Ancient Macedonian Language

Ancient Macedonian Language Introduction: The Ancient Macedonian language was the tongue of the Ancient Macedonians. It was spoken in Macedon during the first millennium BC and belongs to the Indo-European language family. Marginalized from the fifth century BC., it was gradually replaced by the common Greek dialect of the Hellenistic Era by the use of Attic Greek by the Macedonian aristocracy. It was probably spoken predominantly in the inland regions away from the coast. It is as yet undetermined whether the language was a dialect of Greek, a sibling language to Greek, or an Indo - European language which is a close cousin to Greek and also related to Thracian and Phrygian. Knowledge of the language is limited because there are no surviving texts that are indisputably written in the language. However, a body of authentic Macedonian words has been assembled from ancient sources, mainly from coin inscriptions, and from the fifth century lexicon of Hesychius of Alexandria[1][55].

Proto – Macedonian was among the many languages that developed and were spoken in Macedonia[78].

The account of Herodotus lends itself to the view that at least the Macedonian aristocracy was of Hellenic origin[2]. Additionally, Livy states that the Macedonians, Aetolians, and Acarnanians are “men speaking the same language,� which lends itself to the theory that ancient Macedonian was a Doric dialect[8][9]. However, the notion that the kings were of Hellenic stock is contradicted by Thrasymachus and Demosthenes[3][4]. Additionally, there is reason to believe that Macedonian was, if not a different language, a tongue that was incomprehensible to Greeks[25, a].

Explicit references to the use and comprehensibility of Macedonian in contrast to the Greek dialects exist[5][6]. There is evidence that Macedonian was not readily understood by Greeks, unlike those Greek dialects used in Panhellenic gatherings. Furthermore, whenever the tongue is referenced in antiquity, it is apparently mentioned as a distinct language rather than a dialect[7]. The epigraphic discoveries in Macedonia show that only Greek dialects were used in any written documents. A fourth-century BC inscription found in the remains of Pella appears to be written in a variety of Northwest Greek and has led to conjectures that this may be the previously unattested Macedonian language, albeit many view it as full of Doracisms[5][10][11][50].

Classification: Due to the fragmentary attestation, various interpretations are possible. Suggested phylogenetic classifications of Macedonian include[12][13]: 

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 

An Indo-European language which is a close cousin to Greek and also related to the Thracian and Phrygian languages, suggested by A. Meillet (1913) and I. I. Russu (1938)[14], or part of a Sprachbund encompassing Thracian, Illyrian and Greek (Kretschmer 1896, E. Schwyzer 1959).

An Illyrian dialect mixed with Greek, suggested by K. O. Müller (1825) and by G. Bonfante (1987).

A sibling language of Greek within Indo-European, with Macedonian and Greek forming two sub-branches of a Greco-Macedonian subgroup within Indo-European (sometimes called Hellenic)[12], suggested by Joseph (2001), Georgiev (1966)[15], Hamp & Adams (2013).

A language created out of the languages of the Paeonians, Illyrians, and Epirotes that became subjects to Macedonian kings[6].

Various explicitly Greek scenarios: o A Greek dialect, part of the North-Western (Locrian, Aetolian, Phocidian, Epirote) variants of Doric Greek, suggested by N.G.L. Hammond (1989)[16] and O. Masson (1996)[17]. o A northern Greek dialect, related to Aeolic Greek and Thessalian, suggested among others by A. Fick (1874) and O. Hoffmann (1906)[17][18]. o A Greek dialect with a non-Indo-European substrate influence, suggested by M. Sakellariou (1983). o A North-Western Doric Greek dialect with a Phrygian influence on a par with the Anatolian substratum on Pamphylian Greek (C. Brixhe, A. Panayotou 1994)[19][20].

Indo-European close to Greek: Some linguists (A. Meillet) consider Macedonian an Indo-European language in its own right, close to Greek but perhaps not of Greek stock, and treat it like the other poorly attested languages such as Thracian and Phrygian of some geographical proximity. Schwyzer and others hypothesize that linguistically Macedonian was between Illyrian and Thracian, a kind of intermediary language linking the two, in the sense of a dialect continuum or Sprachbund, since a genetic Thraco-Illyrian unity is highly uncertain and cannot be proven on grounds of the surviving evidence[21]. In 1999, A. Garrett has surmised that Macedonian may at an early stage have been part of a dialect continuum which spanned the ancestor dialects of all south-western Indo-European languages (including Greek), but that it then remained peripheral to later areal processes of convergence which produced Greek proper. Vladimir I. Georgiev places Greek and Macedonian on a common branch of an IE family tree; this branch he groups together with Phrygian and Armenian to form a grouping termed Central Indo-European:

Ancient Macedonian is closely related to Greek, and Macedonian and Greek are descended from a common Greek-Macedonian idiom that was spoken till about the second half of the 3rd millennium BC[15].

Similarly, Eric P. Hamp assumes a common branch of Greek plus Macedonian, with the next larger unit formed together with Armenian and termed Pontic South Indo-European[22].

Hellenic Language: Some linguists have proposed calling the common Greek-Macedonian group Hellenic. A Hellenic group comprising Greek and Macedonian is also suggested as a possibility by Brian Joseph and has been adopted in the classification scheme used by the LINGUIST List[12][23]. A number of the Macedonian words, particularly in Hesychius' lexicon, are disputed and some may have been corrupted in the transmission. Thus, abroutes (αβρουτες) may be read as abrouwes (αβρουϝες), with a digamma (ϝ) replacing tau (τ)[24]. If so, this word would perhaps be included within a Greek dialect; however, others (A. Meillet) see the dental as authentic and think that this specific word would perhaps belong to an Indo-European language different from Greek.

Greek Dialect: Another school of thought favors Macedonian as an explicitly Greek dialect. A recent proponent of this school was Professor Olivier Masson, who in his article on the ancient Macedonian language in the third edition of the Oxford Classical Dictionary tentatively suggested that Macedonian was related to North-Western Greek dialects[17]: In our view, the Greek character of most names is obvious and it is difficult to think of a Hellenization due to wholesale borrowing. The small minority of names which do not look Greek may be due to a substratum or ad-stratum influences (as elsewhere in Greece). Macedonian may then be seen as a Greek dialect, characterized by its marginal position and by local pronunciations. Yet in contrast with earlier views which made of it an Aeolic dialect, we must by now think of a link with North-West Greek. We must wait for new discoveries, but we may tentatively conclude that Macedonian is a dialect related to North-West Greek.

Albeit, Dr. Brian Joseph surmised that[12]: The slender evidence is open to different interpretations, so that no definitive answer is really possible.

He also cautions: Most likely, Ancient Macedonian was not simply an Ancient Greek dialect on a par with Attic or Aeolic.

Thus, in this sense, some authors also call it a deviant Greek dialect[25,b].

Map showing the dispersion of different languages in Europe and Asia Minor[80].

Properties: From the few words that survive, only a little can be said about the language. A notable sound-law is that the Proto-Indo-European voiced aspirates (bʰ, dʰ, gʰ) appear as voiced stops /b, d, g/, (written β, δ, γ), in contrast to all known Greek dialects, which have unvoiced them to /pʰ, tʰ, kʰ/ (φ, θ, χ). According to Plutarch in his Moralia, Macedonians use ‘b’ instead of ‘ph,’ and according to Herodotus (7.73), the Macedonians claimed that the Phryges (Phrygians) were called Brygoi before they migrated from Thrace to Anatolia. Plutarch tells us that the Macedonians use danos for “death,”[27] whereas the Greek word is thanatos[55]. Macedonian mágeiros (“butcher”) was a loan from Doric into Attic. Vittore Pisani has suggested an ultimately Macedonian origin for the word, which could then be cognate to mákhaira (“knife”) showing a γ vs χ distinction[28]. These may represent a voiced stop[25,b], or a voiced fricative, in which case their voicing in Macedonian is late and secondary, similar to Modern Greek[25,b][26].

Albeit Katicic among others is convinced that these do indeed represent voiced stops.

Most linguists and philologists consider this an absolutely fundamental feature, which distinguished Macedonian from all the Greek dialects - including Mycenaean Greek - because it indicated a different evolution of the consonants in the phonological system of Macedonian: i.e., in accordance with this theory, the Indo - European voiced aspirates *bh, *dh, *gh, have developed in Greek already before Linear B tablets into voiceless aspirates [p h, th, kh] (graphemes Φ, Θ, Χ respectively), having lost their voicing, while in Macedonian they have developed, respectively, into [b, d, g] (graphemes Β, Δ, Γ); in other words, they have lost their aspiration. In the opinion of other scholars, the difference reflects evolution within Greek (fricativization, see among contemporary authors Babiniotis 1992; cf. on empirical evidence Hatzopoulos 1993, 233 - 9), a view difficult to reconcile with the latest evidence from the dialect texts[31].

According to Dosuna, inscriptional evidence proves beyond doubt that the P.I.E. plain stops *p, *t, *k also underwent voicing: cf. e.g., Ἄρδεμις, Διγαία, and Βλαγάνοις (: Ἄρτεμις, Δικαία, and Πλαχάνοις), Βάλαγρος besides the aforementioned Βάλακρος (Greek Φάλακρος),

Βορδῖνος (Greek Πορτῖνος), Δρεβέλαος (Greek Τρεφέλεως), etc[29]. In a recent article, O’Neil (2006, 205) concludes that Ancient Macedonian preserved the original voiced pronunciation of PIE aspirate plosives, something that he notes sounded alien to the Greeks. Méndez Dosuna, who has himself argued for early spirantization of plain voiceless and voiced stops in certain Ancient Greek dialects, favours the interpretation of the data by M. Hatzopoulos, whereby the Macedonian voiceless-aspirated stops have undergone spirantization /ph th kh/ to fricatives /f θ x/, and have been secondarily allophonically voiced to [v ð ɣ] intervocalically, as part of a more general allophonic voicing lenition in the stop system in intervocalic position whereby the voiceless-unaspirated stops /p t k/ lenite to voiced stops [b d g], and the voiced stops /b d g/ lenite to voiced fricatives [v ð ɣ]. Although, this particular form of secondary lenition is without parallel in Ancient or Modern Greek[103].

Hatzopoulos examines other phenomena regarding the consonantism of ancient Macedonian; he tentatively suggests that the PN Ἐπόκιλλος (< *h₃ekʷ-) attests to the shift *kʷi > [kʲi] > κι. On the basis of the PNs Ἱκκότα, Ἱκκότιμος (< *h1ek´wo-), Ὄκκος (< *h₃ekʷ-) and Λυκκηία (a derivate of *Λύκκος < *lukʷ-), Hatzopoulos tentatively posits an evolution of *kʷo > κκο in Macedonian, with a reinforcement of occlusion allegedly triggered by the loss of the labial appendix. Hatzopoulos notes that the placename Βάττυνα and Βέτταλος seem to indicate that Pre – Greek -tʰj- evolved into Macedonian as -ττ-. In some dedications found in Apollo’s sanctuary at Xerolimni of Kozani, the god is called Μεζωρίσκῳ or Μεσζορίσκῳ. Hatzopoulos plausibly interprets this epiklesis as a derivate of a compound of μέσσο- (< PIE *medʰjo) and ὄρος (< PIE *h₃er) meaning "a place in the middle of the mountains." He is of the opinion that the spelling ζ corresponds to an intermediate stage -tˢ-.

Additionally, we observe correspondences between Greek ai before consonants and Macedonian a, and initial Greek o and initial Macedonian a, as well as a normative singular of rstems without the final consonant like in Old Indian and Lithuanian[25,b]. For comparison of the phonologic properties of Macedonian and how they compare to Greek, we have more words that have clear Greek cognates but differ to an extent beyond the limits of variation within Greek.

Compare, for example, Macedonian ade “sky” and Greek aither, Macedonian keble/kebale “head” with Greek kephale. If such sets are rightly analyzed as cognates, the ancient Macedonian language departs conspicuously from Greek in showing voiced unaspirated rather than voiceless aspirated reflexes of the earlier Indo-European voiced aspirated stops[5][25,b]. Other terms to compare include:     

Macedonian adraia “clear skies” versus Greek aithria, showing that the initial ai in Greek was a in Macedonian.

Macedonian daneu “to kill” versus Greek thanein, showing the preference of the voicedstop d (Macedonian) in place of the voiceless aspirate th (Greek).

Macedonian abroutes “eyebrows” versus Greek ophrus. An important word in terms of Macedonian phonology showing the prothetic vowel α instead of ο, β instead of φ, and diphthong ου instead of υ.

Macedonian galadra “ravine” versus Greek charadra, showing the use of the voiced-stop g in place of the voiceless aspirate ch/kh.

Macedonian Berenike “bearing victory” versus Greek Phereniki, showing the use of the initial voiced-stop b in place of the initial voiceless aspirate ph.

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Macedonian consonant-vowel-consonant structure versus Greek consonant-consonant[30], for example Macedonian karabos “wooden gate” versus Greek karphos where a vowel is introduced between two consonants, and Macedonian ginomai “to be” versus Greek gignomai where the median consonant is dropped in a CVCCV cluster.

According to Carlos Quiles, Macedonian arkon “lazy, idle” versus Greek argos shows that in Macedonian, velar stops were devoiced within words[55].

Macedonian gotan “pig” versus Greek boton, showing that the labiovelars were either intact, or merged with the velars, unlike the Greek treatment.

Macedonian keb(a)le “head” and Greek kephale, wherein the first plosive is k versus g, showing that Macedonian did not fully develop a Brygian phonology since that would result in geb(a)le[29].

Phonology: A. Panayotou, E. Crespo, and J. Dosuna summarize some generally identified features obtained through ancient texts and epigrams[29][31][105]:        

    

Development of voiced aspirates (bʰ, dʰ, gʰ) into voiced stops (b, d, g) (Βερενίκα, Attic Φερενίκη) first compensatory lengthening: γᾶμαι, ὑμῶμ Retention of */a:/ (e.g. Μαχάτας) [a:] as result of contraction [a:] + [ɔ:] Apocope of short vowels in prepositions in synthesis (παρκαττίθεμαι, Attic παρακατατίθεμαι) Syncope (hyphairesis) and diphthongization are used to avoid hiatus (Θετίμα, Attic Θεοτίμη).

In Pella we find the following cases of non - Attic ᾱ: ᾱ for Att.-Ion. η: Θετίμᾱς (l. 2), γᾶμαι (l. 4), ἄλλᾱν (lines 4, 6), ἐρήμᾱ (l. 6), etc. and genitive plural -ᾶν (< -ᾱων) (Ion. έων, Att. -ῶν): τᾶν ἀλλᾶν πασᾶν (l. 1), χρᾶν (l. 2)[29].

The spelling ΟΥ for Υ occurs sporadically in PNs and in geographic names in inscriptions written in Attic, cf. for instance Βουλομάγα versus Φυλομάχη and Ἡρακλεῖ Κουναγίδᾳ for Κυναγίδαι (SEG 2.436.7–9, Styberra, ca. 198 AD). These spellings are believed to be compelling evidence that Pre - Greek /u(ː)/ retained its back articulation in Macedonian unlike standard Greek with fronted /y(ː)/[29].

The spelling πάλειν for πάλιν, ἰμε for εἰμί, and δαπινά for ταπεινά in Pella, 1.6, if they are not plain ‘slips of the stylus,’ might attest to the merger of /eː/ (<EI>) and /iː/ (<I>)[29].

Voicing of /t/ > [d], if δαπινά is to be understood as ταπεινά Retention of the pronunciation [u] οf /u(:)/ in local cult epithets or nicknames (Κουναγίδας Κυναγίδας) Raising of /ɔ:/ to /u:/ in proximity to nasal, such as Κάνουν (Attic Κανών) and οὐνή (Attic ὠνή) in several deeds of sale from Olynthus and other colonies in the Chalcidice, and ζοῦσα for ζῶσα (Vulić 1948, 165, no 341, Gorna Toplica, a little after 212 AD)[29].

O’Neil (2006, 197) interprets the misspellings διελέξαιμι (Attic διελίξαιμι), ἰμε and ἀνορόξασα (Attic ἀνορύξασα) at face value as evidence of a more open pronunciation of short υ and ι. By contrast, Brixhe (1999, 45–51) and Hatzopoulos (2007a, 169) interpret

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   

them as hypercorrections attesting to a raising of short /e/ and /o/ [29], Crespo (2015) sees them as a merger of <EI> and <I>[105].

Brixhe (2008) postulates an areal shift of unstressed /o/ (<O>) to [ə] (<E>) in word final syllables. The change is documented in Thrace, Thasos, Macedonia (Πλατορες for Πλατορος in IG 10.296, Thessaloniki, 2nd AD), and in Thessaly with one possible late instance in Larissa (Κόϊντες Θράσωνες, IG 9.2.791, Roman period)[29].

Simplification of the sequence /ign/ to /i:n/ (γίνομαι, Attic γίγνομαι) Loss of aspiration of the consonant cluster /sth/ (> /st/) (γενέσται, Attic γενέσθαι) Brixhe also notes that the athematic dative plural δαίμοσι (l. 3) is not compatible with Thessalian (the expected form would be δαιμόνεσσι) and O’Neil (2006, 197), believes that it cannot be NW Doric either, for which one should expect thematized δαιμόνοις[29].

A fragmentary judicial curse tablet from Arethousa (see Moschonisioti, Christidis & Glaraki 1997; SEG 47.885, early 3rd century BC) has only three forms that are of some help in ascertaining its dialect: the plural feminine genitive πασᾶν, which displays the Doric contraction [aːɔː] > [aː], and several occurrences of ὅσοι and of γράφω

Morphology: Ancient Macedonian morphology is shared with ancient Epirus, including some of the oldest inscriptions from Dodona[32]. The morphology of the first declension nouns with an -ας ending is also shared with Thessalian (e.g. Epitaph for Pyrrhiadas, Kierion)[33]:       

First-declension masculine and feminine in -ας and -α respectively (e.g. Πεύκεστας, Λαομάγα) First-declension masculine genitive singular in -α (e.g. Μαχάτα) First-declension genitive plural in -ᾶν First person personal pronoun dative singular ἐμίν Temporal adverbs and conjunctions ending in -κα: οποκα, τοκα Apocope of the short final vowel of κατά in its function as a preverb before a dental stop (παρκαττίθεμαι), but not before a velar stop: καταγράφω, συγκαταγηρᾶσαι. There is no apocope in ἀναγνοίην.

Possibly, a non-sigmatic nominative masculine singular in the first declension (ἱππότα, Attic ἱππότης) A comparison of what is known about the phonetical characteristics of the ancient Southeastern European languages (after V. Georgiev), Istoria limbii române (1969)[81].

Onomastics: Anthroponymy: M. Hatzopoulos summarizes the Macedonian anthroponymy as follows[34]: 

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Epichoric Greek names that either differ from the phonology of the introduced Attic or that remained almost confined to Macedonians throughout antiquity (e.g. 'Αγέρρος versus Attic 'Αγέρωχος, Σταδμέας versus Greek Σταθμίας, Βουλονόα versus Greek Φυλονόα, 'Αδαΐος versus Attic 'Αδάμας, Κεβαλῖνος versus Attic Κεφαλῖνος, 'Αλέξανδρος c.f. Greek άλέξω “to keep off” and άνήρ “man”, 'Αλκάνωρ c.f. Greek άλκή “prowess” and άνήρ “man”, 'Αντίοχος c.f. Greek άντί “against” and έχω “keep”, Κοΐνος c.f. Greek κοΐνος “common”, Κλειόνα “close at hand”, Βρομερός c.f. Greek βρόμος “roaring”)[25,c][105].

Panhellenic Greek names (e.g. 'Αέροπος, Αΐσυμνος, 'Αλκέτας, Άμύντας, 'Αμύντωρ, Πτολεμαΐος, Σάθων, Χάρος)[25,c].

Identifiable non-Greek names (e.g. Βυργΐνος, 'Επόκιλλος, Σαββαταρᾶς, Τεύταμος, Δαγίνα, Παρμένεα, Ίόλλας, Κάπυλλος, Κερδίμμας, Πύρρα, Βωτής, Σίππας, Ὀρδάνης, Κυννάνα, Κορράτας, Ταρρίας, Άρραβαίος, Άρριβαίος, Άρρύβας, Άμάδοκος, Άμάτοκος, Πλάτωρ, Δοὑλης, Βορδῖνος, Βερεννώ, Κέββα, Λικκύρος, Βίθυς, Πίθυς, Πώταλος, Προθόη, Μυλλένας, Έπόκλος, Μελαμνίδας, Αρρίμβας, Πουμπλᾶς, Πουπλᾶς, Ζιπας, Ζεισαλβης, Δίζας Δρώλου, Σούδις Βυτιλάου, Δυτούζελμις, Ζειπύρων, Πρεῖσκος Δρώλου, Ζαες, Πιλινηϲ Διεϲϲκουπου, Αμμαδικος, Απαϟος, Αρκαπος, Αττυα, Ζώβια, Πεπεριας, Ὥσπερος, Ἰοβίλης, Ἐπάναρος, Τράλεις Ἀσκοσείδου, Χαιροφάνης Κρίτωνος, Ἀπολλώνιος Λεωκρίτου, Ἀπολώνιος Λεοκρίτου, Ῥυμητάλκης Δατείτου, Ἱέρων Ταρουσείνου, Μεννίδης, Κολκοτᾶς Παραμόνου, Βοδύλος Καρβερένθου, Νείκων Δασείλου, Δημήτριος Δίζα, Βάστος, Τοΐτας Σαδάλου, Τοΐτας Σεδάλου, Εὐήμερος Τρυφωνᾶ, Σκάνιος Πρόκλου, Σύρος Βάστου, Ἀρριδαίος, Κ̣ηζεβις Ῥοδιανός, Κότυς Σίπρα, Καρδοῦς Κετρήζιος, Λούκιος Σουλπίκιος Γάλβας, Δάλης Διοσκουρίδου, Μιήζεις Ταρουσίνου, Βένζης, Παράμονος Δαληζενθέου, Βάζης, Δινείλας Κοσιδέλθου, Δάλης Ζίγρα, Μέστεις)[25,c][105].

Names without a clear Greek etymology that can't however be ascribed to any identifiable non-Greek linguistic group (e.g. Ζάλευκος, 'Οφέλλας, Βίλα Βρατεάδου, Βιλιστίχη, Βιλίστα, Βουλομάγα, Σ̣ταλμέας, Κάρανος, Θέμιδος, Μαχάτας Λικκύρου, Πρόμερος, Τιμάεσσα, Ϲέους) [25,c].

Common in the creation of ethnics is the use of -έστης, -εστός especially when derived from sigmatic nouns (Κραννέστης from the proto – form κρασνᾱ (krasnā) ‘fountain’, but also Ήρακλεώτης from Heraklea, and Δῖον > Διασταί)[31].

Toponymy: Macedonian toponyms and hydronyms are mostly of Greek origin (e.g. Aegae, Dion, Pieria, Haliacmon), though some of them show a particular Macedonian phonology that might set them apart and a few others are non-Greek[35]. Some examples include[25,c][50]:

                                

Ἄθως, a mountain located in the third peninsula of Chalkidiki, from the P.I.E. ak “summit, peak” Αίγανέη, from the Greek αΐξ “goat” 'Ακεσαμεναί, from the Greek αγασσομαι “to astonish” 'Αλαλκομεναί, from the Greek άλαλκεΐν “to defend” 'Αλιάκμων, from the Greek άλινδέω and άκμων “rolling stones” 'Ανάδραιμος, from the P.I.E. (H₁)néwn̥ “nine” and the proto – form δρμίος “a road” Άρνισσα, located next to Lake Vegoritida and without an Indo-European etymology 'Αταλάντη, from the Greek άτάλαντος “equally heavy” Βάλλα, located at Palaiogratsianion, Pieria, and without an etymology as of yet Βέργα, from the P.I.E. bhereĝh “mountain” Βοκερία, the urban center of the Eordaeans and without an etymology as of yet Βόρβορος, from the Greek βόρβορος “mire, muck” Γαίμειον, likely located in Bottia and without an etymology as of yet Γαλάδραι, related to the Greek χαράδρα “ravine” Γένδερρος, located near Kyrrhos in Bottia without an etymology as of yet Γορτυνία, located at Vardarski Rid, near Gevgelija from P.I.E. ĝherdh meaning “town” Δΐον, from the Greek δΐος “heavenly” Είδομένη, from the Greek είδομαι “to appear, to shine” Εύβοια, at Polymylos in Elimeia and without an etymology as of yet Εύρωπός, from the Greek εύρωπός “broad, wide” Καστορια, from the Greek καστωρ “beaver” Κελέτρον, from the Greek κελέτρα “a configuration of the land” Κισσοῦς, a mountain range in Macedonia, from the P.I.E. ĝeis “gravel” Λείβηθρια, from the P.I.E. lyi “to make wet” Μακεδονία, from the P.I.E. mh₂ḱros (μᾶκος) “large” + ĝhðom (δών) “land” Νῦσα or Νυσήϊον, a mountain in Macedonia, from the P.I.E. (s)nus “daughter in law” Ὄλγανος, from P.I.E. welg “moisture” Όρος Βόρας, from the Greek όρος “mountain” and the proto – form γϝόρhᾱ (gworHᾱ) “mount, summit” Οττώλοβος, from the P.I.E. H₁ok̂tō(u) “eight” and Greek λόφος “hill” Πέλλα, from the Macedonian πέλλα “stone, rock” from the proto – form πέλσᾱ (pelsa) Πέτρα, located at modern Petra in Pieria, from the Greek πέτρα “stone” Πύδνα, possibly from the P.I.E. bhudhnā “bottom, pit” Τύρισσα, located at Pentaplanos in Pieria, from the P.I.E. suro “cheese”

Epigraphy: Early evidence of literature from coastal cities dates back to 600-550 BC in Central Macedonia (Sane[36], Therme[37]), dates back to 550 BC for East Macedonia (Neapolis)[28] and back to the 5th century BC for the West side (Pydna)[29]. There is also a Carian inscription found in Therme dated back to circa the 6th BC[30]. The earliest epigraphical documents attesting substantial numbers of Macedonian proper names are the second Athenian alliance decree with

Perdiccas II (417–413 BC), the decree of Kalindoia (335–300 BC) and seven curse tablets of the 4th century BC bearing mostly names[41][34].

The Pella curse tablet, a text written in a distinct Doric Greek dialect, found in 1986 and dated to between mid to early 4th century BC, has been forwarded as an argument that the ancient Macedonian language was a dialect of North-Western Greek, part of the Doric dialects.[17] Also, the Derveni Papyrus was found on 15 January 1962 at a site in Derveni, Macedonia. It is the oldest surviving manuscript in the Western tradition and probably the oldest literary papyrus found in Greece[43][44]. The text of the papyrus is mainly a mixture of Attic and Ionic Greek; however it contains a few Doric forms. Sometimes the same word appears in different dialectal forms e.g. oμικρό, μικρό; ὄντα, ἐόντα; νιν, μιν etc.[45] However, as noted previously, there are no surviving texts that are indisputably written in the Macedonian language[11]. The work of Arribaios, the only Macedonian poet, who is known, is lost. And so the only sources of our knowledge of the ancient Macedonian are the glosses of the antique lexicographers and onomastics. The complete collection of all accessible information about Macedonian has been ascribed to the grammarian Amerias from Alexandria living in the 3rd cent. BC. But from his work only a few citations is preserved by such lexicographers as Athenaeus (2nd - 3rd cent. AD), Pollyx (2nd cent. AD), and especially Hesychius (5th cent.

AD)[50].

The Pella Katadesmos: The Pella curse tablet is a text written in a distinct Doric Greek idiom, found in Pella, the ancient capital of Macedon, in 1986[46]. Ιt contains a curse or magic spell (Greek: κατάδεσμος, katadesmos) inscribed on a lead scroll, dated to the first half of the 4th century BC (circa 375– 350 BC). It was published in the Hellenic Dialectology Journal in 1993. It is one of four texts found until today that might represent a local dialectal form of ancient Greek in Macedonia, all of them identifiable as Doric[47]. As a result, the Pella curse tablet has been forwarded as an argument that the Ancient Macedonian language was a dialect of North-Western Greek[17].

Some, however, reject the possibility of this being indicative of the native speech of the Macedonians, noting that the text is merely full of Doracisms, rather than any true lexical Macedonisms[50]. Image of the tablet[49]:

The text, according to Dr. James L. O'Neil (2006) says[48]: I forbid by writing the ceremony and the marriage of Dionysophon and Thetima, and of all other women, and widows and virgins, but especially Thetima. And I assign them to Makron and the daimones. And whenever I shall unroll and read this again, after digging it up, then Dionysophon may marry, but not before. May he not take any wife but me, and may I and no other woman grow old with Dionysophon. I am your suppliant; pity me, dear daimones, for I am weak and bereft of all friends. But protect me so this does not happen and evil Thetima will perish evilly, [undecipherable] mine, but may I be fortunate and blessed, [undecipherable].

There are some peculiar terms that appear in the text:        

   



παρκαττίθεμαι – to give for safekeeping. Attic Greek has παρακατατίθεμαι. o Only in Pella, Macedonia όπόκα – whenever, as needed, as necessary. Attic Greek has όπότα. o Also attested in Crete and Italy εσστέ – present active indicative third singular of εἰμί (I am). Attic Greek has εστί. o Also attested in Thessaloniki, and in Caria, and Phrygia πάλειν – again. Attic Greek has πάλιν o Only in Pella, Macedonia. γάμαι – to wed or marry. Attic Greek has γάμμαι/γάμσαι. o Attested in Ionia as ἄγαμαι (agamai) “to admire, to like” έμΐν – Me. Attic Greek has έμεν. o Also attested in Attica and Delphi γενέσται – Happen, done in the future. Attic Greek has γενέσθαι. o Also attested in Elis and Mysia γίνομαι – to become. Attic Greek has γίγνομαι. o Attested in Attica as γινομένας (ginomenas), in Eleusis and Arcadia/Arkadia as γινόμενον (ginomenon), in Rhamnous as γινομένης (ginomenes), in Corinthia as γινόμενος (ginomenos), and in Epidauria (Argolid Peninsula) as γινόμενοι (ginomenoi) Μάκρον – a deceased person or a daemon in the spirit world. o Also attested in Mt. Cholomon, and in Euboia Δαγινα – Macedonian name based on hypothetical reading of ΔΑΓΙΝΑΓΑΡΙΜΕ. o Only in Pella, Macedonia Θετίμα – A Macedonian woman. Attic Greek has Θεοτίμη. o Also attested in Megaris, Oropia, and Boiotia δαίμοσι – Demons. Attic Greek has δαίμονας. o Also attested in Attica, Kos (Greek island), Chios (Greek island), Amorgos (Greek island), Euboia, Caria, Lydia, Mysia, Phrygia, Pisidia, Lycia, Cilicia, Isauria, Commagene, Syria, Phoenicia, Arabia, Egypt, Nubia, Sicily, Sardinia, Italy, Gallia, Hispania, Lusitania, and Moesia δαπινά – humbly, modestly. Attic Greek has ταπεινά. o Only in Pella, Macedonia

Macedonian words in epigraphy:                              

ἄγημα (ágēma): vanguards o P.I.E. ag-: to drive, to agitate. Αμμαδικος (Ammadikos): a Macedonian name Απαϟος (Apaqos): a Macedonian name Αρκαπος (Arkapos): a Macedonian name Αττυα (Attya): a Macedonian name ἀρχικερδέμπορος (archikerdemporos): president of a guild of merchants βεφαίως (befaios): of course, certainly, surely o Attic Greek βεβαίως (bebaios) “of course.” Βλουρεῖτις (Bloureitis): Artemis o Greek Φιλωρεῖτις, φίλος (filos) “love” and όρος (oros) “mountains.” γυγερῷ χέρε (gygero chere): Unknown expression in Perses (Π.Α. 6.112); could refer to the strength of the hunters hands, or refers to a third person who killed the third deer Δάῤῥων (Darrhôn): god of healing Διγαῖα (Digaia), Δειγαῒα (Deigaia), and Δειγέα (Deigea): Artemis o Greek Δικαία (Dikaia) “Artemis.” ἐδέατρος (edeatros): taster, chef, food-eater o P.I.E. H1ed – “to eat.” ἑταῖροι (hetairoi): the kings companion cavalry Ζώβια (Zobia): a Macedonian name Κλείονα (Kleiona): a Macedonian name κότθυβος (kotthubos): non-metallic armor Κυναγὼ (Kynago): Artemis o P.I.E. ḱwon-: dog, canine. Κυναγίδας (Kynagidas) and Κουναγίδας (Kounagidas): Herakles Μαχατας (Makhatas): a Macedonian name Μεσζορίσκῳ (Meszorisko) or Μεζωρίσκῳ (Mezorisko): Apollo o P.I.E. medhjo – “middle, median, between.” o P.I.E. h3er – “a place, locale” or “mountain, hill.” νεύω (neuo): to pray Ὄλγανος (Olganos): a local deity of the river Olganos in Emathia πελιγᾶνες (peligânes): senators Πεπεριας (Peperias): a Macedonian name πυρόκαυσις (pyrokausis): additional military recruitment per family σάρισσα (sárissa): a long pike used by the Macedonian phalanx σκοῖδος (skoidos) administrator, secretary, quaestor συνοπλᾶνες (synoplânes): co-fighters ὑπασπισταὶ (hypaspistai): the ones under the shields Ψευδάνωρ (Pseudanôr): Dionysus

Lexicon: Macedonian words in Hesychius’ Glossary: A body of authentic Macedonian words has been assembled from ancient sources, mainly from coin inscriptions, and from the 5th century lexicon of Hesychius of Alexandria, amounting to about 150 words and 200 proper names, though the number of considered words sometimes differs from scholar to scholar[55]. Just in the unique dictionary of Hesychius Alexandrine the biggest number (totally 85) of glosses with the mark 'Macedonian' occur. In one case the Macedonian origin is indicated by the reference to Amerias[13][50]. Hesychius' Macedonian words are those which he assigns to the Macedonians as a whole, as well as to individual Macedonians such as Amerias, Alexander, Marsyas, etc. The terms are as follows[51]: 

ἄβαγνα (abagna): rose h o P.I.E. b eue - "to grow": Proto-Germanic *baumaz “tree,” Gothic bagms “tree,” Greek βάκανον (bakanon) “cabbage seeds.”  Hesychius: ῥόδα εν Μακεδόνες



ἀβαρκνᾷ (abarkna): hair o P.I.E. bʰardʰ-eH₂- “whiskers”: Latin barba “whiskers,” Russian борода (boroda) “beard,” Old Norse barðr (barthr) “beard.”  Hesychius: κομᾷ τὲ Μακεδόνες



ἀβαρύ (abary): oregano o P.I.E. ḥmaʁ- “tart, sweet”: Old Indian मरुवक (maruvaka) “oregano,” Greek ἀμάρακος (amárakos) “oregano,” Slavic маяран (mayaran) “oregano.”  Hesychius: ὀρίγανον Μακεδόνες



ἀβλόη (abloe): pour out o P.I.E. ğël- “expelling water”: Greek βάλλειν (bállein) “eject or spit,” German quelle “fountain or geyser,” Thracian kelle “geyser.”  Hesychius: σπένδε Μακεδόνες



ἀβροῦτες (abroutes): eyebrows o P.I.E. bʰrus- “eyebrows”: Greek ὀφρύδια (ofrydia) “eyebrows,” Old Serbian обръвъ (obrŭvŭ) “eyebrows.”  Hesychius: ὀφρῦς εν Μακεδόνες



ἄγημα (agema): Royal Macedonian troops o P.I.E. ag̑- “to drive or agitate”: Greek ἄγω (ágō) “to lead or to rally,” Phrygian αγταει (agtaei) “leader,” Mycenaean rawaketa “military leader,” Macedonian ἀγά (aga) “power, authority.”  Hesychius: τὸ προϊὸν τοῦ βασιλέως τάγμα ἐλεφάντων καὶ ἱππέων καὶ πεζῶν οἱ δὲ τῶν ἀρίστων τῆς Μακεδονικῆς συντάξεως: The advanced royal guards consisting of elephant riders, horsemen and infantry; the best of the Macedonian army.



ἀγκαλίς (ankalis): sickle o P.I.E. ank-2, ang- “to bend”: Greek άγκυρα (ankyra) “anchor,” Phrygian Αγκυρα (Ankyra) “Phrygian city Ankara,” Old Norse akkeri “anchor.”  Hesychius: δρέπανον Μακεδόνες



ἄδδαι (addai): chariot poles o P.I.E. H₂ó-sd-o- “branch”: Greek όζος (ozos) “a node,” Armenian ոստ (vost) “a twig,” Gothic asts “branch”  Hesychius: ῥυμοὶ, ὑπὸ Μακεδόνων



ἀδῆ (ade): heaven h o P.I.E. h₂eid - “ignite”: Greek αιθήρ (aether) “ether or pure sky,” Latin aedes “temple or a holy house,” West Germanic aidʰsa “hearth,” Western Slavic aistobʰá “firehouse.”  Hesychius: οὐρανός. Μακεδόνες



ἄδισκον (adiskon): concoction or brew h o P.I.E. h₂eid - “ignite”: Greek αιθήρ (aether) “ether or pure sky,” Latin aedes “temple or a holy house,” West Germanic aidʰsa “hearth,” Western Slavic aistobʰá “firehouse.”  Hesychius: κυκεῶνα. Μακεδόνες



ἄδραια (adraia): fine weather h o P.I.E. h₂eid - “ignite”: Greek αιθήρ (aether) “ether or pure sky,” Latin aedes “temple or a holy house,” West Germanic aidʰsa “hearth,” Western Slavic aistobʰá “firehouse.”  Hesychius: αἰθρία Μακεδόνες



Ἀέροπες (Aeropes): a nation in Macedonia h o P.I.E. h₂eid - “ignite”: Greek αιθήρ (aether) “ether or pure sky,” Latin aedes “temple or a holy house,” West Germanic aidʰsa “hearth,” Western Slavic aistobʰá “firehouse,” Macedonian Ἀαίροπος (Aairopos) “Aeropes.” o Greek ὄψις (opsis) “face or appearance.”  Hesychius: ἐν Μακεδονίᾳ γένος



Ἄθως (Athos): mountains in Macedonia o P.I.E. ak- “summit, point”: Greek ἀκή (akē) "point or edge,” Thracian αθε (athe) “a hill or peak.”  Hesychius: ὄρος ἐν Μακεδονίᾳ



ἀκόντιον (akontion): spine or backbone o P.I.E. ak- “summit, point”: Homeric ἀκοντίζειν (akontizein) "to throw a spear,” Thracian αθε (athe) “a hill or peak.”  Hesychius: ῥάχιν δὲ Μακεδόνες



ἀκρέα (akrea) or Ἀκρέα (Akrea): young girl; goddess of wisdom or of love o P.I.E. ker - (3) "to grow": Proto – Form ακορϝα (akorwa) “girl,” Greek κόρη (kore) “daughter,” Phrygian κοροαν (koroan) “girl,” Mycenaean kowa “girls,” Slavic ќера (kyera) “daughter,” Armenian աւրիորդ (awriord) “young girl, virgin.”  Hesychius: παῖς θήλεια. Μακεδόνες.; ἡ Ἀθηνᾶ. καὶ ἡ Ἀφροδίτη.



ἀκρουνοί (akrounoi): border marks or edges o P.I.E. ak- “summit, point”: Greek ἀκή (akē) "point or edge,” Thracian αθε (athe) “a hill or peak,” Homeric ἀκοντίζω (akontizo) “throw a spear,” Phrygian ακραυο (akrayo) “height, peak, elevated.”  Hesychius: ὅροι, ὑπὸ Μακεδόνων



ἄλιζα (aliza): the White Poplar tree o P.I.E. al- or el- “a tree”: Germanic aliża “alder,” Spanish aliso “alder,” Church Slavic јеликса (yeliksa) “white poplar,” Russian ольха (ol’ha) “alder,” Bulgarian елша (elsha) “alder.”  Hesychius: ἡ λεύκη τὸ δένδρον. Μακεδόνες



ἀλίη (alie): wild boar o P.I.E. ol- or el- "red, brown": Cimmerian elain “deer,” Old Slavic ѥлєнь (jelenĭ) “deer,” Homeric ἐλλός (ellós) “young deer or fawn,” Greek ελάφος (elaphos) “deer.”  Hesychius: κάπρος. Μακεδόνες



ἀλογεῖ (alogei): pour out now o P.I.E. ğël- “expelling water”: Greek βάλλειν (bállein) “eject or spit,” German quelle “fountain or geyser,” Thracian kelle “geyser.”  Hesychius: σπεῖσον Μακεδόνες



Ἀνθεμουσία (Anthemousia): A military division of the Macedonians from Anthemous, a Macedonian city. o Greek ανθεμούς (anthemous) “full of flowers.”  Hesychius: τάγμα τι παρὰ Μακεδόσιν ἐξ Ἀνθεμοῦντος, πόλεως Μακεδονίας



ἄξος (axos): tree or timber o P.I.E. os- “ash tree”: Greek οξύα (oxya) “beech tree,” Albanian ah "beech," Armenian haci ash tree," Old English æsc "ash tree."  Hesychius: ὕλη, παρὰ Μακεδόσιν



ἀορτής (aortes): Baldric in Macedonian; the blade holder or the rings of the sheath. o P.I.E. ḫoser “ridge or perch”: Proto - form: αϝερ-/αϝορ- and the proto - verb ἀϝείρω "bind together," Greek ἄορ (áor) “sword,” Latin asser “ridge or perch,”  Hesychius: [ξιφιστής] ὑπὸ Μακεδόνων [ἄγγος] [ἄγγος δερμάτειον ἱματίων]



ἀράντισιν (arantisin): goddess of vengeance o Greek αρά (ara) “curse or punishment,” Greek Ερινύς (Erinys) “the goddess of vengeance.”  Hesychius: ἐρινύσι. Μακεδόνες



ἀργιόπους (argiopous): eagle o Greek άργιος (argios) “swift, white” o Greek πους (pous) “feet”  Hesychius: ἀετός. Μακεδόνες



ἀργυράσπιδες (argyraspides): battalion employed under Alexander III o Greek ἀργυρις (argyris) “silver” o Greek άσπιδες (aspides) “shield”  Hesychius: τάγμα τι στρατιωτικὸν ὑπὸ Ἀλεξάνδρου



Ἀροπάνοι (Aropanoi): a proper name found in Alexander’s letters; likely a tribe  Hesychius: οἱ ἐν Ἀλεξάνδρου ἐπιστολαῖς



Ἄρητος (Aretos): Heracles; god of strength o Greek Ἄρης (Ares) “god of war.” Ares-like.  Hesychius: Ἡρακλῆς, παρὰ Μακεδόσιν



ἀρκόν (arkon): Idleness, laziness o Proto - form α-ϝεργός (a-wergós) “immobile,” Slavic арчен (archen) “wasteful,” Greek αργός (argos) “lazy.”  Hesychius: σχολήν. Μακεδόνες



ἀρφύς (arphus): strap or belt o P.I.E. ḫer-bʰús “streak or brush”: Geek αρπεδών (arpedon) “rope or yarn.”  Hesychius: ἱμάς. Μακεδόνες



ἄσπιλος (aspilos): torrent or stream o P.I.E. sp(ʰ)ēi- “to progress, or advance”: Greek σφηλός (sphelos) “robust, potent, stout.”  Hesychius: χείμαῤῥος, ὑπὸ Μακεδόνων



βαβρήν (babren): leftovers of olive oil o P.I.E. bʰer- “bubbling, fermenting”: Norwegian brim “dregs of a preserved liquid,” Greek βάβρηκες (babrekes) “food stuck between teeth.”  Hesychius: ὑπόστασις ἐλαίου, κατὰ Μακεδόνας



βαδάς (badas): Catamite o Greek βάταλος (batalos) “catamite,” Tarantinian βατᾶς (batas) “catamite.”  Hesychius: κίναιδος. ὡς Ἀμερίας



Βαθάλη (bathale): Fountain o P.I.E. bʰëdʰ- “burrow or dig”: Latin fŏdėre “to dig,” Germanic badjm “bed,” Old Slavic бости (bosti) “a piercing or trough,” Homeric βένθος (benthos) “a depth.”  Hesychius: κρήνη. Ἀμερίας



βαθάρα (bathara) or βατάρα (batara): bathing tub or vapor bath o P.I.E. bhē- or bhō- “to bake or warm”: Illyrian βαγαρόν (bagaron) “warm,” Greek φώγω (phogo) “I roast,” Old Norse bað (bath) “a bath.”  Hesychius: πυκλιή, Μακεδόνες.; K. Witczak says “βατάρα: πυρίη, Μακεδόνες”



βαυβυκᾶνας (baubukanas): pelicans o P.I.E. bau - “to yap or bark”: Greek βαυβύζω (baubyzo) “to yap or to bark.”  Hesychius: βαίβυκος πελεκᾶνος Φιλίτας; Ἀμερίας δὲ βαυβυκᾶνας



βηματίζει (bematizei): to pace off; to measure in footsteps o Greek βῆμα (bema) “footstep or step,” from Greek βαινώ (baino) “to step, to walk.”; Hesychius says this could actually be a Macedonian word.  Hesychius: τὸ τοῖς ποσὶ μετρεῖν. ἔστι δέ πως ἡ λέξις Μακεδονική



βίῤῥοξ (birrox): shaggy or hairy o P.I.E. bʰer-s(t)- “hairy, bushy”: Pre-Greek βίρρος (birros) “a type of cloth,” Latin burra “a hairy garment,” Pre-Celtic birro “short hair.”  Hesychius: δασύ. Μακεδόνες



Γάμψηλοι (Gámpsēloi): A Macedonian town o Greek γάμψ (gamps) “curved” o Greek ηλοι (iloi) “rivets”  Hesychius: πόλις Μακεδονίας



γάρκαν (garkan): rod, branch o P.I.E. gʰer- “sticking out”: Greek χάραξ (charax) “a rod,” Latin virgam “branch.”  Hesychius: ῥάβδον. Μακεδόνες



γητικά (gitika): the word for cups according to Alexander’s letters. o Homeric γῆ (gí) “earth,” and τίκτω (tikto) “to create.”  Hesychius: παρὰ Ἀλεξάνδρῳ Ἐπιστολαῖς, ποτήρια οὕτω καλούμενα



γόλα (gola): intestines, stomach, guts o P.I.E. ğ(ʰ)el- “body, flesh”: Lithuanian gelmes “bowels,” Greek καλίνδινα (kalindina) “intestines,” Slavic желудник (zheludnik) “stomach,” Homeric χολάδες (cholades) “bowels.”  Hesychius: ἔντερα. Μακεδόνες



γοτάν (gotan): a pig o P.I.E. ğoʊ- “bovine”: Greek βοτόν (botón) “grazing livestock.”  Hesychius: ὗν. Μακεδόνες



γυλλάς (gyllas): a glass or cup h o P.I.E. g el- (2) “to shine”: Old English glær "amber," Church Slavic гладъкъ (gladuku) “smooth like glass,” Proto-Germanic *glasam "glass,” Old Norse gler “looking glass,” Latin glaesum "amber.”  Hesychius: εἶδος ποτηρίου, παρὰ Μακεδόσιν



γῶπας (gôpas): jackdaws o Greek σκωψ (skops) “small owl,” Latin gāvia “gull,” Slavic kos “blackbird.”  Hesychius: κολοιούς. Μακεδόνες

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δαίτας (daitas): server or caterer o P.I.E. dāi- “to distribute or share”: Greek δαίεσθαι (daíestʰai) "to share," Illyrian anthroponym Daetor, Phrygian δαδιτι (daditi) “he gave for.”  Hesychius: μεριστάς Μακεδόνες

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δανῶν (danon): evildoer, killer o P.I.E. dʰʊen- “to leave”: Greek θάνατος (thánatos) “death.”  Hesychius: κακοποιῶν. κτείνων. Μακεδόνες

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Δάῤῥων (Darron): A Macedonian daemon to which people pray for health o P.I.E. dʰërs- “courageous, hardy”: Thracian dersas “courageous,” Greek θράσύς (tʰrasýs) “brave,” Lithuanian drąsus “bold.”  Hesychius: Μακεδονικὸς δαίμων, ᾧ ὑπὲρ τῶν νοσούντων εὔχονται

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δάρυλλος (daryllos): Oak o P.I.E. deru- “a tree”: Old Indian दारु (dâru) “timber,” Greek δρῦς (drûs) “Oak,” Thracian taru “wooden spear,” Lithuanian derva “tree,” Russian дерево (derevo) “tree,” Polish drzewo “tree.”  Hesychius: ἡ δρῦς, ὑπὸ Μακεδόνων

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δρῆες (drêes) or δρῆγες (drêges): sparrows o P.I.E. drë- “to run”: Greek διδράσκειν (didráskein) “to flee,” Slavic друм (drum) “running course,” Illyrian hydronym Δράβος (Dravos) “running waters,” Thracian δρενις (drenis) “deer.”  Hesychius: στρουθοί Μακεδόνες

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Δύστρος (Dústros): a Macedonian month (February) o Greek θύστρος (thystros) meaning “roaring, storming” according to Heinrich Tischner.  Hesychius: ὑπὸ Μακεδόνων μήν

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δώραξ (dorax): spleen, thorax o Greek θώρακας (thorakas) “chest or thorax,” Slavic торакс (torax) “thorax.”  Hesychius: σπλήν ὑπὸ Μακεδόνων

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ἔμβαρος (embaros): idiot, moron, prude  Hesychius: ἠλίθιος, μωρός ἢ νουνεχής. Μένανδρος Φάσματι

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Ἔορτος ἢ Ἐορδός (Eortos or Eordos): a Macedonian tribe o Greek Ἔορτος (Eortos) “festival, celebration.”  Hesychius: Μακεδών, ἀπὸ ἔθνους

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ἐπιδειπνίς (epideipnis): a Macedonian dessert o Greek ἐπι (epi) “on” o Greek δειπνίς (deipnis) “dinner”  Hesychius: Μακεδονικὸς κώθων, ἥδυσμα. †ἐθισμός

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Ζειρηνίς (Zeirēnís): goddess of love h o P.I.E. seg – “to capture”: Greek σαγηνεύω (sageneuo) “to captivate,” Old Norse sigr “to seize.”  Hesychius: Ἀφροδίτη ἐν Μακεδονίᾳ

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Ἠμαθίη (Imathie): Macedonia o P.I.E. met- “to mow or reap”: Greek ἄμητος (ametos) “the harvest.”  Hesychius: Μακεδονία

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Θαύλιος ή Θαῦλος (Thaulios or Thaulos): god of war h o P.I.E. d au- “to suppress or slay”: Phrygian δαος (daos) “wolf,” Lydian Κανδαῦλας (Kan-daulas) “wolfs bane,” Thracian Κανδαον (Kandaon) “god of war.”  Hesychius: Αρης Μακεδόνιος

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θούριδες (Thourides): the Nymphs or the Muses o Homeric θοῦρος (thouros) “rushing, furious.”  Hesychius: νύμφαι. Μοῦσαι. Μακεδόνες

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ἰζέλα (izela): good fortune o P.I.E. wesu- “good”: Hattic izzi- “good,” Lydian wiśśi “good,” Greek ἐσθλός (esthlos) “fortunate,” Illyrian Vescleves “well – known.”  Hesychius: ἀγαθῇ τύχῃ. Μακεδόνες

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ἴλαξ (ilax): the Holm Oak tree o Latin ilex “holly,” and ἴλαξ (ilax) too for “Holm Oak,”  Hesychius: ἡ πρῖνος, ὡς Ῥωμαῖοι καὶ Μακεδόνες

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ἰν δέᾳ (in dea): noon, midday o P.I.E. ëni- “therein, herein”: Armenian ի (i) “in,” Greek ἐν (en) “in,” Albanian inj “in,” Old Slavic вън (vŭn) “in.” o P.I.E. déi-no- “day”: Proto – form δεϝία (dewia) “day,” Greek δια (dia) “day,” Proto – Anatolian diéuots “day,” Slavic ден (den) “day,” Polish dzień “day.”  Hesychius: μεσημβρίᾳ. Μακεδόνες

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Ἰχναίην χώραν (Ichnaien choran): Ichnaea, a land in Macedonian where Apollo and his oracle were honored. o Greek ίχνος (ichnos) “a trace or track.”  Hesychius: τὴν Μακεδονίαν, ἔνθα τὸ μαντεῖον ὁ Ἀπόλλων κατέσχε, καὶ τιμᾶτ

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κἄγχαρμον (kancharmon): with the lance pointed upwards o P.I.E. ko(m)- “with, additionally”: Greek και (kai) “and,” O.C.S. къ (kŭ) “with,” Phrygian κέ (ke) “and,” Macedonian κἄ (ka) “with, and.” o Greek άνω (ano) “up” o Greek χάρμη (charme) “spear”  Hesychius: τὸ τὴν λόγχην ἄνω ἔχον. [Μακεδόνες]

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καλαῤῥυγαί (kalarrugai): trenches, moats o Epirotan καλαρύαν (kalaruan) “water pipe,” Doric καλαρῖνες (kalarines) “sewer,” Sumerian kalak- “excavation, dig,” Cappadocian καλακόνι (kalakoni) “to dig a hole.”  Hesychius: τάφροι. Ἀμερίας

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κάλιθος (kalithos): wine o P.I.E. ǵʰēlo- “wine”: Thracian ζίλαι (zilai) “wine,” Greek χάλις (chalis) “pure wine,” Sanskrit हाला (hālā) "brandy,” Proto-Slavic zelьje "potion."  Hesychius: οἶνος. Ἀμερίας

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καμαστίς (kamastis): a measure o Hebrew qōmeṣ (kwomesh) “a handful.”  Hesychius: μέτρον τι. Ἀμερίας

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κάραβος (karabos): gate, door o P.I.E. gere-bʰ- “cane, weave”: Greek κάρφος (karfos) “dry wooden nest,” Germanic kerƀja(n) “basket or cradle,” Slavic кораб (korab) “wooden vessel,” Cappadocian καρτάν (kartan) “dry bark.”  Hesychius: ὑπὸ δὲ Μακεδόνων ἡ πύλη

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καρπαία (karpaia): a Macedonian dance o P.I.E. ger- “to rotate or spin”: Homeric καρπάλιμος (karpalimos) “ravenous, swift - footed.”  Hesychius: ὄρχησις Μακεδονική

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κίκεῤῥοι (kikerroi): chickpeas o P.I.E. ḱiker- “a pea”: Proto – form κικριός (kikrios) “peanut,” Armenian siseṙn “chick pea,” Latin cicer “chickpea,” Greek κριός (krios) “chickpea,” Slavic кикирика (kikirika) “peanut.”  Hesychius: ὦχροι. Μακεδόνες

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Κισσοῦς (Kissous): mountain range in Macedonia o P.I.E. ĝeis- “gravel”: Phrygian γίσσα (gíssa) “stone, pebble.”  Hesychius: ὄρος ἐν Μακεδονίᾳ.

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κομμάραι ἢ κομάραι (kommarai or komarai): lobsters, crawfishes o Greek καρίδες (karides) “shrimps,” Serbian омар (omar) “lobster,” German hummer “lobster,” Old Norse hummar “lobster.”  Hesychius: καρίδες. Μακεδόνες

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Κόραννος (Korannos): king o P.I.E. kór(ı)os “ruler”: Greek κρέων (kreun) “king,” Old Norse herjann “god of war,” Phrygian ΚΥΡJΑΝΕJΟΝ (Kurianeian) “commander,” Macedonian anthroponym Κάρανος (Karanos), the founding mythological king of Macedonia.  Hesychius: βασιλεὺς Μακεδονίας

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κοριναίους (korinaious): bastard o Proto – form κυρύν (kuryn) “bastard,” Macedonian κύρνος (kyrnos) “bastard.”  Hesychius: νόθος; καθάπερ Μαρσύας

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κυνοῦπες (kynoupes): bear o P.I.E. ḱwon- “dog”: Macedonian κυνοῦν (kynoun) “dog,” Phrygian κυνες (kynes) “dogs,” Illyrian qan “dog,” Armenian šun (shun) “dog.” o Greek ὄψις (opsis) “face or appearance.”  Hesychius: ἄρκτος. Μακεδόνες

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λακεδάμα (lakedama): Salt-water with brine and garlic that Macedonians who live in the countryside drink. o P.I.E. leg- “seep or leak”: Old English læc "leek," Proto-Germanic lauka- “leek, onion,” Church Slavic луку (luku) “onion,” Dutch look “garlic.” o P.I.E. dʰëm- “dust or powder”: Old Indian धम् (dham) “to ferment or brew,” Greek ἁλμυρός (halmurós) “briny or salty,” Bulgarian саламура (salamura) “brine.”  Hesychius: ὕδωρ ἁλμυρὸν ἄλικι ἐπικεχυμένον, ὃ πίνουσιν οἱ τῶν Μακεδόνων ἀγροῖκοι.

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λείβηθρον (leibēthron): A toponym in Macedonia at the Helicon river (Leibethria). o P.I.E. lyi- “to flow or pour”: Macedonian λείβηθρον (leibēthron) “a creek,” Greek λείβειν (leíbein) “to trickle,” Latin lībare “pour a libation,” Slavic ливада (livada) “pasture.”  Hesychius: καὶ τόπος ἐν Μακεδονίᾳ καὶ κατὰ τὸν Ἑλικῶνα

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Λυγκαίη (Lynkaie): a Macedonian town o Greek λύγξ (lynx) “bobcat.”  Hesychius: πόλις Μακεδονίας

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Μακετία (Maketia): Macedonia; etymology disputed; perhaps “farmer’s land” o Phrygian μα (ma) “sheep,” Armenian մակի (maki) “female sheep,” Sanskrit (makaka) “sheep goat,” Macedonian βηνῶσα (benusa) “to baa like sheep,” Armenian մշակ (mshak) “farmer.” h o P.I.E. ĝ ðem- “land, earth”: Phrygian κτον (kton) “land,” Greek χθον (khthon) “land,” Thracian δον (don) “land,” Russian земля (zemlya) “earth,” Lithuanian žemė (zheme) “earth.”  Hesychius: ἡ Μακεδονία

मकक

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ματτύης (mattyes): Famous Macedonian dish made of birds poured with their broth served with vegetables h o P.I.E. ment - “mouth or to chew”: Macedonian ματτύη (mattye) “a hen or fowl,” Macedonian verb ματτύαζω (mattyazo) “to prepare the mattye.”  Hesychius: ἡ μὲν φωνὴ Μακεδονική, ὄρνις. καὶ τὰ ἐκ τοῦ ζωμοῦ αὐτοῦ λάχανα περιφερόμενα

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Νῦσα καὶ Νυσήϊον (Nysa or Nyseion): A mountain in Macedonia o P.I.E. (s)nus- “daughter-in-law”: Church Slavic снъха (snuha) “daughter-in-law,” Albanian nusa “daughter-in-law,” Old Norse snor “daughter-in-law,” Greek νυός (nyos) “daughter-in-law.”  Hesychius: ὄρος, οὐ καθ' ἕνα τόπον. ἔστι γὰρ ... Μακεδονίας. A mountain not just in one place; it exists namely in ... Macedonia

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Ξανθικά (Xanthika): a Macedonian feast held during the month of Xandos (March) o Greek ξανθός (xanthos) “blonde.”  Hesychius: ἑορτὴ Μακεδόνων, Ξανδικοῦ μηνὸς ἢ Ξανθικοῦ ἀγομένη.

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Ὄλυμπος (Olympus): a mountain in Macedonia too o Greek οὐρανός (ouranós) “heavens” according to Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Compound of λυμά (lyma) “pure” and πους (pous) “foot” according to J. Nigro Sansonese.  Hesychius: καὶ ὄρος ἐν Μακεδονίᾳ

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παραός (paraos): eagle o P.I.E. për – “going, traveling”: Russian парить (paríƭ) “floating, gliding.” o P.I.E. ḫëʊís – “bird”: Hebrew वयस् (vayas) “bird,” Armenian հավ (hav) “hen or fowl.”  Hesychius: ἀετὸς ὑπὸ Μακεδόνων

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Πελιγᾶνες (Peliganes): the senators to Syria o Macedonian πελιγᾶνες (peliganes) “senator, commissioner”  Hesychius: παρὰ δὲ Σύριος οἱ βουλευταί

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Πελλαῖον (Pellaion): cinder; also a town in Macedonia o Homeric φαιός (faios) “grey or cinder.”  Hesychius: [φαιόν. καὶ] Μακεδονικόν

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περιήτης (perietes): guards, watchmen o Greek περιέναι (periénai) “to wander about.”  Hesychius: περί[πε]τ[ε]ια καὶ περιῆτες· περιῆτες μὲν οἱ φύλακες, περί[πε]τ[ε]ια δὲ Μακεδονικὴ ἑορτή

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περίπετεια (peripeteia): a Macedonian festival held during Περίτιος (Peritios) January. o Greek περίπετεια (peripeteia) “adventure, turn of events.”  Hesychius: περί[πε]τ[ε]ια καὶ περιῆτες· περιῆτες μὲν οἱ φύλακες, περί[πε]τ[ε]ια δὲ Μακεδονικὴ ἑορτή

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πέχαρι (pechari): deer or stag o P.I.E. bʰeğ- “to flee or run”: Old Russian бѣгать (bé ̣gatĭ) “to get out,” Greek φέβεσθαι (febesthai) “to flee.”  Hesychius: ἔλαφος. Ἀμερίας

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πίγγαν (pingan): nestling, chick, little owl o Greek σπίζα (spiza) “finches,” Old Bulgarian пѫгѣ (pega) “stained or motley.”  Hesychius: νεόσσιον. Ἀμερίας. γλαυκόν.

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Πιερίδες (Pierides): the Muses in Macedonia o From the Macedonian toponym Πιερία (Pieria)  Hesychius: αἱ Μοῦσαι ἐν Μακεδονίᾳ

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Πιέρι (Pieri): the mountaintops in Macedonia o P.I.E. perǩus “oaken”: Latin quercus “oak,” Gothic fairguni “forested mountain,” Slavic god Перун (Perun) associated with oak, Baltic god Perkūnas associated with oak.  Hesychius: ἡ ἀκρώρεια τοῦ ἐν Μακεδονίᾳ ὄρους

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Πίπλειαι (Pipleiai): the Muses in Macedonian Olympus from the spring Pipleia o P.I.E. pel- “full, stuffed”: Greek πιμπλέναι (pimplenai) “to stuff,” Latin plēnus “full.”  Hesychius: αἱ Μοῦσαι ἐν τῷ Μακεδονικῷ Ὀλύμπῳ, ἀπὸ κρήνης Πιπλείας

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ῥάματα (ramata): a fungus of grapes, a husk of grapes o Proto – form ῥάγμ- (ragm-) that is a non-I.E. Mediterranean substratum word present in Greek as ῥάξ (rhax) “grape,” Latin racēmus “bunch of grapes,” and Mycenaean dereuko “grape must.”  Hesychius: βο[ς]τρύδια. σταφυλίς. Μακεδόνες

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ῥοῦτο (rhouto): this (neuter) o Greek τοῦτο (touto) “this,” Mycenaean toto “this.”  Hesychius: τοῦτο. Μακεδόνες

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σαλητόν (saleton): a Macedonian tunic o Greek σάρητον (sareton) “a type of tunic.”  Hesychius: Ἀντίπατρος ἢ βαρβαρικὸν χιτῶνα: The Antipatrid or the Barbarian tunic

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σάριςςα (sarissa): the Sarissa; Macedonian for the Greek javelin and Barbarian sabre. o Proto – Kartvelian šar “to destroy,” Old Norse sárr “wounded,” Proto – Afrasian sar “to tear apart,” Hittite šārr "to separate," Armenian sar "tip," Icelandic sarga "to hack," Old Serbian свърдьлъ (svŭrdĭlŭ) "driller," Slavic зарие (zarie) “to disembowel, to drill.”  Hesychius: δόρυ μακρόν, εἶδος ἀκοντίου Ἑλληνικοῦ, σπάθη βαρβαρική. Μακεδόνες

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σαυᾶδαι or σαῦδοι (sauadai or saudoi): the name of Silenus amongst the Macedonians. o Thraco – Phrygian Σαυάζιος (Sauazios) or Σαβάζιος (Sabazios) related to Dionysus, Russian свобода (svoboda) “freedom,” Illyrian δευάδαι (deuadai) “Satyrs.”  Hesychius: Ἀμερίας τοὺς σειλείνους οὕτω καλεῖσθαί φησιν ὑπὸ Μακεδόνων

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σαυτορία (sautoria): salvation  Hesychius: σωτηρία. Ἀμερίας

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σκοῖδος (skoidos): The supreme judges of the Macedonians o P.I.E. (s)kr-įe/o – “to divide or split”: Greek σχίζω (schizo) “to rip.”  Hesychius: ἀρχή τις παρὰ Μακεδόσι τεταγμένη ἐπὶ τῶν δικαστηρίων.

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σμώγη (smoge): a drop or residue; ox tongue o German schmecken “to taste,” Greek σμώδιγγες (smodigges) “swellings.”  Hesychius: ῥανίς. τὸ τυχόν. Ἀμερίας βούγλωσσον

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Στρεψαῖοι (Strepsaioi): a Macedonian tribe o Greek στρέψις (strepsis) “pivoting, turning.”  Hesychius: ἔθνος περὶ Μακεδονίαν

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σχερόν (scheron): coastal waves or beach waves o P.I.E. (s)kr-įe/o – “to cut”: Greek σχίζω (schizo) “to rip,” Latin secāre “to cut.”  Hesychius: κῦμα ἕτοιμον. Ἀμερίας.

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ταγόναγα (tagonaga): the Macedonian magistracy o Macedonian ταγός (tagos) "leader, lord." o P.I.E. ag̑- “to drive or agitate”: Greek ἄγω (ágō) “to lead or to rally,” Phrygian αγταει (agtaei) “leader,” Mycenaean rawaketa “military leader,” Macedonian ἀγά (aga) “power, authority.”  Hesychius: Μακεδονική τις ἀρχή

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τεθολώς (tetholos): overstuffed, crammed o Greek τέθηλα (tethela) “to be full.”  Hesychius: ἀνάπλεως. Ἀμερίας

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τελεσιάς (telesias): An armed dance invented by Telesias o Greek τελεσιάζω (telesiazo) “fulfill, accomplish”  Hesychius: ἡ μετὰ ξίφους ὄρχησις, ἀπὸ τοῦ εὑρόντος Τελεσίου

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υετής (yetis): to be of the same age o P.I.E. wet – “year”: Phrygian ϝετει (wetei) “year,” Mycenaean weto “this year,” Albanian vjet “year,” Thracian ετεσα (etesa) “year,” Church Slavic ветъхъ (vetŭhŭ) “year or age.”  Hesychius: ὁ αὐτοετής. Μαρσύας

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ὑφαίνει (yphainei): to cause or instigate o Greek ὑφαίνειν (yphainein) “to weave.”  Hesychius: ἐμπρῆσαι. ὑφᾶται. Ἀμερίας

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Χαλαστραίων συῶν (Chalastraion suon): Chalastrian Lake; a city and lake in Macedonia where the Chalastrian sodium is produced o Thracian toponym Χαλαστρα (Chalastra) from Thracian χαλας (chalas) “mud, mire.” o P.I.E. (s)eu – “water, lake”: Tocharian B su – “rain,” Greek ὕειν (hýein) “to rain,” Macedonian συῶν (suôn) “sea or lake,” Russian солоть (soloť) “swamp,”  Hesychius: πόλις τῆς Μακεδονίας καὶ λίμνη ἔνθα τὸ Χαλαστραῖον νίτρον γεγένηται

Macedonian words in the Suda Lexicon[52]: 

ἀβερτήν (aberten): knapsack o P.I.E. bher – “carry, bear”  Suda: Ἀορτήν: λέγουσιν οἱ πολλοὶ νῦν ἀβερτήν. Μακεδονικὸν δὲ καὶ τὸ σκεῦος καὶ τὸ ὄνομα. Aorten: many now call it the aberten. Both the object and the words are Macedonian.

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Ἀλκίμαχος (Alkimachos): a Macedonian name  Suda: ἕτερος δέ ἐστιν ὁ Μακεδὼν. The other is a Macedonian.

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Ἄργελλα (Argella): vapor bath o P.I.E. areg – “a hut or dwelling”  Suda: οἴκημα Μακεδονικὸν, ὅπερ θερμαίνοντες λούονται. A Macedonian style building which they warm up and bathe in.

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Ἀργόλαι (Argolai): a type of snakes  Suda: εἶδος ὄφεων, οὓς ἤνεγκε Μακεδὼν Ἀλέξανδρος ἐκ τοῦ Ἄργους τοῦ Πελασγικοῦ εἰς Ἀλεξάνδρειαν καὶ ἐνέβαλεν εἰς τὸν ποταμὸν πρὸς ἀναίρεσιν τῶν ἀσπίδων, ὅτε μετέθηκε τὰ ὀστᾶ Ἱερεμίου τοῦ προφήτου ἐξ Αἰγύπτου εἰς Ἀλεξάνδρειαν: οὓς ὁ αὐτὸς προφήτης ἀπέκτεινεν. ἀργόλαι οὖν ἐκ τοῦ Ἄργους λαιοί. A type of snake, which the Macedonian Alexander brought from Pelasgian Argos to Alexandria and threw into the river for the destruction of the cobras when he moved the bones of the prophet Jeremiah from Egypt to Alexandria the prophet himself killed them. "argolai" means "ill-omens [laioi] out of Argos"

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Ἐναγίζων (Enagizon): the manner in which the Macedonians sacrifice to the god Xanthos  Suda: φονεύων, κατακαίνων. ἐναγίζουσιν οὖν τῷ Ξανθῷ Μακεδόνες καὶ καθαρμὸν ποιοῦσι σὺν ἵπποις ὡπλισμένοις. murdering, slaying. So Macedonians offer sacrifice to Xanthos and make purification with horses in armor.

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Ἐρημωτής (Eremotes): a beast from Macedonia  Suda: ἐρημοποιός. ἐν Ἐπιγράμμασι: ταῦρον τὸν πρὶν ἐρημωτὰν θῆρα Μακηδονίης. desolation maker; In Epigrams: a bull, the desolator, beast of Macedonia.

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Ἥλικες (Hilikes): the Macedonian guild of Antiochus Epiphanes  Suda: οὕτως ἐλέγοντο οἱ Ἀντιόχου τοῦ Ἐπιφανίου Μακεδόνων στῖφος.

This is what they used to call the members of the Macedonian close-array of Antiochus Epiphanes.



κέβην (keben): the head  Suda: Κεφαλή: παρὰ τὸ κεκυφῶσθαι, ἤγουν κεκάμφθαι ... Μακεδόνες δὲ κέβην, τὸ β ἀντὶ τοῦ φ. Kefale (the head): named from having curvature of the spine or rather being bent over. But the Macedonians say κέβην (keben), using beta instead of phi.



Λιτή (Lite): a Macedonian city  Suda: τῆς Μακεδονίας. Of Macedonia



Λοιδίας (Loidias): a river in Macedonia  Suda: ποταμὸς Μακεδονίας. A Macedonian river.



Πιερία (Pieria): a mountain in Macedonia  Suda: ὄρος Μακεδονίας. A mountain in Macedonia



Πολύαινος (Polyainos): a Macedonian rhetorician who wrote about Thebes  Suda: Μακεδών, ῥήτωρ. Περὶ Θηβῶν. A Macedonian rhetorician; he wrote on Thebes



Ὁπλῖται (Hoplitai): soldiers who use heavy equipment with rounded shields and long spears like the Macedonians (Hoplites)  Suda: πελτασταί, ψιλοί, τῆς πεζικῆς εἰσι καὶ μαχίμου δυνάμεως, ἔχουσι δὲ διαφοράς: ὁπλῖται μὲν γὰρ λέγονται οἱ βαρυτάτῃ κεχρημένοι ὁπλίσει κατὰ τὸν Μακεδονικὸν τρόπον ἀσπίσι περιφερέσι καὶ δόρασι περιμηκεστέροις. peltasts, light-armed: these are constituents of the infantry fighting-force, but they present differences. "Hoplites" is the term for those who use heavy equipment in the Macedonian manner, with round shields and rather long spears.

Macedonian words from the works of Athenaeus of Naucratis[53]: 

δράμις (dramis): a type of bread o P.I.E. der – “to cut, to split”  Athenaeus: Σέλευκος μὲν δράμιν ὑπὸ Μακεδόνων οὕτως καλούμενον, δάρατον δ᾽ ὑπὸ Θεσσαλῶν. Seleucus speaks of one called dramis, which bears this name among the Macedonians; and of another called daratus by the Thessalians.



ἐπιδειπνίδες (epideipnides): a Macedonian dessert  Athenaeus: And perhaps all such things are included in this Macedonian term ἐπιδειπνίδες.



Ἑταιρίδεια (Hetairideia): a common dance among the Macedonians  Athenaeus: Θύουσι δὲ καὶ οἱ Μακεδόνων βασιλεῖς τὰ ῾Εταιρίδεια. and the Macedonian kings also celebrated the Hetairidia.



κοῖος (koios): number o P.I.E. kwoti – “how much, how many”  Athenaeus: And the mother meant is Latona, who is the daughter of Coius, and the Macedonians use κοῖος as synonymous with ἀριθμός.



Μιμαλλόνες (Mimallones): the Macedonian Bacchantes o P.I.E. h₂eim- to copy, imitate – Latin aemulus “copy,” Phrygian ίμαν (iman) “monument,” Hittite ḫiimmaaš “copy, replica, substitute,” Greek μιμέομαι (mimeomai) “to imitate, copy.”  Athenaeus: And after this came the Macedonian bacchants, called Mimallones, and Bassarae, and Lydian women, with dishevelled hair, and wearing garlands, some of snakes, and others of branches of yew and of vine-leaves and ivy-leaves, and some held daggers in their hands, and others held snakes[56].



μύστρα (mystra): a golden spoon  Athenaeus: ἀλλὰ μὴν καὶ Ἱππόλοχος ὁ Μακεδὼν ἐν τῇ πρὸς Λυγκέα ἐπιστολῇ, δι᾽ ἧς ἐμφανίζει Μακεδονικόν τι δεῖπνον πολυτελείᾳ τὰ πάντα πανταχοῦ γενόμενα ὑπερβαλόν, μνημονεύει ὡς ἑκάστῳ τῶν δειπνούντων δοθέντων μύστρων χρυσῶν. And Hippolochus the Macedonian, in his letter to Lynceus, in which he gives an account of some Macedonian banquet which surpassed all the feasts which had ever been heard of in extravagance, speaks of golden spoons (which he also calls μύστρα) having been given to each of the guests.



ῥαπαύλης (rhapayles): those who play on the reedpipe  Athenaeus: As, therefore, they now call those who play on a pipe of reeds (κάλαμοι) calamaules, so also they call them now rapaules, according to the statement of Amerias the Macedonian, in his dialects.



τιτυρινος (tityrinos): a reedpipe  Athenaeus: But I am not ignorant that Amerias the Macedonian, in his dialects, says, that the monaulos is called tityrinus. So here you have, O excellent Ulpian, a man who mentions the photinx. But that the monaulos was the same instrument which is now called calamaules, or reedfife, is clearly shown by Hedylus, in his Epigrams

Macedonian words from Amerias the Macedonian Lexicographer [54, a]: 

γράβιον (grabion): a torch made of Oak wood o P.I.E. grabh – “hornbeam (an Oak)”: Macedonian γράβος (grabos) “Oak”.  Ἀμερίας δὲ γράβιον τὸν φανόν. Amerias calls the torch grabion.



ἑλάνη (elane): a torch  A torch was also called ἑλάνη, as Amerias tells us.



ἐρινάδας (erinadas): a fig tree  Ἀμερίας δ᾽ ἐρινάδας καλεῖσθαι τοὺς ὀλόνθους. Amerias says for the fig tree erinadas.



ἑρκῑται (erkitai): field laborers o P.I.E. serk – “twine”: Homeric ἑρκίτης (erkites) “farm slave”  'Αμερίας δέ ἑρκῑται φησί καλεΐσθαι τούς κατά τούς άργούς οίκέτας.

Amerias tells us that those household slaves who labor the fields are called erkitai.



εὔκονος (eukonos) or τεὔκονος (teukonos): a bread made of bran  Βραττιμην τε καλεῖσθαι τὸν πιτυρίτην ἄρτον, ὃν εὔκονον τευκονον ὀνομάζουσιν Ἀμερίας καὶ Τιμαχίδας



ζακελτίδες (zakeltides): gourds, turnips, pumpkins o P.I.E. ĝhelǝ – “greenery”  Amerias and Timachidas affirm that it is gourds which are called ζακελτίδες.



ἰσθλῆ (isthli): young goats  Αἰγεία μηλωτή. δέρις (Αμερίας)



λαυκανίη (laukanie): the larynx; throat or tongue  λαυκανία∙ τὸ ἀπηρτημένον τοῦ γαργαρεῶνος, λαιμός, φάρυγξ



λεπαστή (lepaste): a spoon, ladle, bowl  Ἀμερίας δέ φησι τὴν οἰνοχόην λεπαστὴν καλεῖσθαι.



λετμός (letmos): the human body  λετμὸς ἀναδρήσσει∙ τὸ σῶμα μερίας φησί Αμερίας



λισσός (lissos): regular, smooth, commonplace  λισσόν Ἀμερίας δὲ ἐν γλώσσαις τὸ ὑψηλὸν ἀποδίδωσιν



λύγος (lygos): wicker, osier  Ἀμερίας δέ φησιν ἀγνοῶν∙ "λύγος ῥάβδος."



λυχνίς (lychnis): a plant with bright-red flowers  περὶ δὲ τῆς λυχνιδος λέγων Ἀμερίας ὁ Μακεδὼν ἐν τῷ Ῥιζοτομικῷ φησιν ἀναφῦναι αὐτὴν ἐκ τῶν Ἀφροδίτης λουτρῶν, ὅτε Ἡφαίστῳ συγκοιμηθεῖσα ἡ Ἀφροδίτη ἐλούσατο.



μύκηρος (mykeros): almonds, soft nuts  Ἀμερίας δέ φησι μύκηρον τὴν ἀμυγδάλην καλεῖσθαι.



ξηροπυρίτας (xiropyritas): a bread made only of wheat  Ἀμερίας δὲ καλεῖ ξηροπυρίταν τὸν αὐτόπυρον ἄρτον· ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ Τιμαχίδας



σπιδής (spides): large, wide, broad  καὶ Ἀμερίας δὲ λέγει σπιδέος τοῦ πολλοῦ καὶ εὐρέος καὶ μεγάλου.



ταῦροι (tauroi): Taurus  παρὰ δὲ Ἐφεσίοις οἱ οἰνοχοοῦντες ᾔθεοι τῇ τοῦ Ποσειδῶνος ἑορτῇ ταῦροι ἐκαλοῦντο, ὡς Ἀμερίας φησί.

Macedonian words from other miscellaneous sources[57]:                 

αἰγίποψ (aigipops): eagle [EM 28.19][59] o Greek αίγα (aiga) “goat” o Greek πέψις (pepsis) “digestion” ἀνακροταλίζω (anakrotalizô): lift up and strike together [Hippolochus' letter. Athenaeus, 4.129.c] ἄππα (appa): father o P.I.E. pH₂tér “father” ἀσθέταιροι (asthetairoi)[58]: the elites of the Macedonian infantry ἄσθιπποι (asthippoi)[57]: elite cavalry βάζω (bazô): speak, say [Eustathius citing Heracleides Od. p. 375-376, 1654, 19-20] βέδυ (bedu): air, also God of Air[86] o P.I.E. h₂weh₁-nt – “wind.” βύκτας (buktas): wind [EM 179.3] Δώσων (Doson): Antigonus III "Doson" - Macedonian King[102] o Macedonian δώσων (doson) "one who was given to promising but did not perform his engagements" καυσία (kausia): felt hat used by Macedonians, forming part of the regalia of the kings [Plu. Ant. 54, Arr. An. 7.22.2] κισσύβιον (kissybion): wooden cup [Athenaeus XI 477.a; Marsyas] κλινότροχον (klinótrokhon): a kind of Maple from Stageira [Thphr. HP 3.3.1, 3.11.2.] o P.I.E. klen – “maple” o Greek τροχός (trochos) “wheel” λευγαία (leugaia): band, troop [Arr. An. 2.9.3] πεζέταιροι (pezetairoi)[58]: the backbone of the Macedonian army, literally meaning “foot companions” Πύδνα (Pydna): the city Pydna o P.I.E. bhudhnā “bottom, pit” σίγυνος (sigynos): spear [A. R. 2.99, AP 6.176] χάρων (charôn): lion [Lycophron 455]

Proposed Macedonian words: A number of Hesychius words are listed orphan; some of them have been proposed as Macedonian. Others come from different authors like Strattis[54, b] and from sources like Pokorny’s dictionary:      

ἀβ - (ab-) or ἀπ - (ap-): from, out of ἀγέρδα (agerda): wild pear-tree ἄδ – (ad – ): by, near, at, to (prefix) ἀδαλός (adalos): charcoal dust ἄδδεε (addee): hurry up ἄδις (adis): hearth o P.I.E. h₂eidh – “ignite”

                         

αἰδῶσσα (aidôssa): corridor, room, portico βασκευταί (baskeutaí): leathern sack o P.I.E. bhasko – “basket, sack” βάσκιοι (baskioi): fasces o P.I.E. bhasko – “basket, sack” βίξ (bix): sphinx βορδΐς (bordis): calf o Macedonian Βορδΐνος (Bordinos), related to Homeric πόρτις (portis) “calf” γαβαλάν (gabalan): the brain, the head o P.I.E. ghebʰ(e)l – “head” δαλάγχα (dalancha): sea δαρδαίνει (dardainei): to soil, to make dirty δεδάλαι (dedalai): package, bundle ῎Εδεσσα (Edessa): the city Edessa o Proto - Form ϝεδεσσἰα (u̯edesi̯ ā) "watery place" ἐπός (epos): horse o P.I.E. ek̂u̯o-s "horse"; Macedonian name 'Επόκιλλος (Epokillos) “grey horse” ἐσκόροδος (eskorodos): tenons Εὐδαλαγῖνες (Eudalagines): the Graces or the Charites κάναδοι (kanadoi): jaws o P.I.E. genu – “jaw” κασανδήριον (kasanderion): Milvus milvus, the red kite bird o P.I.E. k^ason – “hare” o Greek θήριον/θήρᾱς (therion/theras): beast, hunter, slayer κνῖμα or κνίμα (kníma)[29]: shank, scraping, bite, sting κόμβους (kombous): molars, teeth o P.I.E. ǵómbʰo – “tooth, ledge” λαίβα (laiba): shield o P.I.E. laiwó – “left” λάλαμις (lalamis): storm νίβα (niba): snow o P.I.E. sneigwh – “snow” ὁμοδάλιον (homodalion): isoetes plant πέλλης (pellis): ashy, gray, cinder-colored Πέργαμος (Pergamos): the city Pergamos o P.I.E. bhereĝh “mountain” ῥουβοτός (rhoubotos): potions, beverages σφύραινα (sphuraina)[61]: hammer-fish, barracuda τρακυλίων (trakylíon)[101]: coarse, rugged, harsh, abrasive, gruff

Analysis of the Vocabulary [50]: The preserved lexical material can be divided into three groups (cf. Katicic 1976, 108111): 1. Borrowings and words or proper names adapted from Greek: έταιροι (hetairoi) “the cavalry guards of the Macedonian kings” from Greek έταΐρος (hetairos) “companion,” κόραννος (korannos) “king” from Greek κοίρανος (koiranos) “ruler,” σαυτορία (sautoria) “salvation” from Greek σωτηρία (soteria) “salvation.”

2. Words with unambiguous Greek parallels, but differing in phonetics: ἀβροῦτες (abroutes) “eyebrows” versus Greek ὀφρῦς (ophrus), ἀδῆ (ade) “heavens” versus Greek αἰθήρ (aether), ἄδραια (adraia) “clear sky” versus Greek αἰθρία (aethrea), δαλάγχαν (dalanchan) “the sea” versus Greek θάλασσαν (thalassan).

3. Words without close Greek cognates, but with transparent Indo-European etymology: ἄλιζα (aliza) “the White Poplar tree” from the P.I.E. al – “tree,” γόλα (gola) “innards” from the P.I.E. ğ(ʰ)el – “flesh,” νίβα (niba) “snow” from the P.I.E. sneigwh – “snow.” ἄξος (axos) “wood or lumber” from the P.I.E. os – “ash tree.”

Ancient Macedonian Calendar: The Ancient Macedonian calendar is a lunisolar calendar that was in use in ancient Macedon in the 1st millennium BC. It consisted of 12 synodic lunar months (i.e. 354 days per year), which needed intercalary months to stay in step with the seasons. By the time the calendar was being used across the Hellenistic world, seven total embolimoi (intercalary months) were being added in each 19-year Metonic cycle. The names of the ancient Macedonian Calendar remained in use in Syria even into the Christian era. The Macedonian calendar was in essence the Babylonian calendar with the substitution of Macedonian names for the Babylonian ones[97].

An example of 6th century AD inscriptions from Decapolis, Jordan, bearing the Solar Macedonian calendar, starts from the month Audynaeus[98]. The solar type was merged later with the Julian calendar. In Roman Macedonia, both calendars were used. The Roman one is attested in inscriptions with the name Kalandôn gen. καλανδῶν calendae and the Macedonian Hellenikei dat. Ἑλληνικῇ Hellenic[99]. An inscription from Upper Macedonia bears the month January ('Ιανουάριος)[90], and inscriptions from various parts of Macedonia bear the months July, September, October, and December (Ἰουλιου[91], Σεπτεμβρίου[92], Ὀκτονβρίου[93], Δεκεμβρίου[94]). Finally an inscription from Kassandreia of about ca. 306-298 BC bearing a month Ἀθηναιῶν[60] suggests that some cities may have had their own months. Other such months include Πανθεῶνος and Ἀφρο̣δισιῶνος[95][96]. The months of the standard Macedonian calendar are:      

Δίος (Dios): the moon of October Ἀπελλαῖος (Apellaios): moon of November Αὐδυναῖος (Audunaios) or Αὐδναῖος (Audnaios): moon of December Περίτιος (Peritios): moon of January Δύστρος (Dystros): moon of February Ξανδικός (Xandikos) or Ξανθικός (Xanthikos): moon of March

     

o Ξανδικός Ἐμβόλιμος (Xandikos Embolimos): intercalated 6 times over a 19-year cycle Ἀρτεμίσιος (Artemisios) or Ἀρταμίτιος (Artamitios): moon of April Δαίσιος (Daisios): moon of May Πάνημος (Panēmos) or Πάναμος (Panamos): moon of June Λώιος (Lōios): moon of July Γορπιαῖος (Gorpiaios): moon of August Ὑπερβερεταῖος (Hyperberetaios): moon of September o Ὑπερβερεταῖος Ἑμβόλιμος (Hyperberetaios Embolimos): intercalated once over a 19-year cycle

The Macedonian names of about half or more of the months of the ancient Macedonian calendar have a clear and generally accepted Greek etymology (e.g. Dios, Apellaios, Artemisios, Lo(i)os, Daisios), though some of the remaining ones have sometimes been considered to be Greek but showing a particular Macedonian phonology (e.g. Audunaios has been connected to “Haides” through A-wid “invisible”, Gorpiaios to karpos “fruit”, Dystros to thystros “stormy, roaring”[100], the menonym Ύπερβερεταΐος seems to correspond to Attic ύπερφερέτης[105]).

Under the Seleucid Empire, the Macedonians adopted the Seleucid era. The year beginning on the 1st of Dios during what we call October 312 BCE was declared to be the year one of the Seleucid era.

Macedonian in Classical Sources: Among the references that have been discussed as possibly bearing some witness to the linguistic situation in Macedonia, there is a sentence from a fragmentary dialogue, apparently between an Athenian and a Macedonian, in an extant fragment of the 5th century BC comedy 'Macedonians' by the Athenian poet Strattis (fr. 28) where a stranger is portrayed as speaking in a rural Greek dialect. His language contains expressions such as ὕμμες Ώττικοί for ὑμεὶς Ἀττικοί "you Athenians", ὕμμες being also attested in Homer, Sappho (Lesbian) and Theocritus (Doric), while Ώττικοί appears only in "funny country bumpkin" contexts of Attic comedy[62].

Additionally, Athenaeus of Naucratis writes about Alexarchus of Macedon, a famous wordsmith, son of Antipater and brother to Cassander. Athenaeus writes on Alexarchus[89]: “Such a man was Alexarchos, the brother of Cassander, who was king of Macedonia and who built the city called Ouranopolis. Heracleides Lembos speaks concerning him in the seventh book of his Histories, and says “Alexarchus, who founded the city Ouranopolis, imported many peculiar words and forms of speaking into the language: calling a cock ὀρθροβόας (he that crows in the morn/right time), and a barber βροτοκέρτης (one who cuts men) and a drachma he called ἀργυρὶς (a piece of silver) and a chœnix he called ἡμεροτροφὶς (what feeds a man for a day) and a herald he called ἀπύτης (someone with a loud voice). Once he wrote a letter to the magistrates of the Cassandrians in this form: αλέξαρχος ὁ μάρμων πρόμοις γαθεῖν. τοὺς ἡλιοκρεῖς οἰῶν οἶδα λιποῦσα θεωτῶν ἔργων κρατήτορας μορσίμῳ τύχᾳ κεκυρωμένας θεοῦ πόγαις χυτλώσαντες αὐτοὺς, καὶ φύλακας ὀριγένεις.” But what that letter means think that even the Pythian Apollo himself could hardly tell.” [Athen. 3.54]

As previously stated, Livy tells us Macedonians, Aetolians, and Acarnanians are “men speaking the same language,”[8] and that an announcement was translated from Latin to Greek for Macedonians to understand[63]. Additionally, Quintus Curtius Rufus tells us that the Greekspeaking Branchidae had a common language with the Macedonians[64].

This may seem like definitive proof that the native tongue of the Macedonians was a variation of Greek, but most of these peoples were not entirely Greek to begin with. As we learn from Polybius’ account of a conversation between Phillip V and Flaminius, the countries of the Aetolians, Agreans, Apodoteans, and Aphilochians are not wholly inhabited by Greeks [65].

Strabo tells us that the tribes of Lyncestia, Pelagonia, Orestia, and Elimeia are bilingual, and their tongue and culture is similar to those tribes in Corcyra[66]; these two tongues may have been both Greek dialects as well as dialects of their native, non – Greek language[67]. Furthermore, explicit references of the use and distinctiveness of the Macedonian tongue are well recorded.

Plutarch tells us that Alexander III used his native, Macedonian tongue in times of extreme emergency[68]. Alexander III also lambasts Philotas for choosing to use Greek during his trial rather than his native language[69]: Alexander: “The Macedonians are going to judge your case; please state whether you will use your native language before them.”

Philotas: “Besides the Macedonians, there are many present who, I think, will find what I am going to say easier to understand if I use the language you yourself have been using, your purpose, I believe, being only to enable more people to understand you.”

Alexander: “Do you see how offensive Philotas finds even his native language?

He alone feels an aversion to learning it. But let him speak as he pleases – only remember he is as contemptuous of our way of life as he is of our language.”

Lastly, there is a fragment from a papyrus that tells us Greeks needed interpreters to communicate with the Macedonians[3]: “When Eumenues saw the close-locked formation of the Macedonian phalanx, he sent Xennias once more, a man whose tongue was Macedonian, bidding him declare that he would not fight them frontally but would follow them with his cavalry and units of light troops and bar them from provisions.”

When references to speaking Macedonian are made, it is apparent that they refer to speaking in a distinct language, as Dr. Charles B. Abraham points out[70]: “There is for example the verb θρακιζω which meant "Thracian Speaking," and of course there was the verb μακεδονιζω which of course means "Macedonian Speaking." Arian used the word in the following way: "μακεδονιζων τη φωνη." Plutarch used it in the Biography of Mark Antony as following: "μακεδονιζειν" (obvious Dialectical form from μακεδονιζω) as well in the Bibliography of Eumenes he wrote: "μακεδονιστι τη φωνη."

The word "φονη" actually meant language, as can be seen in the example in the Drama Agamemnon written by Aeschylus ... This is the very same word which the Greek scholars are desperately trying to assign the meaning of "Macedonian way of expression, talking" and "Sound" or "Voice", which does not stand the reality, because the noun to express this is with the ending "–ισμος" as shown above and "φωνη" was used for "Language" and not for "Voice."”

Over time, however, the term "Macedonian" (μακεδονικός), when referring to the language (and related expressions such as μακεδονίζειν; to speak in the Macedonian fashion) lost the original meaning and acquired the meaning of Koine Greek[71].

Influences on Greek, Latin, and other tongues: Athenaeus of Naucratis tells us that Attic authors used Macedonian vocabulary as a result of their relations with Macedonia[53]. From Philotas we learn that foreign languages left their mark on the Macedonian tongue as a result of their dealings with other nations, his rationale being that conquerors and conquered alike must learn a foreign tongue[72]. After the conquering of Persia and India, those peoples too used the Macedonian tongue, according to Seneca the Younger[73].

Map showing the extent of Alexander III’s empire and dispersion of Hellenistic culture[79].

The Dodona Inscription: An oracular lamelle inscription found in Dodona, Epirus contains lexical features that are likely inherited from the Macedonian substratum, or are explicitly Macedonian[88]. Julián V. M. Dosuna claims that the dialectic features of the inscription are the result of the Macedonian substrate influence on Doric Greek, which resulted in a distinctive North-Western Greek dialect being created out of the two tongues. Some of the inscriptions from Macedonia are in this dialect, albeit Geoffrey Horrocks warns that there are no known inscriptions from Macedonia that are certainly written in the ancient Macedonian language. Regardless, J. V. M. Dosuna argues that the lexical features of the inscription are Macedonian. The text is as follows:

Ζεῦ καί Διώνα ᾖ ἔσσονται παῖδες ἐκ τᾶς γυναικός Κεβαλίωι τᾶς νῦν ἔχει κ[α]ι ζώσοντι Dosuna translates it as: “Zeus and Dione, will Kebalios have children from his current wife?

Will they live?” The peculiarities that Dosuna notices are as follows:      

ζώσοντι instead of Attic ζώσουντι Διώνα / τᾶς instead of Attic Διώνη / τῆς ἔσσονται / ζώσοντι instead of Doric ἐσσέονται / ζωσέοντι Ζεῦ instead of Boeotian Δεῦ ἔσσονται / ζώσοντι instead of Boeotian ἔσσονθη / ζώσονθι Dative Κεβαλίωι instead of Thessalian Κεβαλίου

From this analysis, Dosuna provides the following sequence changes from Greek: 1.

2.

3.

4.

Inherited form: *ghebʰ(e)lPre-Mycenaean devoicing of inherited voiced aspirates: kʰepʰalPost-Mycenaean dissimilation of aspirates (Grassmann’s Law): kepʰalPartial phonetic interference caused by a non-Greek Indo-European language in which the inherited aspirate plosives lost their aspiration: kebal(īnos).

Koine Greek and Latin: As a consequence of the Macedonians' role in the formation of the Koine, Macedonian contributed considerable elements, unsurprisingly including some military terminology (διμοιρίτης, ταξίαρχος, ὑπασπισταί, etc.). The language of administration and the military was strengthened by the Macedonians: δεκανός (>NE δεκανέας, δεκανίκι), ταξίαρχος, σωματοφύλακες, υπασπισταί, while Macedonian was also the origin of the word κοράσιον (little girl) and of the ending –ισσα (Μακεδόνισσα)[104]. Among the many contributions were the general use of the first declension grammar for male and female nouns with an -as suffix, attested in the genitive of Macedonian coinage from the early 4th C BC of Amyntas III (ΑΜΥΝΤΑ in the genitive; the Attic form that fell into disuse would be ΑΜΥΝΤΟΥ). There were changes in verb conjugation, such as in the Imperative δέξα attested in Macedonian sling stones found in Asiatic battlefields, which became adopted in place of the Attic forms. Koine Greek established a spirantisation of beta, gamma and delta, which has been attributed to the Macedonian influence. Other adoptions from the ancient Macedonian language include the simplification of the sequence /ign/ to /i:n/ (γίνομαι, Attic γίγνομαι) and the loss of aspiration of the consonant cluster /sth/ (> /st/) (γενέσται, Attic γενέσθαι), for example as in a Koine inscription from Dura-Europos from the 2nd or 3rd century AD: τον Χριστὀν μνἠσκεστε[74].

Various words of Attic changed their meaning in Hellenistic period; some of them due to Macedonian influence [75]. For example:  

παρεμβολή (parembolê): in Attic, insertion; in Macedonian, encampment or barracks. ῥύμη (rhumê): in Attic, rush, onset, flux; in Macedonian lane, alley, street

The Macedonian language also appears to have influenced Latin vocabulary. For example:   

Grabatus, Latin for bed, deriving from Macedonian κράββατος[77][82].

Ilax, Latin for Holm Oak, deriving from Macedonian ίλάξ[76].

Virgam, Latin for branch, deriving from Macedonian γάρκαν[76].

Modern Discourse and Controversy: Modern discussion of the speech of the ancient Macedonians began in 1808, when F. G. Sturz published a small book entitled De dialecto macedonica liber (Leipzig 1808), intended to be a scientific enquiry into the position of Macedonian within Greek. However, after the publication of O. Müller’s work Über die Wohnsitz, die Abstammung und die ältere Geschichte des makedonischen Volks (Berlin 1825), the discussion evolved into an acrimonious controversy – initially scientific but soon political – about the Greek or non-Greek nature of this tongue. The classification of the language has come to have political overtones in the Macedonia naming dispute and the Macedonian language naming dispute, additionally most scholars do not connect the ancient Macedonian language to the modern Slavic Macedonian language, albeit many substratum words of Paleo-Balkan origin are found in Romanian, and in South Slavic and Greek[83][84][85].

References: 1. Borza, Eugene N. (1992).; In the Shadow of Olympus: The Emergence of Macedon, p. 94 (citing Hammond) 2. Herodotus; Histories: 5.22; 8.137–139 3. Shea, John.; Macedonia and Greece: The Struggle to Define a New Balkan Nation, p. 66, p. 27 4. Demosthenes; The Third Philippic, Passage 31 5. Woodward, Roger D.; The Ancient Languages of Europe 6. Horrocks, Geoffrey; Greek: A History of the Language and its Speakers; Greek in the Hellenistic World, p. 79 7. Abraham, Charles Bryant, PhD.; What was the Mother Tongue of Alexander the Great 8. Livy. History of Rome, 31.29.15.

9. Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge; Engraved by J. & C. Walker. Published November. 1st. 1829 by Baldwin & Cradock, 47 Paternoster Row, London.; Map of Ancient Greece, Northern Part 10. Joseph Roisman; Ian Worthington (7 July 2011). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia.

John Wiley & Sons. p. 94. ISBN 978-1-4443-5163-7.

11. Quiles, Carlos; A Grammar of Modern Indo – European, Second Edition; p. 95 12. B. Joseph (2001): "Ancient Greek". In: J. Garry et al. (eds.) Facts about the world's major languages: an encyclopedia of the world's major languages, past and present. Online paper 13. Mallory, J.P. (1997). in Mallory, J.P. and Adams, D.Q. (eds.): Encyclopedia of IndoEuropean Culture. Chicago-London: Fitzroy Dearborn, p. 361. ISBN 1-884964-98-2 14. A. Meillet [1913] 1965, Apeçu d'une histoire de la langue grecque, 7th ed., Paris, p. 61. I. Russu 1938, in Ephemeris Dacoromana 8, 105-232. Quoted after Brixhe and Panayotou 1994: 209.

15. Vladimir Georgiev - The Genesis of the Balkan Peoples, The Slavonic and East European Review, Vol. 44, No. 103 (Jul., 1966), pp. 285-297 16. Hammond, N.G.L [1989] (1993). The Macedonian State. Origins, Institutions and History, reprint ed., USA: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814927-1.

17. Masson, Olivier (2003). "[Ancient] Macedonian language". The Oxford Classical Dictionary (revised 3rd ed.). Ed. Hornblower, S. and Spawforth A. (eds.). USA: Oxford University Press. pp. 905-906. ISBN 0-19-860641-9.

18. Ahrens, F. H. L. (1843), De Graecae linguae dialectis, Göttingen, 1839-1843; Hoffmann, O. Die Makedonen. Ihre Sprache und ihr Volkstum, Göttingen, 1906.

19. A History of Ancient Greek: From the Beginnings to Late Antiquity p.498 [2] ISBN 0521833078.

20. Indo-European Linguistics [3] p.28 by Michael Meier-Brügger, Matthias Fritz, Manfred Mayrhofer ISBN 3110174332.

21. Griechische Grammatik, Munich 1939, vol. 1, 69-71.

22. Hamp, Eric P. (1990) "The Pre-Indo-European Language of Northern (Central) Europe".

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23. The Linguist List is classifying ancient Macedonian with Greek (all known ancient and modern dialects) under a Hellenic super-tree.

24. Olivier Masson, "Sur la notation occasionnelle du digamma grec par d'autres consonnes et la glose macédonienne abroutes", Bulletin de la Société de linguistique de Paris, 90 (1995) 231-239.

25. Katicic, Radoslav; Ancient Languages of the Balkans, Issue I; p. 103 – 106; p. 111; p.

112-114.

26. Claude Brixhe, "Un «nouveau» champ de la dialectologie grecque: le macédonien", in: A. C. Cassio (ed.), Katà diálekton. Atti del III Colloquio Internazionale di Dialettologia Greca (A.I.O.N., XIX), Napoli 1996, 35-71.

27. Plutarch. Adolescens 6.

28. Abramovitz, Rachel Zelnick. Taxing Freedom in Thessalian Manumission Inscriptions, p.

94; an inscription from the Macedonian city Elimeia bears the word mágeiros.

29. Dosuna (2007, 2012).

30. Mosenkis, Iurii. Paleo-Balkan language of Linear A syllabary: Hurrianized Greek, Macedonian, or Phrygian? p. 3 31. A history of ancient Greek: from the beginnings to late antiquity, Maria Chritē, Maria Arapopoulou, Cambridge University Press (2007), p. 439–441 32. Eric Lhote (2006) Les lamelles Oraculaires de Dodone. Droz, Geneve.

33. Roberts, E.S., An Introduction to Greek Epigraphy vol. 1 no. 237 34. Greek Personal Names: Their Value as Evidence, Elaine Matthews, Simon Hornblower, Peter Marshall Fraser, British Academy, Oxford University Press (2000), p. 103 35. Worthington, Ian (2003). Alexander the Great: A Reader. London, United Kingdom: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-29187-3.

36. Epigraphical Database: SEG 42:624,1 37. Epigraphical Database: SEG 50:636 38. Epigraphical Database: SEG 24:622 39. Epigraphical Database: SEG 46:801 40. Epigraphical Database: SEG 48:847 41. Athens, bottom-IG I³ 89 – Kalindoia-Meletemata 11 K31 – Pydna-SEG 52:617,I (6) till SEG 52:617,VI – Mygdonia-SEG 49:750.

42. Betegh, Gábor (19 November 2007). The Derveni Papyrus: Cosmology, Theology and Interpretation. Cambridge University Press. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-521-04739-5. Retrieved 14 January 2012 43. "The Derveni Papyrus: An Interdisciplinary Research Project". Harvard University, Center for Hellenic Studies.

44. "Ancient scroll may yield religious secrets". The Associated Press. Retrieved 1 June 2006.

45. Janko (1997) p. 62–63.

46. Fantuzzi & Hunter 2004, p. 376; Voutiras 1998, p. 25; Fortson 2010, p. 464; Bloomer 2005, p. 195.

47. O’Neil, James. 26th Conference of the Australasian Society for Classical Studies, 2005.

48. O’Neil, James. Doric Forms in Macedonian Inscriptions, 2006. University of Sydney.

49. Professor Radcliffe G. Edmonds III; Love Charms In Their Social Context, The Pella Tablet; Greek & Latin Classical Studies; Bryn Mawr College 50. Blažek, Václav; Paleo-Balkanian Languages I: Hellenic Languages, Macedonian, p. 22 (p. 8); Sbornik Praci Filozoficke Fakulty Brnenske Univerzity.

51. Hesychius of Alexandria; Hesychii Alexandrini Lexicon; edition by Moritz Schmidt (1867) 52. The Suda On-Line: Byzantine Lexicography 53. Athenaeus of Naucratis; The Deipnosophists or The Learned Banquets.

54. Hoffmann, Otto; Die Makedonen, ihre Sprache und ihr Volkstum, p. 275. p. 270 55. Quiles, Carlos and Menchero, Fernando López; A Grammar of Modern Indo – European, p. 125.

56. Μιμαλλόνες "imitators of men" Etym. Mag. (587.53) see Hesychius "mimelazein. mimeisthai" "mimelon. Homoion 57. Other Sources; Ancient Macedonian Language; Statemaster.com 58. Jones, Ryan and Heckel, Waldemar; Macedonian Warrior: Alexander's Elite Infantryman, p. 31 59. Etymologicum Magnum or Etymologikon Mega, Constantinople, 1150 A.D. 60. Makedonia (Chalkidike) — Poteidaia-Kassandreia — ca. 306-298 BC 61. Strattis, Makedones (fr. 28) [48] 62. Steven Colvin, Dialect in Aristophanes and the politics of language in Ancient Greek, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 279 63. Livy, The History of Rome, 45.29 64. Quintus Curtius Rufus, Historiae Alexandri Magni, VII. 5.33, (Loeb edition, Latin) 65. Polybius, Book XVIII. 5.

66. Strabo: 7.7.8 67. Thucydides, 4.109 68. Plutarch, Alx. 51 69. Quintus Curtius Rufus, p. 138 70. Abraham, Charles Bryant, PhD.; How the Greeks differentiate the languages of other Peoples.

71. C. Brixhe, A. Panayotou, 1994, "Le Macédonien" in Langues indo-européennes, p. 208 72. Philotas, during his trial.

73. Seneca the Younger to Helvia on Consolidation VI 6 – VVI. 1 74. George Babiniotis (1992) The question of mediae in ancient Macedonian Greek reconsidered. In: Historical Philology: Greek, Latin, and Romance, Bela Brogyanyi, Reiner Lipp, 1992 John Benjamins Publishing) 75. Remarks on the Synonyms of the New Testament [33] by Johann August Heinrich Tittmann.

76. Prichard, James Cowles. Ethnography of Europe. 3d ed. 1841, p. 475 77. Funk, K.I.; The Preacher and Homiletic Monthly, Volume 3, p. 477 78. Map of Balkans linguistic groups late 3rd millenium BC, according to V. Georgiev.

Created by Slovenski Volk from Introduction to the history of the Indo-European languages. V I Georgiev. Balgarska akademiya na naukite, 1981. Pages 47-48 & Map 2.

79. Map of Alexander’s Macedonian Empire 80. Distribution of Paleo-Balkan languages in Eastern Europe and Asia Minor according to Ivan Duridanov. The map covers the people present in the area between 5th and 1st century BC. 81. Istoria limbii române (1969) p. 317 82. Wiktionary entry on κράββατος (krabbatos) 83. Hatzopoulos, Miltiades; VI International Symposion on Ancient Macedonia, 1999

84. Political Controversy; Ancient Macedonian Language; Statemaster.com 85. Paleo – Balkan Languages; Statemaster.com 86. St. Clement of Alexandria, The Stromata, or Miscellanies, p. 907 87. Word study tool for ancient languages; Palaeolexicon.com 88. Palaeolexicon.com; One more ancient Macedonian inscription?; July 7th, 2014.

89. Palaeolexicon.com; Alexarchos of Macedon, the word maker (350-290 BC); December 22nd, 2015.

90. Φίλος, Παναγιώτης; Αρχαιες Μακεδονικες Λεξεις; Θεσσαλονικη, 2015 91. Epigraphical Database: PH137976 92. Epigraphical Database: PH137205 93. Epigraphical Database: PH151713 94. Epigraphical Database: PH151716 95. Epigraphical Database: PH151755 96. Epigraphical Database: PH152523 97. Bradley Hudson McLean (2002). An introduction to Greek epigraphy of the Hellenistic and Roman periods from Alexander the Great down to the reign of Constantine (323 B.C.-A.D. 337). University of Michigan Press. p. 166. ISBN 978-0-472-11238-8.

98. Syria, S./Arabia-Decapolis — Gerasa (Jerash) — 6th AND Epigraphic Database [1] 531 AD [2] 99. Thessalonica — 141 AD -252 AD, last lines [3] and [4] 100. Tischner, Heinrich; altmakedonische Monatsnamen 101. Macedonian words in Epigraphy; Ancient Macedonian Language; Statemaster.com 102. Plutarch; The Parallel Lives: The Life of Aemilius, Vol. VI, p. 373, 8.1.

103. Dr. M.J.C.; Georgios K. Giannakis (ed.), Ancient Macedonia: Language, History, Culture; Thessaloniki: Centre for the Greek Language, 2012. Pp. 293. ISBN 9789607779526; Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2013.08.21; Reviewed by M.J.C. Scarborough, University of Cambridge (mjcs2@cam.ac.uk); 104. Kopidakis, M. Z.; History of Koine Greek; Introduction 105. Crespo, Emilio; Languages and dialects in Ancient Macedon; p. 125 Supplemental Reading: Φίλος, Παναγιώτης; Αρχαιες Μακεδονικες Λεξεις; Θεσσαλονικη, 2015 Ριζακης, Θ καί Τουρατσογλου; Επιγραφες Ανω Μακεδονιας; Αθηνα, 1985. Донски, Александар; Јазикот на Античките Македонци; Штип, 2006.

Witczak, Krzysztof; Two Macedonian Glosses in the Hesychian Glossary.

Witczak, Krzysztof; The Bird name Kasanderion.

Blažek, Václav; Paleo-Balkanian Languages I: Hellenic Languages, Macedonian, Sbornik Praci Filozoficke Fakulty Brnenske Univerzity.

7. Mosenkis, Iurii; Paleo-Balkan language of Linear A syllabary: Hurrianized Greek, Macedonian, or Phrygian; 8. Dosuna, Julián V. M.; Ancient Macedonian as a Greek dialect: A critical survey on recent work (Greek, English, French, German text); Centre for the Greek Language, Thessaloniki, 2012. English: p. 79 9. Witczak, Krzysztof; Ethnolinguistic Relations in the Ancient Epirus.

10. Sturz, Friedrich W.; Frid. Guil. Sturzii de dialecto Macedonica et Alexandrina liber; 1808 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

11. Müller, Karl Otfried; Über die Wohnsitz, die Abstammung und die ältere Geschichte des makedonischen Volks, Berlin 1825.

12. Pokorny, Julius; Pokorny's dictionary Contact Information: Name: Nikola Mitevski University: O.S.U. E-Mail: nikolamitevski51@yahoo.com