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A History of Rome from Earliest Times to the End of the Western Empire
SECOND EDITIO
CONTENTS
Maps XVII
Figures . XIX
Plat es •• XXII
Pr ef a ce to tl1.e Second Edition
Pr eface to the First Editi on
Acknowledg 1nents xxix
Notes to th e R ea d e r xxxi
About t h e Authors xxxiii
1
Archaic Italy and the Origins of Rome
Italy and the Mediterranean World 1
The Evidence 4
Italy Before the City 6
Greeks and Phoenicians in the Central Mediterranean 8
The Rise of Cities 9
Beginning of Writing 10
Appearance of an Elite 11
Cities and Monumental Architecture 14
Warfare in the Orientalizing and Archaic Periods 18
Social and Economic Organization 20
Greeks and Etruscans 22
Greek Cities of Southern Italy and Sicily 24
Etruscans 24
The Emergence of Rome 27
The Romans and Their Early History 31
TABLE 1.1 Dates of Rome's Kings According to Varro 33
SOURCE 1.1 Plutarch, Romulus 34
Politics and Society under the Kings 35
Rome and the Latins 39
2 Republican Rome and the Conquest of Italy
The Early Republic 43
Rome and Its Neighbors in the Fifth Century 46
Struggle of the Orders 49
Fall of Veii and the Sack of Rome 51
The City and Its Institutions in the Fourth Century 53
Officials 54
Senate 58
Assemblies of Citizens 60
SOURCE 2.1 Servius Tullius' Creation of the Census (Livy) 62
TABLE 2.1 Roman Assemblies 64
The City, Its Gods, and Its Priests 64
SOURCE 2.2 The Roman Games (Dionysius of Halicarnassus) 67
Rome and Central Italy 69
Warfare and the Civic Order 70
Rome in Latium and Campania 71
Samnite Wars 76
Expansion of Roman Control Over Italy 79
Wars in Central and Northern Italy 79
Conquest of the South 80
War and the Roman State 85
3 The Beginnings of a Mediterranean Empire
Sources 87
The Nobility and the City of Rome 88
SOURCE 3.1 Triumph of Scipio Africanus (Appian) 91
4
Contents
Wars with Carthage 94
First Punic War (264-241) 95
Second Punic War (218-201) 100
SOURCE 3.2 Rome's Reaction to Defeat at Cannae (Polybius) 105
A Mediterranean Empire 109
Governors, Provinces, and Empire 110
Spain 113
Greece and Asia Minor 117
SOURCE 3.3 Popillius Laenas Forestalls Antiochus' Invasion of Egypt (Polybius) 122
North Africa 123
Italy and Empire
Senators, Officials, and Citizen Assemblies 125
Italy and the Consequences of Empire 129
Changing Relations Between Rome, Its Municipia, and Allies 129
Roman and Italian Elites 133
SOURCE 4.1 Scipio Africanus' Army Loots Carthago Nova (Polybius and Livy) 134
Demographic and Economic Changes 136
Roman Politics from the Mid-Second Century 141
Scipio Aemilianus 142
Tiberius Gracchus 144
SOURCE 4.2 Tiberius Gracchus Urges Romans to Support His Land-Assignment Scheme (Plutarch) 146
Gaius Gracchus 148
5
Italy Threatened, Enfranchised, Divided
Changes in Roman Society 154
War with Jugurtha (112-105) 157
Italy Threatened from the North (113-101) 160
SOURCE 5.1 A Spanish People Surrenders to Rome 162
Changes in the Roman Army 162
Content s
Marius' Career in Roman Politics 163
SOURCE 5.2 Marius' Bid for the Consulship (Sallust) 163
Sixth Consulship of Marius and Second Tribunate of Saturninus (100) 165
Administration of the Provinces 167
Tribunate of Livius Drusus (91) 170
Social War (91-87) 171
Tribunate of Sulpicius Rufus (88) 175
Sulla's First March on Rome (88) 177
Cinna's Rule (87-84) 178
Sulla's Second March on Rome (83-82) 181
6 The Domination of Sulla and Its Legacy
Sulla's Proscriptions (82-81) 185
Sulla the Dictator and His Program (82-81) 186
Senate 186
Tribunate 189
Equites, Courts 189
Citizens 189
Governors 191
Verdicts on Sulla's Program 192
SOURCE 6.1 Cicero's Defense of Sextus Roscius 193
Lepidus' Uprising and Its Aftermath (78-77) 196
Challenge from Sertorius in Spain (80-73) 197
SOURCE 6.2 Pompey's Letter from Spain (Sallust) 198
Spartacus' Slave Revolt (73-71) 199
Consulship of Crassus and Pompey (70) 200
Pompey Frees the Mediterranean of Pirates (67) 201
Threat from King Mithridates VI of Pontus 202
Sulla's Campaign Against Mithridates (87-85) 204
Lucullus' Struggle with Mithridates (74-67) 205
Pompey's Defeat of Mithridates (66-63) 207
Roles of Crassus and Cicero in Rome (65-63) 209
Catiline's Uprising (63-62) 211
7
8
End of the Republic: Caesar's Dictatorship
Sources 217
Pompey's Return from the East (62) 217
Pompey and Political Stalemate in Rome 219
Partnership of Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar 221
Caesar's First Consulship (59) 224
Clodius' Tribunate (58) 226
Cicero's Recall and the Renewal of the Triumvirate (57-56) 228
Caesar's Campaigns in Gaul (58-51) 229
Death of Clodius and Pompey's Sole Consulship (52) 233
Prospect of Civil War (51-49) 234
Causes and Consequences of Caesar Crossing the Rubicon (January 49) 236
Cicero's Governorship of Cilicia (51-50) 238
Civil War Campaigns (49-45) 241
Caesar's Activity as Dictator (49-44) 244
Caesar's Impact Upon the City of Rome 248
Political Prospects for Rome, and for Caesar 252
Augustus and the Transformation of the Roman World
Reactions to the Assassination of Caesar (44-43) 257
Emergence of a Second Triumvirate (43) 261
Battle of Philippi (42) 263
SOURCE 8.1 Laudatio Turiae 264
Perusine War (41-40) 267
Elimination of Sextus Pompey and Lepidus (39-36) 268
Antony in the East (42 Onwards) 269
Clash Between Antony and Octavian (36-30) 272
Octavian as Sole Ruler (30 Onwards) 276
''The Republic Restored'' 279
Second Settlement (23) 280
The Roman Family in the Augustan Period 281
Succession 283
TABLE 8.1 The Julio-Claudian Family 284
Senate and Equites 289
Army 291
The Empire and Its Expansion 294
SOURCE 8.2 Oath of Loyalty 294
Latin Literature in the Late Republic and Augustan Age 299
City of Rome 301
Attitudes Outside Rome 302
Res Gestae of Augustus 305
Augustus: Final Assessment 307
9 The Early Principate (A.D. 14-69): The Julio-Claudians, the Civil War of 68-69, and Life in the Early Empire
Sources 309
The Julio-Claudian Emperors: Civil Government and Military Concerns 310
Tiberius (14-37) 312
SOURCE 9 .1 Senatorial Decree Concerning the Elder Gnaeus Piso 315
Gaius (Caligula) (37-41) 316
Claudius (41-54) 320
SOURCE 9.2 Claudius' Speech on the Admission of Gauls to the Senate 321
Nero (54-68) 324
Civil War in 68-69: Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian 327
Economic and Social Change: Army 329
Economy 331
Intellectual Life 332
''Beneficial Ideology'' 333
Cities and Provinces 335
Women 337
Diversity: Local Languages and Culture 339
Religious Practices and Principles 339
Imperial Cult 343
1 Q
Institutionalization of the Principate: Military Expansion
and Its Limits, the Empire and the Provinces (69-138)
Sources 347
Institutionalization of the Principate 348
Vespasian (69-79) 351
Titus (79-81) 357
Domitian (81-96) 357
A New, Better Era? 359
Nerva (96-98) 360
Trajan (98-117) 362
TABLE 10.1 The Antonine Family 368
Hadrian (117-138) 369
SOURCE 10.1 Hadrian Inspects Troops at Lambaesis, Numidia 373
Roman Cities and the Empire's Peoples 374
Theaters and Processions 375
Circuses and Chariot Racing 377
The Amphitheater, and Gladiatorial Games 380
Other Urban Amenities 384
Education 385
State Religion and Imperial Cult 386
11 Italy and the Provinces: Civil and Military Affairs (138-235)
Sources 389
Antoninus Pius (138-161) 390
Marcus Aurelius (161-180) and Lucius Verus (161-169) 392
SOURCE 11.1 A Greek Provincial Praises Roman Citizenship 392
SOURCE 11.2 Morbidity and Mortality in the Roman Empire 395
Commodus (176-192, Ruling as Sole Augustus After 180) 401
Civil War and the Rise of Septimius Severus (193-211) 402
TABLE 11.1 The Severan Family 403
SOURCE 11.3 Deification Ceremonies for Pertinax in Septimius Severus' Rome 405
Caracalla (198-217, Ruling as Sole Augustus After 211) 409
Macrinus (217-218) 409
Elagabalus (218-222) 410
Severus Alexander (222-235) 411
Roman Law 411
Roman Citizenship 416
SOURCE 11.4 Grant of Roman Citizenship (Tabula Banasitana) 418
Rome and Christianity 421
SOURCE 11.5 Pliny, Trajan, and Christians 423
12 The Third-Century Crisis and the T etrarchic Restabilization
Sources 427
Mid-Third Century 428
Aurelian (270-275) 434
Diocletian, the Tetrarchy, and the Dominate (284-305) 435
Dissolution of the Tetrarchy (305-313), and the Rise of Constantine (306-324) 441
SOURCE 12.1 Galerius' Edict of Toleration (April 311) 446
Administrative Reorganization Under the Dominate 449
SOURCE 12.2 The Tetrarchs Introduce Their Edict on Maximum Prices 455
13 The Rise of Christianity and the Growth of the Barbarian Threat (324-395)
Sources 458
Constantine: A Christian Emperor 459
The Sons of Constantine (337-361): The Power of Dynasty 465
TABLE 13.1 The Constantinian Family 466
Julian (361-363): A Test of the Christian Empire 470
SOURCE 13.1 Julian Attempts to Bring Paganism into Line with Christianity 472
Jovian, Valentinian I, and Valens (363-378) 473
Gratian, Valentinian II, and Theodosius I (379-395) 475
New Elites for the Empire 478
Paganism and Christianity 482
SOURCE 13.2 The End of Pagan Sacrifice 484
14 The Final Years of the Western Empire and Rome's Revival in the East
Sources 487
The Theodosian Dynasty Down to the First Sack of Rome (395 410) 488
TABLE 14.1 The Theodosian Family 490
The Fall of the Western Empire (410-476) 495
SOURCE 14.1 The Gothic King Athaulf's Shifting Attitude Toward Rome 496
The Growth of a Byzantine Empire in the East (408-491) 500
A Christian Culture 505
SOURCE 14.2 Holy Land Pilgrimage and the Cult of Relics 510
Women's Power in Late Antiquity 511
The ''Decline and Fall'' of the Roman Empire 515
Tim e lin e 519
Glossary 527
Principa l Ancient Authors 543
Art Credits 553
Gazetteer 557
Ind ex 563
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MAPS
Endpaper, front Roman Empire
1.1 Archaic Italy 3
1.2 Southern Italy and Sicily 23
1.3 Northern Italy 25
1.4 Rome and Environs 28
1.5 Rome in the Early Republic (before 300 B.c.) 30
2.1 Latium and Southern Etruria 48
2.2 Latium and Campania 72
2.3 Samnium 78
2.4 Southern Italy 82
3.1 Western Mediterranean in the Mid-Third Century 96
3.2 Northern Italy 102
3.3 Southern Italy and Sicily 103
3.4 Iberian Peninsula 107
3.5 Greece, the Aegean, and Western Asia Minor 119
5.1 Rome's Foreign Wars, 113-82 158-159
5.2 Social War 172
6.1 Sulla's Veteran Settlements in Italy 188
6.2 Rome's Wars in Italy and Abroad, 78-63 194-195
7.1 Rome's Empire in 60 B.C. 218
7.2 Campaigns of Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey, 58-45 230-231
7.3 Settlement of Veterans in Italy by Julius Caesar and Augustus 246
7.4 Rome in the Late Republic 249
8.1 Roman Campaigns, 44-30 258-259
8.2 Expansion of the Empire in the Age of Augustus 296-297
8.3 Rome at the Death of Augustus (A.D. 14) 303
9.1 Roman Empire in A.D. 69 318-319
10.1 Rome's Northern Provinces Around A.D. 100 355
10.2 Eastern Expansion of the Empire in the Early Second Century 364
10.3 Rome at the Death of Trajan (A.D. 117) 378
11.1 Campaigns of Marcus Aurelius and the Severan Emperors 396-397
12.1 The Empire's North and West in the ''Age of Crisis'' 430
12.2 Rome in the Age of Constantine 444-445
12.3 Roman Empire of Diocletian and Constantine 452-453
13.1 Major Battle Sites of the Fourth Century 468-469
13.2 Christian Congregations Attested by 325 480
14.1 The Barbarian Invasions 492-493
14.2 Constantinople in Late Antiquity 502
14.3a,b Churches in Late Antique Rome and Jerusalem 512-513
Endpaper, back Roman Italy
Gazetteer 557
FIGURES
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 a l.Sb 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 4.1 4.2
Frontispiece: Head from Italica
Cover Photo: Kur~unlugerme aqueduct bridge
Etruscan chariot-body panel 13
Banquet scene, Murlo 14
Plan of the palace at Murlo 15
Reconstruction of the Portonaccio Temple, Veii 17
Umbrian warrior figure 19
Processional frieze, Acquarossa 20
Statue of Apollo, Portonaccio Temple, Veii 32
Thirteen altars, Lavinium 41
Statue of Minerva, Lavinium 41
Servian wall 53
Ficoroni cista 57
Anatomical votive 65
Relief of games, Clusium 68
Warrior plaque, Praeneste 74
Togato Barberini 93
Bronze ingot 99
Early Roman denarius 108
Plan of the encirclement of Numantia 116
Temple of Dionysus model, Vulci 131 ''House of the Faun'' plan, Pompeii 135
a,b,c
7.7 a,b,c 8.1 8.2
8.3 a,b,c 8.4
8.5 a,b,c 8.6 8.7 a,b,c,d,e,f
a,b,c,d
Figures
Etruscan funerary urn, Perugia 137
Lead slingshots from Sicily 140
Caceres bronze tablet 161
Italian coin issues during the Social War 173
Reconstruction of the sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia, Praeneste 182
Amphitheater, Pompeii 190-191
Bust, possibly Sulla 192
Coin of Mithridates issued in Asia 203
Inscription on Hypsicrateia/Hypsicrates monument 208
Plan of the Settefinestre villa 212
Bust of Cicero 214
Bust of Pompey 219
Fishpond near Circeii 222-223
Bust of Julius Caesar 244
Coin bearing the image of Julius Caesar 245
The Roman Forum and the Palatine Hill 250
The new Fora of Caesar and Augustus 251
Curia Julia, exterior and interior 254-255
Coin of Brutus 263
Bust of Mark Antony 266
Images of Cleopatra 270-271
Coins of Antony and Cleopatra 273
Augustan victory monument (Actium) and veteran settlement (Aosta) 274-275
Gold coin of Octavian 277
Busts of Sulla (possibly), Cicero, Pompey, Julius Caesar, Mark Antony, Livia 278
Bust of Livia 285
Images of Octavian/ Augustus 286-287
Centurion's tomb monument 293
Finds from the Teutoburg Forest massacre 298
South frieze of the Ara Pacis Augustae 304
''Sword of Tiberius'' relief 311
Relief of Claudius subduing Britain, Aphrodisias 323
Gold coin of Nero and Agrippina, A.D. 54 324
Freedman's funerary monument, Mainz 336
Statue of Eumachia, Pompeii 338
Bilingual funerary inscription, Varna 340
Relief dedicated to the Nutrices, Ptuj 341
Section from the ''Cancellaria reliefs," Rome 349
Panels from the Arch of Titus, Rome 352-353
View of Trajan's colony at Timgad 361
Two bands of the relief on Trajan's Column, Rome 363
Statue of Hadrian, Hierapytna 371
Roman theater, Merida 376
Roman charioteer's funerary monument 379
Mosaic amphitheater scenes, Zliten 381
Pont du Gard, near Nimes 383
Bronze coin of Antoninus Pius 391
Relief of Claudius' harbor, north of Ostia 393
Relief of Marcus Aurelius conducting a religious ceremony, Rome 399
Bust of Commodus as Hercules 401
Painting of Septimius Severus and his family 408
Family tombstone, near Szekesfehervar 419
View of Lepcis Magna 420
Capture of Valerian 432
Group portrait of the tetrarchs, Venice 436
Arch of Galerius 439
Tetrarchic Villa Romuliana 442-443
Aula Palatina, Trier 451
South side of the Arch of Constantine, Rome 460
Fragments of colossal statue of Constantine 463
Fourth-century coins 471
Obelisk base from the Hippodrome of Constantinople 477
Diptych of Stilicho and Serena 491
Theodosian walls of Constantinople 501
Codex Argenteus (Silver Codex) 504
Simeon the Stylite 508
