lemon juice.

5.VINAIGRETTE: 1 part vinegar : 2 parts olive oil + salt, pepper, english/french mustard.

6.RAVIGOTTE: Vinaigrette + chopped chervil,chives, tarragon, capers and parsley.

7.GRIBICHE: Mayonnaise dressing + chopped gherkins, capers, cervil,tarragon, parsley and strips of hard boiled egg white.

8.ACIDULATED CREAM: Fresh cream + fresh lemon juice and salt

9.THOUSAND ISLAND : Mayonnaise dressing + a little chili sauce and chopped red pimento, chives and green peppers

GUIDELINES FOR ARRANGING SALADS

Perhaps even more than with most other foods, the appearance and arrangement of a salad is essential to its quality. The colorful variety of salad ingredients gives the creative chef an opportunity to create miniature works of art on the salad plate.

1.Keep the salad off the rim of the plate: Think of the rim as the frame of a picture. Keep the salad within the frame. Select the right plate for the portion size, not too large or not too small.

2.Strive for a good balance of color: Pale iceberg lettuce is pretty plain and colorless but can be livened up by mixing in some darker greens and perhaps a few shreds of carrot, red cabbage or other colored vegetables such as peppers. On the other hand don’t overdo it and go over board. Three colors are usually more than enough. Shades of green give a good effect and too many colors will look messy.

3.Height makes a salad attractive: Ingredients mounded onto a plate are more interesting than that lying flat. Lettuce cups as a base adds height. Often, just a little height is enough.

4.Cut the ingredients neatly: Ragged or sloppy cutting makes the whole salad look unattractive and haphazard.

5.Make every ingredient identifiable: The pieces should be large enough for the customer to identify each ingredient. Don’t pulverize everything. Bite size pieces are the rule. Seasoning ingredients like onion could be chopped fine.

6.Keep it simple: A simple, natural arrangement is pleasant to view. An elaborate design, a contrived arrangement, or a cluttered plate will defeat the purpose.

CLASSICAL SALADS

CEASAR

WALDROF RUSSIAN GREEK TOSS ARGENTUIL EVE FLORIDA FRANCAISE GAULOISE INDIENNE JAPONNAISE LYONNAISE MIMOSA

FISH COOKERY

INTRODUCTION

Fish provides many attractive and satisfying dishes. Fish is a high protein food, supplying on an average a little more than 5 gms of proteins per edible ounce.

Fish that has fat will produce superior eating qualities, if baked, or boiled because of their natural fat which will keep them from drying during cooking. Lean fish are best poached, boiled or steamed; the flesh will be firm and will hold together during the cooking period. Both lean and fish with fat can be sautéed, or fried, which gives excellent results.

CLASSIFICATION OF FISH

HOW TO CHOOSE/ SELECT FISH

1. Skin should be shiny and of good colour.

2. In white fish, the flesh should be really white, not faintly yellow.

3. The body should be rather heavy in relation to the length, and the flesh plump and springly.

4. Eyes should be bright and not sunken.

5. Gills should be red.

6. for freshness, the fish should have a pleasant, slightly salty smell, while stale fish has an ammoniac odour, which increases with its staleness.

7. If the imprint of the fingers remain, after it has been pressed, then it is not fresh.

8. If the scales come out themselves, then the fish is stale.

9. Raw flesh should not come away from the bones, s it is the sigh of fish deterioration.

10. The tail should be stiff.

11. Fish should be stored at 10C.

CRUSTACEANS (SHELLFISH)

It contains proteins, calcium, magnesium, iron, phosphorous and iodine. Shellfish is difficult to digest, sometimes they are dangerous food and a source of food poisoning, but this is depend on poor buying and storage. It is a good body building food.

STORAGE

Shellfish should be purchases alive, so as to ensure absolute freshness, and stored in a cold room, in a box covered with crushed ice, and a damp sack. It should cooked as soon as possible after purchasing.

SELECTION OF SHELLFISH

1. Freshness in shellfish can be recognized by brightness of eyes and stiffness of flesh and tail.

2 Claws, when pulled, should sprin

3. They should smell fresh.

4. They should be heavy in relation in proportion to their size.

Shrimps: There are several kinds, the best known are the brown and red shrimps. They are available all the year round the coastal areas. Mainly used for decorating fish dishes, making fish sauces, seafood cocktails, salads, curries and pakodas etc.

Prawns: There are two principal types, the sword prawn (crevette rose) which is pink, and the common prawns (crevette gris) which is pinkish grey and smaller.

Scampi (langoustine): Mainly a Mediterranean shellfish, the variety used here is the “Dublin bay prawn”. They resemble a small lobster; about 8” long with only the tail part is used.

Lobster (homard): They are served cold in cocktails, hors d’oeuvres, salads, sandwiches and on buffets. They should be alive when purchased and have both the claws attached. Weight in relation to size is extremely important when purchasing.

Crayfish (ecrevisse): A small fresh water lobster found in rivers. Average market length is 3” to 4”. Of a dull green or brownish colour above and paler brown or yellowish below.

Crawfish (langouste): Greenish brown with yellow markings on tail. This turns to brick red after cooking. They have no claws but long antennae. Owing to their size and appearance, they are used mainly on cold buffets.

Crab (crabe): A shellfish of many varieties, fresh and salt water common varieties known as the edible crab. They should be alive when purchased and both the claws attached to the body.

Scallop (coquille de st. Jacques): A species of bivalve mollusks with ribbed rounded shells. When fresh, the shells are tightly closed and they should feel heavy for their size.

Mussles (moules): An edible mollusk, of which there are two main species, the common mussel from the cold regions and the large mussel from the Mediterranean. Mussles can cause skin eruptions and digestive disturbances. However, as they are always cooked, dangerous microbes are destroyed.

Cockles (bucards): they are eaten raw and can also be prepared like mussels. They are racked up from sandbanks when the tide is out, and they are usually sold boiled and shelled.

Clam (palourde): clams are mainly eaten raw but they can be cooked in the same manner as mussels, oysters and many other shellfish. The north American people are very fond of this shellfish.

Oysters (huitre): The oyster has been known to man from the earliest times. It seems to have been unknown by the jews. They are eaten abundantly.

Storage:

1. They are stored in barrels or boxes, covered with crushed ice or damp sacks and kept in a cold room.

2. Fish should be stored for a long

Quality and purchasing points:

1. They must be alive; this is indicated by the firmly closed shells.

2. They are graded in sizes and the price varies accordingly.

3. Oysters should smell fresh.

4. They should be purchased daily.

5. They are

INDIAN FISH

Chamli (cape Comorin), white and grey pomfret (along the coasts of India), rohu (west Bengal), malli (northern region rivers), surmai (all Indian seas), Bombay duck (around Bombay seas), salmon trouts and trouts (Kashmir and nilgiris) etc.

Prawns and shrimps (west coast, Malabar Coast), rock lobsters (Bombay,Tamilnadu), crabs (Bombay, madras, west Bengal).

PRE-PREPARATION OF FISH FOR COOKING

1. De-scaling and cleaning (soaking in cold water to remove scales, using blunt side of knife for de-scaling, starting from tail to head and then washed to remove any loose scales, cutting of fins, removing head and belly)

2. Filleting (cut mark on the above from tail to head, first working towards the head then the tail).

3. Skinning (hold the tail end of the fish in the left hand, first sprinkling salt on the fingers for a good grip. Skin the flesh from tail to head, with a sharp knife. Point the knife blade towards the skin so that no flesh is wasted.)

CUTS OF FISH

Fillet: deboned, long flat pieces of fish, without the skin, flat fish gives 4 fillets.

Paupiette: - the fillet of fish is laid flat on the table, stuffing is spread on it, then it is rolled up, tied with a string, to keep the shape, can be poached.

Supreme: - large fillets of fish cut on a slant of a large round or flat fish, e.g. supreme of turbot.

Meuniere: - pan frying of fish, finished with butter noisette, chopped parsley and lemon juice.

Goujons and Goujonettes: - strips approx. 8 cm. long by 1 cm. wide cut from fillets of fish. Goujonettes are cut smaller and are mainly used as a garnish. Can be crumbed and deep fried.

Troncon: - 5 cm, thick, cut on the bone from a flat fish like the turbot. It is a fish cutl

Darne: - a piece of fish cut across and through the bone of a large, whole round fish such as cod, salmon which is 2

Mignon: - fillet of fish folded as a cornet (triangular fold as for piping bag).

Plie: - fillet flattened and folded in two.

Medallion:

Fish farce: - puree of fish, bound with whole eggs panada and cream.

COURT BOUILLON

It is a liquid in which a fish is poached and strained, the remaining liquid is known as court bouillon.

Types of court bouillon:

1. White court bouillon: - sliced onion, bay leaf, parsley stalk, peppercorns, juice of lemon salt, milk and water.

2. Ordinary court bouillon: - ingredients: vinegar, water, peppercorns, sliced onions, carrots, salt, parsley stalks, thyme and bay leaf.

3. White wine court bouillon: - white wine, water, minced onions, bouquet garni, salt, peppercorns, and sliced carrots.

4. Red wine court bouil red wine, water, minced onions, bouquet garni, parsley stalks, salt, peppercorns and sliced carrots.

Method:-

For all simmer all ingredients, strained and used for poaching, boiling, stewing etc.

EGG STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION

Some standard dimensions of the average egg Weight 58gms

Volume 53cm3

Specific Gravity 1.09

Long Axis 5.7cm Short Axis 4.2cm

Long circumference 15.7cm Short circumference 13.5cm Surface Area 68cm2

The shape may be

The normal egg weight range is 35gms to 77gms The Proportions and solids contents of the components of the average egg are: Shell Yolk White Total Edible

Egg anatomy SHELL

the first line of defence against the entry of bacteria

can be brown or white; nutritional value of the egg is the same

composed mainly of calcium carbonate

approximately 8,000 to 10,000 tiny pores allow moisture and gases in (O2) and out (CO2)

SHELL MEMBRANES

there are two membranes on the inside of the shell

one membrane sticks to the shell and one surrounds the white (albumen)

the second line of defence against bacteria

composed of thin layers of protein fibres GERMINAL DISC

appears as a slight depression on the surface of the yolk

the entry for the fertilization of the egg WHITE (ALBUMEN)

there are two layers: thin and thick albumen

mostly made of water, high quality protein and some minerals

represents 2/3 of the egg's weight (without shell)

when a fresh egg is broken, the thick albumen stands up firmly around the yolk CHALAZA

a pair of spiral bands that anchor the yolk in the centre of the thick albumen

the fresher the egg the more prominent the chalazas

unnoticeable when the YOLK MEMBRANE (VITELLINE MEMBRANE)

surrounds and holds the yolk

the fresher the egg the stronger the membrane YOLK

the egg's major source of vitamins and minerals, including protein and essential fatty acids

represents 1/3 of the egg's weight (without shell)

yolk colour ranges from light yellow to deep orange, depending on the hen's food AIR CELL

forms at the wide end of the egg as it cools after being laid

the fresher the egg the smaller the air cell

USES OF AN EGG

leavening agent

BINDER

One of the uses of eggs is as a binder. A binder helps other ingredients bind together (eggs are used to help bind together meatballs, meatloaf and flour mixtures). When eggs are heated they coagulate, this helps stick together the ingredients they are mixed with.

COATING

Another use of eggs is as a coating agent. The breading on fried chicken sticks because the chicken is dipped into an egg then a flour or crumb mixture. The eggs help hold the crumb mixture to the food when heated during the cooking process. Eggs have thickening properties. The protein in eggs will thicken when heated and become firm. If an egg is overheated or cooked for too long of a time it will become rubbery and tough in texture. Eggs are often used in custards and sauces to thicken the finished product.

EMULSIFIER

Eggs are an An emulsifier permits small globules of one liquid to be inter dispersed in another liquid. For example in mayonnaise the egg acts as an emulsifying agent in keeping the oil and vinegar mixed as one product and not separating out. Eggs also are emulsifiers in cakes.

CRYSTALLIZATION

When a liquid freezes, ice crystals form. When eggs are added to a mixture, it helps prevent these gs is the prevention of crystallization

CLARIFIER

The one use of the egg you probably are not very familiar with is using eggs as a clarifier. The egg is used to make a broth clear. Any unwanted particles in the broth will stick to the egg as it coagulates in the broth. The cooked egg is then removed.

LEAVENING AGENT/ RAISING AGENT

One of the most common uses of eggs is as a leavening agent. A leavening agent helps to make a cooked product rise. When eggs are beaten they hold air. When heat is added the structure will coagulate and traps the air. This is what gives angel food cakes, meringues and soufflés their light and fluffy texture. Here are some tips so you can get the most volume out of the egg whites as a leavener:  Make sure there in on yolk in the egg white. The yolk contains fat, and fat inhibits the volume of the egg whites when beaten.  Since fat inhibits egg whites when beaten it is important to use clean equipment. It is best to use a glass or metal bowl. Plastic bowls, even though they are clean are oliophilic (hold in oil and have oil like properties) and eggs don't beat to as high of a volume.  use fresh eggs  best to use eggs at room temperature

Egg products are invaluable in a huge variety of food production and processing industries. Properties such as binding, emulsification, coagulation and adhesion are integral to the production of a large number of food products found in every supermarket.

FUNCTIONAL USES INCLUDE: DAIRY PRODUCTS

The addition of egg to ice cream and other frozen desserts improves consistency and decreases melting point.

To eliminate crystallization and ensure a smooth texture, eggs are included in frozen dairy products.

CONFECTIONERY

Egg acts as a binding agent for fondant and other soft fillings, improving the softness and texture and adding richness.

Confectionery such as chocolate bars and fondant are stabilized by egg proteins.

DRINKS

Egg whites act as a clarification agent in the manufacture of wine and some juices, inhibiting enzyme growth and prevent browning of the product.

Adding egg to yoghurts and pro biotic drinks gives a desirable creamy texture to the product.

PREPARED FOO

Egg gives a smoother texture to pre prepared microwaveable dishes. Frozen microwaveable dishes which include egg have better freezing and thawing properties.

Foods such as mayonnaise, salad dressing, dips and sauces are bound and emulsified by the addition of egg.

HOW THE EGGS ARE WELL NUTRITIVE FOOD?

Excellent protein food: Eggs have the ideal protein mix for growth and repair.

Low in Fat: A medium egg has less than six grams of fat and is not high in kilojoules. Low in saturated Fat: Eggs have less than 2 grams saturated fat. Most of the fat is unsaturated.

Rich in Vitamins: Eggs really are nature’s vitamin capsule containing all the vitamins except vitamin C. They are a good source of Vitamin B12 which may be lacking in vegatarian diets. Rich in iron: A serve of 2 eggs contains 2.2 mg of iron (as much as a lamb chop). Iron is best absorbed from food when vitamin C is present so combine your egg with a glass of orange juice for even better nutrition. It’s many essential functions include a building block for cell membranes, required for production of some hormones, essential for production of digestive juices, protection for nerve fibres. The body is able to make this cholesterol in the liver.

Handling and storage of egg.

Shell eggs used by caterers must be “Grade A eggs” and should have been packed in accordance with the Egg Products Regulations 1993. 

Broken or cracked eggs and soiled packaging should be thrown away, or returned to your supplier. Care must be taken to avoid contamination of clean, intact eggs. 

Eggs should not be washed or wiped as this makes them more susceptible to contamination. 

Eggs should be stored in a refrigerator in their date labelled packs if not date marked on the shell, and should be used within date. 

Eggs should be used within half an hour after removal from the refrigerator.  Avoid repeatedly moving the same eggs to and from the refrigerator by only removing eggs sufficient for immediate use. 

Hands should be washed 

Eggs are vulnerable to taint and should not be placed close to pungent foods and materials. 

Broken out shell eggs, pasteurised or heat treated liquid egg (once opened) and reconstituted egg mixes are highly vulnerable to contamination and should be handled with care. Unused liquid eggs or raw egg mixes should be destroyed and not stored. 

Food hygiene training for staff should include attention to the correct handling of eggs and foods containing eggs and the avoidance o contamination. 

People should avoid eating raw eggs or uncooked foods made from them, and vulnerable people, such as the elderly, the sick, babies and pregnant women should consume only eggs which have been cooked until the white and yolk are solid (Chief Medical Officer 1988). 

Caterers should continue to increase their use of pasteurised egg, particularly for dishes that are not subject to further cooking prior to consumption.

HAM, BACON & GAMMON HAM

Ham is the cured hind leg of a pig, smoked or salted and smoked to preserve it. The ham is in most cases cut rather long into the loin to give a banjo shape. Dry cured by the rubbing in salt, or wet cured in brine; most hams are smoked and hung to dry. A good ham should be plump with an ample, though not too thick, layer of fat under the rind. Pork shoulder is cured in the same way, but it is not entitled to called ham, the flavour is not so good, but it can be used in cooked ham dishes.

The curing of ham involves two main operations, salting and smoking. The hams are either salted in brine or dry salt, or rubbed over with dry salt, saltpeter and sugar and left for three days well covered with this mixture. Alternatively, the brine is injected into the veins before the joints are boned. The salted joints are then put into brine, washed, brushed, and dried, and finally smoked in special chambers, starting with a light smoke which grows denser as the operation proceeds. This treatment varies according to the type of ham, and whether it is to be eaten cooked or raw. The characteristic flavours of both raw and cooked hams vary with the type of salt, the curing process, and the breed, diet and age of the pig.

There are three basic types:

1. Those which are usually cured in brine slightly smoked or dried and invariably cooked and served hot or cold, e.g. Jambon Glace, Hamburger Schinken, and Danish hams.

2. Those dry or wet cured hams, always smoked (often very deep), hung to dry over a period of months or years, always served raw or slightly sauté, e.g. Jambon de Bayonne, Jambon Toulouse, Black forest ham.

3. Dry or wet cured hams but not smoked, hung to dry and to mature for a month and then cooked and served hot or cold, e.g. York ham, Gothaer Schinken. OR cured and dried and hung to mature for a long time, always served raw e.g. Westphalia Ham, Parma Ham.

There are also many other hams from many countries or regions in the world, with their own often unique brines.

Fresh ham is an excellent dish when it is cooked whole, accompanied by rice, mushrooms or pineapple, ham can also be used as an ingredient in different dishes as stuffing, mousses, pate, pancakes, omelettes and egg dishes. Soufflés, aspics, gratins, mixed salads, ham cornet, quenches, sandwiches and cocktail snacks. Raw or dried ham is eaten cold as a Hors d’oeuvre but is also an ingredient of cooked dishes.

BACON

Bacon is the cured flesh of a bacon weight pig which is specifically reared for bacon because its shape and size yields economic bacon joints. Bacon is cured either by dry salting and then smoking or by soaking in brine followed by smoking. Bacon has a very high protein value and one can make many tasty dishes from it by frying, grilling or boiling.

Green bacon is brine cured but not smoked; it has a milder flavour but does not keep as long as smoked bacon.

Depending on the degree of salting, during the curing process bacon joints may or may not require soaking in cold water for a few hours before being cooked.

CUTS OF BACON Back side (Hind quarter)

Sign of quality

Use

Grilling and frying Grilling and frying Grilling and frying Grilling and frying

Boiling shoulder ham Grilling and frying Grilling and frying 1kg Boiling and frying

A side of bacon from modern pigs will weigh approximately 30 kg. A gammon cut from the side will weigh between 5 and 7 kg.

There should be no sigh of stickiness. There should be a pleasant smell. The rind should be thin, smooth and free from wrinkles. The fat should be white, smooth and not excessive in proportion to the lean. The lean should be a deep pink colour and firm.

Verities of bacon

Sliced bacon: it is from hog bellies which have been squared off. They are cured and most often smoked; sliced thinly, and then packaged for retail sale. (slices of bacon per pound: thin sliced 36 slices per pound, regular sliced 16 20 slices per pound, thick slices 12 slices per pound.)

Slab bacon: - it is the unsliced version of sliced bacon. It has a longer shelf life.

Country cured bacon: it has a salty very strong flavour. It is more expensive than slab bacon.

Canadian bacon: it is processed similarly to slab bacon, except it is made from the eye of the loin. It is fully cooked and smoked at the time of sale.

Pea meal bacon: it is a form of Canadian bacon that is smoked. After curing it is dried briefly and coated with yellow corn meal.

Schinken speck: it is German preparation, processed like bacon, however, it is comprised of combination of pork leg meat rolled inside of a pork belly; tied and processed.

GAMMON

Gammon is cut off from the side of cured pork. It is cut from the carcass and brined separately. Gammons are suitable for boiling, braising and baking and may be served hot or cold. The best known gammon types are Danish (green and smoked), Wiltshire (green and smoked), etc.

Modern Development of Indian Staple Food and Spices

A staple food, sometimes simply referred to as a staple, is a food that is eaten routinely and in such quantities that it constitutes a dominant portion of a standard diet in a given population, supplying a large fraction of the needs for energy rich materials and generally a significant proportion of the intake of other nutrients as well. Most people live on a diet based on just a small number of staples. The staple food of a specific society may be eaten as often as every day, or every meal. Early civilizations valued the foods that they established as staples because, in addition to providing necessary nutrition, they generally are suitable for storage over long periods of time without decay. Such storable foods are the only possible staples during seasons of shortage, such as dry seasons or cold temperate winters, against which times harvests have been stored; during seasons of plenty wider choices of foods may be available. Most staple foods are derived either from cereals such as wheat, barley such as potatoes, yams, taro, and sago (derived from the pith . Staple foods may also contain, depending on the region, and sugar. Most staples are plant materials, but in some communities is the primary source of nutrition. Staple foods wheat flour (atta), and a variety of pigeon pea), urad (black gram), and ). Lentils may be used whole, dehusked for example, dhuli moong , are used extensively. Some pulses, such as are very common, especially in the northern regions. , are also processed into flour (besan).

Many Indian dishes are cooked in is popular in northern and western India, in eastern India, and along the western coast, especially in Kerala Gingelly (sesame) oil is common in the south since it imparts a fragrant nutty aroma. In recent decades, sunflower and soybean oils have become popular across India. Hydrogenated vegetable oil, known as Vanaspati ghee, is another popular cooking medium. Butter based ghee, or desi ghee, is used frequently, though less than in the past. he most important and frequently used spices and flavourings in Indian cuisine are whole or powdered chilli pepper (mirch) (introduced by the Portuguese in the 16th century), black mustard seed (sarso), cardamom (elaichi), cumin (jeera), turmeric (haldi), asafoetida (hing), ginger (adrak), coriander (dhania), and garlic (lehsun). One popular spice mix is garam masala, a powder that typically includes five or more dried spices, especially cardamom, cinnamon (dalchini), and clove. Each culinary region has a distinctive garam masala blend individual chefs may also have their own. Goda masala is a comparable, though sweet, spice mix popular in Maharashtra. Some leaves commonly used for flavouring include bay (tejpat), coriander, fenugreek, and mint leaves. The use of curry leaves and roots for flavouring is typical of Gujarati and South Indian cuisine. Sweet dishes are often seasoned with cardamom, saffron, nutmeg, and rose petal essences.

EQUIPMENTS USED IN QUANTITY KITCHEN

Equipments play a vital role in the kitchen either it is domestic kitchen or hotels quantity kitchen. One should keep knowledge about the use of kitchen equipments. The up keep and maintenance of the kitchen equipments are very important. If we do not clean the equipments, they may cause different kind of diseases. Usually we use two types of equipments:

1. Heavy equipments: refrigerator, dough mixer, gas range, walk in, working table, potato peeler, griller, tandoor, oven, high and low pressure burners, masala grinder etc.

2. Light equipments: - bowl, ladles, pressure cooker, kadhai, colanders, mixer, chopper, frying spoon, etc.

Use and upkeep of equipments:

MASALA GRINDER: -

a. Switch off the plug.

b. Remove wire, and scrub

c. Remove out the stone from grinder.

d. Wash grinder and stone separately.

e. Keep stone in grinder, attach belt to it.

f. Put on main switch of grinder and on the currant.

g.

DOUGH MIXER:

· Switch off plug and remove wire.

Wash bowl and dough kneading rod, or creamer or whisk with warm soapy water solution.

Again wash all the equipments with warm water. Fix bowl on mixer, then attach rod or creamer as per requirement. Put ingredients in the bowl; lift up the bowl by turning handle anti clockwise. Press green switch, improve speed by turning gear handle clockwise.

· To reduce speed, press red switch lift down the bowl by turning clockwise remove mixing rod and then remove the finished product.

· Check belt of the motor occasionally. Repeat the steps again.

POTATO PEELER:

· Wash peeler from inside tightly close the door. Put potatoes from top, start main switch as well as water supply. After peeling open door of the peeler.

· Let all the peeled potatoes come out of the peeler. Switch off the main plug. Remove all the potato peels from it; scrub thoroughly with scrubber and dry completely. Wash with clean & warm water. Attach all the parts again for reuse.

MINCER: -

· Switch off the plug and remove wire.

Remove all the attachment of the mincer; soak in warm water for 10 15 minutes.

· Remove and wash with soapy water. Wipe with clean duster.

· Keep all the attachment in one cupboard. Always keep mincer dry.

· Grease/oil the mincer once in a week.

CONVECTION OVEN:-

The oven should be switched off.

· The oven should be allowed to cool until warm. Remove all removable shelves or rack for separate cleaning.

· Using a clean cloth soaked in hot soap solution, wipe the oven. Rinse the cloth as necessary.

The racks and shelves should be cleaned

GRILLER HOT PLATE:

· Switch off the plug and remove wire. Wait to cool and wash with soapy solution. Use scrubber to rinse and clean thoroughly. Remove the grill bars from side; rinse and wash them Scrap all the greasing parts from the corner and upside of the hot plate.

· Wash properly and dry.

DEEP FAT FRYER:

Switch off the fryer and allow for cooling.

· Drain all the oil in normal way. Remove all debris from fryer.

Fill the entire compartment with soap solution. Brush inside using a bristle brush (never use steel wool). Flush with clean water to which vinegar has been added. Dry with cloth.

TILTING PAN: -

· The equipment should be cleaned thoroughly after use. Normally washing with hot soapy water and rinsing with clean will be sufficient.

· Wire scourers or scouring powders are not recommended for models with on all the stainless steel finish.

If the pan has been used for frying, care should be taken to remove all oil film build up.

HIGH PRESSURE BURNERS RANGE:

-

Turn of the main tunnel of the gas range and the secondary tunnel of the same. If removable, remove the supporting rods (square size).

· Wash and rinse them with soapy water solution with the help of scrubber. Wash them with plain water and dry them.

· To keep range top clean: immediately wipe up all the spilling and boil over. Remove dust and tarnish, food particles etc on it.

If during cooking periods, spilling are left to bake and harden on hot surface. The cooling becomes much more difficult.

· An inspection should be made after each cooking cycle when the equipment has been turned off and is in the cooling after obvious grease and other matter should be cleaned off immediately.

NOTE: All the light equipments should be rinsed and washed with first, soapy water and then fresh water, wipe out with a clean duster after every use.

SOUS -VIDE

it is a French word which means "under vacuum", is a method of cooking food sealed in airtight plastic bags in water bath for a long time 72 hours, is not unusual at an accurately determined temperature much lower than normally used for cooking typically around 60 degree c or 140 degree fre. the intention is to cook the item evenly, not overcook the outside while still keeping the inside at the same doneness and to keep the food juicer

FOOD PRODUCTION CONTROL

PRODUCTION PLANNING

Production planning or volume forecasting as it is also known is the forecasting of volume of sales for an establishment for a specified time period e.g. for a day, a week, or a month.

The aims and objective of production planning are as follows

A) To facilitate food cost control for the establishment.

B) To facilitate the purchasing of food stuffs, particularly perishable items and ensure appropriate stock levels are maintained.

C) To reduce the problem of food that is leftover and how it is to be re used or customer dissatisfaction when insufficient foods are available.

D) To prepare production to meet the demand by for casting the number of meals to be served for a given period.

E) To enable a comparison to be made between actual and potential volume of sales and for corrective to be taken if necessary. There are four major stages in controlling the preparation of food which together should reduce over production and minimum possible waste, loss from inefficient purchasing and processing and loss from excessive portion sizes. The four stages are volume forecasting, standard yield, standard recipe & standard portion size.

1) VOLUME FORECASTING

The objective of volume forecasting is

a) To predict the total number of meals to be sold in each selling outlet of an establishment at each meal period. (E.g. the number of B/Fast to be sold in the restaurant, the coffee shop and by floor supervisor.)

b) To predict the choice of menu items by the customer. c) To facilitate the purchasing system. d) To ensure availability of all necessary ingredients. e) To ensure that appropriate stock levels are held.

f) To control food costs in relation to sales (or within cost limits in non profit making establishment)

g) To enable the food controller to compare the actual volume of business done by each of the selling outlets with the potential volume of business as forecast and for management to take action where necessary. The comparison may be by total volume of sale by total number of customers, by total number of maincourseitem etc.

Method Volume forecasting is usually done in two stages an initial forecast and a final forecast.

The initial forecast is prepare a week in advance and shows

a)The estimated total number of meals to be taken in selling outlet. b)The estimated total of each menu item for each day of the following menu week The initial forecast itself would be based on

1)past records; 2)Advance booking;

3)Current events; 4)Current trends.

Aids of volume forecasting

Cycle Menus these are a series of fixed or semi fixed menus which are prepared for a set period. The length of the period is usually related to the length of the menu, e.g. 21 days for a menu of three main courses.

14 days for a menu of five main courses.

Sale history--- a sale history is a detailed record of actual or potential and actual sales for selling outlet.

It purposes to be providing an accurate record of food produced and sold compared with the forecast which can be used as a reference for forecasting future demand.

2) STANDARD YIELDS

The main objectives of standard yields are

a) To establish a standard for the quantity and number of portions obtainable from the specific item of food.

b) To establish a standard for comparison with operating results and thereby measures of the production department.

c) To establishment objective method of evolution standard purchase specification. d) To e) To assist in menu costing and pricing.

f) To assist in converting forecast requirements into raw material requirements. Standard yields can be worked out for all commodities but it is more usual that they will only be prepared for the more expensive items, such as meat, poultry and fish and items which are purchased in any large quantities such as vegetables.

3) STANDARD RECIPES

The standard recipe may be defined as a written formula for producing food items of a specified quality and quantity for use in a particular establishment.

The objective of standard recipe are---

a)To pre determine the quantities and the quality of the ingredients to be used stating the standard purchase specification wherever possible.

b)To pre determine the yield obtainable from a recipe if a standard yields has not been prepared.

C)To predetermine the food cost per portion. This can be accurate when known quantities and qualities of ingredients will be used for a particular dish.

d)To predetermine the nutritional value of a particular dish. Again this can be accurate when known quantities and qualities of ingredients will be used.

e)To facilitate menu planning, this is achieved by knowing precisely what the ingredients to be used. A conversation table may be used to alter the size of the recipe.

f)To facilitate food preparation. This is achieved by using standard products of a particular dish and processing them by a standard method. This ensures a standard quality of a particular dish for the customer at all times.

g)To facilitate the portion control.

4) STANDARD PORTION SIZE

A standard portion size represents the number ounces/grams of a food item to be served to customers in relation to the food cost and selling price of the item. The portion size is determined by the management of the establishment in conjunction with the head chef and restaurant or canteen supervisors.

There may be two standard portion sizes for the same commodity in the establishment depending on whether the commodity is being offered on a table d’hote or an ala carte.

Standard portion sizes are important for two reasons-----

1)All customers should be served as accurately as possible of food for which they are paying.

2)As the standard portion size is related to the prices to be paid for an item, any excess in portion size raises the food cost for that dish and reduced gross profit. The importance of this must be made clear to all food preparation and service personel.Assistance must be given to staff by posting lists of the standard portion sizes in prominent places in preparation and service areas. Assistance must be given by means of equipment such as ladles and scoops of specific capacities, easily readable scales, and food service equipment of specific sizes such as glasses, individual containers for pies etc.and containers for specific food items from which an established number of portions are obtainable.

is essential if the desired gross profit is to be achieved by the kitchen. This can only be done by frequently checking that staff are using the correct portioning, equipment provided by spot checking, some food items at each meal period for the standard portion size. Also by checking the total yield of major items with the number f portion obtained from these and the average portion size served.

FOOD COST CONTROL

Definition and nature of food cost control

Cost control has to be defined as the guidance and regulation of the cost of operating and undertaking. To guide and regulate cost means to ensure that they are in accordance with the predetermined objective of the business. Hence the notion of the guidance and regulation of cost pre supposes the existence of stated objectives as expressed in the policy statements and the budgets of the undertaking.

Food cost control as applied to an undertaking operating food facilities. Food cost control is therefore cost control is therefore cost control as applied in hotels, restaurants, canteens and similar establishments.

It is quite common in certain catering circles to regard food cost control as something wholly negative designed to cut cost in all directions. This is quite wrong. The object of food cost control is to ensure that cost are neither more or less than they ought to be that they are in line with the financial and catering policies of the establishment

An important feature, which distinguishes food cost control from systems of cost control in other industries, is its materials cost orientation. In most aspects of food cost control attention is directed to primarily to the cost materials (cost of sales) leaving the cost of labour and other operating cost are thus uncontrolled

Objective of food cost control

In many hotel and catering establishments, the expenditure o food is the largest single element of cost. The maintenance of food cost at predetermines levels in accordance of the greatest importance in ensuring the satisfactory profitability of each establishment. Even where catering is undertaken as a welfare facility food cost targets and cost ceiling are invariably imposed from above either in total or n a per unit basis.

The main objective of food cost control may be summarized as follows

Analysis of Income and Expenditure---

In financial accounts stress is usually placed on an ascertainment of total quantities e.g. sales, cost of sales, gross profit and net profit. In food cost control on the other hand, much stress is placed on the analysis of such total quantities as between the various departments of the business. We are thus not satisfied with the ascertainment of the total gross profits of the business as a whole, but attempt to ascertain the cost of the profit on each dept. and each unit produced.

Pricing of food and quotations

Another major objective of food cost control is to provide a sound basis for menu pricing and quotations in respect of banquets and special parties. While often, menu prices are fixed by caterers by reference to price charged by competitors the correct approach to the problem is to determine menu and other price in the right of the main posts and market considerations. Thus in addition to be knowledge of prices charged by competitors, the customers spending power etc. It is necessary to take into account the cost of the establishment. This can only be done by installing a sound system of food cost control.

Prevention of waste and inefficiencies

As already noted, the purpose of control is to ensure that current results are in accordance with the predetermined objectives of the business. In variably, such objectives are expanded in terms of targets for turnover, cost ceiling and profit margins. Clearly in such targets are to be reached, all possible forms of waste and inefficiencies, a system of food cost control must cover the whole field of catering operation from the purchase of the food stuffs to the sales of the meals. It will be appreciated that as the catering process along the line. Linking the purchase of food stuffs to the sales of the meals, there are numerous critical area (e.g. receipt of the incoming goods preparation of meals and cash control) at which considerable losses may be incurred. An effective system of food cost control will therefore place particular stress on such critical areas of control and in this way help the establishment to reach its pre determined targets.

Data for management reports

An important function to be fulfilled by the food cost control system is the provision of data for periodical reports on food operations. It is said that the manager is like a judge. His judgment is only as good as the information supplied to him. Effective catering management pre supposes adequate food cost reporting which can only based on a sound system on control.

OBSTRACLES TO FOOD COST CONTROL

In many respects food cost control is more difficult than system of control in operation in other industries. The specific factors which make food cost control relatively more difficult are discussed here

Unpredictability of the volume of business

Sales instability is inherent in almost all catering operations. The changes, which occur in the volume of catering, are of several kinds. Firstly, the intensity of demand food and drink will most cases vary during the day. As a result in the majority of establishments it is possible to observe more or less, peaks of activity during the workday. Secondly there are changes in the volume of business occurring from one day to the next. Finally in the catering establishments which are to some degree seasonal (resorts) turnover in season will be considerably greater than in the off season.

Perishable of food

Food is perishable both as raw material and in the form of prepared meals. This presents the catering business with two major problems. Firstly when buying perishable food stuffs it is necessary to ensure that while current suppliers are adequate there is no over buying. This applies particularly to highly to highly perishable items such as salads and certain vegetables. Secondly the quantity of food prepared for each service should be in line with the anticipated demand.(forecast) Over production also leads to wastage because most of the times this excess is not suitable for resale there by leading spoilage and wastage.

Daily variation of food production

In addition to changes in volume of sales there is continual change in the assortment of meals produced by catering units. The assortment of meals will change from one meal to another. All shifts or emphasis entail, considerable problems relating to all phases of the catering cycle and present many control problems relating to the purchase of the foodstuffs, preparation of the meals, pricing cash collection etc.The nature of the products require considerably more control than is the case in many other industries.

Short cycle of operation

Another characteristic feature of catering establishments which presents an accurate control problem is the short cycle of operations. Whilst in many other manufacturing units the time taken by the production process sometimes lasts weeks.(from the time of purchase of raw material to the sale of the finished product.) in a catering operation the cycle is fairly short and lasts at the most of a couple of days. Therefore there is little time to exercise control and remedial action if and when required. As a result checks are done respectively. Hence a daily and at times weekly control checked to be applied.

QUANTITY FO

Determination of food needs

Determination of food needs is a major phase of the total purchasing responsibility. “Needs” refer to quality as well as quantity both are closely inter

Quantities of food needed are based on the number of persons to be served, the size portion to be given, and the amount of waste and shrinkage loss involved in the preparation of foods. This general procedure may be used in determining amounts of meats, poultry, fruits and vegetables f

Records of meal census may be used for good advantage to determine preset numbers to be served.

Standardized recipes give portion sizes and quantities required for prepared foods. Knowledge of wholesale weights and sizes for various commodities helps the buyer to translate his quantity needs into appropriate units of purchase.

Systematic ordering procedure

The complexity of purchasing system will depend on the size and type of organization and established management policies. Procedures should be as simple as possible, with record keeping and paper work limited to those essential for control and communication.

Good purchasing system include the use of specification and appropriate buying method, a systematic ordering schedule, and maintenance of an adequate flow of goods to meet production requirements. A system of communicating needs from the production areas and the store room to the buyer is essential. Establishing a minimum and maximum stock level provides a means of altering the buyer to needs, particularly regarding canned and frozen foods and staples.

Frequency of purchases and the amount of food purchased at one time is fairly dependent on the amount of money in hand, the method method of buying frequency of deliveries, and space for inventory stock, with adequate and suitable storage, the of staples may vary from a 2 to 6 month supply, with perishables weekly and or daily

A well organized purchasing routine will save time, eliminate error, and give assurance that the right food will be at the right place when needed.

Methods of buying The following methods of buying may be adopted for quantity food purchasing.

1. Informal or the open market.

2. Formal competitive bid buying.

3. Negotiated buying, a semiformal method.

4. Future contracts.

Specifications --- After the use has been determined, the food buyer must determine the specifications for each quality of food desired, define in detail the specifications of each standard, and proceed to locate a product that will meet these standards. Specifications should be brief and simple but complete.

Selection of foods Familiarity with grade standards for each commodity, it is essential to understand the levels of quality foods. Also, the buyer must know the market forms available the corresponding units of purchase, including size and weight various standards specifications may be set different types of food viz. meats, fish, poultry vegetables, fruits, groceries, dairy product, cereals, fats and oils beverages etc. the food must be sealed in accordance to the set standard specifications.

Storage The proper storage of food immediately after it has been received and checked is an important factor in the prevention and control of loss or waste.

INDUSTRIAL CATERING

Catering plays a vital role in every field of the work either it is hospital, institutes, mobiles and of curse industries. In industry, the people are enrolled in plenty amount and they need a healthy food and a healthy diet for their growth. Now days, the catering is fulfilling the needs of the staff. Either it is a private industry or it is a government industry. The staffs who work in night shifts need more nutritional food so that they can perform well. If they work a lot without getting a nutritious food, they will get illness easily. It is the duty of the catering manager hired in the industry to provide a balanced diet to the staffs.

POINTS TO BE CONSIDER FOR INDUSTRIAL CATERING

1. Menu planning according to the taste of the employees.

2. Providing enough variety.

3. Having a cycle menu.

4. Inclusion of seasonal items

5. Special menu of pre

6. Change of menu of every month or depend on the establishment.

7. Hygienic operations. a) b) Quantity of food is judiciously decided according to the nature of the work of c) avoid affections

TYPES OF MEALS SERVED

1) Corporate meal it comprises of soup, one Indian or continental main dish, bread, rice &dessert.

2) Working lunch/ Low calorie meal/Health food It comprises of soup or bread, S/W with Low calorie butter or boiled seasonal veg/Fruits.

3) Full meals for corporate It comprises of soup/bread or/w/salad /dal /rice & chapatti/sweet dish (home made products)

4) Industrial meals

a) Rice or rice preparation, e)one potato preparation b) Chapatti/puri/Bhakri f)Dal or Kadhi c) One seasonal veg g)curd/raita d) Papad, pickle & salad

5) Menu Types Punjabi, Gujarati or other regional cuisine, Continental, Chinese Mexican & Italian.

SHORTCOMINGS OF THIS FORM OF CATERING

1. Individual taste cannot be catered,

2. The budget available can sometime act as big constraints in going beyond the ordinary menu.

3. Strict portion control means people who eat indifferent quantities become difficult to entertain.

4. Entire service operation becomes rushed or speeded up as there is a time constrains to feed the specified no. of people in a limited time.

5. Even cycle menu tends to become boring & monotonous, after a certain time.

6. Arranging adequate facilities and being able to manage them with a challenge i.e. space of dining area, sitting arrangement, food and beverage service etc.

MENU PLANNING

DEFINITION:

Menu planning means to compose a series of meals. Composing a good menu is an art and it needs careful selection of dishes, for the different selection of dishes for the different courses, So that each dish can harmonize with the other. Menu is a French word meaning minute. Menu is a list of food items. It objects is to present a list of dishes and Courses, eatables and beverages. One is needed a thorough knowledge of food, finance & market, management for compiling a menu. A food planner must possess the following abilities:

1) To know his customer likes and dislikes.

2) Should be able to identify the different products f

3) To know the availability of different food product as per different seasons.

4) To know how to prepare the food items, plate and serve them, so that food can be consumed by the guest.

5) To have the sound knowledge of food costing in order and achieve higher profits.

6) Should know which food items are compatible with each order for an effective service of food.

7) Should posses and knowledge of the yield of different food products.

HORS D’OEUVRES: It is a native of Russia where traditionally in a banquet before sitting down, a series of cold fish and similar items were set for the dinners in the lobby or side room with a glass of vodka chilled in a shot glass kept all around for the guests to try a few piece and gulp down and enter the main banquet room for sit down meal.

SOUPS: A soup is an extract of vegetables, meat, fish and poultry appropriately thickened by its own pulp or by additional thickening with suitable garnishes and accompaniments to change the texture and taste in the mouth. Besides, there are few soups which are clear and thin rich in nutrients, but very light to digest to given to young ones, anyone who prefers a light starter.

FISH: It is the first solid diet, rather semi solid diet which is light and soft in texture, easy to digest and takes very little time to cook. People living in coastline, on the side of riverbanks and water bodies are voracious fish eaters. It provides excellent source of protein, calcium, phosphorous and also good cholesterol, fatty acids. The richest source of vitamin A and also D, E, K. Fish can be cooked in many ways like frying, sautéing, baking, grilling, poaching, steaming. Sole is very famous fish used in French and Indian preparation.

ENTRÉE:This is a course which often confuses the mind of reader as it has a large no. of different items which could be termed as course by themselves. Entrée is a French word meaning entrance, perhaps of first meat course prepared by simple methods of cooking like grilling, frying etc. somehow, few other specific items other than meat are also put under this entrée. Snacks items like hot dog, ham burger, grilled and open sandwiches are few exmp. Of entrée.

RELEVÉ: Presently a set of dishes which are prepared in complicated manner with plenty of accompaniments, garnishes and sauces served separately are called relevés. Roasting and braising predominates besides stewing, but sometimes even spit roasting of large pieces of meat, poultry are also put under relevé course. Indian curries specially the gorgeous ones with their supplementary dishes are also called relevé or main course.

SORBET:It is identified with the recess between a large no of courses in a banquet, where it is given to flush the already ingested cleanse the upper elementary canal, allowed to settle beyond duodenum. It is a water ice sometimes crushed or at times in form of lumps flavoured, colored, occasionally sweetened, with variety of substances like essences and flavouring, wines and spirits, juices and medicines, variety of sweeteners like honey invert sugar, caramel and glucose.

ROAST/ROTI: As the word roast stands; is the best method of cooking meat which is a slow, dry oven cooking. It allows succulent juices and fine flavour to be retained in the flesh, but sometimes upper layer tends to becomes to little hard and scaly. The regular basting is required during cooking to avoid turning of upper layer hard. Game birds are popular items served which requires great care otherwise the taste would not be palatable.

LÉGUMES/ VEGETABLES: Vegetables course becomes a main course by itself. The traditional vegetables which constitute this course are expensive items like asparagus, artichoke, broccoli, black mushrooms etc. they may be cooked simply either boiled or steamed, decorated with fancy cuts of cheaper vegetables around them.

ENTREMET/SWEET: Sweets are always served after the relevé/main course. On a menu if a combination of sweets both hot and cold are included, hot is placed first followed by cold.

SAVOURY: These are snacks which are invented to handle lunch time work place meals or working lunch. Sandwich is the flagship of all savouries and snacks. DESSERT: More often than not dessert represents a sweet course. The great advantage of fruit that is now being promoted by health practitioners they contain antioxidants and neutralize free radicals.

TEA/COFFEE

TYPES OF MENU

Table D’hôte:- fixed course menu with fixed price, 3 4 5 course, cooked in advance, changed daily or rotation wise. Helps to economize.

Carte De Jour:- sometimes insert in a la carte menu, some establishments have a set pattern for their daily card, e.g.

Roast chicken Monday

Fish n chips Tuesday

Curry n rice Wednesday

A La Carte: means the presentation of a menu for a long sequence of dishes and courses, individually priced, dishes are cooked to order, portions are larger than TDH menu. There is a wide choice of dishes, takes time for preparation.

Banquet:- composed for a no. of people, dishes should be compiled to suit the occasion, menu should be elaborate and high class quality. Fixed menu with no choice.

Buffet: 1) light buffet 2) fork buffet (lunch and supper)

Cocktail: mostly the snacks are served in the cocktail party, like winglets (chicken), murg malai tikka, paneer tikka, vol au vent (cheese balls) etc.

POINTS TO BE CONSIDER WHILE PLANNING A MENU:

1. Types of meal:

2. Types of establishments:

3. Types of customers: 4. Season of year

5. Occasion:- roast turkey at Christmas, halwa for baisakhi, sheer kurma for id

6. Capabilities of kitchen staff

7. Equipments of the kitchen

8. Price of menu: always give value for money. The food cost should not exceed 40% of the selling price at an average e.g. if the food cost per head is rs 2/ than:

Cost of food x 100

Gross profit subtracted = selling price of dish from 100= food % 2 x 100 = 5 Rs/

40

9.The balance of menu: Repetition of ingredients becomes monotonous

Repetition of color bound to look dull

Repetition of words limited knowledge and uninterested. Avoid overbalance of menu.

Texture of the courses

Seasoning

Garnishing

Food value: nutritional balanced Color: eye appeal, colorful garnish etc.

10. Wording of Menus

Select language which the guest can understand. If the menu is in French, give an English translation. Never use a mixture of languages Spelling of the words should be correct.

FACTORS AFFECTING MENU PLANNING

Availability of raw materials 

Skill level of the staff (more the skill, more variety available)  Climate or geographic condition. 

Regional influence (Punjabi, Bengali&Gujrati). 

Balancing of Menu. (Nutritional).  Budget available. (Main factor).  Demand (special requirement). 

Available equipment. 

Type and size of establishment. (Pub, school & hospital etc.) 

Time of the day. (B/fast, lunch or special function) Time of the year. 

Pricing of the menu. (Main factor) 

Left over in hand.  Storage facility (food group

Type of service (Different service, different food e, Table d’hôte, buffet & plated) 

Policy of the establishment (beef, pork etc) 

Use menu language that customer understand.  No unnecessary repetition of ingredients from dish to dish.  Special days (Christmas, New Year etc) 

Profit margins.  Number of course.  Sequence of course.  No unnecessary repetitions of colour and flavors.  Be aware of the trade description act 1988.

INSTITUTIONAL CATERING

Initial stage of institutional catering in India is probably originated from ‘GURUKUL’ system students used to stay at teacher’s ‘Ashram’ to seek education. After that during 12th century, Nalanda University which was famous as the seat of highest learning not only in India but throughout Asia attracting scholars from china, Japan, Ceylon etc. till 1205 would have adopted institutional catering which is a vital element in hospitability industry based on the fact that the students tend to move from one place to another of their betterment of education and knowledge.

In modern world, institutional catering is responsible for health and welfare of younger generation as it involves catering to youth in schools, colleges and residential universities. These youthful in the age group 5 25 years. It has a social responsibility of developing good food habits among the children of the nation and helping to build a strong, healthy population. Food service in institutions differs in some aspects from those in hotel industry.

Common objectives as follows:

Food of good quality properly cooked and prepared.

Well balanced, varied menus.

Responsible prices consistent with service offered.

Adequate facilities.

High standard of cleanliness and sanitation. The responsibility of the caterer is not only to ensure the meals are nutritious but also the meal times are enjoyable.

The essential skill of cook and caterer are:

1. Skills of selecting,

2. Preparing and cooking food together with the skill of administration which becoming more important as services grow in size and complexity, must be matched by the concern to provide meals that will really appeal to the students.

3. In case of charging, there are fixed charges so budget is very tight, more over institutional catering works “No profit No loss” basis so all the costs must be within the budget.

TYPES OF INSTITUTIONAL CATERING

1. Profit oriented: Commercial canteen or restaurants within the premises of the institute, or companies running as a profit making unit. E.g. call centre.

2. Non-Profit oriented: - Catering establishment meaning on no profit, no loss basis. i.e. on breakeven cost basis, where these canteen neither incur a loss nor any profit.

3. Subsidized: - Catering unit serving a meal on special that are even less than the cost. Such canteen get funding on brunch from the organization they are situated in their various expenses. This type of service is undertaken for employee or student welfare.

MENU

To plan a menu of an institutional food service following points have to be taken into considerations:

1. It is a quantity production it is of a few products for each meal. So the menu should be simple and properly cooked ad palatable.

2. Generally a cycle menu is adopted but there should be some variety to keep up the appeal of the menu.

3. The nutritional aspect should be given.

4.Where there is lack of professional personnel in the kitchen so there is need for simple meals without any elaborate items.

Special Menu

In addition to the fixed menu, there should be some menus for special occasions and events. E.g. festival day, Parent and teacher’s day etc.

Equipments

· While selecting the equipments consideration should be given to:

· The original cost, installation cost, depreciation, insurance repairs.

Efficient use

· Mechanical efficiencies

Availability of spare parts. Menu choice, food quantities and meal hours.

Dining Hall

Consideration should be given to the physical, sociological and psychological atmosphere including both functional and aesthetic value. The location should provide plenty of light, air and the lace free from disagreeable odors, noxious fumes, noise etc. Environment should satisfy the customer senses as well s appetite.

POINTS TO BE CONSIDER FOR INSTITUTIONAL CATERING

1) School children generally a lot of physical energy at play. They are also at various stages of growth and so there nutritional needs would have to be considered. Some children have special requirements because of sickness or injury. So planning of balance diet suitable to their needs.

2) They are generally restless and do not like to spend too much time at the table eating. So menu have to provide dishes that are quick to eat and yet satisfy. Sometimes they can carry out the dining halls without messing themselves, such as burger, roll etc.

3) Children also tend to get bored with food easily, so menu need to provide variety in colour, texture, taste and flavors.

4) The climate and weather conditions are an important consideration too. In very dry and hot weather, children lose a lot of body water and salt through perspiration. The menus would need to introduce extra liquid and salt, because children do not generally like to drink plain water. In humid hot climates, the feeling is that of stress, discomfort etc. In such cases, meals need to provide cold food like ice cream, chilled juices and fruits, cold meat, crisp salad, cold soup and nourishing drinks. In cold climate extra energy is required to keep warm, i.e fried foods like croquettes, cutlets, kebabs, samosa, fried rice, hot bread, soup and hot beverages etc.

5) Children have varying appetites and often prefer snaky meals at frequent intervals, to a few large ones.

6) In general boys prefer foods with a higher satiety and calorie value than girls of the same age, who become figure conscious and prefer light, frequent but small meals. Also girls generally prefer food that one more spiced.

Therefore to consider all those factors when planning menu for children, in addition to making them cost effective, tempting& profitable

A DAY MENU FOR A BOYS BOARDING SCHOOL

BRAKFAST

Egg Butter Toast Milk Chappati, curd Milk Chappati, Rice Fresh fruit Rice carrot Halwa

The menu pattern has taken into consideration the following

A)The Indian Food habits which includes curry, dal and Indian dessert at dinner.

B)Boys needs nutritional balance provided by foods from all food group in each meal, satiety value through fried snacks, egg and halwa, take care of protein and extra calories for activities.

C)The menu provides in its formal, a lot of flexibility, so that different curry, Halwa, forms of egg, snacks, fruits and shake can be provide according to seasonal availability.

D)It may be noted that boys do not like salad, unless they are incorporated in S/W or rolls, which can be include in snacks.

CANTEEN MENU

Special for the day

Pizza Rs15

S/W Rs5

Asst fried snacks Rs8

Fruit Cake Rs6

Tea Rs3

Coffee Rs5 Cold drinks Rs10

Factors to be considered in menu planning

1. Habits of the customer for instance, if it is an office canteen, hot beverages will be demanded all day.

2. Purchasing power of

3. Favorites among customer especially included in the days special.

4. Easy to serve in disposable.

5. Satiety value and value for money.

7) Minimum on the spot Preparation.

8) Items which will provide attractive dis

PURCHASING

Once a Menu is planned a number of activities must occur to bring into reality. The first & most important stage is to Purchase. & receive the material needed to produce the Menu items. Skilful purchasing with good receiving can do much to maximize the results for a good menu.

There are 6 important steps to remember

(1) Know the market

(2) Determine purchasing needs (3) Establish & use specification (4) Design the purchase procedure (5) Receive & check the (6) Evaluate the purchasing task

Effective business management from creation of a business policy are to fold & to make sufficient profit in order to make an investment while & to provide & adequate product or service that satisfied the needs of market aimed at. The policy of business organization an essential ingredient of successful management is to carry out such policies, effectively. In a hotel & catering purchasing of material & equipment would be included in the company policy have an important role in its day today operation. Purchasing can be defined a function with search selection, purchase, receipt & storage of fixed use of commodities in accordance with catering policy of the establishment. Food purchasing is described as an art sense it required talent & satisfaction in judge in the right combination of colour, shape, size, consistency of food.

Since it involved knowledge of objective measurement of quality as a part of management, since it requires skill, overall utilization of resources. A.P. = As Purchased E.P. = Edible Portion Thus EP represents the actual usable portion of A.P. the A.P. foods. Weight after cooking * 100 % of Yield =

Weight before cooking

E. P. = A.P. Shrinkage (preparation loses)

Loses due to shrinkage * 100 % 0f Shrinkage (losses) = A. P. A.P. E.P. * 100 = A. P. 87

The function of purchasing in any hotel & catering operation are

(1) The identification of best sources of supplier

(2) Making arrangements with suppliers

(3) Liaison with departments of an operation regarding purchasing requirements & specifications

(4) Placing orders (5) Liaison with accounting function of an operation for payment of purchases

Principal of purchasing

(1) Establishing who is responsible for purchasing (2) Establishing standards & quality of materials or equipments to be purchased (3) Establishing the quality required (4) Establishing the most favorable price

Responsibility of Purchasing

It is important in all types of establishing that there are person who are responsible for purchasing job specification of personal manager

(1) Knowledge of material used & then uses which may be gained from some catering journal adds etc.

(2) An ability to communicate & co operation with other people (3) Ability to make sound judgments & guide decision (4) Organizational abilities to prepare & carry out efficient system work (5) Honesty & integrity Main duties of Purchase Manager

(1) Responsibility for the management of purchase (receiving sto (2) Purchasing of all commodities (3) Purchasing continuity f supply of all items to user dept.

(4) Finding cheaper & more efficient sources of supply without compromising in quality (5) Keeping up to date with all market being dealt with & evaluating new products (6) Research into products, market & price trends etc. (7) Co ordaining with production dept. to standardize commodities

Importance of purchasing function

Policies----

a) Determines what market requirement is aimed at? b) Determines price to be paid for purchases & prices that items are to be sold at, c) Determines the quality to be purchased,

Menu Determines the choice of items available to customer

Volume forecasting---Determines the quality to be purchased, Requisition indicated the particular requirements of each outlet, Purchasing Receiving Storing, Lack =Production Sale Control 88

PURCHASING PROCEDURE

(1) A requisition from authority member of staff conforming the purchase manager of low stock level, (2) The selection of source of supply, (3) Entering into contracts with the supplier by phone rich writing negotiating the price to be paid and a satisfactory delivery paid with a particular reference to date and place of delivery, (4) The acceptance of goods order and the adjustment of any discrepancy in quality of form of goods delivered, (5) The transfer of commodities to ordinary department

Whatever, the type of establishment may be a sound purchased policy should be implemented.

Various types of purchasing system used are

1)

Purchasing by contract

There are two types

(a) The specifics Period contract (b) Quantity contract or standing order

The specific period contract

Reduce time and labour Advantage of budgeting and pric

Quantity contract

Contract is either two parts

a) General conditions Period of contract where deliveries are to be made. Invoice, method of payment, sample of commodities.

b) Particular specifications In case of contract purchasing over a period of time may range from three months to a year, when a supplier agrees to supply certain goods for that period at a fixed price. This type of contract is used for items, which remain finally stable in price, such as daily and bakery produce.

For items, having fluctuating prices such as meat and fish, provisions should be made in contract for receiving the falling prices. The second type of contract purchasing concerns specific quantity of food over a trading period. This is used most commonly for frozen foods and dry goods and involves the purchase agreeing to buy a set quantity of goods during the trading period with delivery phased at weekly, fortnightly or monthly intervals.

ADVANTAGES

1. Continuity of supply at a fixed price.

2. Time saving by eliminating price and supply negotiation.

3. Avoiding the need to hold high stocks to gain bulk buying discuss.

4. Avoiding over ordering of items.

5. Regular ordering and delivery procedures set up.

DISADVANTAGES

1. Inflexibility in choice of suppliers.

2. Advantages of specific and special offers or price cuts may be eliminating.

3. Suppliers may take customer for granted.

4. Difficulty in changing suppliers in case of inconsistency

2) Purchasing by daily market list/ open market quotations

This method of purchasing to the most widely used method. In general it works best for most operations and it is the recommended method. According to this method, you get prices from two or more suppliers per product. It could seem logical to simply select the favors whose quotations is lowest price. It could not be sensible is choose lowest quoting supplier by compressing low quality. This method can be used for perishable foods.

Daily market list

S.NO C

The advantages of this system are

1. The purchaser able to select the most competitive price from different suppliers.

2. It makes the suppliers price quotations more competitive.

3. It ensures the availability of suppliers.

4. Suppliers only quote against your purchase specification.

5. It assists the purchase in selecting the most economic ordinary quantity.

Disadvantages

1. It may be time consuming.

2. It is impracticable for small establishment due to the volume and suppliers required making it uneconomic for suppliers to quote or offer such a service.

3. Suppliers who offer a better service than others may not be as competitive in price thus the establishment may not benefit such services.

3)Purchasing by weekly/Fortnightly quotations list

It is used for nonperishable grocessary items and similar to daily market list.

4)Purchasing by cash and carry methods

An I.O. U. (I Owe You) against which money is used you purchase committee or terms and market but survey is conducted on the spot. It is generally uses for perishables. The team decides there and then to buy from the most competitive bidder keeping in mind quality and price, and the items are purchase at random.

5) Purchasing by paid reserve

This method is used for items which are not available throughout the year and also. They could be scarcity of the same. Therefore an advance payment is made to the supplier for procuring the same either frozen prawns.

Total supply/one stop shopping

In this method only one supplier is used for getting all types of commodities. This system is more prevalent abroad. Its advantages are 1. Less paper work 2. Only one supplier is allowed tested for best quality and delivery performance. 3. It is more economical method, as you don’t have to get in contract with no. of people.

6) Cost plus method it is applicable for welfare sector of industry. In this method cost plus overheads are only charged for.

7) Sealed bid method or competitive bid method

It is used mostly by govt. Institute, which usually are obligated by govt. procedure to take the lowest prices offered. The request for seal bid is asked from various faveyors and the farveyors who submits to the lowest bid fulfilling specification go to the order for the time period. As long as the specifications are followed exactly, the job to the lowest bidder, no other factors are considered.

8)Blank check method

This is where you need commodity but you do not know the exact cost, therefore you send a signed blank check to the suppliers. For this you must establish special checking A/C with a specified minimum balance in the account.

9) Purchasing from van sales

This method of purchasing is used n more rural areas, by smaller establishments, in general local suppliers woe vans or lorries carrying range of their products and visit establishments a regular basis for the caterer to make his purchases direct from the van and pay or a monthly account The most common types of trades who supply this service are fruit and vegetable merchants brokers and frozen food traders.

SPECIFICATIONS

It may be defined as the description of a particular commodity in terms of its size, quality or condition and weight or count specification, which are very important in purchasing any product, specially foods, represent the technical language in which, the buyer communicates the seller as to what is actually needed.

Specification are determined by Management team which comprises of the purchasing officer, head chef and F&B manager keeping in mind catering policy, mean requirement and rice range.

Reasons for establishing specification are

1. It establishes a buying standard of a commodity.

2. It is because of the reason that a standard product is available for kitchen and restaurant to prepare for customer.

3. It informs the suppliers in written form what is required and assists the supplier to be competitive in his pricing.

4. It provides detailed information to the goods received clerk and store man at to the standard of foods to accept.

Factors necessary in writing specification are

They should be clear concise, complete and simple description.

1. They should be based on management policy and should be viewed on requirement.

2. They should be based on lists and objective measurements that are recognized and relatively easy to conduct.

3. They should be accurate and specific with o room for interpretation.

4. They must be used and revised to increase then usefulness.

5. They must be based on consideration of technical advancements and improvements.

Standard purchase specification should have the following information

1. The common trade of brand name of the product.

2. The name and size of the basic items.

3. Weight, size or count.

4. The ranges in weight, thickness or size.

5. The degree of maturity or stage of ripening.

6. Type of packaging desired.

7. Special notes for commodity either meat.(cut of meat)

Since buying is a very specialized function the person in charge should be aware of the various aspects of the food service system and should possess the following necessary skills and experience.

1. An awareness of market and market procedures.

2. Knowledge of the items to be purchased and then use in food service.

3. The capability of forecasting needs and responding to the fluctuating market situation.

4. An understanding of the various system with in food service operation as well as their inter relationship.

5. The capability of to understand and set specifications understand test data and experience in the proper use of such specification.

6. Knowledge of different grades and food qualities.

7. The capability of judging quality by objective or subjective evaluations.

8. A decision making capability.

9. A knowledge of food processing food leveling, nutritional information and other related information

STORING

Storage and store procedures are an integral part of any food and beverage control system. Therefore no matter how efficient an organization’s purchasing procedure may be, bad storage conditions and procedures would have an adverse affect on the standard of food or drink sold. Eventually this would result in organization failing to achieve their required cost and profit target.

Storage of materials and equipment

The purpose of efficient storage conditions is to maintain materials or commodities in the condition in which they were purchased and for them to be safe until they are issued to the appropriate dept. for use and sale to the customer.

Correct storage requirements of commodities

The different types of commodities will require separate storage conditions in order to maintain or improve then condition and quality. These commodities are split up into the general categories of meats fish, fresh fruit and vegetable, frozen foods, tined foods, dry goods and cleaning material.

Meats

All sizes, quarters or whole carcasses of meat should be hanged in a cold room at a temp. of 0*C to 1*C with a space between to the free circulation of air with drip trays placed.

Poultry and game of withdrawn should be hanging at a temp. Of 0 *C to 1*C with the exception of version or rabbits which should be hanging at a temp. Of 3 *C to 4*C. Drawn poultry should be stored on slotted shelves at 0 to 1 c and gave place or metal trays at the save temp.

Fish Wet fish should be stored in a separate special type of refrigerator with perforated non rust trays allowing the fish to drain and permitting easy cleaning of refrigerator. Fish should be placed on crushed ice on a wet cloth covered with another cloth and crushed ice being stored at a temp. of 1c, shell fish should be placed in boxes crushed ice, being stored at a temp. of not lower than 3c.Both wet fish and shell fish should be stored for minimum period of time possible

Fresh fruit and vegetable

All types of fresh fruit & vegetables need careful storage preferably a room where no sunlight. The room should be dry, cold and well ventilated with bins for root vegetable, fruit and vegetable deteriorate quickly and therefore be available to enable is stock rotation by fruit and melons should be refrigerated at 1to 2c. 93

Dairy product

Most dairy products with the exception of cheeses should be stored either a refrigerator or cold room at a temp. 0to 4c.Milk should be stored in a container in which either is delivered and kept covered because it will absorb strong smells, especially those of fish onion and cheese. Cheese should be stored in a cool place which is dry and well ventilated. Because of its strong smell, cheese should be kept away from other items, if whole cheeses are to be stored for a period, they should be rotated occasionally.

Frozen foods

There are a great variety of frozen foods in either an uncooked or cooked state and these should be stored at a temp.at least 10c. The lower the temp.of a freezer means foods can be kept for a longer time. All foods should be kept frozen until needed but time must be allowed for defrosting before issuing. Foods should be kept on plastic coated trays in upright deep freezers and I a plastic type bas

Tined items

Tinned foods should be stored either a dry, well ventilated store to prevent them from resting blown tins by gases should be discarded or returned to supplier as arrangement may be either bacteria or tin platting being attached by the food. Dented tins should be used immediately before they rust and eventually puncture through corrosion.

Dry goods

Are sugar, flour, pulses, preserve foods such as jams, pickle, dried fruits, tea, coffee, bread etc.The condition of storage for the same is dry, cool, and well ventilated. They could be kept in bins with lid. Some dry goods require air tight lids either tea or coffee and milk etc.

CONVENIENCE FOODS

• Convenience foods can cost more than the same foods you make at home.

• Choose them carefully. Make foods at home, if you have the time.

What adds to the cost of convenience foods?

Packaging Precooking Seasoning and sauces

• Advantages of Convenience Foods

• Less preparation time

• Reduced planning, buying, and storing of ingredients.

• Fewer leftovers

• More variety, especially for inexperienced cooks.

• Faster and easier clean up

• Storability

•

Disadvantages of Convenience Foods

• May be less meat, fish, or cheese than you would include in homemade versions.

• Cooking time is sometimes increased for thawing or longer baking time.

• Harder to control fat, salt and sugar levels.

• Cost per serving may be higher than homemade.

•

High Cost Convenience

• Frozen vegetables with sauce

• Coating mixes

• Carry out or deli items

• Frozen entrees or dinners

• Instant hot cereals

• Fancy bakery items

• Ready to use frosting

• Frozen pancake batter

• Meat “helpers”

• Seasoned rice

• Frozen juice concentrate

• Cake and pancake dry mixes

• Canned vegetables and fruits

• Plain frozen vegetables

• bread, crackers, rolls

• Instant mashed potatoes

• Spaghetti sauce

• Instant nonfat dry milk

• Mac and cheese dry mix

• Canned condensed soups

• Frozen French fries

Some convenience foods are cheaper than homemade because….

• Mass production and distribution are more cost efficient.

• Transportation is cheaper for packaged foods, especially in concentrated form

• Original purchase costs take advantage of bulk prices and seasonal production

• Less spoilage and waste occurwith packaged convenience items.

Low Cost ConvenienceThree Levels of Convenience

• Basic canned, frozen, or dried foods with one or very few ingredients.

Instant potatoes

Frozen juice concentrates

Canned vegetables

• Complex several ingredients with more time saving processing, these often cost more than homemade.

• Manufactured

Relatively expensive because of production technology

• Carbonated beverages

• Instant breakfast

• Ready to eat cereals

• Instant coffee

•

VEGETABLE PIGMENTS

Pigment class Indicative colors Roles in plants Foods rich in these pigments

Potential value to humans Chlorophy ll (fatsoluble)

green harvest light; initiate photosynthesis

redorange yellow

green vegetables help deactivate carcinogens Carotenoi ds (fatsoluble: eat with a little fat)

attract pollinators and seed dispersers accessory photosynthetic pigment in

carrot, sweet potato, winter squash, pumpkin, green leafy vegetables,

protect immune system, skin and epithelial cells, prevent heart disease, cancer, macular

Anthocyan ins (water soluble: don’t throw out cooking water) light, improve plant tolerance to stress such as drought, UV B, and heavy metals, resist disease, scavenge free radicals.

purple berries, black beans

prevent, forestall, related cognitive declines diseases; improve night vision and other vision disorders, protect against heart disease, insulin resistance, cancer; promote wound healing

Betalains (water soluble, never cooccur with anthocyani ns)

red, yellow powerful antioxidant beets (red and yellow), chard, spinach, fruit of prickly pear cactus

antioxidant, may protect against heart disease, various cancers, ulcers, liver damage

RAISING AGENT

CHEMICAL RAISING AGENTS

The main two Chemical Leaveners used in Baking are:

Baking Powder and Baking Soda. Baking Powder is a blend of acid (most commonly calcium acid phosphate, sodium aluminum sulphate or cream of tartar) and alkali (baking soda/sodium bicarbonate). These create carbon dioxide bubbles when liquid and heat are added. Commercial baking powder uses several compounds which gives it a double action. It acts when liquid is added and once again when heat is added after you put your product in the oven.

You can make up your own baking powder raising agent for one teaspoon: mix 1/2 teaspoon cream of tartar with 1/4 teaspoon baking soda. If you decide to mix up your own BE AWARE! You must put your product straight into the oven the addition of liquid starts the chemical reaction. If you leave it standing pre Made' raising agent will be ‘spent’ before baking starts. Unlike commercial baking powder, it only has the one action when you add moisture.

Baking Soda (Bicarbonate of Soda), is used when there is already an acid ingredient in the recipe such as:

Applesauce, buttermilk, brown sugar, chocolate, cocoa powder, cream of tartar, honey, lemon juice, molasses, vinegar.

When baking soda comes in contact with an acid and liquid is added, carbon dioxide (CO2), water and a neutral salt are produced. Care must be taken with how much baking soda is used. If too much a ‘soapy’ aftertaste remains and the product bakes darker. If not enough is used an acid flavour remains.

Baking soda is much stronger than baking powder. The general rule is to use 1 to 1 1/4 teaspoons baking powder per half cup of flour, (4ozs/100g). Baking soda should be added at 1/4 teaspoon per half cup of flour, (4ozs/100g). How do these chemical leaveners work?

When carbon dioxide is released by either baking soda and/or baking powder, it first dissolves in the liquid. When this becomes saturated, the carbon dioxide produced turns into the air bubbles which expand. Towards the end of baking the bubbles set. You have a well risen product showing tiny air holes when cut.

Nb. At higher altitudes less baking powder/soda is required. Low pressure has an effect on carbon dioxide and makes it expand more. If you do not use less Raising Agent your baking will end up with a poor texture.

MECHANICAL ACTIONS as Raising Agents:

The physical actions of creaming, kneading, beating, and whisking will incorporate tiny air bubbles which expand when heat is added. The addition of flour gives structure for the air bubbles to work against you get rise. This structure is fixed in the oven by heat.

Creaming Method: Fat and sugar are creamed together until the sugar crystals melt and the whole mass takes on the consistency of whipped cream. Use castor sugar which has a small crystal size. It will combine with the fat far easier than granulated sugar, which has a larger crystal. The creaming method incorporates air into the mixture which is held in place by the semi solid fat. These bubbles expand during baking allowing the batter to rise. Care must be taken once flour is added. This should be folded in carefully to avoid development of the gluten lattice structure. You will get a cake with a better texture and more rise by using special cake flours here they are low in gluten.

Kneading is a process used in bread making. Yeast liquid is dispersed into high gluten flour to make a dough. The mechanical action of kneading the dough, either by hand or machine, develops the gluten strands which form into a lattice structure. As gentle warmth is applied, carbon dioxide is released by the yeast and is trapped in pockets, These continue to expand until heat is applied during baking. Heat kills the yeast off and fixes the gluten's lattice structure in place, which leaves you with a well

Beating: Certain procedures in baking require you to use a ‘beating’ method generally where heat is involved. If you are making Hot Water Crust Pastry you would bring water and butter to the simmer stage in a pan. Flour is added and the ‘batter’ is beaten until combined. Use as the pastry for ‘Raised’ Pies. This pastry has a much stronger structure allowing pies to be cooked without a tin. The same principal applies when making Choux Pastry. Flour is added to a hot water/butter mixture. Raw egg is then beaten in. The egg gives the rise with this pastry.

Whisking: When volume has to be added then the whisking method is used. Meringues are made by whisking egg whites with sugar until the volume is six to eight times more than you began with. Gentle heat applied over several hours dries out the meringue and leaves a crisp, sweet confection. Fatless sponge cakes require whole egg and sugar to be whisked together to achieve a high volume. Cake flour is gently folded in. Air incorporated into the egg gives volume and lightness to the cake.

NATURAL LEAVENERS as Raising Agents:

Yeast is a natural leavener. Give it food, moisture, warmth and air and it will grow. During this ‘fermentation’ process the carbon dioxide gas released by it is trapped in tiny air cells. These continue to expand and push up against the latticed gluten structure and you have rise! The lattice structure is formed and developed when water is added to the wheat protein (gluten), and then kneaded together.

It takes about 2 hours using fresh, active dry, or, instant active dry yeast, for the bread to complete this proving stage. The baking process stops the action of yeast cells by killing them and fixing the lattice structure of the wheat protein (gluten). Sourdough a natural process using air borne yeast cells can take up to 24 hours to reach the stage for baking. This lengthy process produces bread with a wonderful aroma and flavour.

Eggs are another natural raising agent. The white of egg (albumen) is whisked up with sugar until it is six to eight times its volume. Again, the addition of heat causes the albumen to coagulate and fixes the structure in place. The yolk of the egg when whisked with sugar again expands in volume by air being incorporated into it. The addition of flour gives the structure which hold the air bubbles in place.

Eggs have many uses in baking. They make things rise such as in soufflés and sponge cakes. They can thicken as in custards and sauces. They can be used to add a lovely finishing colour to pastries. They emulsify and soften texture. With frostings, eggs stop the sugar from crystallising. In general, eggs add colour, flavour, richness, and they lighten the mixture.

Eggs come in different sizes though most recipes call for a large egg to be used which is 2ozs (50g) in weight. The yolk is 1/3rd of the egg, the white 2/3rds. The yolk contains all of the fat and most of the nutrients while the white contains albumen. Care must be taken in using fresh eggs due to a problem with Salmonella. Raw egg should not be eaten. If raw egg is to be used for eating without cooking, it should be pasteurised. In Baking, this is not usually a problem as significant heat is usually applied.

There are other eggs available than hen eggs. The most common being duck, goose and quail. They are not the easiest to use in baking as the fat content is significantly higher making them far richer. This causes issues with liquid to fat ratio in recipes.

Steam is the most basic of raising agents, but also the most complex in technique. In puff pastry, the layers of butter and pastry are heated. The butter lets off steam which pushes up against the pastry leaves and you get rise. Once the steam has evaporated, the pastry leaves are set in place by heat during baking. With choux pastry and Yorkshire puddings, steam is released from the wet batter which pushes up against the gluten lattice and you get a puffed up pastry, again, fixed by the heat of the oven. In both cases, strong flour is necessary to give a lattice structure which will not break through the force of steam. All raising agents (leaveners) work on the same principal, be it Chemical, Mechanical or Natural. Gasses expand, push up against a structure, you get rise, which is fixed by the heat of the oven. It is by using ingredients and baking techniques in the correct manner which ensures success when you Bake.

CHEESE

INTRODUCTION

‘Cheese’ is defined as a ripened or unripened milk product which is obtained by coagulation with help of bacteria or enzyme.

PROCESSING/MANUFACTURING OF CHEESE

Cheese making is a linear process, it involves many factors. Numerous varieties of cheese exist because ending the simple preparation process at different points can produce different cheeses, as can varying additives or procedures. Cheese making has long been considered a delicate process. The cheese making process steps are as follows:

Preparing the milk: The milk is used either fresh or one day before. The milk is pasteurized and heated above 320C, to kill the bacteria present in milk. The lactic acid/rennet (an enzyme) is added into milk which causes coagulation of milk protein into curd/cheese.

Separating the curd from the whey: Once the milk is curdled, the curds are cut both vertically & horizontally with knives. To make soft cheese, the curds are cut both ways using a large pieces or chunks. While hard cheeses are cut into tiny chunks, for e.g. for making cheddar cheese, the space between the knives is about one twentieth of an inch or half cm. after cutting, the curds may be heated to hasten the separation. When separation is completed, the whey

Pressing the curds: The whey is separated as per the making of cheese for e.g. if soft cheese is manufactured, it must contain moisture, soft cheese such as cottage cheese are not aged. While making hard cheese, the whey must be separate out completely. Then the curd is molded/ put into molds. Here, they are pressed to give proper shape & size.

Aging the cheese: At this stage the cheese may be inoculated (vaccinated) with a flavouring mold, bathed in brine, or wrapped in muslin cloth or hay before being deposited in a place of the proper temperature and humidity to age. Some cheeses are aged for a month, some for up to several years. Aging sharpens the flavour of cheese. For e.g. cheddar aged more than two years.

Wrapping natural cheese: some cheeses may develop a rind naturally, as their surfaces dry. Other rinds may form from the growth of bacteria that has been sprayed on the surfaces of the cheese. Still other cheeses are washed, and this process encourages bacterial growth. In place of or in addition to rinds, cheeses can be sealed in a cloth or wax. Large quantities of cheese are packaged for sale in distant countries.

Making & wrapping processed cheese: cheeses such as emmental (commonly called Swiss), gruyere (similar to Swiss), cheddar are cut up and very finely ground. After this, powder has been mixed with water to form a paste, other ingredients such as salt, fillers, emulsifiers, preservatives and flavourings are added. While still warm & soft, the cheese paste is extrudded into long ribbons that are sliced. The small shee sts of cheese are then put onto a plastic or foil sheet and wrapped by a machine.

CLASSIFICATION OF CHEESE

The classification of cheese is as follows:

Soft cheese

Semi hard cheese Hard cheese

· Blue vein cheese

Unripped cheese OR · Soft cheese

Bloomy rind cheese · Washed rind cheese

Pressed uncooked cheese · ·

SOFT CHEESE: This type of cheese is creamy and smooth. They are based on cow’s milk, skimmed or unskimmed and sometimes enriched with cream. They are neither fermented nor natural.

BLOOMY RIND CHEESE: pressed nor cooked. They are salted.

WASHED RIND CHEESE: They are raw or pasteurized milk cheese that comes from the north of France. The maturation period lasts from two to six months. Then cheese are washed in slightly salted brine. These cheese are rather spicy and full of aroma. They can smell yeasty or almost meaty.

PRESSED UNCOOKED CHEESE: The raw milk is heated at 360C and coagulated at a slightly lower temperature. The curds are fragmented into tiny particles, as the size of rice, grains and pressed through muslin cloths to extract the whey. The maturation takes two to three months. The rind is brushed to obtained patina (layer) and prevents humidity. 

PRESSED COOKED CHEESE: Hard pressed, cooked cheese is semi hard, pressed cooked cheese. These cheeses are made by using the evening’s milk, left to stand overnight and skimmed, mixed with that the next morning. Maturation takes place in a cool, humid cellar and till last four to ten months, during which the cheese is washed in a low salted brine & scraped.

BLUE MOLD CHEESE: The blue mold is a strain of penicillium that is added to the milk before the rennet is added either in liquid or powder form. Mostly blue cheese are normally wrapped in foil to prevent them from drying out. They are neither pressed nor cooked. They are usually made from cow’s milk. 

NATURAL RIND CHEESE: these are mainly goat’s and sheep’s cheese. When young, they have a slightly wrinkled, cream coloured rind. In time they dry out, the wrinkles become more pronounced and flavour increases. Along with the growth of bluish gray mold. Their taste is fresh almost fruity. To mature, these cheeses must be kept dry. 

PROCESSED CHEESE: These are the results of melting one or more pressed cooked or uncooked cheeses and adding milk, cream, butter and sometimes flavoring agents.

TYPES OF CHEESE

NAME OF CHEESE

SOFT CHEESE Camembert Brie Bel Paese Limburger Feta

SEMI HARD CHEESE Brick USA Ervy Holland Primost Norway Munster France Mozzarella Italy

NAME OF CHEESE ORIGIN

HARD CHEESE

Parmesan Italy Cheddar England Gouda Holland Gruyere Switzerland Edam Holland

BLUE VEIN CHEESE

Gorgonzolla Italy Roquefort France Stilton England Blue Blue France Gammelost Norway 103

UNRIPENED CHEESE

Cream USA Ricotta Italy

Cottage cheese Holland

Quesco Blanco South America Montery Jack USA

CURING OF CHEESE

Cheese should always be eaten in good condition and it should always be fresh. Soft cheese should be refrigerated since it will get spoiled quickly whereas hard cheese can be stored at low temperature. It would be best if the unused cheese is kept in its original wrapper or it may be wrapped with a damp cloth to avoid drying out. Cheese is usually stored at 100

SUGAR

Sugar is the basic unit of carbohydrates. Sugar has two types of chemical composition: Monosaccharides it is obtained from fruits and honey.

· Disaccharides: which is obtained from milk, sugar cane and beetroot. Sucrose: which is found in disaccharides is commonly called sugar. Its chemical formula is C6H12O11.

TYPES OF SUGAR

Types of sugar

Characteristics

Brown sugar Pale brown, large

Castor sugar

· Icing sugar

· Granulated sugar

· Cube sugar

COOKING OF SUGAR VARIOUS

The temperature chart for cooked sugar is as follows:

Single thread 1010C

Triple thread 1040C Soft ball 1150C Hard ball 1200C Soft crack - 1400C Hard crack 1550C Caramel 1650C

USES OF SUGAR

Sugar can be used as follows:

· Cake decoration butter icing, royal icing.

Preservative jam, canned fruits.

Activator activates yeast for fermentation. Colouring caramelisation.

Sweetening agent sweet dishes.

Uses

Table sugar for fruits, sponge cake,

BUTTER

INTRODUCTION

Butter is a dairy product made by churning fresh or fermented cream or milk. It is generally used as a spread and a condiment, as well as in cooking applications, such as baking, sauce making, and pan frying. Butter consists of butterfat, water and milk proteins. Most frequently made from cow’s milk, butter can also be manufactured from the milk of other mammals, including sheep, goats, buffalo, and yaks. Salt, flavourings and preservatives are sometimes added to butter. Rendering butter produces clarified butter or ghee which is almost entirely butterfat. Butter remains a solid when refrigerated, nut softens to a spreadable consistency at room temperature, and melts to a thin liquid consistency at 32 350C. the density of butter is 911 kg/m3 .

TYPES OF BUTTER

CULTURED BUTTER: made from a fermented cream is known as cultured butter. During fermentation, the cream naturally sours as bacteria convert milk sugars into lactic acid. The fermentation process produces additional aroma compounds, including diacetyl, which makes for a fuller flavoured and more “buttery” testing product. 

SWEET CREAM BUTTER: pasteurized fresh cream is called sweet cream butter. Production of sweet cream butter first becomes common in the 19th century, with the development of refrigeration and the mechanical cream separator. 

RAW CREAM BUTTER: fresh or cultured unpasteurized cream is called raw cream butter. Raw cream butter has “cleaner” cream flavour, without the cooked milk notes that pasteurization introduces.

SPREADABLE BUTTERS: These remain softer at colder temperatures and are therefore easier to use directly out of refrigeration. Whipped butter is a product designed to be more spreadable, is a aerated via the incorporation of nitrogen gas normal air is not used, because doing so would encourage oxidation and rancidity.

SALTED BUTTER: Granular salt or a strong brine are added to manufacture salted butter during processing. In addition to enhanced flavour, the addition of salt acts as a preservative.

CLARIFIED BUTTER: This butter with almost all of its water and milk solids removed, leaving almost pure butterfat. Clarified butter is made by heating butter to its melting point and then allowing it to cool off, after settling, the remaining components separate by density. At the top, whey proteins form a skin which is removed and the resulting butterfat is then poured off from the mixture of water and casein proteins that settle to the bottom. Ghee is clarified butter.



WHEY BUTTER: It may be made from whey cream. Whey cream and butter have a lower fat content and taste more salty, tangy and”cheesey”. They are also cheaper than “sweet” cream and butter.

COMPOUND OR COMPOSITE BUTTER: When butter is soften spices, herbs and other flavouring agents can be mixed into the butter. These butters can be used as spreads, or cooled, sliced onto hot food to melt into a sauce. Sweetened compound butters can be served with desserts such hard sauces are often flavoured with spirits.

PROCESSING OF BUTTER

An ancient method of butter making, still used today in parts of Africa and near East, involves a goat skin half filled with milk, and inflated with air before being sealed. The skin is than hung with ropes on a tripod of sticks and rocked until the movement leads to the formation of butter.

Different verities are found in the world, such as:

· Smen is a spiced Moroccan clarified butter, buried in the ground and aged for months or years.

· Yak butter is important in Tibet. Tsampa barley flour mixed with yak butter, is a stape food.

Butter tea is consumed in the Himalayan regions of Tibet, Bhutan, Nepal and India. It consists of tea served with intensely flavoured yak butter and salt.

USES OF BUTTER

Butter is used for sautéing and frying, although its milk solids brown and burn above 1500C (2500F) a rather low temperature for most applications. The smoke point of butterfat is around 2000C (4000F), so clarified butter or ghee is better suited to frying. Ghee has always been common frying medium in India, where many avoid other animal fats for cultural or religious reasons.

For making dressings hollandaise sauce, other miscellaneous sauces. Used as a shortening in bakery

· Decoration butter icing

PROPRIETORY SAUCE

These are industrial sauces and the recipe of the sauces kept secret by the manufacturer. Common proprietory sauces are:

1. SOYA SAUCE: The soya is made fr4om soya beans, wheat, water & salt. It also includes the ingredients like fish paste. Dark soya sauce is usually used for cooking & light one for seasoning. Making soya sauce is usually left to manufacturer as it involves fermenting cooked soya beans and wheat that have been salted and injected with asperigillus mould. Good quality soya sauce is aged from 8 months 2 years. so that sauce matures and develops additional flavours.

2. WORCHESTERSHIRE SAUCE: It is soya and vinegar based but also contains assortment of exotic ingredients. the proportions & details of which remains manufacturer secrets.

3. H.P SAUCE: It is called brown sauce. It is prepared in USA & is excellent accompaniment to red meat.

4. BARBECUE SAUCE: Barbecue sauces are originated in USA. It is used in marination or simply brushed into meat while it is cooking. Commercial sauces have high concentration of salt, sugar & vinegar to help them to preserve.

5. KETCH UP: It is a tomato sauce made with vinegar, salt, sugar & spices. Commercial ketch up is like a smooth tomato sauce and hig

6. TOBASCO SAUCE: -The chilli or the hot red pepper is main ingredient. This is an American chilli sauce. Many of the chili sauces are based on a thick puree of chillies while others are thinner i.e. the result of long fermentation.

7. CHILLI SAUCE: It is fairly a hot thick chilli sauce , compare to thin tobasco sauce. Chilli sauce is prepared from pulped peppers flavoured with garlic and vinegar, thickened with corn starch.

CONTEMPORARY SAUCE

These sauces are lighter, simpler, less rich and more easily prepared than proprietory sauces. These are modern day sauces which compliment, highlight and enhance the flavour of the dish.

1. PESTO SAUCE:- It is popular sauce from Italy. Pesto means pasta & is popularly made with basil herbs in Northern Italy while the tomato is used in Southern Italy.

2. ROMESCO SAUCE: - This spicy red sauce from U.S is excellent with grilled fish and meat.

3. SALSA DI NOCI: Its from North west Italy, this sauce is pounded with addition of walnuts and traditional served with pasta.

4. ALMOND TARTER SAUCE: Turkish goes well with grilled and deep fried food.

5. BEURRE BLANC SAUCE: This is an emulsified sauce made with citric juices, white wine, classified butter and cream. This French sauce is served with fish and shell fish.

THE FUNCTION OF THE LARDER DEPARTMENT

The Cold Larder, or Garde Manger, is a department set aside for the storage of perishable foods, both raw and cooked, and where foodstuffs such as meat, fish, poultry and game are prepared and made ready for cooking. In this department too, all ‘Cold Elements’ found on the menu, such as the hors d’oeuvre, cold fish or meat dishes, all salads, cold sauces and dressings, are prepared and ‘dressed’. One particular special duty of this department is the preparation and presentation of all types of cold buffet, which are nowadays a feature of so many functions.

For these departmental functions to be effectively carried out, it is essential that:

(1)The room is separate from the kitchen, and located in a cool place. At the same time, it must be close to the kitchen to avoid undue running about between departments of the kitchen, which are all closely interrelated.

(2)It should be light, airy and well ventilated, and sufficiently spacious to allow the staff to carry out their duties in a clean and efficient manner. It must also be able to store prepared foods and buffets in a cool and hygienic manner.

(3)It must be equipped with the necessary fittings, plant, machinery and tools, in accordance with the volume and/or quality of the trade of the catering establishment in which it is situated.

BREAKDOWN OF WORK

Taking the above into consideration, it naturally follows that the work is broken down into various fields, such as Hors d’oeuvre, Salads, Butchery, Poultry, Cold Buffet etc., and, in effect, in large busy establishments each of these functions or duties is carried out by one or more men or sometimes women, who specialize in the work of that particular sub department. As an example, the Butcher, Poulterer, or Fishmonger may be an expert in that particular field without being a trained chef or cook, and it sometimes happens that salads or hors d’oeuvres are prepared by (often female) staff trained in those particular duties only.

More frequently, these various duties are allocated by the Chef Garde Manger, who is in overall charge of the department, to commis or assistant chefs, and they are known as Commis Garde Manger, whatever duties they are assigned to. Naturally, the busier the establishment, the more Larder work it entails; therefore more commis are required to staff the department. The smaller the volume of trade the fewer commis required, and so on. In many establishments the Chef Garde Manger is single handed and carries out all the various functions

It should be mentioned at this stage that often quality rather than quantity of trade is the determining factor in deciding the number of staff required in the Garde Manger, or for that matter in the kitchen as a whole.

RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CHEF GARDE MANGER

The responsibilities of the Chef Garde Manger, therefore, are many and varied. This person is responsible to the Chef for the efficient running of the Larder department and for the co ordination of the work of its staff; for the training and discipline of larder staff; for the foodstuffs in the department, some of which may be stored in refrigerators or even in deep freeze, or preserved by other means. The Chef Garde Manger is responsible for keeping a record of such foodstuffs and a day by day record of issues to kitchen or other departments.

The Chef Garde Manger must study the menus in advance, so as to be able to order meat, fish, etc., in time for the foodstuff to be prepared and cleaned and made ready for the kitchen in time for it to be cooked; and also to order all necessary stores for the various larder productions such as salads, hors d’oeuvres, sauces, buffets, etc.

The Larder Chef is responsible for the efficient storage of food to avoid deterioration and wastage and for cleanliness and hygiene in the department, to avoid any danger of contamination and possible food poisoning. He should also advise the Head Chef as to what foodstuff items require usin

LARDER CONTROL

If this department is to be run efficiently and economically, it is essential that the Chef Garde Manger should exercise the strictest possible control over the foodstuffs received and stored in the department. This involves:

•Checking the quantity and quality of all goods delivered to the larder.

•Ensuring that all foodstuffs are stored at the right temperature and that they can be easily checked.

•Ensuring that the food is protected from contamination by vermin.

•Ensuring that portion control is rigidly carried out, e.g. a given weight of fish, poultry, meat, should always produce the required number of portions.

•Ensuring that food is not overstocked and stocks of food are regularly turned over.

•Making every effort to maintain the highest possible standard of hygiene and to prevent any deterioration in the foodstuffs under his control.

•Taking every precaution to discourage pilfering.

•Ensuring (and this is imperative) that a simple daily stock sheet be kept by each section within the Larder and handed to the Chef Garde Manger at the end of each day’s business to enable him to write out his order for the following day.

STOCK SHEET

The stock and order sheets should be made as simple and easy to keep up to date as possible. A complicated stock sheet, requiring too much writing, will defeat the whole object of the exercise, as it will be neglected during busy rush periods, the very time it is most needed. See the example below.

Department: Larder Section: Hors d’oeuvre Day and date: X and Y

Items Unit Stock Unit Price Cost in £ Order

Tomatoes Kg 3 Cucumbe r No. 4 Eggs Doz. 2 Olive oil

Vinegar Sardines

For some sections, the devising of a simple but effective list is reasonably easy. With others it is not quite as easy. For example, the keeping of the stock of food sent in and returned by the Cold Buffet can be complicated and time to measure every gram or millimetre. Therefore, it is necessary to accept some rule of thumb, providing this is well supervised. Note that an experienced Chef du Froid or Chef Garde Manger should be able to tell at a glance the weight, or number of portions of a given joint or cold dish, within very narrow margins.

The Butchery department also presents some problems and the stock sheet for this department needs careful consideration. Fish, salad vegetables, canned foods and dairy produce, on the other hand, are comparatively easy to control. Naturally, each catering establishment will produce its own system, today in most cases supported by a computer program taking its own problems into account, but the stock/order sheet given here should meet the requirements of most departments, if only to supply the computer with the necessary information.

LIAISON WITH KITCHEN AND PASTRY DEPARTMENT

The Larder is both a storage department for most perishable foods and a preparation department for such foodstuffs. The Larder staff, under the supervision of the Chef Garde Manger, are responsible for the ordering, storing and preserving of stores, keep ing stocks up to date, and accounting for such items as meat, fish, poultry, game etc. which pass through the department on their way from the suppliers to the kitchen and eventually to the restaurant or banqueting rooms. The bulk of such foodstuff needs dis secting or cleaning, dressing, cutting into the required joints or portions, and generally preparing for cooking.

Figure 1.1 shows a typical Larder kitchen layout in a medium to large hotel restaurant. Figure 1.2 demonstrates a wider layout of a medium to large hotel restaurant kitchen, showing the relation of the Larder to the rest of the kitchen, as well as the access to all sections of the kitchen by the waiting staff. Section A in Figure 1.2 shows the front view of the kitchen with the three main departments, Larder, Main Kitchen and Pastry, as well as the Wash up section, as the waiting staff would approach them, having clear access to all service counters and the restaurant. In the back of the kitchen an uninterrupted passage to all sections is clearly visible

ASPIC & GELEE (GELATIN)

Definition of Aspic

Aspic : It is a prepared dish in which slices or dices of poultry, meat, game, fish, seafood or fruit are molded in a clarified meat, fish or fruit jelly.

Aspic jelly: In French term aspic gelee, is a flavourful, gelatinous stock which has been carefully clarified. It is prepared with large amounts of bones, will gel when chilled. It is colour which classifies the savoury aspic jelly. “Amber” is used with beef and game. Light amber tone is used with veal, poultry and pork. White fish has almost no amber tone and is used with fish and seafood.

Making of Aspic jelly

1. Classical method 2. Quick method

CLASSICAL METHOD

It is making a stock with the addition of more collagen rich products (pork skin, calves feet). This method has two major stages in the a) Preparation of the special stock, followed by clarification. b) Aspic jelly depends solely on the gelatin present in the bones for gelling.

QUICK METHOD

It is the adding of commercial gelatin to a prepared consommé. The flavour and clarify of this type of aspic jelly will depend on the qualities of the consommé used. Steps to make a jelly:

1. Prepare a good quality brown stock, using bones of the type of meat with which the aspic jelly will be used.

2. Clarify as you would for consommé.

3. Chill a small portion of the clarified stock.

4. Distribute and rehydrate the desired amount of gelatin in the cooled portion of the stock.

5. Stir the bloomed gelatin into the remaining warm stock.

6. Chill a small sample in the refrigerator to evaluate the gel strength.

7. Wine may or may not be added to aspic jelly, depending on how it will be used. Wine should be added when the jelly is very cool, yet still liquid (aroma preserved).

QUALITY AND USES OF ASPIC JELLY

The quality of aspic jelly is measured by:

1. · Flavour 2. Tooth 3. Clarity 4. · colour

FLAVOUR

Flavour should be intense enough to make the mouth water. Three parts of flavour:  a) Depth of character: comes from the proper preparation of stock.  b) Watery & weak  c) Level of acidity

TOOTH

It is the density or elasticity of the jelly. The jelly should be firm enough to hold the desired shape, yet once it is in the mouth it should melt immediately. The jelly should have no chewiness. a) Ratio of gelatin b) Service temperature of jelly.

CLARITY

It should be absolutely crystal clear. Some dishes served en gelee do not need to be bound with a jelly which is absolutely clear.

COLOUR

The range of colour in an aspic jelly lies between the rich amber, almost brown colours of an aspic jelly for game, to a nearby colourless one for fish. Fruit aspic jelly can be coloured to represent certain fruit flavours, such as green for lime & bright red for cherry.

Storage:a) Cool to 1400F before refrigerate b) Large quantities of gel, after being strained into a suitable container, should be cooled down rapidly to about 900F.

GELATIN/GELEE

DEFINITION:

“Gelatin is a product obtained by partial hydrolysis of collagen derived from skin, white connective tissues, and bones of animals”. As a by product of animal processing, gelatin is a partial protein. Gelatin comes from a single strand of the protein collagen, which resembles a triple helix spiral. When this happens, the collagen is altered to produce three smaller strands of a protein is called “gelatin”.

When the gelatinous liquid cools, it forms a semi soft gel. The gelatin has two phases known as “sol” & “gel”. Gelatin is the liquid sol when warm. It is the semi solid gel when cool. The gelatin set at 85

TYPES OF GELATIN/GELEE

There are “type A” and “type B” gelatins:

“TYPE A”

It is made from c The acid increases the amount of collagen converted into gelatin. Commercially, pork skin is the raw material most often used to make “type A” gelatin.

“TYPE B”

It is made from collagen rich tissue

“alkali”. The alkali increases the amount of collagen converted to gelatin. Beef bone and calf skin are the raw materials most often used commercially for “type B” gelatin.

Gelatin is also categorized by strength and clarity. Both are based on “BLOOM NUMBER”, Gel strength is determined mechanically by the manufacturer, using a bloom gellometer. This meter determines the amount of force needed to depress the surface of a given sample gelatin a specified distance, the results are compared to the bloom range. This range is from 50 to 300. A bloom of 275 is most common.

Currently available gelatins rate

1. Christie gelatin 250 bloom

2. Plymouth rock gelatin 275 bloom 3. Kind & know 275 bloom 4. Hormel 300 & 275 gelatin

5. Continental seasonings 300 bloom

Bloom is also used to gauge the clarity of gelatin. 

Lower bloom greater clarity  Higher bloom lower clarity

HOW IT IS MANUFACTURED

Raw material (Cattle bones scrap and piece cattle hides,) (And fresh frozen pork skin)

Removal of minerals, fats and albuminoids by chemical

Physical treatment of bones hides & skin (It is a diluted solution of hydrochloric acid)

Procedure cold water, insoluble collagen

Rinsed collagen with cold water, adjustment of pH value

Rinsed collagen heated with water in kettles

Complete the conversion of collagen into soluble gelat

Resulting gelatin sol is allowed to gel in thin layers

Layers are dehydrated & packaged in dry forms

FORMS OF GELATIN

There are four forms of gelatin: 1. Unflavoured or natural gelatin 2. Sheet or leaf gelatin (original form) 3” to 7” (1 3. Granular gelatin use in professional kitchen 4. Powder gelatin

FUNCTIONS OF GELATIN

1. Used in manufacture of gums provide stability 2. Used in marshmallows for structure 3. Used in ice creams, inhabits crystal formation (stability, structure etc.) 4. Gelatin desserts (prepared mixes of gelatin, sugar, acid, fruit flavorings & colour) 5. Acting as a binder 6. Gives light & fluffy texture & body 7. In molded salads, any variety of cooked, cubed foods can be molded into a design of flavoured gelatins. 8. It is used in many ways for cold food displays.

FACTORS AFFECTING GELATIN

1. 1. Acid lower pH (acid) value weakness

2. Sugar excess sugar weak strength

3. Fruits such as papaya, kiwi, fig, pineapple destroy

STORAGE

Dry gelatin tight container

Liquid gelatin refrigeration for one week 118

CURES, BRINES AND MARINADES

Food preservation techniques from the most ancient to the most high tech are all intended to control the effects of a wide range of microbes, some and encouraging the growth of others. This accomplished by controlling the foods water content, temperature, acidity levels, and exposure to oxygen.

CURES: -Curing is a process through which the meat is preserved for a longer time. Salt cured foods have a harsh flavour unless additional ingredients are included with the cure. Sugar and other sweeteners, spices aromatics and wine are generally used.

DRY CURES

A dry cure can be as simple as salt, alone, but more often it is a mixture of salt, a sweetener, flavorings, and/or a commercially or individually prepared curing blend. This mixture is then packed or rubbed over the surface of the food. Some foods are wrapped in cheesecloth or food grade paper, others are packed in bins or curing tubs with layers of cure scattered around them and between layers. Foods should be turned or rotated periodically as they cure. This process is known as overhauling.

Dry

¼ in /6 mm thick, approximate 2 hours

1 in/ 3 mm thick, app (lean meat) 8 hours

1 ½ in/ 4 cm thick pork belly 10 days Ham, bone 45 days

The advantages of dry curing are:

Relatively high priced speciality products are produced.

The cuts are less perishable because of their dryness and firmness.

They have more flavour.

The disadvantages of dry curing are:

High cost due to poor space utilization and amount of labour required.

High inventory due to slowness of curing.

Harsh salty flavour of the final product.

BRINES

When a dry cure is dissolved in water, it is known as wet cure, or brine. The brine must be thoroughly chilled before its use in curing foods. A brinometer is used to determine the strength of the brine. For small items such quails, chicken breasts, and ham hocks, it is usually enough t submerge the food in brine, a process referred to as brine soaking. These foods are placed in enough brine to completely cover them, topped with a weight to keep them submerged as they cure, allowed to rest in the solution for the required time.

Larger items such as turkeys and hams are injected with brine to ensure that it penetrates completely and evenly in a shorter period of time. An amount of brine equivalent to 10 % of the items weight is injected into the meat.

Another process known as Artery Pumping was first introduced by a new Zealand, undertaker named Kramlich in 1973. In this method, brine is injected through the arterial system.

BRINING TIME FOR MEATS

ITEM NOT PUMPED PUMPED

Chicken or duck breast 24 36 hours Not recommended

Chicken, whole 24 36 hours 12 16 hours

Pork butt or loin (boneless) 5 6 hours 2 ½ 3 days

Turkey whole (4.54 5.44 kg) 5 6 hours 3 days

Corned brisket 7 8 days 3 5 days Ham, boneless 6 days 4 days Ham, bone

MARINADES:

Marinating is the process to steep meat or game in a flavoured liquid for certain length of time to tenderize and flavour the flesh.

Marinade is a seasoned liquid, cooked and uncooked, in which meat, offal, game, fish or vegetables are steeped for varying lengths of time. Its principal purpose is to flavour the food. But it also makes certain meats tenderer by softening the fibers, and it enables fish and meat to be kept rather longer than would normally be possible.

The length of time that food stuffs should be left in a marinade depends on the nature and size of the item and also on external conditions. When the marinade is used for its preserving effect, the food should be completely submerged and not removed until required.

For cooked and uncooked, the two former marinades (based on carrots, shallots, onions, pepper, salt, bouquet garni, parsley, vinegar, garlic, and red or white wine) are used for meat and game.

A cooked marinade must be cooled before use, whereas uncooked and instant marinades can be used immediately as they require no cooking.

An instant marinade is used to impart flavour and not generally for tenderizing, as this requires a longer marinating time. They are used for fish (lemon, oil, thyme and bay leaf), for the ingredients of fritters or fritots (lemon, oil, parsley, salt and pepper), and for ingredients for the terrines, pate, galantines etc. (brandy, Madeira or port, salt, pepper, and shallots).

In general, the food that is being marinated is turned over with a slotted spoon from time to time. Because of their high acid content uncooked marinades are made in glass, porcelain, or glazed earthenware dishes.

The food should be removed from its marinade just before cooking and drained well. In the case of fried or roasted items, the marinade may be later used for deglazing or to make accompanying sauce.

FORCEMEAT

DEFINITION

Forcemeat is ground or pureed flesh (meat, poultry or fish) which is combined with fat and seasonings and then bound by the process of emulsification or the addition of other binders. The French term for forcemeat “farce”, can indicate a stuffing of either meat or non meat type. A farce may be made of bread or vegetables. Though most forcemeat, are raw when being shaped, piped or formed. There are some which are fully cooked and then pureed prior to being used. An example of the fully cooked and pureed type is chopped liver.

TYPES OF FORCEMEATS

CAMPAGNE FORCEMEAT

Campagne is also known as country style forcemeat. It was the earliest style and is traditionally made of pork. Though, pork is frequently found in many types of forcemeat recipes. It is particularly conspicuous in country style. The type of fat used in country style forcemeat is port fatback or jowl fat.

This forcemeat has a dense, coarse ground texture, a characteristic which resulted from the lack of sophisticated grinding equipment available when it was first developed. The earliest forcemeats were chopped with two knives, a method which was resulted in the coarse textured associated with the country style forcemeat today.

The heavy seasoning covered both the flavour of tainted meat and acted as a preservative for the forcemeat. The seasonings commonly used in country style include onion, garlic, black peppercorns, juniper berries, bay leaf and nutmeg. Traditionally country style forcemeat uses an additional binding agent to help hold some of the fat which is rendered by cooking in the forcemeat.

STRAIGHT METHOD FORCEMEAT

This forcemeat is more refined, have a finer, less dense texture. In the preparation of this style of forcemeat any type of meat can be used as the dominant meat. White poultry or fish are rarely used as the dominant meat in this type of forcemeat. The finer, lighter texture and more delicate seasoning of this forcemeat is indicative of the refinement of many culinary preparations. It was no longer necessary to mask the natural flavour of the meats. It was possible to simply enhance it. The common seasonings in the straight method include shallots, wine, brandy, all spice and ground white pepper.

GRATIN STYLE FORCEMEAT

The name of this forcemeat is derived from the practice of pre cooking some of the major components such as meat and fat, prior to the grinding or pureeing process.

The contemporary interpretation of gratin style is expansion on that of Escoffier. The classical definition of Escoffier refers to any forcemeat based on liver and including partial pre cooking or browning of the major components. As in the case of the straight method forcemeat, most type of meat (exception of white poultry and fish), are used in the preparation of gratin style. Often the liver pork, veal or the dominant meat are used. Pork fatback or jowl fat is preferred for this style. The texture of this forcemeat should be very fine, ground until smooth.

A Panada is not normally used in the style forcemeat because of its tendency to soften the already delicate texture. To compensate for the loss of binding power, extra eggs are sometimes used. The seasoning is same as that of the straight method forcemeat.

MOUSSELINE STYLE FORCEMEAT

The most distinctive feature of this style of forcemeat is the type of fat used in its preparation. The use of cream as the source of fat, combined with the processing of the components to an ultrafine consistency, allows the production of an extremely light and smooth product. This product is in sharp contrast to that produced using the harder types of fats.

Mousseline d fish, including chicken, veal, rabbit, sole, shrimp and well trimmed lean pork. Due to the delicate nature of the meats and creams used in this forcemeat, the seasoning should be very delicate.

Note: the term Mousseline forcemeat is often improperly abbreviated as mousse in everyday use. A “mousse” is a mixture of fully cooked and pureed basic ingredients bound with gelatin or fat and lightened with an aerator.

EMULSION FORCEMEAT

This type of forcemeat is used extensively in sausage making (frankfurters, bologna, and knockwurst) and less often in the kitchens of hotels and restaurants. Its name is derived from the ratio of the components of the forcemeat. The normal ratio is five parts meat to four parts fat to three parts ice. A 5/4/3 emulsion forcemeat can be made from virtually any kind of meat. Fish is not considered suitable for this style of forcemeat.

COMPONENTS & THEIR CONTRIBUTION

1. Meat: Meat is the major component of a forcemeat. Its contribution to the particular character of the forcemeat will depend on the dominant meat chosen. The types of meats used include pork, lamb, beef, veal, poultry, game meats and fish. The body and structure of the product is dependent upon the meat.

a) Pork is often combined with a dominant meat in a forcemeat. This is because of the characteristics of the pork. It has a neutral flavour which easily takes on the flavour of the dominant meat. It also has a high capacity for water retention which aids in the production of a moist forcemeat and readily allows for extension of volume in the final product.

b) Lamb is most commonly used in Middle Eastern and Indian recipes where it is valued for its strong distinctive flavour.

c) Beef considered to be moderately expensive, when used in forcemeat production, the meat of the bull is preferred. Bull meat has a deep red colour and good binding ability resulting from its high protein content. It is considered to be excellent for the production of forcemeat.

d) Veal is both very delicate in flavour and very expensive. It is used in the production of extremely delicate forcemeats.

e) Poultry is inexpensive and mildly flavoured. It is used most often in Mousseline style forcemeats. Due to its naturally softer, lighter texture.

f) Game is classified as either wild or farm raised. Wild game will have a strong, gamey flavour while farm raised game will have milder flavour. They are most often used to make sausage or occasionally a pate.

g) Fish have a wide range of flavours and are considered expensive in relation to other meats. Fish are most often used in Mousseline style forcemeat with the exception of gefilte fish which is coarser in texture.

2. Fat: -Fat contributes flavour, binding power and texture to the forcemeat. The type of fat used in forcemeat will depend upon the formulation.

a) Pork fat primarily fatback and jowl fat, is considered the best type of fat for forcemeat. It has a neutral flavour and is relatively pure, meaning it contains few blood vessels or sinew which are undesirable. Pork fat has an ideal melting point for forcemeat production. It is soft enough to melt in the mouth, resulting in a good mouth feel.

c) Lamb fat is limited in forcemeat production to those which contain lamb. The strong flavour and hardness of this fat makes it less desirable in forcemeats. Because of its greasy mouth feel it produces in cold meat.

c) Beef fat is very hard, having a high melting point which results in a coating affect in the mouth in cold forcemeats.

d) Poultry fat is very soft and has a strong flavour. The low melting temperature of the fat makes it very difficult to emulsify.

3. Panada: it is a paste prepared from flour, bread, rice or other starch product. It applies to forcemeats. There are five types of panadas:

i. Bread panada

ii. Flour panada

iii. Frangipane panada

iv. Rice panada

v. Potato panada

It is intended to be added to the forcemeat for three primary reasons.

a) It aids in binding the fat.

b) It lightens the density of the product. c) It contributes to the seasoning of the product.

4. Eggs: The major contributions of the egg to a forcemeat are binding power and firmer texture. Both of these attributes result from the extra protein the egg brings to the mixture. Eggs are not used in sausage making. 3

5. Seasoning: Seasoning serves a far greater function in the forcemeat than simply addition and enhancement of flavour.

a) Salt is a primary binder. It facilitates the exposure of myosin, the protein largely responsible for binding a forcemeat. It also enhances water retention and adds flavour.

d) Curing salt is also called T.C.M, tinted cure mix and Prague powder. It is composed of ninety four percent salt and six percent sodium nitrate. It is used to fix the colour in a processed meat and to inhibit the growth of clostridium botulinum, the anaerobic bacteria which can be deadly.

e) Spices are primarily responsible for the distinctive flavour characteristics of the various forcemeats. The classical pate spice is an example of the type of spice combinations often used in forcemeat production. This mixture includes white pepper, black pepper, bay leaves, cloves, paprika, marjoram, thyme, basil, nutmeg, mace and ginger. A few of the other flavorings often used in forcemeats are wines, brandy, garlic, onions and shallots. The components are usually cooked to some degree to incorporation into the forcemeat.

6. Garnishes: Garnishes may be added to a forcemeat after it is completed. There is a wide range of possibilities for this purpose, including mushrooms, dried currants, nutmegs and the traditional garnish for classical pate of pistachios, smoked tongue and truffles.

PREPARATION OF FORCEMEATS

It is important to choose the right pieces of equipment and to prepare them properly for production. The two primary pieces of processing equipment needed are the grinder and some type of food processor. The preparation of forcemeat can be broken into three main steps: fabrication and grinding, molding, forming and stuffing, and cooking.

Note: - when using grinding equipment, it must be kept sharp and sanitary, all grinding equipment should be chilled in ice water or the refrigerator prior to use in forcemeat production.

FABRICATION & GRINDING

Basic fabrication will include four steps:

1. First, the meats should be trimmed of fat gristle and silver skin.

2. Second, the rind should be removed from the fatback or other fat being used.

3. Third, the meats and fat should be cubed or cut into small strips.

4. Fourth, the cubed meats and fat should be well chilled. Freezing of the meat should be avoided.

5. Seasoning and curing: - salt, curing salt (if used), and any other seasonings are distributed evenly over the meat and fat mixture. This mix is then allowed to marinate, preferably overnight.

6. Grinding procedure: it will vary with the size of the batch being prepared. A small batch (up to approximately 15 pounds) will depend greatly upon the integrity of the meat protein being kept intact until the cooking stage for the success of the emulsion. Maintaining the temperature of the meat between 350 500F during the grinding process prevents the denaturing of the proteins. This will minimize the loss of binding power during this stage of production. The marinated meat and fat mixture is ground through a large, ¼ inch die on medium speed. For a pureed forcemeat the mixture would be transferred at this point to well chilled food processor and processed to a smooth paste. Caution should be exercised to prevent the temperature of the mixture from rising above 50oF. In large scale emulsion production, such as commercial sausage production, an alternate method is often used. When the basic fabrication, seasoning and curing steps are finished, the marinated mixture is combined in a large vertical chopper or buffalo chopper. Ice or ice water is added to the mixture to maintain the temperature during processing. In this manner the mixture is processed to the desired texture.

MOLDING, FORMING & STUFFING

Prior to filling molds, the forcemeat mixture should be tested. Poaching a small quenelle in lightly salted water will allow the determination of correctness of flavour, seasoning and binding. Forcemeats should be packed into terrines and pate molds several layers to minimize the possibilities of air pockets in the finished product. When layering, garnishes may be added to the forcemeat. Random garnishes should be evenly distributed throughout the forcemeat. Inland garnishes should be carefully positioned within the terrine, pate and galantine. When forcemeat is used to produce a terrine, it is molded into terrines lined with sheets of fatback, bacon or plastic wrap. In the production of pate it is packed into a hinged mold lined with pastry (pate) dough. In the galantine, it is wrapped in the skin of a leg of poultry. A quenelle is forcemeat which is formed into an oblong shape with two spoons. Forcemeat may also be used as a farce or stuffing for poultry or larger pieces of meat, such as pork loin or breast of veal. Generally forcemeats are cooked at low temperature, 1500 1800F.

HANDLING & STORAGE

The preparation of a wholesome product calls for strict sanitary practices. There is the constant danger of cross contamination of the various components in the forcemeat. It must be remembered that from the point of slaughter the meat begins to deteriorate, becoming increasingly susceptible to the growth of bacteria. This is particularly true when it is exposed to temperatures in the danger zone (450 1400F). The meats and other components in the forcemeat must be held at sage temperatures both before and during processing. Once processed, they should be quickly cooled.

Always fully dismantle and clean grinding and processing equipment between batches of different types of meat to avoid cross contamination from one meat to another. Chilling of everything involved in the production. Once production is completed, always store forcemeats covered and under refrigeration.

CULINARY TERMS

A Acid: A substance having a sour or sharp flavor. Foods generally referred to as "acids" include citrus juice, vinegar, and wine.

Aioli: Garlic mayonnaise.

Al dente: To the tooth: to cook an item, such as pasta or vegetables, until it is tender but still firm, not mushy.

Appetizer: Light foods served before a meal. These may be hot or cold or served as finger food.

Aromatics: Plant ingredients, such as herbs and spices, used to enhance the flavor and fragrance of food.

Arrowroot: A powdered starch made from a tropical root. Used primarily as a thickener. Remains clear when cooked.

B

Bain marie: A water bath used to cook foods gently by surrounding the cooking container with simmering water.

Baking powder an alkaline one; most commonly these are sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) and cream of tartar. When exposed to liquid, it produces carbon dioxide gas, which leavens doughs and batters.

Baking soda: combination with an acidic ingredient such as sour milk or as a component of baking powder.

Barbecue: A cooking method involving grilling food over a wood or charcoal fire. Usually some sort of rub, marinade, or sauce is brushed on the item before or during cooking.

Baste: To moisten food during cooking with pan drippings, sauce, or other liquid. Basting prevents food from drying out.

Batter: A mixture of flour and liquid, with the inclusion of other ingredients as needed. Batters vary in thickness but are generally semi liquid and thinner than doughs.

Béarnaise: A classic emulsion sauce similar to hollandaise made with egg yolks; a reduction of white wine, shallots, and tarragon; and butter finished with tarragon and chervil.

Béchamel: A white sauce made of milk thickened with a light roux and flavored with onion.

Bench proof: In yeast dough production, the rising stage that occurs after the dough is panned and just before baking.

Beurre blanc: "White butter." A classic emulsified sauce made with a reduction of white wine and shallots thickened with whole butter and possibly finished with fresh herbs and other seasonings.

Binder: An ingredient used to thicken a sauce or hold together another mixture of ingredients.

Bisque: A soup based on crustaceans or a vegetable purée.

Blanch: To cook an item briefly in boiling water or hot fat before finishing or storing it.

Bloom: To soften gelatin in warm liquid before use.

Boil: A cooking method in which items are immersed in liquid at or above the boiling point (212ºF/100ºC).

Bolster: A collar or shank at the point on a knife where the blade meets the knife.

Boning knife: A thin bladed knife used for separating raw meat from the bone; its blade is usually about 6 inches long and may be flexible or rigid.

Botulism: A food borne illness caused by toxins produced by bacteria.

Bouillabaisse: A hearty fish and shellfish stew flavored with saffron. A traditional dish of France.

Bouquet garni: A small bundle of herbs tied with a string. It is used to flavor stocks, braises, and other preparations. Usually contains bay leaf, parsley, thyme, and possibly other aromatics.

Braise: A cooking method in which the main item, usually meat, is seared in fat, then simmered in stock or another liquid in a covered pot.

Brine: A salt, water, and seasonings solution used to preserve foods.

Brisket: A cut of beef from the lower forequarter, best suited for long cooking preparations like braising. Corned beef is cured beef brisket.

Broil: A cooking method in which items are cooked by a radiant heat source placed above the food, usually in a broiler.

Broth: A flavorful, aromatic liquid made by simmering water or stock with meat, vegetables, and/or spices and herbs.

Butcher: A chef or purveyor who is responsible for butchering meats, poultry, and occasionally fish. In the brigade system, the butcher may also be responsible for breading meat and fish items and other operations involving meat.

Butter cream: or custard; usually used to garnish cakes or pastries.

Butterfly: To cut an item (usually meat or seafood) and open out the edges like a book or the wings of a butterfly.

Buttermilk: A dairy beverage liquid with a slightly sour flavor similar to that of yogurt. Traditionally, the liquid by product of butter churning, now usually made by culturing skim milk.

C

Calorie: A unit used to measure food energy. It is the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1ºC.

Canapé: An appetizer consisting of a small piece of bread or toast, often cut in a decorative shape, garnished with a savory spread or topping.

Caramelization: The process of browning sugar in the presence of heat. The temperature range in which caramelization is approximately 320 to 360ºF (160 to 182ºC).

Carbohydrate: One of the basic nutrients used by the body as a source of energy; types include simple (sugars) and complex (starches and fibers).

Carry-over cooking: Heat retained in cooked foods that allows them to continue cooking even after removal from the cooking medium. Particularly used in roasting foods.

Casing: A synthetic or natural membrane (usually pig or sheep intestines) used to enclose sausage forcemeat.

Casserole: A lidded cooking vessel that is used in the oven; usually rounded with two handles.

Chafing dish: A metal dish with a heating unit (flame or electric) used to keep foods warm and to cook foods at tableside or during a buffet service.

Champagne: A sparkling white wine produced in the Champagne region of France.

Cheesecloth: A light, fine mesh gauze used for straining liquids and making sachets.

Chef’s knife: An all purpose knife used for chopping, slicing, and mincing; its blade is usually between 8 and 14 inches long.

Chemical leavener: An ingredient (such as baking soda or baking powder) whose chemical action is used to produce carbon dioxide gas to leaven baked goods.

Chile/Chili: The fruit of certain types of capsicum peppers (not related to black pepper), used fresh, dried or smoked as a seasoning. Chilies come in many types (for example, jalapeño, chipotle, poblano) and varying degrees of spiciness.

Chili powder: Dried ground or crushed chilies, often with other ground spices and herbs.

Cholesterol: A sterol found exclusively in animal products such as meat, eggs and cheese.

Chop: To cut into pieces of roughly the same size. Also a small cut of meat including part of the rib.

Chowder: a thick soup that may be made from a variety of ingredients but usually contains potatoes.

Cioppino: A fish stew usually made with white wine and tomatoes, believed to have originated in San Francisco.

Clarification: urities from a liquid (such as butter or stock). Also, a mixture of ground meat, egg whites, mirepoix, tomato purée, herbs and spices used to clarify broth for consommé.

Clarified butter: Butter from which the milk solids and water have been removed, leaving pure butterfat. Has a higher smoking point than whole butter but less better flavor.

Coagulation: The curdling, stiffening, or clumping of protein strands usually due to the application of heat or acid.

Coarse chop: To cut into pieces of roughly the sam

Cocoa: The pods of the cacao tree, processed to remove the cocoa butter and ground into powder.

Coddled eggs: Eggs cooked in simmering water, in their shells or in ramekins or coddlers, until set.

Colander: A perforated bowl, with or without a base or legs, used to strain foods.

Complex carbohydrate: A large molecule made up of long chains of sugar molecules. In food, these molecules are found in starches and fiber.

Compote: A dish of fruit fresh or dried cooked in syrup flavored with spices or liqueur.

Compound butter: Whole butter combined with herbs or other seasonings and usually used to sauce grilled or broiled items or vegetables.

Condiment: An aromatic mixture, such as pickles, chutney, and some sauces and relishes, that accompanies food.

Conduction: A method of heat transfer in which heat is transmitted through another substance.

Confit: (Usually duck, goose, or pork) cooked and preserved in its own fat.

Consommé: Broth that has been clarified using a mixture of ground meat, egg whites, and other ingredients that trap impurities.

Convection oven: An oven that employs convection currents by forcing hot air through fans so it circulates around food, cooking it quickly and evenly.

Cornichon: A small, sour, pickled cucumber; gherkin.

Cornstarch: A fine, white powder milled from dried corn; used primarily as a thickener for sauce and occasionally as an ingredient in batters.

Coulis: A thick purée, usually of vegetables but possibly of fruit.

Cream: A fatty component of milk; available with various fat contents.

Cream soup: Traditionally a soup based on a béchamel sauce. Loosely, any soup finished with cream, a cream variant such as sour cream, or a liaison.

Crème anglaise: Custard sauce or vanilla sauce; "English crea."

Crème brulée: Custard topped with sugar and caramelized.

Crème fraiche: Heavy cream cultured to give it a thick consistency and a slightly tangy flavor; used in hot preparations since it is less likely to curdle when heated than sour cream or yogurt.

Crêpe: A thin pancake made with egg batter; traditionally used in sweet and savory preparations.

Cross-contamination: causing elements from one source to another through physical contact.

Croûton: A bread or pastry garnish, usually toasted or saut

Crustacean: shelled arthropods, primarily aquatic, which includes edible species such as lobster, crab, shrimp and crayfish.

Cure: To preserve a food by salting, smoking, and/or drying.

Curry: A mixture of spices used primarily in Indian cuisine; may include turmeric, coriander, cumin, cayenne or other chilies, cardamom, cinnamon, clove, fennel, fenugreek, ginger, and garlic. Also, a dish seasoned with curry or curry paste.

Custard: A mixture of milk, beaten egg, and possibly other ingredients, such as sweet or savory flavorings, which is cooked with gentle heat, often in a bain marie or double boiler.

D

Deep fry: A cooking method in which foods are cooked by immersion in hot fat.

Deglaze: To use a liquid, such as wine, water, or stock to dissolve food particles and/or caramelized drippings left in a pan after roasting or sautéing.

Degrease: To skim the fat off the surface of a liquid, such as a stock or sauce.

Dice: To cut ingredients into small cubes (1/4 inch for small, 1/3 inch for medium, 3/4 inch for large).

Direct heat: A method of heat transfer in which heat waves radiate from a source (for example, an open burner or grill) and travel directly to the item being heated with no conductor between heat source and food. Examples are grilling, broiling, barbecuing, and toasting.

Dredge: To coat food with a dry ingredient such as flour or with bread crumbs.

Dressed: Prepared for cooking; a dressed fish is gutted and scaled, and its heat, tail and fins are removed (same as pan dressed). Dressed poultry is plucked, drawn, singed, trimmed, and trussed. Also coated dressing; as in salad.

Dry sauté: To sauté without fat, usually with a non stick pan.

Dutch oven: A kettle, usually of cast iron, used for stewing and braising on the stove top or in the oven.

E

Egg wash: A mixture of beaten eggs (whole eggs, yolks, or whites) and a liquid, usually milk or water, used to coat baked goods to give them a sheen.

Emulsion: A mixture of two or more liquids, one of which is fat or oil and the other of which is water based, so that tiny globules of one are suspended in the other. This may involve stabilizers, such as egg or mustard. Emulsions may be temporary, permanent, or semi-permanent.

Essence: A concentrated flavoring extracted from an item, usually by infusion or distillation; includes items like vanilla and other extracts and concentrated stocks.

Etouffé: "Smothered." A cooking method similar to braising in which items are cooked with little or no added liquid in a pan with a tight fitting lid.

F

Fabrication: The butchering, cutting, and trimming of meat, poultry, fish and game.

Fat: One of the basic nutrients used by the body to provide energy. Fats also provide flavor and give a feeling of fullness.

Fatback: Pork fat from the back of the pig.

Fermentation: The breakdown of carbohydrates into carbon dioxide gas and alcohol, usually through the action of yeast on sugar.

Fiber: The structural component of plants that is necessary to the human diet. Sometimes referred to as roughage.

Fillet/Filet:

Filleting Knife: bladed knife used for filleting fish; similar in size and shape to a boning knife.

Fines herbes

Fish poacher: A long, narrow pot with straight sides and possibly a perforated rack, used for poaching whole fish.

Flat fish: A fish skeletal type characterized by its flat body and both eyes on one side of its head (examples are sole and halibut).

Food mill: A type of strainer with a crank operated curved blade. It is used to purée soft foods.

Food processor: A machine with interchangeable blades and disks and a removable bowl and lid separate from the motor housing.

Forcemeat: A mixture of chopped or ground meat and other ingredients used for pâtés, sausages, and other preparations.

Formula: A recipe; measurements for each ingredient may be given as percentages of the weight for the main ingredient.

Free-range: Livestock that is raised unconfined (by current definition, a minimum pen size of 3 feet x 3 feet).

French knife: see Chef’s knife.

Fricassée: A stew, of poultry or other white meat, with a white sauce.

Ganache: A filling or glaze made of heavy cream, chocolate, and/or other flavorings. Used for truffles.

Garni: Garnished.

Garnish: An edible decoration or accompaniment to a dish.

Gelatin: A protein based substance found in animal bones and connective tissue. When dissolved in hot liquid and then cooled, it can be used as a thickener and stabilizer.

Gherkin: A small pickled cucumber; a cornichon in French.

Giblets: Organs and other trim from poultry, including the liver, heart, gizzard and neck.

Glace: Reduced stock.

Glaze: To give an item a shiny surface by brushing it with sauce, icing, or another appareil.

Gluten: An elastic protein formed when hard wheat flour is moistened and agitated. Gluten gives yeast doughs their characteristic elasticity.

Griddle: A heavy metal surface, which may be either fitted with handles, built into a stove or heated by its own gas or electric element.

Grill: A cooking technique in which foods are cooked by a radiant heat source placed below the food.

Grill pan: A skillet with ridges that is used to simulate grilling on the stove top.

Gumbo: A Creole soup/stew thickened with okra.

H

Haricot: "Bean." Haricots verts are green beans.

Hash: Chopped, cooked meat, usually with potatoes and/or other vegetables, which is seasoned, bound with a sauce, and sautéed.

Hollandaise: A classic emulsion sauce made with a vinegar reduction, egg yolks, and melted butter flavored with lemon juice.

Hominy: Corn that has been milled or treated with a lye solution to remove the bran and germ.

Homogenization: A process used to prevent the milkfat from separating out of milk products. The liquid is forced through an ultrafine mesh at high pressure, which breaks up fat globules, dispersing them evenly throughout the liquid.

Hors d’oeuvre: "Outside the work." An appetizer.

Hydroponics: A technique that involves growing vegetables in nutrient enriched water, rather than in soil.

I

Infusion: Steeping an aromatic or other item in liquid to extract its flavor.

Instant read thermometer: A thermometer used to measure the internal temperature of foods. The stem is inserted into the food, producing an instant temperature read out.

Intoxication: Poisoning. A state of being tainted with toxins, particularly those produced by microorganisms that have infected food.

Julienne: Vegetables, potatoes, or other items cut into thin strips; 1/8 inch square x 1 to 2 inches is standard.

Jus: Juice. Meat served au jus is served with its own juice.

K

Kasha: Buckwheat groats that have been hulled and crushed; usually prepared by boiling.

Kosher: Prepared in accordance with Jewish dietary laws.

Kosher salt: Pure, refined rock salt used for pickling because it does not contain magnesium carbonate. It thus does not cloud brine solutions.

L

Lard: Rendered pork fat used for pastry and frying.

Leavener: Any ingredient or process that produces air bubbles and causes the rising of baked goods.

Legume: The seeds of certain plants, including beans and peas, which are eaten for their earthy flavors and high nutritional value. Also, the French word for vegetable.

Liaison: A mixture of egg yolks and cream used to thick

Liqueur: A spirit flavored with fruit, spices, nuts, herbs and/or seeds and usually sweetened.

Littleneck: Low fat milk: Lox: Salt cured salmon.

M

Macaroni: Pasta; refers to elbow

Madeira: A Portuguese fortified wine that is treated with heat as it ages, giving it a distinctive flavor and brownish color.

Mahimahi: A firm fleshed Atlantic and Pacific fish with a light, delicate flavor, suitable to all cooking methods. (Also called dolphin fish or dorado.)

Mandoline: A slicing device of stainless steel with carbon steel blades. The blades may be adjusted to cut items into various cuts and thicknesses.

Marbling: The intramuscular fat found in meat that makes the meat tender and juicy.

Marinade: An appareil used in cooking to flavor and moisten foods; may be liquid or dry. Liquid marinades are usually based on an acidic ingredient, such as wine or vinegar; dry marinades are usually salt based.

Marzipan: A paste of ground almonds, sugar, and egg whites that is used to fill and decorate pastries.

Mayonnaise: A cold emulsion sauce made of oil, egg yolks, vinegar, mustard, and seasonings.

Medallion: A small, round scallop of meat.

Meringue: Egg whites beaten until they are stiff, with added sugar or sugar syrup, used as a topping or shaped and baked until stiff.

Metabolism: The sum of chemical processes in living cells by which energy is provided and new material is assimilated.

Microwave: A method of heat transfer in which electromagnetic waves generated by a device called a magnetron penetrate food and cause the water molecules in it to oscillate. This rapid molecular motion generates heat, which cooks the food.

Millet: A small, round, glutenless grain that is boiled or ground into flour.

Milling: The process by which grain is ground into flour or meal.

Mince: To chop into very small pieces.

Mirepoix: A combination of chopped aromatic vegetables usually two parts onion, one part carrot, and one part celery used to flavor stocks, soups, braises and stews.

Mise en place: "Put in place." The preparation and assembly of ingredients, pans, utensils, and plates or serving pieces needed for a particular dish or service period.

Molasses: The dark brown, sweet syrup that is a by product of sugar cane refining.

Mollusk: Any number of invertebrate animals with soft, unsegmented bodies usually enclosed in a hard shell (examples are clams, oysters and snails).

Monosodium glutamate enhancer without a distinct flavor of its own.; used primarily in Chinese, processed foods, and prepared seasoning blends. (Warning: MSG is chocked full of GLUTEN!)

Monounsaturated fat: a hydrogen atom. Food sources include avocados, olives and nuts.

Mousse: A dish made with beaten egg whites and/or whipped cream folded into a flavored base appareil; may be sweet or savory. N

New potato: iling or steaming and is often eaten with its skin.

Noisette: Hazelnut. Also, a small portion of meat cut from the rib. O

Oeuff: Egg.

Offset spatula: A hand tool with a wide, bent blade set in a short handle, used to turn or lift foods from grills, broilers, or griddles.

Omelet: Beaten egg that is cooked in butter in a specialized pan or skillet and then rolled or folded into an oval. Omelets may be filled with a variety of ingredients before or after rolling.

Organic leavener: Yeast: A living organism operates by fermenting sugar to produce carbon dioxide gas, causes the batter to rise.

Paella: A Spanish dish of rice cooked with onion, tomato, garlic, saffron, vegetables, and various meats including chicken, chorizo and/or shellfish.

Paella pan: A specialized pan for cooking paella; it is wide and shallow and usually has two loop handles.

Pan-broil: A cooking method similar to dry sautéing that simulates broiling by cooking an item in a hot pan with little or no fat.

Pan dressed: See Dressed.

Panfry: A cooking method in which items are cooked in deep fat in a skillet over medium heat; this generally involves more fat than sautéing or stir frying but less than deep frying.

Pan gravy: A sauce made by deglazing pan drippings from a roast and combining them with a roux or other starch and additional stock.

Parchment: Heat resistant paper used in cooking for such preparations as lining baking pans, cooking items and covering items during shallow poaching. Also used to make cones for decorating.

Parcook: To partially cook an item before storing or finishing by another method; may be the same as blanching.

Paring knife: A short knife used for paring and trimming fruits and vegetables; its blad is usually 2 to 4 inches long.

Pasta: Noodles made from a dough of flour, water, and/or eggs. This dough is kneaded, rolled, and cut or extruded, then cooked by boiling.

Pasteurization: A process in which milk products are heated to kill microorganisms that could contaminate the milk.

Pastry bag: A bag usually made of plastic, canvas, or nylon that can be fitted with plain or decorative tips and used to pipe out icings and puréed foods.

Pâté: A rich forcemeat of meat, game, poultry, seafood, and/or vegetables, baked in pastry or in a mold or dish.

Pesto: A thick, puréed mixture of an herb, traditionally basil, and olive oil used as a sauce for pasta and other foods and as a garnish for soup. Pesto may also contain grated cheese, nuts or seeds, and other seasonings.

Pilaf: A technique for cooking grains in which the grain is sautéed briefly in butter, then simmered in stock or water with various seasonings.

Poach: A method in which items are cooked gently in simmering liquid.

Polyunsaturated fat: A fat with more than one available bonding site not filled with a hydrogen atom. Food sources include corn, cottonseed, safflower, soy and sunflower oils.

Port: A fortified dessert wine. Vintage port is high quality, unblended wine aged in the bottle for at least 12 years; ruby port may be blended and is aged in wood for a short time; white port is made with white grapes.

Prawn: A crustacean that closely resembles shrimp; often used as a general term for large shrimp.

Pressure steamer: A machine that steams food by heating water under pressure in a sealed compartment, allowing the steam to reach higher than boiling temperature. The food is placed in a sealed chamber that cannot be opened until the pressure has released and the steam properly vented from the chamber.

Proof: To allow yeast dough to rise.

Protein: One of the basic nutrients needed by the body to maintain life, build and repair tissues, form enzymes and hormones, and perform other essential functions. Protein can be obtained from animal and vegetables sources.

Purée: To process food (by mashing, straining, or chopping it very fine) in order to make it a smooth paste. Also, a product produced by using this technique.

R

Radiant heat: See direct heat.

Ragoût: Stew

Ramekin: A small, ovenproof dish, usually ceramic.

Reduce: To decrease the volume of a liquid by simmering or boiling; used to provide a thicker consistency and/or concentrated flavors.

Reduction: The product that results when a liquid is reduced.

Refresh: To plunge an item into, or run under, cold water after blanching to prevent further cooking.

Render: To heat foods (example; bacon) in order to clarify the fat for use in sautéing or pan frying.

Risotto: Rice that is sautéed briefly in butter with onions and possibly other aromatics, then combined with stock, which is added in several additions and stirred constantly, producing a creamy texture with grains that are still al dente; short

Roast: A dry heat cooking method in which items are cooked in an oven or on a spit over a fire.

Roe: Fish or s

Round: A cut of beef from the hind quarter that includes the top and bottom round, eye, and top sirloin. It is lean and usually braised or roasted. Also, in baking, to shape pieces of yeast dough into balls to ensure even rising and a smooth

Round fish: A classification of fish based on skeletal type, characterized by a rounded body and eyes on opposite sides of its head.

Roux: An appareil containing equal parts of flour and fat (usually butter) used to thicken liquids. Roux is cooked to varying degrees (white, pale/blond, or brown), depending on its intended use.

S

Saturated fat: A fat whose available bonding sites are entirely filled with hydrogen atoms. These tend to be solid at room temperature and are primarily of animal origin. Food sources include butter, meat, cheese, chocolate, and eggs.

Sauté: A cooking method in which items are cooked quickly in a small amount of fat in a pan on the range top.

Savory: Not sweet.

Scald: To heat a liquid, usually milk or cream, to just below the boiling point.

Scale/Scaling: To measure ingredients by weighing; to divide dough or batter into portions by weight.

Scallop: A bivalve whose adductor muscle (the muscle that keeps its shells closed) and roe are eaten. Also, a thin slice of meat.

Score: To cut the surface of an item at regular intervals to allow it to cook evenly.

Sear: To brown the surface of food in fat over high heat before finishing by another method (for example, braising) in order to add flavor.

Sea salt: Salt produced by evaporating sea water. Available refined or unrefined, crystallized, or ground.

Shelf life: The amount of time in storage that a product can maintain quality.

Shellfish: Various types of marine life consumed as food including crustaceans.

Sieve: A container made of a perforated material, such as wire mesh, used to drain, rice, or purée foods; also the act of processing food through a sieve.

Simmer: To maintain the temperature of a liquid just below boiling. Also, a cooking method in which items are cooked in a simmering liquid.

Simple carbohydrate: Any of a number of small carbohydrate molecules (mono and disaccharides), including fructose, lactose, maltose, and sucrose.

Skim: To remove impurities from the surface of a liquid, such as a stock or soup, during cooking.

Skim milk: Milk from which all but 0.5 percent of the milkfat has been removed.

Smoke-roasting: A method for roasting foods in which items are placed on a rack in a pan containing wood chips that smolder, emitting smoke, when the pan is placed on the range top or in the oven.

Smoking: Any of several methods are preserving and flavoring foods by exposing them to smoke.

Smoking point:

Smother: To cook in a covered pan with little liquid over low heat.

Sodium: An alkaline metal element necessary in small quantities for human nutrition; one of the components of most salts used in cooking.

Sorbet: A frozen dessert made with fruit juice or another flavoring, a sweetener (usually sugar), and beaten egg whites, which prevent the formation of large ice crystals. Sherbet is the closest English equivalent, and it contains milk.

Soufflé: "Puffed." A preparation made with a sauce base (usually béchamel for savory soufflés or pastry cream for sweet ones), whipped egg whites, and flavorings. The egg whites cause the soufflé to puff during cooking.

Steamer: A set of stacked pots with perforations in the bottom of each pot. They fit over a larger pot that is filled with boiling or simmering water.

Steaming: A cooking method in which items are cooked in a vapor bath created by boiling water or other liquids.

Steel: A tool used to hone knife blades. It is usually made of steel but may be ceramic, glass or diamond impregnated metal.

Stew: A cooking method nearly identical to braising but generally involving smaller pieces of meat and, hence, a shorter cooking time. Also, a dish prepared by using the stewing method.

Stir fry: A cooking method similar to sautéing in which items are cooked over very high heat, using little fat. Usually this is done in a wok and the food is kept moving constantly.

Stock: A flavorful liquid prepared by simmering meat, poultry, seafood, and/or vegetables in water with aromatics until their flavor is extracted. It is used as a base for soups, sauces, and other preparations.

Stockpot: A large, straight sided pot that is taller than it is wide. Used for making stocks and soups.

Stone ground: Meal or flour milled between grindstones; this method retains more nutrients than some other grinding methods.

Sweat: To cook an item, usually vegetables, in a covered pan in a small amount of fat until it softens and releases moisture.

Syrup: A liquid sweetener (maple or corn); sugar that is dissolved in liquid, usually water, with possibly the addition of flavoring such as spices or citrus zest.

TTable salt: Refined, granulated rock salt. May be fortified with iodine and treated with magnesium carbonate to prevent clumping.

Tart: A pie without a top crust; may be sweet or savory.

Tartlet: A small, single serving tart.

Temper: To heat gently and gradually.

Tempura: Seafood and/or vegetables that are coated with light batter and deep fried.

Tenderloin: A cut of meat, usually beef or pork, from the hind quarter.

Toxin: A naturally occurring poison, particularly those produced by the metabolic activity of living organisms, such as bacteria.

Truss: To tie up meat or poultry with string before cooking it in order to give it a compact shape for more even cooking and better appearance.

U

Unsaturated fat: A fat with at least one available bonding site not filled with a hydrogen atom. These may be monounsaturated or polyunsaturated. They tend to be liquid at room temperature and are primarily of vegetable origin.

Utility knife: A smaller, lighter version of a chef’s knife; its blade is usually between 5 and 7 inches long.

V

Venison: Meat from large game animals; often used specifically to deer meat.

Vinaigrette: A cold sauce of oil and vinegar, usually with various flavorings; it is a temporary emulsion sauce. (The standard proportion is three parts oil to one part vinegar.)

TOP W

Waffle: A crisp, pancake like batter product that is cooked in a specialized iron that gives the finished product a textured pattern, usually a grid.

Whip: To beat an item, such as cream or egg whites, to incorporate air.

Wok: A round bottomed pan, usually made of rolled steel, that is used for nearly all cooking methods.

X Y

Yam: A large tuber that grows in tropical and subtropical climates; it has starchy, pale yellow flesh and is often confused with the sweet potato.

Yeast: Microscopic fungus whose metabolic processes are responsible for fermentation. It is used for leavening bread and in cheese, beer and wine

Yogurt: Milk cultured with bacteria to give it a slightly thick consistency and sour flavor.

Z

Zest: The thin, brightly colored outer part of citrus rind. It contains volatile oils, making it ideal for use as a flavoring.

International cuisine

Chinese Introduction

Chinese culinary Summary of the Eight Cuisines

Sichuan and Hunan cuisines: hot spice. Anhui and Fujian cuisines: inclusion of wild foods from their mountains. Guangdong (Cantonese), Fujian, Zhejiang, Jiangsu: great seafood, and generally sweet and light flavors.

Shandong Cuisine: fresh and salty with a lot of seafood dishes.

1.Guangdong/Cantonese Cuisine

Duck Soup Making a great variety of soup is a feature of Cantonese cuisine. Sweeter, favoring braising and stewing, adding Cantonese food is the most popular style internationally. Guangdong Province and Hong Kong are noted for fine seafood dishes and rice dishes. They eat a very wide variety of foods. The dishes they serve don't have strong flavors since it is lightly seasoned, and they often tend to be a little sweet.

2.Sichuan Cuisine

Spicy and bold, often mouth numbing, using lots of chili, garlic, ginger, and peanuts Sichuan Province produced the most widely served cuisine in China. Their dishes are famous for their hot spicy taste and the numbing flavor of Sichuan peppercorn that is rare in other regional cuisines. It is the food of Chengdu and Chongqing (which used to be part of Sichuan).

3. Jiangsu Cuisine

sweet and sour spare ribs Su cuisine features sweet foods. Sweet and sour spare ribs is a famous dish from Jiangsu.

Fresh, moderately salty and sweet, precise cooking techniques, favoring seafood, soups and artistic, colorful presentation

Jiangsu Province and China's biggest city, Shanghai, have a very refined gourmet cuisine that is often served at government banquets. What makes it special is the exquisite cooking techniques that produce richly aromatic and visually artistic dishes. Their chefs also focus on serving meals that promote health.

4.Zhejiang Cuisine

Mellow, using fresh seafood, freshwater fish, and bamboo shoots, and a wide variety of cooking methods.

Zhejiang Province is the province south of Jiangsu, and it borders on Shanghai too, so their style is similar to theirs, but it is less elaborately prepared. They focus more on serving fresh food. The food is often served raw or almost raw and is fresh and crispy and seasonal. It is more like Japanese food. Ningbo cuisine is very salty.

5.Fujian/Min

Cuisine

Lighter, with a mild sweet and sour taste, using ingredients from the sea and the mountains Fujian Province is known for great seafood and soups and the precise use of scintillating but not tongue numbing spices. Adding much wild exotic delicacies from the sea and mountains makes their dishes have unusual flavors. It is like a culinary wild adventure.

6.Hunan

Cuisine

Fish People in the Hunan region can't seem to live without chilies; no dish is complete without chilies in Hunan cuisine. Quite spicy, with a hot and sour taste, favoring sautéing, stir frying, steaming and smoking If you like Sichuan food, you'll probably like Hunan food too since it is even hotter. It is tastier and more delicious because they don't use peppercorn that numbs the mouth. It is a rich agricultural area that produces a broad range of vegetables and herbs, and these are served up.

7.Anhui

Cuisine

Uses many wild plants and animals as ingredients, favoring stewing and more oil Anhui cuisine is even wilder than Fujian cuisine. It is inland, and big mountains such as the Yellow Mountains are the source of lots of different wild foods and herbs. It is basically a hearty mountain peasant food. Some of the best dishes incorporate wild food for an unusual taste. Some dishes are sweet from added

8.Shandong

Cuisine

Salty and crispy, favoring braising and seafood Shandong was one of the first civilized areas, and it set the pattern for northern styles of cooking. With a long coast, seafood is its forte. They preserve the original taste of the seafood by using simple ingredients and braising, and they like vinegar and salt. Unlike southern cuisines, they serve much more wheat food, including their noodles.

Chinese Sausages

Chinese Sausages are made of pork and have a smoky, sweet taste. There are variations with chicken liver also available. Great to add to fried noodles or rice. You find them also rolled and steamed in Dim Sums. Buy at your local Asian Grocer.

Chinese Ingredients used for Flavor and Seasoning

Garlic

Garlic has been used in China for over 5,000 years. Not only in the kitchen but also in Chinese Traditional Medicine as it is considered to have medicinal properties. You will find that Garlic is used throughout Chinese cooking, one of the most common uses is with stir fries.

Ginger

Ginger is along with garlic the most common Chinese Food ingredient used for flavoring. Ginger is popular with Cantonese dishes as well as the more spicy Szechuan recipes. Besides fresh ginger, you can also find it ground and pickled.

Green Onions

Green Onions or Spring Onions are used liberally either cooked to add flavor or raw as garnishings. A staple in most stir

Chilies

Fresh Chilies can be added chopped, sliced, crushed or whole for that extra zing! There are many kinds of chilies, some are hotter than others. Also can be found dried and they are just as hot.

Cilantro or Chinese Parsley

A very popular herb with a strong flavor, also known as Coriander. It is popular in Chinese cooking with sauces, soups, d

Soy Sauce

There is a light soy sauce and a dark soy sauce, make sure you use the kind your recipe calls for. We normally use the dark sauce for cooking and season meats. The light soy sauce can be served on the table for dipping sp

Oyster Sauce

Oysters and soy sauce are the main ingredients. The brown sauce, although made from oysters, it doesn't have a strong fishy taste, its taste is rather mild and is used for cooking meats and vegetables and very popular in Cantonese dishes. There is also a "vegetarian" version made with mushrooms.

Sesame Oil

Sesame Oil is a dark, aromatic and very flavorful ingredient. There are several kinds, the one used for Chinese cooking is usually heavier and darker and it is not used for frying but rather as a marinade, sprinkled at the end just for flavor, or added to dipping sauces.

Five Spice Powder

What is in Five Spice Powder? It is made of ground peppercorns, star anise, cloves, fennel and cinnamon and sometimes coriander seeds. It is a mix of flavors, from sweet to hot, fragrant, salty and pungent and used to condiment meats, fish, poultry and vegetables.

Chili Sauce

Made from chili peppers, it is used for dipping and stirs frying. Can be served on the table to sprinkle over food as desired.

Chili Paste

Made from chili peppers and soybeans, it's a staple in Szechuan and Hunan spicy dishes. Fragrant when cooked, a tiny bit goes a long way.

Rice Vinegar or Chinkiang Vinegar

Very popular for its strong smoky flavor. This dark rice vinegar is made of glutinous rice and can be added to soups, dipping sauces and braised dishes.

Plum Sauce

This is a sweet and sour sauce usually served for dipping deep fried foods: pieces of meat/duck/chicken, spring rolls, fried wontons, etc. Made of plums, sometimes also peaches, and vinegar, ginger and chilies.

Black Bean Sauce

Made of fermented beans, garlic, peppers, vinegar and soy sauce. This flavorful sauce is added to stir fries and steamed dishes.

Bok Choy

Also known as Chinese Mustard has meaty white stems with dark green leaves. There is also Baby Bok Choy, with both stems and leaves a lighter green color. Used in soups, stir fried with noodles, steamed...

Chinese Eggplant

It is the same as regular eggplant but long fries or steamed. One of our favorites is Spicy Beef with Eggplant in Garlic and Black Bean Sauce. If you can't find the long and skinny kind, regular eggplant does the job.

Chinese Cabbage

A leafy vegetable also known as snow cabagge, is very common and can be found at the supermarket. Great stir fried with your choice of sauce and condiment, in salads or pickled.

Gai Lan or Chinese Broccoli

A green leafy vegetable from the kale and broccoli family, the taste is similar to broccoli, perhaps a bit sweeter. Very popular dish served stir fried with garlic or steamed with oyster sauce. You can find Gai Lan at your local Asian grocer.

Soy Bean Sprouts

A common vegetable in Chinese cooking, soy bean sprouts are rich in vitamins A, B and C. They can be eaten raw in salads, also popular in stir fried dishes.

Snow Peas

Sweet and crisp, don't overcook or they become soggy. Very common in stir fries, they are popular and easy to find at your local supermarket.

White

Radish

They look more like carrots than the little round red radishes. Rich in calcium and vitamin C, they are used in stir fries, added to soups or in turnip cake.

Chinese Mushrooms (Dried)

Chinese mushrooms have a somewhat stronger flavor and they need to be soaked in warm water for at least half an hour to soften them before use.

Bamboo Shoots

Can be easily found canned or in jars in the asian/ethnic food aisle at your supermarket. They are very popular as an add on to stir fries.

Spring Roll Wrappers

Spring Roll Wrappers used in Chinese cooking are normally made of wheat flour and water. Roll in your filling, deep fry them and serve with your favorite sauce. You can find them in the frozen food section at your store.

Bean Curd or Tofu

Tofu is made from soymilk and resembles the consistency of cheesecake. It is a very nutritious ingredient, rich in minerals and an excellent source of protein. It is served in soups, salads, stir fried dishes. Mapo Tofu with the spicy sauce is our favorite.

Egg or Wheat Noodles

A basic of Chinese staples. Chinese love their noodles. Wheat noodles are generally used in soups, wheat and egg noodles can be stir fried.

Rice Noodles

Thin and transparent, rice noodles should be soaked in hot water to soften them before use. They are used in soups, salads, stir

Rice

While I was growing up, I can't remember a meal being served without rice. Rice is at the core of every Chinese meal.

Chinese Tea

Chinese Tea is more than a beverage. For Chinese, tea is a medicine, tea is an art, tea is their Culture.

1.Stir Frying

.Stir frying is the is quick and easy, tasty and flavorful.

Cooking Utensils Used

The cooking utensils are a wok and wok spatula. Stir frying is typically done on a gas stove, although an electric stove can be used if preheated to a high heat.

Ingredients That Can be cooked in This Way

Stir frying typically uses a combination of meat or seafood, vegetables, and tofu. All ingredients are thinly sliced or cubed. The meat or seafood is marinated using soy sauce, salt, and other seasonings.

2.Deep Frying

Deep frying is used to produce crisp textured food. It is usually used to fry a variety of meats and vegetables in oil heated to a high temperature.

Cooking Utensils Used

Deep frying is done with a deep saucepan or a deep fryer, a Chinese scoop strainer (used to contain foods in a deep fryer and to strain foods when removed from the oil), and long chopsticks.

3.Steaming

Steaming is a method of cooking using steam. It is considered to be the healthiest cooking technique.

Steaming can make dishes taste more fresh and delicious. It can retain various nutrients in the food and reduce nutrient loss to a large extent. Therefore, it is widely used for cooking a variety of ingredients.

Cooking Utensils Used

Chinese people steam food by using bamboo steamers, which can be stacked one on top of the other, allowing several kinds of foods to be cooked at once, thus saving time and fuel.

Dishes requiring the most cooking time are placed on the bottom layer near the boiling water, while those requiring less are placed on the top layer. The water should be kept at a slow boil until the food is done.

Famous Steamed Dishes

The most famous examples of steaming are dim sum, dumplings, buns, and steamed fish.

4.Red Stewing or Red Cooking

Red stewing is a unique Chinese cooking technique, used primarily for cooking a tougher cut of meat or poultry.

Preparation

The food is cooked very slowly over a low flame. Meat is usually browned first, then large quantities of soy sauce, sugar, wine or sherry, ginger, five spice powder, chili powder, cilantro, and other seasonings are added, together with water or broth.

It may take up to several hours before the meat is done to the desired tenderness. The finished product can be served hot or cold. The sauce is rich and dark brown; hence the descriptive name “red stewing”.

Famous Red

The most famous examples of red cooked fish.

Cooking Utensils Used

For red cooking you need a 5.Boiling

Boiling is considered to be the among all the Chinese cooking techniques. This method of cooking is quicker than other techniques and it preserves the color, texture, shape, and nutrients of the food.

Ingredients are washed and cut first, then plunged into boiling water or broth. When they are fully cooked, they are drained immediately, and then they are served with seasonings, or finished using other cooking techniques.

Boiling is mainly used for cooking small sized and soft ingredients. For example, vegetables and vegetable soup can be cooked this way.

Famous Boiled Dishes

Two good examples of boiled food are Chinese broccoli with oyster sauce, and tomato and egg soup.

Cooking Utensils Used

The cooking utensils used for boiling are a wok, long chopsticks, and a Chinese scoop strainer. 6.Roasting

Many Chinese foods like chicken, duck, a whole sheep, a sheep's leg, and a whole pig can be cooked in this way.

Usually, meat is prepared (cleaned, seasoned, and basted with cooking oil) then hung above a fire or placed in a very hot oven. The meat must be seared so that the skin tastes crispy.

When the meat has been roasted, it is then chopped, arranged artfully on a platter, and served with a sauce made from the meat drippings.

One of the most famous roasted dishes is Peking duck

Cooking Utensil Used

If you want to cook food by roasting it, you'll need an oven 144

7.Braising

Braising involves adding ingredients, spices, seasonings, and a small amount of water or broth to a wok or a saucepan, boiling everything together initially at a high temperature, and then simmering it at a lower temperature for a long time (usually one hour or more).

The ingredients are usually cut into large sized cubes or diamonds. Using this technique, all of the food is cooked thoroughly.

Famous Braised Dishes

The most famous braised dishes in China include braised chicken with mushrooms and braised beef with potatoes.

Cooking Utensils Used

If you want to cook food by braising it, you need a wok, saucepan, or stew pot.

French Cuisine

French cuisine is a style of food preparation originating from France that has developed from centuries of social change. In the Middle Ages, Guillaume Tirel, a court chef, authored Le Viandier, one of the earliest recipe collections of Medieval France. In the 17th century, La Varenne and the notable chef of Napoleon and other dignitaries, Marie Antoine Carême, moved toward fewer spices and more liberal usage of herbs and creamy ingredients, signaling the beginning of modern cuisine. Cheese and wine are a major part of the cuisine, playing different roles regionally and nationally, with many variations and appellation d'origine contrôlée (AOC) (regulated appellation) laws. French cuisine was codified in the 20th century by Escoffier to become the modern version of haute cuisine; Escoffier, however, left out much of the regional culinary character to be found in the regions of France. Gastro tourism and the Guide Michelin helped to acquaint people with the rich bourgeois and peasant cuisine of the French countryside starting in the 20th century. Gascon cuisine has also had great influence over the cuisine in the southwest of France. Many dishes that were once regional have proliferated in variations across the country.

History

French cuisine has evolved extensively over centuries. The national cuisine started forming in the middle Ages due to the influence of the work of skilled chefs and various social and political movements. Over the years the styles of French cuisine have been given different names, and have been modified by various master chefs. During their lifetimes, these chefs have been held in high regard for contributions to the culture of the country. The national cuisine developed primarily in the city of Paris with the chefs to French royalty, but eventually it spread throughout the country and was even exported overseas. Mid 20th century late 20th century

The 1960s brought about innovative thought to the French cuisine; especially because of the contribution of Portuguese immigrants that had come to the country fleeing the forced drafting to the Colonial Wars Portugal was fighting in Africa. Many new dishes were introduced, as well as techniques. This period is also marked by the appearance of the "Nouvelle Cuisine".

The term nouvelle cuisine has been used many times in the history of French cuisine. This description was seen in the 1740s of the cuisine from Vincent La Chapelle, François Marin and Menon, and even during the 1880s and 1890s to describe Escoffier's cooking. The term came up again, however, during the 1960s, when used by two authors, Henri Gault and Christian Millau, to describe the cooking of Paul Bocuse, Jean and Pierre Troisgros, Michel Guérard, Roger Vergé and Raymond Oliver[7]. These chefs were working toward rebelling against the "orthodoxy" of Escoffier's cuisine. Some of the chefs were students of Fernand Point at the Pyramide in Vienne, and had left to open their own restaurants. Gault and Millau "discovered the formula" contained in ten characteristics of this new style of cooking. The first characteristic was a rejection of excessive complication in cooking. Second, the cooking times for most fish, seafood, game birds, veal, green vegetables and pâtés was greatly reduced in an attempt to preserve the natural flavors. Steaming was an important trend from this characteristic. The third characteristic was that the cuisine was made with the freshest possible ingredients. Fourth, large menus were abandoned in favor of shorter menus. Fifth, strong marinades for meat and game ceased to be used. Sixth, they stopped using heavy sauces such as espagnole and béchamel thickened with flour based "roux", in favor of seasoning their dishes with fresh herbs, quality butter, lemon juice, and vinegar. Seventh, they used regional dishes for inspiration instead of haute cuisine dishes. Eighth, new techniques were embraced and modern equipment was often used. Ninth, the chefs paid close attention to the dietary needs of their guests through their dishes. Tenth and finally, the chefs were extremely inventive and created combinations and pairings. Some have speculated that a contributor to nouvelle cuisine was World War II when animal protein was in short supply during the German occupation. By the -1980s food writers stated that the style of cuisine had reached exhaustion and many chefs began returning to the haute cuisine style of cooking, although much of the lighter presentations and new techniques remained.

Regional cuisine

• Paris and Île de France

• Champagne, Lorraine, and Alsace

• Nord Pas de Calais, Picardy, Normandy, and Brittany

• Loire Valley and central France

• Burgundy and Franche Comté

• Lyon

• Poitou

• Bordeaux, Périgord, Gascony

• Toulouse, Quercy, and Aveyron

• Roussillon, Languedoc, and Cévennes

• Provence and Côte d'Azur

• Corsica

French service:-

Method of serving private dining or restaurant food in which partially cooked food is brought from the kitchen on a cart which is used also for the final cooking. Food is completed in front of the guests and served by a waiter or waitress who offers a dish to each guest who helps himself or herself.

Popular French Ingredients Bread

Ideally, serve it in baguette form. It’s definitely worth searching out at a local bakery. Butter

Butter is not typically offered on the table alongside the bread. However, it is a key component in French cooking and baking, so buy the best high butterfat brand your budget permits.

Cheese

Considered a separate course in many French meals, a selection of cheese is always good to have on hand. French cheeses are a solid place to start (think Brie, Camembert, and Roquefort).

Fleur de sel

This is a coarse, hand harvested sea salt. It’s on the pricey side, so don’t cook with it. Instead, use it as a finishing salt, sprinkling just a few grains on vegetables and grilled fish. Look for it in specialty food stores like select Whole Foods locations and Williams Sonoma.

Herbes de Provence

Used liberally with meats and vegetables in French cooking (it can really make a roast chicken sing), this dried herb mixture typically has rosemary, thyme, oregano, lavender, and a handful of other flavorful herbs.

Leeks

The slightly oniony vegetable adds a sweetness and flavor that are distinctive to French dishes.

Mustard

A smooth Dijon mustard should be on hand for salad dressings, but a grainy mustard that goes with meats (like steak au poivre) is also a must have.

Olive oil

When deciding which type of quality olive oil to purchase, let your taste and budget be your guides. Save the expensive oils for drizzling on dishes for that extra hit of flavor; use less expensive oils for marinades, sautéing, and mustardy vinaigrettes.

Shallots

Shallots offer the flavors of both onion and garlic. Roasting them alongside a chicken will make them soft and mild, like roasted garlic. Tarragon, fresh Tarragon is the main go

Vinegar

Red wine vinegar and white wine vinegar are both key they’re tangy and make for great vinaigrette and marinade bases. Sometimes a dish calls for the more potent sherry vinegar to provide a little extra kick.

Wine

Used for cooking, both red and white wines are staples in any French kitchen

5 Basic French Cooking Techniques

French cuisine is one of the most popular European food that a lot of people are particularly interested in. Basic French Cooking is what most amateur chefs look forward to learning first. Why, the techniques and methods of cooking are unique yet very easy.

Cooking styles that one must learn include sautéing, poaching, and flambéing. Once a chef learns the basic cooking techniques, cooking and following recipes become easier.

If you want to learn basic French cooking, here are the top five basic techniques you must learn:

1.BRAISING

braising basic french cooking

This method of cooking uses dry and moist heat. Food is seared at very high heat to seal in natural juices and then finished in a covered pot. Braising relies on the moisture levels, temperatures, and time to break down the meat’s collagen. Most less expensive but tough cuts of meat require braising and is done through slow cookers.

2.FLAMBEING

flambé french style cooking

This French cooking technique is mostly used to add more flavors to a special dish. It is done towards the end of the cooking. Most chefs add alcohol to the food in the pan to produce flames that are immediately burnt away. The aroma and flavor still remain in the dish.

Some dishes that require flambéing are coq au vin, cherries jubilee, and bananas foster. Flambé means flamed in French.

3.GRILLING

Grilling is one of the most common cooking techniques done all over the world. To grill and to broil is the same thing. Most chefs or home cooks prefer grilling because it’s easy to do. It’s one of the most popular cooking activities in any backyard event.

Grilling requires dry heat from below. Meanwhile, to broil involves heat from above. These two methods are almost similar but they both give the food a unique flavour.

Aside from grilling or broiling, there’s also barbecuing and smoking as another two methods to cook. The two usually involve use of specific woods for cooking.

4.POACHING

This French style of cooking involves simmering of foods in liquid slowly. Liquid used consists of milk, stock, wine, or water. Some of the most common foods poached include fruits, poultry, fish, and eggs.

Poaching is done because some foods are delicate they can easily dry out or fall apart. One of most common item in a French breakfast menu is a poached egg. Poaching eggs include using vinegar, water, and then eggs are simmered until there are no more runny whites.

5.SAUTEING

To sauté is to quickly cook food over high heat. A skillet is usually used to hold the food. It uses butter, wine, or oil to quickly fry and is done by stirring or tossing the ingredients. Food is monitored regularly while cooking to prevent the dish from burning. Sautéing results to the food turning brown but with the natural flavor, texture, and moisture retained. The word sauté literally means ‘to jump’ in the French language.

Popular French Breads and Desserts

There are many dishes that are considered part of the French national cuisine today. Many come from haute cuisine in the fine dining realm, but others are regional dishes that have become a norm across the country. Below are lists of a few of the more common dishes available in France on a national level.

Example : Chicken Marengo

Common breads of France

Baguette

Ficelle

Flûte

Fougasse

Pain de champagne

Common desserts and pastries

mille feuille pastry Bûche de Noël Café liégeois Clafoutis Crème brûlée Croquembouche Éclair

Far Breton Fraisier Galette des rois Gateau au yaourt Macarons Madeleine

Mille feuilles Mousse au chocolat Pain au chocolat Pain perdu Quatre quarts Saint Honoré

ITALIAN CUISINE

Italian cuisine has developed through centuries of social and political changes, with roots stretching to antiquity.

Significant changes occurred with the discovery of the New World and the introduction of potatoes, tomatoes, bell peppers and maize, now central to the cuisine but not introduced in quantity until the 18th century. Italian cuisine is noted for its regional diversity, abundance of difference in taste, and is one of the most popular in the world, with influences abroad.

Italian cuisine is characterized by its simplicity, with many dishes having only four to eight ingredients. Italian cooks rely chiefly on the quality of the ingredients rather than on elaborate preparation. Ingredients and dishes vary by region. Many dishes that were once regional, however, have proliferated with variations throughout the country. Cheese and wine are a major part of the cuisine.

ESSENTIAL INGREDIENTS

Canned tomatoes whole, peeled tomatoes as opposed to crushed or diced for pungent flavor in everything from sauces to soup.

Dried pasta

A combination of flour, water, and salt, dried pasta is a quintessential comfort food and the basis of many Italian dishes.

Arborio rice

A short grained rice with high starch content, Arborio releases starch and thickens when cooked at length over low heat, making it ideal for creamy risottos.

Flour Semolina and double 00 are two high quality flours often preferred for making homemade pasta, but all purpose flour will suffice for making fresh pasta and pizza dough.

Cannellini

beans

These large, rosy beige legumes are popular in salads, soups, and stews. For the most affordable (but slightly more labor intensive) option, choose dried beans, which require overnight soaking. If dinner needs to be on the table in 20 minutes, select canned beans.

Bread crumbs

Ideal for breading cutlets before pan frying or incorporating into meatballs, seasoned bread crumbs add bulk, texture, and flavor.

Artichokes

Jarred artichoke hearts add delicate flavor when tossed with pasta, salads, or topped on pizza.

Olives

Olives are tiny fruits that have been cured in salt, water, or lye to offset their bitterness. Used in everything from antipasti to pastas, they’re packed with cholesterol-lowering monounsaturated fats, vitamin E, and antioxidants.

Pine nuts

These small, teardrop shaped nuts are harvested from pine cones. Their delicate, piney flavor is delicious in everything from pesto to cookies.

Capers

These tiny flower buds, typically pickled, add bold, salty flavor to sauces and meat and vegetable dishes.

Garlic

Famous (or infamous) for its pungent flavor, garlic is an indispensable ingredient in Italian cuisine.

Prosciutto

Ham that has been cured and air dried for long periods of time for tenderness and a more complex flavor, prosciutto is typically sliced paper thin and consumed uncooked. It’s also a key ingredient in a classic Italian dish, Chicken Saltimbocca.

Fresh basil

This sweet, aromatic herb is a staple for topping pastas and pizzas.

Mozzarella

Traditionally made in Italy from the milk of water buffaloes, mozzarella is now made mainly from cow’s milk. It melts beautifully, making it the cheese of choice for pizza. Extra virgin olive oil

Olive oil adds fruity flavor and is high in healthy monounsaturated fat and antioxidants. Of the various classes of olive oil, extra virgin is the most prized but is also the most expensive; reserve it for dressings and drizzling on finished dishes, not cooking.

Balsamic vinegar

Used in marinades, d based desserts, balsamic vinegar is generally darker, thicker, sweeter, and more complex than red or white wine vinegar. Syrupy, highly concentrated traditional Italian balsamics, aged for a minimum of 12 years in oak barrels, are best reserved for undiluted uses; drizzle over fruit or vegetables to appreciate the intense flavor.

Wine Marsala and dry red and white wines add depth to sauces and popular Italian dishes, such as Chicken Marsala.

Parmesan

This highly flavorful aged hard cheese (most often used grated) adds a nutty flavor and granular texture to Italian dishes, particularly pastas.

Dried herbs and seasonings

Keep dried oregano, sage, and thyme on hand to lend earthy flavor and aroma. Red pepper flakes add heat to pastas and pizza.

Italian cooking equipments

CHITARRA

italian traditional cooking tool of Abruzzo for making homemade spaghetti chitarra tool

GNOCCHI BOARD

Italian traditional cooking tool: for making gnocchi shape, but also macaroni, garganelli and other striped pasta shapes .

DOUGH WHEEL

italian cooking tool: multiple dough wheel for making handmade cappelletti and ravioli enabling to seal well the edges, the width can be regulated depending on ravioli dimension dough wheel for ravioli

PORTAPIADINA

italian cooking tool: piadina holder for putting just made piadina

PASTA MAKER

Italians prefer the hand-mechanism one because the electric ones tend to stall and break quickly. Good old elbow grease is always reliable. Used to prepare fresh long and sheet pastas, which are required for preparing stuffed pastas.

CHEESE GRATER

Another essential that’s often overlooked is a good quality cheese grater. Choose a grater that has a comfortable but stable grip

GARLIC PRESS

Another item extremely useful for Italian cooking is a garlic press. A garlic press basically removes the need for manipulating fresh garlic with your hands.

PASTA DRYING RACK

For making fresh pasta, drying rack is very important. It makes drying the pasta much easier than just leaving them on the side of the counter or a bowl.

RAVIOLI MAKER

Raviolis can be hard to manage by hand; there are plenty of makers and molds to help you make delicious handmade raviolis that everyone will rave about.

PIZZA STONE

Used as a base for placing the pizzas in the wood fired oven.

PIZZA PEEL AND CUTTER

Used to cut and serve pizza efficiently

Most important italian dishes

Antipasto

Bruschetta an antipasto from Italy consisting of grilled bread rubbed with garlic and topped with tomatoes, olive oil, salt and pepper

Capicollo

Crostini means "little toast" in Italian

Culatello

Curried braised rabbit stew

Insalata caprese

Mozzarelline fritte fried small mozzarellas

Zuppa e salsa (soups and sauces)

Acquacotta an Italian soup that was originally a peasant food. Historically, its primary ingredients were water, stale bread, onion, tomato and olive oil,[9] along with various vegetables and leftover foods that may have been available.[10][11]

Agghiotta di lumache (Sicilian snail soup)

Agliata

Agrodolce

Bagna càuda

Garmugia

Ginestrata

Grine sauce

Maccu

Sugo al Pomodoro

Minestra di ceci

Minestra di pasta con pesce

Minestrone

Pasta e fagioli

Pane (bread)

Ciabatta an Italian white bread made from wheat flour, water, salt, olive oil, and yeast, created in 1982 by a baker in Adria, Veneto, Italy, in response to popularity of French baguettes

Ciaccino

Ciriola typical bread of Rome

Colomba Pasquale

Coppia Ferrarese

Crescentina

Crocchè

Farinata

Ficattola

Focaccia

Fragguno

Grissini torinesi

Common pizzas

Ai frutti di Mare an Italian seafood pizza that may be served with scampi, mussels or squid[12]

Calzone filled with ricotta and other ingredients

Focaccia al rosmarino a pizza based on rosemary and olive oil, sometimes served with prosciutto, usually served as appetizer

Pizza ai funghi e salsiccia pizza with mushroom and sausage or boscaiola, with mozzarella, mushrooms and sausages, with or without tomato.

Pastas

Agnolotti

Bavette, bigoli, bucatini

Cannelloni, crespelle

Cappellini, cappelletti

Conchiglie

Ditalini

Eliche

Farfalle, festoni, fettuccine, filatieddi, fusilli

Garganelli

Gnocchi

Gnocchi di semolino dumplings made with semolina flour[17]

Lasagna, linguine, lumache (snails), lasagnette

Maccheroni (macaroni), malloreddus (Sardinian pasta), maltagliati, marille, marrubini

Spanish Cuisine

Spanish cuisine is heavily influenced by regional cuisines and the particular historical processes that shaped culture and society in those territories. Geography and climate, had great influence on cooking methods and available ingredients, and these particularities are still present in the gastronomy of the various regions that make up the country. Spanish cuisine derives from a complex history, where invasions of the country and conquests of new territories modified traditions and made new ingredients available . The following is a list of traditional Spanish meals:

Andalucia

Gazpacho is a very typical Andalusian dish. Andalusian cuisine is twofold: rural and coastal. Of all the Spanish regions, this region uses the most olive oil in its cuisine. The Andalusian dish that has achieved the most international fame is Gazpacho. It is a cold soup (or in an alternative view, a liquid salad) made with five vegetables, bread, vinegar, water, salt and olive oil. Other cold soups include: pulley, Zoque, salmorejo, etc.Snacks made with olives are common. Meat dishes include: flamenquín, pringá, oxtail stew and Menudo Gitano (also called Andalusian tripe). The hot soups include cat soup (made with bread), dog stew (fish soup with orange juice) and Migas Canas. Fish dishes include: fried fish, cod pavías, and parpandúas. A culinary custom is the typical Andalusian breakfast, considered to be a traditional characteristic of laborers and today extending throughout Spain.

Aragon

The Aragonese cuisine has a rural and mountainous origin. The central part of Aragon, the flattest, is the richest in culinary specialties. Being a land of lambs raised on the slopes of the Pyrenees, one of its most famous dishes is roast lamb (asado de ternasco) (with garlic, salt and bacon fat), having the lamb to the shepherd, the heads of lamb and Highlanders

asparagus (lamb tails). Pork dishes are also very popular, among them: Magras con tomate, roasted pork leg and Almojábanas de Cerdo. Among the recipes made with bread are: migas de Pastor, migas con chocolate, Regañaos (cakes with sardines or herring) and goguera. The most notable condiment is garlic oil.

Legumes are very important and the most popular vegetables are borage and thistle. In terms of cured meats, ham from Teruel and Huesca are famous. Among the cheeses Tronchon is notable. Fruit based cuisine includes the very popular Fruits of Aragon (Spanish: Frutas de Aragón) and Maraschino cherries.

Asturias

Asturian cuisine has a long and rich history, deeply rooted in Celtic traditions of northern Europe. One of its most famous dishes is the Asturian bean stew, which is the traditional stew of the region, made with white beans, sausages such as chorizo and morcilla and pork. Another well known recipe is beans with clams, hare and partridge. Also of note are Asturian stew and vigil. Pork based foods, for example chosco, tripe Asturias and bollos preñaos are popular.

Balearic Islands

The Balearic cuisine has purely Mediterranean characteristics. The islands have been conquered several times throughout their history by the French and the English, which has left some culinary influences. At present are well known: the spicy sausage and rice brut, cheese Mahon, Mahon Gin ("pellofa") and mayonnaise. Among the dishes are tumbet, variat frit and roast suckling pig.

Basque Country

The cuisine of the Basque Country is a wide and varied range of ingredients and preparations. The culture of eating is very strong among the inhabitants of this region. Highlights include meat and fish dishes. Among fish, cod is produced in various preparations: bacalao al pil pil, cod Bilbao, etc.. Are also common anchovy, bream, bonito, etc.. Among the most famous dishes is the seafood changurro. Among the meats are: the beef steaks, pork loin with milk, fig leaf quail, marinated goose, etc.

Canary Islands

The Canary Islands have a unique cuisine due to their geographical location in the Atlantic ocean. The Canary Islands were part of the trading routes to the American Continent, hence creating a melting pot of different culinary traditions. Fish (fresh or salted) and potatoes are among the most common staple foods in the islands. The consumption of cheese, fruits and pork meat also characterizes canarian cuisine. The closeness to Africa influences climate and creates a range of warm temperatures that in modern times have fostered the agriculture of tropical and semitropical crops: bananas, yams, mangoes, avocados and persimmons which are heavily used in canarian cuisine.The aboriginal people Guanches based their diet on gofio (a type of flour made of different toasted grains), shellfish, and goat and pork products. Gofio is still consumed in the islands and has become part of the traditional cuisine of the islands. Stew is a very common kind of fish stew, reminiscent of dishes in other culinary traditions. Some other classic dishes in the Canary Islands include papas arrugadas, almogrote, frangollo, rabbit in "salmorejo sauce" and stewed goat.

Cantabria

A popular Cantabrian dish is cocido montañés, a rich stew made with beans, cabbage and pork. Seafood is widely used and bonito is present in the typical sorropotún or marmite. Recognized quality meats are Tudanca veal and game meat. Cantabrian pastries include sobaos and quesadas pasiegas. Dairy products include Cantabrian cream cheese, smoked cheeses, picón Bejes Tresviso and quesucos de Liébana. Orujo is the Cantabrian pomace brandy. Cider (sidra) and chacoli wine are increasing in popularity.[2][3]

Castile La Mancha

In this region, the culinary habits reflect the origin of foods eaten by shepherds and peasants. Al Manchara means, in Arabic, "Dry Land" indicating the arid lands and the quality of its dishes. It is said that the best La Mancha cuisine cookbook is the novel Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes. Wheat and grains are dominant, used in bread, soups, gazpacho manchego, crumbs, porridge, etc.. One of the most abundant ingredients in Manchego cuisine is garlic, leading to dishes such as: ajoarriero, ajopuerco and garlic marinade. Some traditional recipes are gazpacho manchego, pisto manchego and migas ruleras. Also popular is morteruelo, a kind of foie gras manchego. Manchego cheese is renowned.

Castile and León

In Castile and León characteristic dishes include morcilla, Valladolid (a black pudding made with special spices), judión de la granja, sopa de ajo (garlic soup), Cochinillo asado (roast piglet), lechazo (roast lamb), botillo del Bierzo, hornazo from Salamanca, Jamón de Guijuelo (a cured ham from Guijuelo, Salamanca), Salchichas de Zaratán and other sausages, Serrada cheese, Burgos's soft cheese, and Ribera del Duero wines.

Catalonia

The cuisine of Catalonia is based in a rural culture; it is very extensive and a great culinary wealth. Notably, it was in Catalonia where the first cookbook was written in Spain. It has a triple cuisine: seafood, mountain and interior. Among the most popular dishes include: escudella and tomato bread. Bean tortilla, Coca de recapte, samfaina, farigola soup and snails are famous dishes. Notable sauces are: romesco sauce, aioli, bouillabaisse of Catalan origin and picada.

La Rioja

La Rioja is recognized by the use of meats such as pork, and their cold cuts made after the traditional slaughter. The lamb is perhaps the second most popular meat product in this region (Sarmiento chops) and finally, veal is common in mountain areas. The most famous dish is Rioja potatoes and Fritada. Lesser known are: Holy lunch and Ajo huevo (garlic eggs).

Another well known dish is Rioja stew. Pimientos asados (roasted peppers) is a notable vegetable dish. Rioja wine has designated origin status.

Extremadura

The cuisine of Extremadura is austere, with dishes prepared by shepherds. It is very similar to the cuisine of Castilla. Extremaduran cuisine is abundant in pork; it is said that the region is one of the best for breeding pigs in Spain, thanks to the acorns that grow in their fields: Iberian pig herds raised in the fields of Montánchez are characterized by dark skin and black, thin legs. This breed of pig is found exclusively in Spain and Portugal. Iberian pork sausages are common, such as pork stews (cocido extremeño).

Galicia

Galician cuisine is known in Spanish territory because of the emigration of its inhabitants. One of the most noted is Galician soup. Also notable is pork with turnip tops, a popular component of the Galician carnival meal laconadas. Another remarkable recipe is Caldo de castañas (a chestnut broth), which is commonly consumed during winter. Pork products are also popular.

Madrid

Old Woman Frying Eggs (The Old Cook) (c. 1618) by Diego Velázquez. Scottish National Gallery.

Madrid did not gain its own identity in the Court until 1561, when Philip II moved the capital to Madrid. Since then, due to immigration, many of Madrid's culinary dishes have been made from modifications to dishes from other Spanish regions. Madrid, due to the influx of visitors from the nineteenth century onwards, was one of the first cities to introduce the concept of the restaurant, hosting some of the earliest examples.

Murcia

The cuisine of the region of Murcia has two sides with the influence of Manchego cuisine. The region of Murcia is famous for its varied fruit production. Among the most outstanding dishes are: Murcia tortilla, zarangollo, mojete, eggplants cream, pipirrana, etc.. A typical sauce of this area is the cabañil garlic, used to accompany meat dishes.Among confectionery products are: the exploradores) and pastel de Cierva, them are some typical cakes in Murcia gastronomy,they are found in almost all pastry shop in Murcia,are both sweet and savory at the same time.

Navarre

The gastronomy of Navarra has many similarities with the Basque cuisine. Two of its flag dishes are: Tout Navarre Style and Ajoarriero, although we must not forget the lamb chilindrón or relleno. There are very curious recipes such as the Carlists eggs.

Valencia

The cuisine of Valencia has two components: the rural (products of the field) and the other coastal, which is seafood. One popular Valencia creation is Paella, a rice dish cooked in a circular pan and topped with vegetables and meats (commonly rabbit, chicken or fish).[5] Dishes such as Arroz con costra, Arròs negre, fideuá and throw rice, Arroz al horno, and rice with beans and turnips are also common in the city.

The most popular Ingredients Used in Spainish Cuisine

Olive oil

Spanish rice

Spanish Paprika

Saffron

Iberico Ham

Serrano Ham

Spanish Cheeses

Chorizo

Olives

Garlic

Spanish wines

Mortar and Pestle

One of the most rudimentary utensils out there, the mortar and pestle holds an important place in the Spanish kitchen. So many dishes start here, and it’s really where the flavor begins. Known as the in Spanish, it can come in many shapes and sizes and made with different materials, from olive wood to marble to brass. Different regions use it for different things, such as romesco sauce in Catalonia or ajo blanco in Andalusia. Even today, despite the presence of electric mixers and the like, most would agree that nothing can get the job done quite like the mortar and pestle. .

Terracotta Ramekins

Cazuelas, the terracotta ramekins so typical of Spain, could by and large the most versatile piece of equipment in your kitchen. Use them in the oven, directly on the gas burner, or even on the barbecue for anything from a tapa of chili garlic gambas to a heavenly dessert of crema catalana.

The earthenware holds a slow and steady heat, allowing food to cook thoroughly and evenly (and even continue cooking on the table!). They come in a variety of sizes but will always be shallow and have that rustic look of unglazed, porous clay on the outside. Stack them up and use them often!

Paellera

The famous rice dish of Spain is actually named after the recipient in which it’s made, the paella (in Catalan, the word paella literally means “frying pan”). Many Spanish kitchens will have various sized paelleras hanging up and oiled, ready for their next use. Because there are so many different rice dishes in Spain, unless it’s made in a paellera, it’s not actually a paella!

Immersion Blender

Its very important to have blender in Spanish kitchen for preparing the chilled soups and smooth sauces.

MEXICAN CUISINE

Mexican cuisine is primarily a fusion of indigenous Mesoamerican cooking with European, especially Spanish, elements added after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in the 16th century. The staples are native foods, such as corn, beans, avocados, tomatoes, and chili peppers, along with rice, which was brought by the Spanish. Europeans introduced a large number of other foods, the most important of which were meats from domesticated animals (beef, pork, chicken, goat, and sheep), dairy products (especially cheese), and various herbs and spices

While the Spanish initially tried to impose their own diet on the country, this was not possible and eventually the foods and cooking techniques began to be mixed, especially in colonial era convents. African and Asian influences were also introduced into the mixture during this era as a result of African slavery in New Spain and the Manila Acapulco Galleons.

Over the centuries, this resulted in regional cuisines based on local conditions, such as those in Oaxaca, Veracruz and the Yucatán Peninsula. Mexican cuisine is an important aspect of the culture, social structure and popular traditions of Mexico.

Vegetables play an important role in Mexican cuisine. Common vegetables include zucchini, cauliflower, corn, potatoes, spinach, swiss chard, mushrooms, jitomate (red tomato), green tomato, etc. Other delicious traditional vegetable dishes include chiles rellenos, huitlacoche (corn fungus), huauzontle, and nopalitos (cactus leaves) to name a few.

European contributions include pork, chicken, beef, cheese, herbs and spices, as well as some fruits. Tropical fruits such as guava, prickly pear, sapote, mangoes, bananas, pineapple and cherimoya (custard apple) are popular, especially in the center and south of the country. It has been debated how much Mexican food is still indigenous and how much is European. However, the basis of the diet is still corn and beans, with chile pepper as a seasoning, as they are complementary foods.

ESSENTIAL INGREDIENTS USED

Avocadoes

This rich, buttery fruit is a true Mexican staple. Avocado adds a Mexican flair to almost any dish, including such basics as sandwiches and salads.

Beans, canned

Both black beans and pinto beans are go-to staples, depending on the dish and the preference of the chef. Each can be made into refried beans by buying them whole, soaking in a spice mixture, then mashing and refrying.

Cheeses

Made in Mexico, queso Oaxaca is a white cheese ideal for quesadillas. If your local Mexican market doesn’t carry it, substitute mozzarella. Queso fresco is a soft, crumbly cheese that adds a touch of saltiness to dishes like enchiladas. Mild Feta can be substituted for it.

Chipotles

Buy these smoke dried jalapeños canned and they’ll last up to six months. (Transfer them to a jar after opening.) Used frequently for salsas and marinades, chipotles have a slight heat accompanied by a smoky flavor.

Chocolate, Mexican

Mexican chocolate has a bitter, earthy flavor that pairs nicely with other ingredients in dishes as various as mousses and flans and spiced turkey breast and mole sauce. Nowadays it can be found in many large grocery stores and in Latin markets, but you can substitute semisweet chocolate plus a dash of cinnamon.

Crema

Basically a Mexican version of sour cream, crema can be used in hot or cold sauces, adding that last punch of bright, tangy flavor. It can bring flautas or tacos to the next level. In bigger cities, you’ll probably find crema in large supermarkets and Mexican grocery stores. If you can’t find it, sour cream can be substituted in any dish except a hot sauce (since heating sour cream can make it separate or curdle).

Limes

The humble lime is considered by some to be a Mexican cook’s most flavorful tool. It’s a must have ingredient for finishing a dish squeeze it on tacos, into salsa, and on just about anything that benefits from a bright, tart pop of flavor.

Oregano, Mexican

This variety is a little more aggressive and savory than the herb that Americans are used to. It can be tracked down at specialty stores, most Mexican markets, and some well stocked supermarkets. If you can’t find it, use regular oregano.

Poblanos

These mild chili peppers are prevalent in Mexican dishes, especially when roasted and peeled. (Once cut into strips, they’re called rajas.) They’re used in everything from salsas to quesadillas to chiles rellenos.

Tomatoes

Mexican cuisine incorporates a wide variety of sauces, many of them tomato based. Buy the best tomatoes you can find in season.

Corn tortillas

Along with beans, pumpkin, chiles and wild greens, corn is the base of the Mexican diet. Traditional Mexican cuisine must be enjoyed with tortillas for wrapping the food; they can even replace plates and silverware.

Equipments Used

Molcajete (traditional stone mortar and pestle)

This is an indispensable and traditional tool in Mexican kitchens. When you grind with stone, you get the essential oils from squeezing the seeds at the same time that you pulverize them. It used to be that when a young lady got married, it was very important that she recieve a molcajete as a gift from her mother, grandmother, or another important woman in the family. Use a molcajete to make salsas and guacamole.

Blender or food processor

Traditionally, Mexican dishes like moles, pipianes (sauces or dips that are based on seeds or a seed mixture), and adobos are ground on a metate (stone). In most modern Mexican homes, the sauces are ground in a blender or food processor

Clay or cast iron comal (flat griddle)

You need this to make tortillas, quesadillas, and sopes, as well as to heat the tortillas for everyday eating. Mextlapiques, cecina, chicken breast, and even some tamales are cooked on a comal. It is also used to dry onion, garlic, and tomatoes, for example

Steamer

This is especially useful for cooking tamales, mixiotes (pit barbecued meat), home cooked barbacoa, and some mextlapiques.

Heavy casserole with a lid or clay pots

These are great for cooking moles, adobos, and pipianes. For recipes that require long cooking times, these types of pots are useful because they retain an even heat.