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THINKING THROUGH POETRY

Thinking through Poetry

Field Reports on Romantic Lyric

Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries

© Marjorie Levinson 2018

The moral rights of the author have been asserted

First Edition published in 2018

Impression: 1

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above

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Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America

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Library of Congress Control Number: 2017962498

ISBN 978–0–19–881031–5

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Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials contained in any third party website referenced in this work.

This book is for my children. First and last and midst and without end.

Olivia Anne Harris

Cecily Gwyn Harris

Daniel Levinson Harris

Acknowledgments

Earlier forms of the following chapters have previously appeared in print or online. Chapter 2: Rethinking Historicism, ed. Marjorie Levinson (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989), 1–63 by permission of Wiley; Chapter 3: ‘Romantic Poetry: The State of the Art’, MLQ, Vol. 54:2, pp. 183–214. Copyright 1993, University of Washington. All rights reserved. Used by permission of the publisher, Duke University Press; Chapter 4: Cultural Critique 31 (1995), 111–27 by permission of the University of Minnesota Press; Chapter 6: ELH 73:2 (2006), 549–80. Copyright © 2006 The Johns Hopkins University Press. Reprinted with permission by Johns Hopkins University Press; Chapter 7: What’s Left of Theory, ed. Judith Butler, John Guillory, and Kendall Thomas, English Institute Essays (New York: Routledge, 2000), 192–239; Chapter 9: Studies in Romanticism 46 (2000), 367–408; Chapter 10: Studies in Romanticism 49 (2010), 633–57 by permission of the Trustees of Boston University; Chapter 11: Romantic Circles, Praxis Series (2013); Appendix: PMLA 122 (2007) 557–69.

Permission was granted to quote excerpts from the following texts: Remnants of Song: Trauma and the Experience of Modernity in Charles Baudelaire and Paul Celan by Ulrich Baer. Copyright © 2000 by the Board of Trustees of the Leland Stanford Jr. University. All rights reserved. Used by permission of the publisher, Stanford University Press, sup.org; ‘The Poems of Our Climate’ in Collected Poems by Wallace Stevens (2006), Faber and Faber Ltd.; Romantic Weather: The Climates of Coleridge and Baudelaire by Arden Reed (1983), for Brown University Press by University Press of New England; Foucault by Gilles Deleuze (2006), Continuum Publishing, used by permission of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.

The largest share of my personal thanks goes to Richard Harris for all the reasons he knows and some that I hope this note may convey.

The colleagues and dear friends who have been with me and for me throughout are Geoff Eley, Andrea Henderson, Alice Levine, Jerome McGann, Anita Norich, David Simpson, and, coming on later but no less dear, Sonia Hofkosh.

I offer thanks beyond measure to the many graduate students who kindled to my ideas, as I to theirs, from 1978 to 2018. A few who count for many are Rachel Feder, Rebecca Porte, and Adam Sneed. If thanks can be wishes, let mine be for the survival of a discipline as intellectually serious and therefore as inspiring and lifesustaining as this one has been for me. And in that discipline of the mind in the world, let the scholars of this generation find their proper, honored place.

To Walter Cohen, who pushed me to finish this book and whose confidence in me made that happen, the thing speaks for itself.

and

5.

9. Parsing the Frost: The Growth of a Poet’s Sentence in “Frost at

List of Illustrations

1. Frost (Ieva Geneviciene/Shutterstock.com; Gheorghe Popa/ Shutterstock.com).

2. Speech balloon script from International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). 219

3. Diagram of the opening sentence of Paradise Lost. 230

4. Lines 24–43 of “Frost at Midnight.” 231

5. Sentence diagram from Sister Bernadette’s Barking Dog by Kitty Burns Florey, pp. 4–5. By permission of Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.

6. Dendrite stones (Matteo Chinellato/Shutterstock.com; Zbynek Burival/Shutterstock.com). 233

7. 18th-c fire grate, journal page, musical staff, window frost, Aeolian Harp.

1

Introduction

Crooked Lines and Moving Targets1

1

Thinking through Poetry: Field Reports on Romantic Lyric is intended for two audiences. First, it addresses readers familiar with the field of Romantic study and interested in its development. Nearly every chapter—but especially those in Part 1—considers the field’s changing ideas and methods and ponders the relation between the two at various moments from the late 1980s through the present. In addition to assessing these critical movements, each chapter invites viewing as a kind of physical deposit left by a definable era of that thirty-year fieldwork. Like a geological core sample of that field—a deep-drilled cylindrical section of a historically layered domain—the book as a whole indexes an intellectual evolution rather than narrating it. Perhaps at a slight cost of overall stylistic consistency, I have retained the original voice and critical gestures of each chapter as markers of its place within a thirty-year history of a disciplinary sector. Second, however, insofar as Romanticism has often served as the profession’s laboratory for research and development of new topics, methods, and critical aims, Thinking through Poetry can claim a degree of synecdochal status with respect to broader disciplinary work in literary study. My own shift from a historical to an ontological materialism, from epistemic to metaphysical interests, from a notion of literary production reflecting and resisting regimes of commodity production to a more complex and dynamic systems theory framework (wherein text and context, entity and environment, and therefore form and history are seen ceaselessly to engender and redefine one another) dovetails with movements of thought in the field of Romantic studies, which anticipates ideas and methods now current in the discipline at large. Similarly, the themes that this book explores—for example, nature, agency, thought, singularity, form—can lay claim to an independent general interest. Although these topics arose from and, in each case, remain anchored to my readings of particular poems

1 “If there are obstacles, the shortest line between two points may be a crooked one.” Bertolt Brecht, Life of Galileo (New York: Bloomsbury Methuen Drama, 1980), 106. Brecht’s phrase is, for me, a double allusion—the more proximal reference being the title of my beloved colleague’s work: Geoff Eley, A Crooked Line: From Cultural History to the History of Society (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2005). It was Geoff’s intellectual presence within Michigan’s interdisciplinary workshop—Comparative Study of Social Transformations (CSST), 1987–2001—that shifted my lifeworld from Philadelphia to Ann Arbor. It is Geoff’s friendship that, more than anything else, has enriched my life here for nearly thirty years.

(in all cases but one, British Romantic poems), my treatment of them speaks to a general readership, or solicits this way of reading by specialists in other periods and perhaps other languages as well.

Thinking through Poetry accordingly has two independent sources of coherence. One is the narrative arc, spanning, as I have noted, some thirty years of study in the field of British Romanticism. That narrative traces the migration of theory from philosophy, politics, and linguistics to the sciences. My subtitle—Field Reports on Romantic Lyric—with its resonance to both natural history and to physics, seeks to capture the book’s conceptual center of gravity, its other source of coherence. Indeed, one way to specify the migration I reference is from one kind of field to another: from a field that is organized on a vertical model of relational dynamics wherein the depth term exercises structural and genetic priority, to a model based on part–whole and entity–environment relations, with field conceived as a surface favoring recursive and self-organizing dynamics.

This conceptual structure (exemplified primarily in Part 2: Criticism: Field Theories of Form) follows from the book’s core problematic. I use that term in its classic sense, derived from French structuralist thought,2 where it means a matrix of (a) topics, (b) axioms, and (c) either interests or aims that generates a distinctively organized and interrelated field of problems or questions. All of these (topic, axiom, aim) may be understood by reference to the migration of theory just summarized. The key topic within the problematic of Thinking through Poetry is materialism, conceived as both a philosophical term and as a widely shared desideratum for the dominant strains of literary and cultural criticism of the past thirty years. Closely related to the topic of materialism is that of nature (or rather, natures), in the sense of constructs of materiality and otherness enabling (and more recently, and in real time, so to speak, disabling) projects of human self-fashioning.

The key axiom is that the material (and/or nature)—its provenance, locus, content, and effects—is neither an essence nor a social construction (as in, either a hegemonic or consensual projection) but a historically conjunctural phenomenon in the sense of an objective convergence of historical forces. That being the case, every act of materialist critique must first labor to determine what matters (which is to say, how matter materializes) within a given conjuncture. As prolegomenon to the work of reading, one asks what sphere, scale, and organization of life and thought does the category-work of materiality at that moment and for that exercise. What makes this a conjunctural rather than a presentist exercise is a concept of the punctual intertwining of particular presents with particular pasts (a historical logic tracing to Benjamin, taken up as a topic in Chapter 2). Although a quasimystical aura sometimes attaches to that notion in Benjamin, in this book the sudden conjuncture is seen as a function of uneven historical development, unexpected convergences, and time-release effects.

The key interest making up this three-fold problematic is poetry: more narrowly, lyric poetry and more narrowly yet, the kind of lyric that crystallized as the normative instance of that form in the Romantic period and that continues to dominate

2 Especially from the writings of Louis Althusser. See n. 12 below.

the cultural field. That lyric kind might be summarized as a drama of interiority (of feeling thinking and of thinking feeling) figured as both combat and collusion between, in Wordsworth’s phrase, “the mind of man and Nature,” with both of those master-categories made present, exclusively so, in the verbal and rhetorical fabric of the text.3 Here as throughout the book, I treat Wordsworth’s poetry as a paradigm instance of this lyric kind, in hopes of contributing to knowledge that may in addition prove useful in the study of other poetic or literary kinds. In biology, such instances are called “model systems,” defined as “an object or process selected for intensive research as an exemplar of a widely observed feature of life or disease.”4 What the model-system method forfeits in sampling breadth it seeks to balance out in depth of focus and in historical depth, in the sense of data accumulation about one well-defined subject over a long period of time. Wordsworth satisfies both criteria; no modern poet has been the subject of critical study—particularly of a formalist, rhetorical, and, as it were, grammatological kind—for as long and as intensively as Wordsworth, and no other single-author set of lyrics concentrates within itself as many of the defining features of the genre (of that lyric “kind” described above) as Wordsworth’s.

A number of questions arise from the problematic just stated and circulate throughout in the following chapters. They treat of: (1) dialectics (especially negative dialectics)5 as a model of individuation and as a method of inquiry; (2) premodern pictures of mind and matter (in Spinoza’s terms, thought and extension)6, and of the many and the one; (3) constructions of entity and environment, mind and body, part and whole, and cause and effect developed in the physical, biological, and computational sciences of the twentieth and twenty-first century; (4) the aesthetic as a category of both resistance and absorption; (5) constructs of the human and of the subject that are not defined by labor, desire, reflective self-awareness, or sociality (in the sense of either the polis or its cultural and demographic subdivisions, e.g., race, class, gender, sexuality); (6) the uses and status of models and metaphors for exploratory purposes (over and above their explanatory function); (7) the relevance of analytic scale (and of relations between different scales) to interpretive validity; and (8) the concept and conduct of immanent critique.

The results of those inquiries coalesce as an argument—an argument for the kind of thinking enabled by lyric poetry. This argument represents a strong, sharp alternative to what might, on the face of it, seem like a kindred study: namely, Simon Jarvis’s 2007 monograph, Wordsworth’s Philosophic Song. For Jarvis, poetry’s special resources for thinking lie exclusively in its acoustic and sensuous properties, its “song” as he puts it.7 He argues that this body language, unique to poetry, properly repels

3 Wordsworth, The Five-Book Prelude, ed. Duncan Wu (Oxford: Blackwell, 1997), “Appendix 1: The Analogy Passage,” l. 28.

4 Mary Poovey, “The Model System of Contemporary Literary Criticism,” Critical Inquiry 27 (2001), 408–38 (quote on p. 408).

5 In the sense developed by Theodor Adorno, Negative Dialectics, trans. E. B. Ashton (New York: Continuum, 1973).

6 For Spinoza, see Chapter 5.

7 Simon Jarvis, Wordsworth’s Philosophic Song (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007).

Thinking through Poetry

all interest in “philosophical system,” a term of opprobrium for him (reductive, mechanistic, opportunistic, etc.).8 I count as one central achievement of Thinking through Poetry a rescue of the term “system” from the negative associations with which Jarvis loads it, and a reinstatement (and demonstration) of the intellectual dimension of poetry. The argument is for an enlarged notion of thinking, one that activates the strange and special materiality of poetic language for a knowledgebased but imaginative activity undreamt of in Jarvis’s philosophy. Studies by Daniel Tiffany, J. H. Prynne, Sharon Cameron, and Branka Arsić are the gold standard for this kind of work.9 All are instances of “beautiful work,” the title of an earlier monograph by Cameron,10 and, like that study, as concerned to invent a discourse for opacity as they are to perform, deliver, and explain the movements of thought propelled by encounters with radical innocence, or, “what resists symbolization absolutely.”11 2

My title phrase, Thinking through Poetry, seeks to capture the deepest aims and most sustained procedures of this book while Field Reports, my subtitle, names the critical genre on offer and identifies its sources of coherence. Despite my earlier linking of Field Reports with the overall narrative arc (and Thinking through Poetry with its conceptual structure), readers will note in the following discussion how the two dimensions converge. The overlap, complicating what I described as the book’s two-part, diachronic/synchronic format, is deliberate, and I signal it by loading each of my title phrases with a threefold reference indexing both ideas and methods. I draw on the multivalence of my key term, “field,” and of my hinge-term, “through” (both discussed below) to explain a critical practice that imitates the book’s abiding interest in models of form and becoming that surpass the structure/history, formalism/ historicism binaries which, in our discipline, are still hard to escape. Because critical genre (over and above critical aim) is something of a topic or at the very least a leitmotif within this study, I lead my discussion of what this book is by saying what it is not. My contrastive examples are meant to heighten awareness of the available choices and also to highlight the coordinates of this study upon a disciplinary map.

8 Ibid. 4.

9 Daniel Tiffany, Toy Medium: Materialism and Modern Lyric (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000); J. H. Prynne, Field Notes: “The Solitary Reaper” and Others (Cambridge: privately printed, 2007); Sharon Cameron, The Bond of the Furthest Apart: Essays on Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Bresson, and Kafka (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2017). In this latest monograph, Cameron’s study texts are cinema and prose fiction, not poetry. Her critical practice here, however, as in all her earlier work, is as intellectually serious and ambitious in its address to the sensuous dimension of language as is the best work in poetry criticism. The same holds for Arsić’s Bird Relics: Grief and Vitalism in Thoreau (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016).

10 Sharon Cameron, Beautiful Work: A Meditation on Pain (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2000).

11 Jacques Lacan, The Seminar of Jacques Lacan: Freud’s Papers on Technique, 1953–1954, trans. John Forrester (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988).

Thinking through Poetry is not driven by an overarching and unifying argument, topic, or period-interest, nor does its coherence lie in the development of a new theoretical paradigm or in the sustained application of an existing one. To state the obvious, this book, like all critical studies, has topics, makes period-specific claims, and draws on the discourses of critical and cultural theory. Its defining character as a whole, however, is independent of those offerings. Similarly, although readers will find this study attached at all times strongly and sometimes fiercely to the making of arguments, the genre is not that of the intervention, either within one well-defined set of debates or in relation to a loose general consensus about a particular topic, field, or approach.

The primary materials provoking critical exercise throughout this book are all standard items within the repertoire of British Romantic poetry and, in one case, its afterlives. In other words, this is not an archivally driven project in the sense of recovering never published or long neglected texts, or of contriving new groupings for renewing familiar works or for making fresh claims about intertextuality and influence.

Balancing the narrow bandwidth of the primary texts, the conceptual resources in play in this study are many and various, especially with respect to their disciplinary provenance. (In a few cases, these resources can be considered innovative, sampling analytic frameworks rarely or never used in literary and cultural study.) However, while I treat such frameworks as objects of interest in their own right, all are brought on in the service of practical criticism undertaken at the level of individual works and of the poetic form comprising them all: namely, lyric. Reading—the core exercise of this study—is what generates and is made, in the end, to justify what are often lengthy detours into bodies of thought that offer themselves as aids to reflection. In other words, and as I said above, theory—in the sense of applying or developing a particular paradigm borrowed from another discipline—is not the source of the study’s coherence.

My subtitle, Field Reports on Romantic Lyric, condenses several references. First, it indicates a location and a history. As I have said, this is a book that issues from and reports on the field of British Romantic poetry and poetics in its development over three decades—the span of a single biological generation and of several academic ones. My phrase, “field reports,” underscores the difference between a history of critical taste and an internal history of critical thought. Of course, all critical work inhabits and is inhabited by its scholarly field and the history thereof. My claim goes farther. Some of the chapters that are based on published articles, contributions to edited collections, and lectures delivered at large conferences have had an influence on the developing field of Romantic studies. Moreover, because the procedure is, loosely speaking, longitudinal (where a population of primary texts, selected for their possession of certain properties, is subjected to regular trials over time), I have been able to turn that influence into a critical feedback loop, generating reflections on the very changes prompted by my own and likeminded work. Not just passively “of its moment(s)” and field, this is a study that, from beginning to end, draws its institutional and intellectual situation—regarded as, in the strongest sense, its condition of possibility—into its topical purview. Moreover,

it works its conditions of historical being into its method, converting the fact of that inescapable entanglement into a practice of immanent critique.12 To be sure (and, as is consistent with the foregoing claim), my understanding of both immanence and of critique has changed considerably through the years, but what has held constant is the goal of coordinating my epistemic premises and equipment with their historical moments. If there is any “wise passiveness”13 in this book, it lives in the recurrent relinquishment of earlier positions following their interrogation by the movements of critical, institutional, and general history. To be clear, if crude, the distinction is between an intellectual history conducted from within and a history of taste.

In other words, the feedback loop described above is not just a happy accident of what I called the longitudinal character of this study. Neither is it the sign of either an ethical or a subjective commitment to a practice of repeated self-study. Instead, the commitment is to the practice of historical materialism, which, following Perry Anderson’s isolation of the key feature of that practice, is not just a theory of history but also a history of theory. Here is Anderson’s fuller statement: historical materialism, “unlike all other variants of critical theory” (including those that try to factor into their development the “wider movement of history”), “differs in its ability—or at least its ambition—to compose a self-critical theory capable of explaining its own genesis and metamorphoses.” A self-critical theory is one that repeatedly plots its own “internal history, of cognitive blindnesses and impediments, as well as advances or insights” (emphasis his).14 At the same time, it coordinates this internal history with the changing field of external and objective determinations, just as it rediscovers its political objectives in “the real movement of things,” redefining those aims as required.15 Thinking through Poetry tells a tale neither of collective critical progress nor of individual enlightenment or intellectual Bildung (self-cultivation, education); it traces a deepening and widening spiral of dialectical thought, even— or especially—when it struggles to move beyond dialectics.

For a helpful contrast, consider The Limits of Critique (2015), Rita Felski’s excellent mapping of the discipline’s many turns over the past thirty years. The clarity of Felski’s survey (and her disabused view of “crrritique”) is a function not just of her critical acumen and her skill as both observer-participant and narrator, but also

12 For an extended treatment of this method, see Chapters 2 and 3. I intend a Sartrean resonance to my word, “situation”: that is, a degree of constraint or unfreedom (arising from the histories that are sedimented in the “practico-inert”) and at the same time, an opportunity for freedom to be realized within and against this particularized experience of intransigence. The situation is never a raw contingency nor is it utterly individual, despite its presentation as such to our awareness. Situation, as Sartre conceives it, is always an effect of collective human action in the past or present, which is to say, it represents a unification and totalization rather than a bare presentment. The term, “situation,” is prominent throughout Sartre’s writing, showing continuous evolution from Being and Nothingness (1948), through Critique of Dialectical Reason (1960). Situations is the title of the essay collection series (initially from Les Temps modernes) that Sartre began to compile and publish in 1947 with newly augmented editions appearing regularly during his life and posthumously as well (Situations IX, 1972 consisting of interviews from 1965–70).

13 Wordsworth, “Expostulation and Reply,” l. 24.

14 Perry Anderson, In the Tracks of Historical Materialism (London: Verso, 1983), 12, 14.

15 Ibid. 11.

of her overall retrospective and external stance.16 A view from the present is a view from above, and the advantages of that view for the purposes of mapping are obvious. The view throughout Thinking through Poetry is, however, neither presentist (the rear-view mirror gaze) nor radically historicist (viz., the fantasy of becoming one with the past so as to channel its own self-understanding). As explained most centrally in Chapter 2, the viewpoint in this book is, as I have indicated, conjunctural, in the manner described by Benjamin.17

The word “field” has a substantive dimension as well as a situational one. It names a conceptual impulse working through Part 1 and surfacing as an explicit topic in Part 2. (See Chapter 11 for the most concentrated treatment.) The diverse intellectual frameworks recruited throughout that section’s problem-solving exercises share a common goal: the attempt to displace both classical and intuitive pictures of subjects and objects, entities and environments, forms and histories, singularities and multiplicities, and causes and effects with models of dynamic, self-organizing, and recursive fields of spatial, temporal, and logical kinds. Thinking through Poetry, insofar as it is a series of field reports, reports on field-theories of a peculiarly “holistic but non-totalizing kind”18 developed in the study of ontogeny, dynamic systems theory, neurophysiology, set theory, evolutionary biology, physics, computer science, and (closer to home), textual studies.19

A third resonance intended by my subtitle is with the genre of ethnographic field-notes and its now customary attention to the mix of embeddedness and alienation obtaining between the cultural observer and her objects of study, as well as its discursive etiquettes for incorporating that awareness into its knowledge-claims.

16 Rita Felski, The Limits of Critique (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015), 117–50.

17 See also above, Pierre Macherey’s contrast of “moment” and “conjuncture”: In a Materialist Way: Selected Essays, trans Ted Stolze (London: Verso, 1998), 10.

18 William E. Connolly, A World of Becoming (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2011); “holistically but nontotalistically”: Mark Taylor, Moment of Complexity: Emerging Network Culture (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2001), 12; “a general science of wholeness, which until now was considered a vague, hazy, and semi-metaphysical concept”: Ludwig von Bertalanffy, quoted ibid. 140; “Unlike the idealistic holism that sees the whole as the embodiment of some ideal organizing principle, dialectical materialism views the whole as a contingent structure in reciprocal interaction with its own parts and with the greater whole of which it is a part. Whole and part do not completely determine each other”: Richard Levins and Richard C. Lewontin, The Dialectical Biologist (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985), 136.

19 See Chapter 11 for a field-theory model in the domain of textual studies, organizing the relationship between work, version, and text. For a sample of the language of fields, a conceptual paradigm that, in biology, dates to the late nineteenth and early-to-mid-twentieth century (e.g., William Bateson, D’Arcy Wentworth Thompson, Hans Driesch), consider this, from Brian Goodwin: “A field, that is, a spatial domain [in fact, on their own account, a spatio-temporal domain] in which every part has a separate structure determined by the state of the neighboring parts so that the whole has a specific relational structure. Any disturbance in the field results in a restoration of the normal relational order so that one whole spatial pattern is reconstituted.” See “Field Theory of Reproduction and Evolution,” Beyond Neo-Darwinism: An Introduction to the New Evolutionary Paradigm, ed. Mae-Wan Ho and Peter T. Saunders (London: Academic Press, 1984), 228. And from Gerry Webster and Goodwin: “Fields, conceived as dynamical systems and genetic or environmental factors, are supposed to determine parametric values in the equations which describe the structure of the field. Such factors therefore act to ‘select’ and stabilise one empirical form from the set of forms which are possible for that type of field.” See Form and Transformation: Generative and Relational Principles in Biology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 99.

Related to that, the phrase, “field reports,” is also a homage to one particular study that, like this one, actively invites the ethnographic reference. That study, self-published in Britain and unavailable commercially, online, or in my own research library or its regional consortium, came to my notice only after my all-but-finishing this book and thinking about its title. The serendipity is immensely gratifying. I refer to J. H. Prynne’s Field Notes: “The Solitary Reaper” and Others, a study that weaves the figure and concept of field into its form and content.

Prynne’s 134-page monograph takes as its sole study-text Wordsworth’s “The Solitary Reaper.” The title’s reference to that poem (which stands “single in the field” of Prynne’s monograph—“single,” but dispersed across it) and the poem’s own narrative prime us for a certain kind of critical practice: one that stops, looks, imagines, reflects, and then, “gently pass[es],”20 leaving the poem undamaged by the critic’s meddling intellect. Readers who recognize Prynne as a major contemporary poet are even more likely to anticipate what is sometimes called a poetic criticism, wherein a performative mimesis stands in for research and argument. On this reading, the “notes” referenced by Prynne’s title would be seen to imitate—“remediate” is the more precise term—the musical notes of the reaper and of the poem that itself remediates her song. Prynne’s study, framed by these expectations, promises a knowledge-form for our times, one that leaves only a modest footprint, setting no obstacle to overcome, no normative achievement for subsequent travelers anxiously or eagerly to reckon with, and involving no rebarbative critical gymnastics. Both title and format of Field Notes (a numbered format, gesturing toward both outline notes and textual footnotes) cue a descriptive, meditative, noninvasive practice of thinking with or literally alongside the poem (as in a marginal note or running commentary rather than a footnote) rather than about it—a procedure to which I will return.

Yet this is not at all what happens. Quite the contrary: Field Notes is a tour de force of intellectual curiosity, critical energy and edge, and wide, deep, erudition. The numbered notes that make up the text come from the field, or rather fields (they are legion) of academic, expert knowledge: general, cultural, and literary history as well as sociology, musicology, economics, and anthropology. Prynne works these scholarly fields as a professional, doing serious and exacting research as provoked by and brought home to textual particulars, and generating clear, sharp arguments about the workings and import of both primary and secondary texts. There is nothing of either the humble amateur or the facile dilettante about this labor—a labor of highly skilled and selective excavation, not gleaning. The academic fields mentioned above are the first-order “others” named in Prynne’s title, and, through that field work, second-order others, in the sense of nonfocal persons, come to fill the scene. Some of them belong to groups and categories that have formed the traditional subject matter of modern anthropology (figures from premodern or preindustrial cultures; or, contemporary instances of either incomplete modernity or marginality). As I said, however, many others who lack that primitivist

20 Wordsworth, “The Solitary Reaper,” Wordsworth’s Poetry and Prose, ed. Nicholas Halmi (New York: Norton, 2014), p. 411, l. 4.

cachet (i.e., high-cultural expert voices) also occupy the space of inquiry. Between these two groups of subjects and interlocutors, Prynne “chooses not choosing.”21

Finally, I use the word “field” in my subtitle to signal a caution that has long been foundational for students of hermeneutics (but that, with hermeneutics being in bad odor, has been forgotten or rejected outright). By analogy to a visual field, textual fields do not merely contain blind spots, they come into being in relation to some particular blindness, peculiar not to a person but to what I called above a situation (or, a conjuncture).22 Paradoxically, the existence of this blind spot (this seeing from a certain position that can itself never be fully seen, or not until one vacates the position) is the condition of seeing at all. If there is an ethical dimension to this book, this is its content—this stated and enacted insistence on the interdependent blindness and insight peculiar to one’s moment of writing. Recent challenges to this basic fact of cognition object to its presupposition of a textual “repressed”—a defining secret that calls forth and explains the text itself as nothing but the elision, masking, displacement, etc. of that deep truth. They also reject what they see as the presumption of epistemic superiority on the part of the critic. These challenges stem from a fundamental misunderstanding of the unconscious as defined throughout the psychoanalytic literature, beginning with Freud’s famous revision of his structural theory of mind into a dynamic account. On the dynamic account, the unconscious is not a deep truth trumping the false consciousness of consciousness itself. It is instead one element in a dynamic process through which different kinds and degrees of knowledge (more precisely, affective representations) are related to each other. The goal of analysis is, very precisely, the work or working of analysis, in the sense of generating this network of knowing in a context where, for the first time, it can be seen, seen as (in Wittgenstein’s phrase) one’s “form of life,”23 and therefore seen as potentially and to some extent changeable. The correct figure of speech for capturing this kind of seeing is not “penetrating” but “planar,” or better (on account of the dynamism of the term), “topological.”

21 This is Sharon Cameron’s title phrase for the thought-style of Emily Dickinson, in Choosing Not Choosing: Emily Dickinson’s Fascicles (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). For conceptually and procedurally kindred projects (i.e., critical experiments that combine searching and often technical research with procedural and aesthetic alignment, and sometimes mimesis, of values marking their object of study), see Branka Arsić, Passive Constitutions, Or, 7 ½ Times Bartleby (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007); Sharon Cameron, Thinking in Henry James (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), and Impersonality: Seven Essays (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009); T. J. Clark, The Sight of Death: An Experiment in Art Writing (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006); Anne-Lise François, Open Secrets: The Literature of Uncounted Experience (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008); Mary Jacobus, Romantic Things: A Tree, A Rock, A Cloud (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012); Jacobus, Reading Cy Twombly: Poetry in Paint (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2016). See also n. 9 above.

22 Conjuncture, from Althusser: “The central concept of the Marxist science of politics (cf. Lenin’s ‘current moment’); it denotes the exact balance of forces, state of overdetermination of the contradictions at any given moment to which political tactics must be applied.” Ben Brewster, Althusser Glossary, 1969. https://www.marxists.org/glossary/terms/althusser

23 “. the word ‘language-game’ is used here to emphasize the fact that the speaking of language is part of an activity, or of a form of life” (Philosophical Investigations, I: 23). Language functions due to “agreement not in opinions, but rather in form of life” (PI 241). https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ wittgenstein/#GramFormLife.

Thinking

through Poetry

Topology is the study of “properties of space that are preserved under continuous deformations, such as stretching, twisting, crumpling, and bending.” The only disallowed operation is tearing; everything must touch everything in the topological field.24 I prefer the term topological reading to surface reading for topology’s emphasis on the depth of the surface itself, when that two-dimensional manifold undergoes the kinds of deformation just described.25

Similarly, in Althusser’s extrapolation of psychic process to the realm of the social and political, ideology (that is, the scaled-up equivalent of the Freudian ego, or of consciousness itself, and, in terms of writing, counterpart to the textual surface) is the way that individuals live their relation to the Real, a Real that materializes, however, only in that relationship. Freud, Lacan, and Althusser firmly and repeatedly reject the notion of a Real (“metaphysics of presence”)26 that stands apart from and prior to this process of mediation, the name for this work of representation and realization. Denial, splitting, and projection, by contrast, are names for the defense mechanisms that generate the fantasy of an original, authorizing, and independent Real.

A related error is made by those who allege that suspicion reading claims epistemic superiority to its objects of study: namely, their own projection of a double-standard for literature and criticism. The inescapable logic of a “horizonal” (cf. Gadamer, “fusion of horizons”) and dialectical (blindness/insight) hermeneutics is that it applies to all genres of knowledge production, the scholarly and/or critical as well as the imaginative.27 Obviously, there are better and worse examples of the method—that is, reflexive and reductive ones—but that has nothing to do with the method’s validity. For Gadamer’s “horizonal” as a description of historically and causally intertwined interpretive constraints and opportunities, I would substitute “field.” In place of suspicion hermeneutics, we might posit a field-theory of reading.

3

Above, I designated Thinking through Poetry’s first source of coherence as a narrative arc. As already suggested, read in this way the book tracks a major shift in the study of British Romanticism, and, in parallel, it plots two distinctive phases in a developing project—a project pursued individually but in ways that have always had fellow travelers. The book’s section headings, explained below, signal this field-wide

24 Eric W. Weisstein, “Topology.” From MathWorld—A Wolfram Web Resource. http://mathworld. wolfram.com/Topology.html.

25 See Deleuze, Foucault, trans. Sean Hand (London: Bloomsbury, 1988): “Foldings, or the Inside of Thought (Subjectivation),” 78–101.

26 Originally used by Heidegger but associated with Derrida and poststructuralism more generally: roughly, the assumption of a grounding, self-identical presence or primacy anchoring representation.

27 Hans-Georg Gadamer, Truth and Method, 2nd edn. (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1989). See n. 33 below.

shift as it intersects with my own interests. Not surprisingly, given what I have already said, the shift (considered at both institutional and individual levels) pertains to concepts of materiality, especially as these concepts bear on ideas of nature and the human, agency and value, practice and theory. This shift offers itself to both subjective and objective description. The inner standpoint and the outer one complement each other rather than coinciding or coalescing into one.

I give to Part 1: Theory (Chapters 2–6) the subtitle “Materialism Against Itself” to signal a focus on the internal contradictions emerging from roughly a decade of historically materialist readings. The chapters in this section take their rhetorical point of departure (and, at a higher level of generality, their governing problem) from the debates that polarized critical agendas in the field of Romantic study beginning in the late 1980s and extending through to the early years of the new century. Formalism versus historicism is one such debate; humanist versus posthumanist orientations is another, as is what came to be called environmentalism versus ecopoetics (roughly, thematic versus formalist, and conservationist versus radically transformative approaches to nature thinking). At some level, all these debates worry the politics of knowledge; all wrestle with the dialectic of enlightenment28— too often, with no awareness of that fact. Is critical knowing a form of domination and absorption fundamentally opposed to the aesthetic impulse? Or, is it an agent of redemption, a release of the aesthetic from the frozen forms in which it has been encased? Does critique flatten (reduce and traduce) the artwork’s human dimension, or does it realize it, as only a recovery of the poem’s struggle with and against its original conditions of fallen social being can show? Rather than engage those debates from the outside (from either a parti pris position or a neutral stance), these chapters, which grew from ambivalence about and reflection on my own critical practice, internalize the arguments on both sides. They do not “teach the conflicts,” they enact them.29 In three cases in Part 1 (Chapters 2, 3, and 6) and two more in Part 2 (Chapters 7 and 8), I bring on Wordsworth poems as both practical demonstrations of these tensions and, more important, to anchor those tensions in the literature itself. It is not just we, in other words, who anguish such matters; the poetry itself (I would say, all the poetry we call Romantic when we use the term qualitatively rather than merely chronologically) stages these debates in its own concrete and situated terms (e.g., in its formal workings, arguments, reception histories, intertextuality, referential gestures, etc.). Because those terms are concrete and situated—because they are poetic terms—they provide a kind of traction that is not, I believe, available through critical reflection alone. In other words, the readings offered in these chapters are not illustrations, they are thinking through poems.

Described from an inner standpoint, Part 1 plots a confrontation with the contradictions organizing my own practice of historicism in the three books I had

28 The phrase entered intellectual life via Max Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno’s Dialectic of Enlightenment, trans. John Cumming (New York: Herder and Herder, 1972).

29 Gerald Graff, Beyond the Culture Wars: How Teaching the Conflicts Can Revitalize American Education (New York: W. W. Norton, 1992).

Thinking through Poetry

published in the late 1980s, the last of which, Keats’s Life of Allegory,30 was decisive for my move into a self-critical phase. My account of Keats’s relationship to the literary canon showed me something about the nature and origin of my own intellectual stance, by which I mean my attachment to a particular literature of knowledge and a particular literature of power. (I borrow De Quincey’s terms—Romantic terms—in order to underscore my unselfconscious identification with my objects of study.) The former—literature of knowledge—comprises the so-called “strong critics” of the 1960s and 1970s who had shaped my sense of Romantic poetry, its philosophical provenance, and its ideal theory-interlocutors in the present. The leading names in this group—a genuinely visionary company—are M. H. Abrams, Harold Bloom, Paul de Man, Northrop Frye, Geoffrey Hartman, and, in a different but equally charismatic way, David Erdman. By literature of power, I mean the poetry considered canonical for Romanticism in the 1970s, prior to the robust recovery of the poetry by women (cf. the Northeastern [formerly Brown] Women Writers Project)31 and to the full-blown interest in and access (typically, digital) to the period’s nonliterary writers (and to noncanonical constructs of literariness). In my reading of Keats’s style as classed and gendered in ways integral to its accomplishments, I glimpsed aspects of my own formation and of my investment in otherness and alienation. My picture of Keats mobilized a subject-form that fetishized those deficits and contradictions, capturing their productive energy by blocking the movement toward consummation and integration. With what aim? I inquired. To engender a kind of pleasant pain in the service of aesthetic and existential selffashioning, a process of “stationing” (Keats’s word)32 rather than mastering and transcending, a style that I associated with the middle class—middling station—of Keats’s day.

My allegorizing of Keats’s style rescued his own life of allegory33 and transformed its conditions of alienation into conditions of achievement. The hero of my allegory was writing itself, or writing under the conditions of modernity, with its power to double the negative and turn deficit into plenitude, hapless transgression into literary originality, everyday embarrassment into a high self-consciousness. Beyond the triumphalism, I felt the gender implications of the parallel between, on the one hand, the less-becomes-more, substitute-becomes-supplement devices I described as Keats’s solution to his central social dilemma and, on the other, the

30 Marjorie Levinson, Keats’s Life of Allegory: The Origins of a Style (New York: Basil Blackwell, 1988).

31 The Women Writers Project: http://www.wwp.northeastern.edu/.

32 In a comment on Paradise Lost, 7:420–3, Keats notes that Milton “is not content with simple description, he must station.” (Quoted in Ian Jack, Keats and the Mirror of Art (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967), 142.) In Keats’s Life of Allegory, I develop a link between the sculptural poise—a kind of moving arrest or motion without movement—noted by all who comment on Keats’s style and his project in social stationing.

33 Keats’s Life of Allegory had taken its title phrase from Keats’s letters, where, in the context of his reflections on Shakespeare, he writes “a Man’s life of any worth is a continual allegory. . Shakespeare led a life of Allegory; his works are the comments on it.” (Letters of John Keats: A Selection, ed. Robert Gittings (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1970), 218.) The book’s subtitle, Origins of a Style, meant to summon up and set as a critical model Fredric Jameson’s Sartre: The Origins of a Style (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1961).

logic subtending the many theory discourses that gave me my own critical grammar.34 With Keats, I argued, a difference culturally coded as lack (i.e., his unnatural, as it were, prosthetic access to the cultural tradition) gets made over into a signifier and simulacrum of presence. The gendering of this story that I traced in Keats suggested the historical and cultural overdetermination of my own ideas and methods (my own subject-position, or the one that I had made my own, to the extent that one chooses these things), prompting a searching and discomfiting review.

I looked back to my reading of Wordsworth, grasping the identification and idealization mixed into that effort as well. My Wordsworth, as opposed to the caricature I have been joined to (viz., my alleged denunciation of his personal and poetic integrity), was a paragon of authenticity, the exact opposite of the hypocrite I was said to depict. I argued no “choice” for Wordsworth, no easy escapism, and above all no bad faith (as in, erasing the compromising evidence of contemporary life and politics). What there was in the poetry and what I argued was representation, which, by the traditions cited above is always and by definition misrepresentation: “misprision,” as Harold Bloom put it.35 There was only “seeing,” within and by means of a structured field of vision. The seeing was unique to a position, not a person, or rather to a position embodied in a person at some time, in some place, and having those conceptual, affective, and discursive tools.36

34 I came to grasp that connection through Eric Santner’s Stranded Objects: Mourning, Memory, and Film in Postwar Germany (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990). This is the burden of his opening chapter (“Postwar / Post-Holocaust / Postmodern”) and it is sustained throughout the book: “ . . . this obsession with death, loss, and impoverishment is part of a larger, more properly postmodern project that is equally concerned with the resources of what one might call a playful nomadism. That is, these discourses of bereavement see in the harrowing labor of mourning one’s various narcissisms and nostalgias a source of empowerment, play, and even jouissance” (p. 11; and see pp. 16, 18, 19, 62). Also, p. 168, note 39: part of a long textual note on de Man’s juvenilia, where Santner offers this summary of Jonathan Culler’s commentary, viz., “that deconstruction, as a form of analysis dedicated to the disarticulation of what one had taken to be natural and inevitable, is that mode of Ideologiekritik which may best undo the narcissisms and nostalgias—and the totalitarian tendencies that ostensibly flow from them—informing the Western tradition.”

35 Harold Bloom, The Anxiety of Influence: A Theory of Poetry, 2nd edn. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997).

36 My understanding of blindness and insight as dialectically codependent came from Althusser’s cross-grained reading of Marx in For Marx, trans. Ben Brewster (London: Allen Lane, 1969), (with Étienne Balibar) Reading Capital, trans. Ben Brewster (London: NLB, 1970), and Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays, trans. Ben Brewster (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1971). I flagged that, but also expected readers to recognize the general shape of the epistemic claims, for Althusser was a theorist of our time, as defining as Derrida. A problematic is a field of vision, without which seeing/knowing cannot happen. By the same token, for those who see through that problematic—as in, by means of it—its outlines and workings are imperceptible. It is, simply, your way of seeing, your constitutive categories, invisible if you are inside them (which is to say, if they are inside you). This kind of understanding entered American literary criticism and took on a more technical, language-specific cast, through Paul de Man’s Blindness and Insight: Essays in the Rhetoric of Contemporary Criticism (NY: Oxford University Press, 1971).

Because this is an important point in itself (to wit, Felski’s recent account of “crrritique”) and key to the developing arc of this book, I take the risk of flogging a dead horse. The essay of mine that drew (and still draws) the most fire is “Insight and Oversight: Reading ‘Tintern Abbey,’ ” from Wordsworth’s Great Period Poems: Four Essays (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 14–57. The bulk of that essay went into parsing the poem’s problematic, reading it as consisting of folkways histories of the dissolution of the monasteries under Henry VIII, of Cartesian excluded middles, of anxieties about poetry and patronage in an age of free market print capitalism, and many other things. That was

Thinking through Poetry

Not only was my reading of Wordsworth not “damaging,” it was profoundly idealizing and humanizing (in that Hegelian-Romantic mode so gorgeously tracked through Abrams’ Natural Supernaturalism), delivering a figure of the capable poem, heroically conflicted, suffering the creative contradictions of its age and thereby dying into life.37 Wordsworth, on my reading, took on the look of a new Prometheus, to whom I repeated his own early words, that they might be integrated into the amassing harmony. Similarly, from this belated vantage, I saw how my study of the Romantic fragment as a historically distinctive (and historically expressive) poetic form not only redeemed the brokenness of those texts by a practice of recuperative reading, but credited them with a unity, coherence, closure, and achievement not just matching but surpassing the achievement of the well-wrought urn.38 Less was indeed more. Brushing against the grain ended up burnishing the glamor.

what the poem was about, I said; that was what shaped its sense of the still, sad music of humanity; that is what mediated its philosophic themes. “Mediation” was a key concept in the traditions of Hegelian Marxism and in the general discourse of materialist scholarship at the time. The doubleness of the term was not just understood but mobilized for critical purposes. Like the verb “to cleave,” “mediate” means both to divide and to connect. It means a “belonging-together-in-opposition,” a phrase coined by T. J. Clark (“Clement Greenberg’s Theory of Art,” Critical Inquiry 9 (1982) 139–56), and one that I borrowed at the time. The picture of the mind did not abolish the picture of the place; to the contrary, each brought the other into being. The pictures describe a dynamic relationship, not two separate items, exactly comparable to the way in which, as I say above, the Freudian unconscious is not a deep truth trumping the false consciousness of consciousness itself, but a process through which different kinds of knowledge are related to each other. Comparable also to Althusser’s notion of ideology as the way that individuals live their relation to the Real, a Real that becomes such only in that relationship, rather than standing outside of and prior to it. The subject of my reading was that relationship, that process of mediation—not the vagrants and the war, and not Wordsworth’s bad faith.

I will take this opportunity to speak even more clearly now than I did then, this time for a new generation of readers and to respond to a fairly recent critique. It does not matter if the river muck on the Wye commonly noted in the late 1790s came more from algae than from industry, or if the vagrants or the smoke happened to be in evidence on the day or at the hour that Wordsworth did his looking, any more than it matters for a reading of the “Eton College Ode” that fog might have obscured Gray’s view of Windsor Castle; or, for that matter, whether he wrote en plein air or not. Here is what matters: (a) what contemporary reports tell us about what could have been known or seen at that time, at that place, by persons so positioned. Because evidence of that kind is rarely uniform and never exhaustive, what also matters is (b) what we can know from historical and critical reconstruction, which, to the extent that it seeks to understand its materials, will show how inconsistent reports (such as oozy weeds vs. pollution from the coal furnaces along the Wye) can both be objective. Finally (and, I would say, first as well), what matters for the reconstruction of a problematic, or a field of seeing, is (c) what an artwork shows at a given moment in its reception history. I say “shows” rather than “tells,” “argues,” or “narrates” so as to underscore the fact that the expressive medium in question is the artwork’s form: its body-language, as distinct from its discursive dimensions. Does our reading of the form–content relationship make more of the poem make sense (i.e., does it add to the set of things that signify)? And does it make more sense of the poem, as in, a sense more precise, more vivid, more complex, more moving, more generative, more memorable, more intelligent, more liberating, etc.? Those three criteria are my test for historical validity in interpretation, not comparing one empirical record with another to see whose is bigger. See Charles J. Rzepka, “Pictures of the Mind: Iron and Charcoal, ‘Ouzy’ Tides and ‘Vagrant Dwellers’ at Tintern, 1798,” Studies in Romanticism 42 (2003), 155–85.

37 The phrase, “damaging reading” is from Morris Dickstein’s “Damaged Literacy: The Decay of Reading,” Profession (1993), 34–40.

38 Marjorie Levinson, The Romantic Fragment Poem: A Critique of a Form (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986).

What I learned in the aftermath of the Keats book was the error, which was also the truth of my readings (borrowing from Adorno, its own historical “commitment”): namely, that its concept of nature and the human, and of art and critique, came right out of the deepest arguments—I mean the formal arguments—of the poems themselves.39 Literature against and thereby for itself: writing agonistes, tempered in the crucible of its contradictions, strengthened by tactically deploying its weaknesses, perfected by giving itself over to the humanizing labor of reading. What was all this if not a lesson in the cunning of history, and topping that, the cunning of art, testifying to the human spirit, fashioning itself through and against its conditions of social and material being, at once negating and actualizing its reality principle and, in that complexity, achieving autonomy? This was the condition and the limit of my philosophy: this noble rider and the sound of words, this pressure of imagination rising up against and precisely calibrated to the pressure of its peculiar reality.40 In a fine new account of that moment, Simon Swift notes the “emphatic posture” that “once shaped a whole generation of readings of Romantic poems . . . highlight[ing] that generation’s claims for the activism of the critical act, its Orphean rescue of blocked or occluded voices.” (He notes critically as well the “vocabulary of restraint” circulating through today’s new reading, in this way making room for his own focus on an “indefinitely suspended horizontality” in both Wordsworth’s poetry and in the critic’s own posture.)41

Early in the Wordsworth book, I quoted a famous passage from Arnold’s essay on Wordsworth: “Wordsworth’s poetry . . . is inevitable, as inevitable as Nature herself. It might seem that Nature not only gave him the matter for his poem, but wrote his poem for him. He has no style.”42 I used the excerpt to show the transcendentalizing thrust of the long reception history and to challenge the seeming transparency (e.g., universality, disinterest, ahistoricity) of Wordsworth’s representation of nature and, in consequence, of the terms of his dialectic, “the mind of man and Nature.” The goal was to reanimate a corpus grown hugely abstract by showing the richly worked, complexly motivated, historically specific, and affectively charged character of its stylelessness.

Five years later, Arnold’s phrase—“as inevitable as Nature herself”—came back upon me, echoing with a strange new force. It amplified effects in Wordsworth’s poetry that I had certainly registered in the 1980s but always as instrumental to the existential and epistemic adventures of the poet-narrator figure: the “becoming-sovereign

39 Theodor Adorno, “Commitment,” New Left Review 1st series, 87–8 (Sept.–Dec. 1974), 75–89; and “On Lyric Poetry and Society,” Notes to Literature, trans. Shierry Weber Nicholsen (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), 1: 37–54. See Chapter 6, “What is New Formalism?,” 89, 94–5, 96–7. There is a double irony worth noting here: first, that my critique of my own new historicist criticism—an immanent critique of the commitments informing my working ideas and methods—goes deeper than the many attacks on it; and second, that surpassing historicism is the dialectically royal road to its preservation.

40 These phrases are from Wallace Stevens, The Necessary Angel (New York: Vintage Books, 1951, chapters 1 and 2.

41 Simon Swift, “Wordsworth and the Poetry of Posture,” English Literary History (forthcoming).

42 Levinson, Wordsworth’s Great Period Poems, 4.

Thinking through Poetry

subject” figure.43 This new alertness on my part was not, at this time, a response I connected with either general cultural sensitivity to or academic interest in environmental degradation and finitude. Instead, I traced it to the postclassical science research path I had already begun venturing on, where history got plotted on entirely different scales and timeframes from the order of politics, events, and cultural determinants and where the relation between form and history seemed both suppler and more concretely realized than in the Hegelian/Marxian models that had been key to my intellectual formation. (Prigogine and Stengers’s path-breaking work on self-directing chemical reactions was my introduction to this thoughtstyle.)44 Arnold’s phrase threw into relief not the big bow-wow poems (the “great” period-poems that I had treated in my book of that title), but the slighter, stranger, off-center poems from the same “great period.” It trained the spotlight not on the poet figure in these lyrical ballads but on the stony things in his way.45 Arnold’s coupling of “inevitable” with “nature” opened onto longer durées than those that had measured my sense of history, and it highlighted other human “natures” than those I had studied: more precisely, other ways of being human—not against or through nature, and not even in nature but rather, somehow (in ways I could not conceptualize) of nature.

I assimilated Arnold’s “inevitability” as indifference—a less fatalistic, less easily theologized, more neutral term, one that could accommodate history, albeit on a scale that seemed qualitatively to change the very idea of history.46 The phrase,

43 At the time, I had no framework for articulating states of quiet being—in Wordsworth’s own idealizing phrase, “wise passiveness”—without, like him, transvaluing that state of quiet being, which he explores from earliest days. Cf. “The Borderers”: “Action is transitory—a step, a blow, | The motion of a muscle—this way or that— | ’Tis done, and in the after-vacancy | We wonder at ourselves like men betrayed: | Suffering is permanent, obscure and dark, | And shares the nature of infinity.” The Poetical Works of William Wordsworth: Poems Written in Youth; Poems Referring to the Period of Childhood, ed. E. de Selincourt (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940), 188, ll. 1539–44.

44 Ilya Prigogine and Isabel Stengers, Order Out of Chaos: Man’s New Dialogue with Nature (New York: Bantam Books, 1984). In a self-directing chemical reaction, “there is no longer any universally valid law from which the overall behavior of the system can be deduced. Each system is a separate case; each set of chemical reactions must be investigated and may well produce a qualitatively different behavior” (pp. 144–5). Reactions of this kind occur in systems that are thermodynamically open to the environment and where non-equilibrium can become a source of order: Erich Jantsch, The SelfOrganizing Universe: Scientific and Human Implications of the Emerging Paradigm of Evolution (Oxford: Pergamon, 1980), 28. The authors propose that “processes associated with randomness, openness lead to higher levels of organization” and that “irreversible time” (that is, historicity in the working of physical law) is not a mere aberration but a characteristic of much of the universe (p. xxi).

45 While reviewing the copyedited MS of Thinking through Poetry, I attended the 2018 MLA Convention panel titled “Weak Environmentalism.” Three of the talks (by Jeffrey Jerome Cohen, Paul D’Amour, and Susan Wolfson) hitched their reflections (on a slow and sideways form of activism) to the figure of stone. All were superb, but I single out Wolfson’s “Stories in Stones” for its vantage on Wordsworth and its sensitive reading. Her gloss of the “mounting stone” in “The Old Cumberland Beggar” was one of several fine and moving illuminations of Wordsworth’s poetry.

46 Whereas events and conditions set the scale for my earlier sense of history, the time scale keying my later interest chimes with the temporality of Wordsworth’s Essays upon Epitaphs, 1: “It is a connection found through the subtle progress by which, in the natural and moral world, qualities pass insensibly into their contraries, and things revolve upon each other. As, in sailing upon the orb of this Planet, a voyage towards the regions where the sun sets, conducts gradually to the quarter where we have been accustomed to behold it come forth at its rising.” W. J. B. Owen and Jane Worthington, eds., The Prose Works of William Wordsworth (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1974), 2: 53.

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Per questo fatto fu arrestato per provocazione, condannato dal tribunale di semplice polizia ad un’ammenda, e dovette promettere, previa cauzione, di starsene quieto. Era una cosa così ridicola che egli stesso non potè fare a meno di riderne. Ma che scandalo nella stampa regionale! Vi si parlava con gravità del bacillo della violenza che infestava tutti coloro che abbracciavano il socialismo, e papà, nonostante la sua lunga vita pacifica, era citato come un esempio dello sviluppo di quel microbo della violenza. Più di un giornale insinuava che la mente di lui era indebolita per i troppi studî scientifici, e lasciava capire che si sarebbe dovuto chiuderlo in una casa di salute. E non erano parole vane: annunciavano un pericolo imminente. Fortunatamente, il babbo fu abbastanza intelligente per accorgersene. L’esperienza del vescovo Morehouse era stata una buona lezione, ed egli l’aveva ben capita. Non si mosse sotto quel diluvio di ingiustizie: e credo che la sua pazienza sorprendesse gli stessi nemici.

In seguito, fu la volta della nostra casa, la nostra vecchia abitazione. Fecero apparire una grossa ipoteca, e dovemmo abbandonare la nostra dimora. Naturalmente non c’era la minima ipoteca, e non c’era mai stata: tutto il terreno di costruzione era stato comperato e la casa pagata appena costruita, e casa e terreno erano sempre stati liberi da ogni vincolo. Ciononostante, fu creata un’ipoteca falsa, redatta e firmata regolarmente e legalmente, con le ricevute degli interessi versati durante un certo numero di anni. Il babbo non protestò. Come gli avevano rubato il danaro, gli rubavano ora la casa: così che non era possibile far ricorso. Il meccanismo della Società era nelle mani di coloro che avevano giurato di rovinare mio padre. Ma siccome, in fondo, era un filosofo, il babbo, ormai, non s’indignava più.

— Sono condannato ad essere schiacciato — mi diceva. — Ma non è questa una buona ragione perchè io non cerchi di essere fracassato il meno possibile. Le mie vecchie ossa sono fragili, e la lezione è stata per me un buon insegnamento. Lo sa Iddio se tengo a passare gli ultimi giorni in un manicomio.

Questo mi fa ricordare che non ho ancora raccontato la storia del vescovo. Ma prima devo dire del mio matrimonio. Siccome la sua importanza è pari a quella di tanti altri avvenimenti simili, così ne dirò solo due parole.

— Ora diventeremo veri proletarî — disse il babbo, quando fummo scacciati dalla vecchia casa. — Ho spesso invidiato al tuo futuro marito la perfetta conoscenza del proletariato; ma ora potrò osservare e rendermene conto direttamente.

Il babbo doveva avere nel sangue il desiderio dell’avventura, perchè considerava sotto questo aspetto la nostra catastrofe. Nè collera, nè amarezza potevano su di lui: era troppo filosofo e troppo semplice per essere vendicativo; e viveva troppo nel mondo dello spirito, per rimpiangere gli agi materiali che avevamo dovuto abbandonare. Quando andammo a stabilirci a San Francisco, in quattro miserabili camere del quartiere basso, al sud di Market Street, egli seguì la nuova via con la gioia e l’entusiasmo di un bimbo, però secondo la visione chiara e la vasta comprensione d’una mente di prim’ordine. Sfuggiva così a ogni cristallizzazione mentale e a ogni falso apprezzamento dei valori, giacchè quelli dichiarati tali dall’usanza o dalla convenzione, non avevano senso alcuno per lui; i soli che riconoscesse erano i fatti matematici e scientifici. Mio padre ero un essere eccezionale; aveva una mente ed un’anima come solo hanno i grandi uomini. In certi punti era perfino superiore a Ernesto, che era pertanto il più grande che io avessi mai conosciuto. Io pure provai qualche conforto in quel cambiamento di vita, e cioè la gioia di sfuggire all’ostracismo metodico e progressivo al quale eravamo sottoposti nella nostra città universitaria, coll’inimicizia della nascente oligarchia. A me pure quella vita nuova sembrò un’avventura, e la più grande di tutte, perchè era un’avventura d’amore. La nostra crisi finanziaria aveva affrettato il nostro matrimonio; cosicchè andai ad abitare come sposa il piccolo appartamento di Pell Street, nel quartiere basso di San Francisco. Ma di tutto ciò ecco quanto rimane: ho fatto felice Ernesto. Sono entrata nella sua vita agitata, non come un elemento di disordine,

ma come un coefficiente di pace e di riposo. Gli ho portato la calma: fu il mio dono d’amore per lui, e per me il sogno infallibile divenuto realtà. E per dimenticare miserie, o suscitar la luce della gioia in quei poveri occhi stanchi: ecco la mia gioia. E poteva essermi riservata una maggiore?

Quei cari occhi stanchi! Egli li prodigò sempre come pochi uomini hanno fatto, e spese tutta la sua vita per gli altri. Tale fu la misura della sua virilità. Era un umanitario, una creatura di amore. Con la sua mente battagliera, il suo corpo di gladiatore, e il suo genio d’aquila, era dolce e tenero con me, come un poeta, ma un poeta che viveva i suoi canti nell’azione. Fino alla morte cantò la canzone umana, la cantò per puro amore di questa umanità per la quale diede la sua vita e fu crocifisso.

E tutto questo, senza la minima speranza d’un premio futuro. Nella sua concezione del mondo, non c’era possibilità di vita futura. Egli, che fiammeggiava d’immortalità, la negava a se stesso; e quest’era il più gran paradosso della natura. Quello spirito ardente era dominato dalla filosofia nera e fredda del monismo materialista. Quando tentavo di confutare le sue idee, dicendogli che vedevo la sua immortalità nel volo della sua anima, e che mi occorrevano secoli, per conoscerla a fondo, egli rideva, e le sue braccia si stendevano a me, e mi chiamava la sua dolce metafisica, e ogni stanchezza spariva dai suoi occhi; io intravedevo in essi quella fiamma d’amore che, da sola, era una nuova e sufficiente affermazione della sua immortalità.

Altre volte mi chiamava la sua cara dualista e mi spiegava il modo come Kant, per mezzo della ragione pura, aveva abolito la ragione per adorare Dio. Stabiliva un parallelo, e mi accusava di seguire lo stesso procedimento. E quando, colpevole, difendevo quella maniera di pensare perchè profondamente razionale, egli mi stringeva solo più forte e rideva come solamente potrebbe farlo un amante eletto da Dio.

Rifiutavo di ammettere che la sua originalità e il suo genio fossero spiegabili secondo l’eredità e l’ambiente, o che gli aridi tentativi della

scienza riuscissero ad afferrare, analizzare e classificare la fuggevole essenza che si nasconde nella formazione stessa della vita. Sostenevo che lo spazio è un’apparenza obbiettiva di Dio, e l’anima una proiezione della sua natura soggettiva.

E quando Ernesto mi chiamava la sua dolce metafisica, io lo chiamavo il mio immortale materialista; e ci amavamo ed eravamo pienamente felici. Io gli perdonavo il suo materialismo in grazia dell’opera immensa compiuta nel mondo senza darsi pensiero del progresso personale; in grazia anche di quell’eccessiva modestia spirituale che gli impediva di insuperbire e perfino di avere coscienza del suo animo veramente eccezionale.

Pertanto aveva una sua particolare fierezza. Come potrebbe non averla un’aquila? «Sentirsi divino», diceva, «sarebbe bello in un dio, senza dubbio; ma non è ancora meglio nell’uomo, molecola infima e destinata a perire?». In questo modo esaltava se stesso e proclamava la sua mortalità. Si compiaceva di declamare alcuni brani di un poema che non aveva letto per intero, e del quale non aveva mai potuto sapere l’autore.

Trascrivo questo brano, non solo perchè egli lo prediligeva, ma perchè è una prova del temperamento paradossale di lui. L’uomo che recitava, fremendo d’entusiasmo, i versi seguenti, poteva essere solo un po’ di fango inconsistente, un’energia fuggitiva e una forma effimera?

Gioie e gioie di meglio in meglio[74]

Mi sono destinate dalla nascita

E voglio gridare con tutte le forze

Dei miei giorni luminosi l’elogio

Fino all’estremo limite del tempo; Dovessi soffrire ogni morte umana.

Almeno avrò bevuto, fino a perderne il respiro

E avrò vuotato il mio calice ricolmo

Del vino delle mie gioie, in ogni tempo e in ogni luogo

Avrò assaporato tutto: la femminilità dolce

E il sale del potere, e l’orgoglio e la sua spuma.

Berrò pure la feccia in ginocchio, perchè l’emozione

Della bevanda è buona e mi dà il desiderio

Di bere alla morte, di bere alla vita;

Quando un giorno la mia vita sarà tolta

Passerò il mio calice nelle mani di un altro io.

L’essere che tu scacciavi dal giardino di delizia

Ero io, Signore! Ero là bandito,

E quando crolleranno i vasti edifici

Della terra e del cielo, sarò là, benedetto,

In un mondo mio, di profonda bellezza,

In un mondo ove sono i nostri cari dolori,

Dal primo grido del bimbo che nasce

Alle nostre sere di amore, alle nostre notti di desiderio.

Il mio sangue generoso e tiepido è un’onda

Dove batte il polso d’un popolo increato ma reale:

Sempre agitato dal desiderio di un mondo

Spegnerebbe il fuoco del tuo inferno crudele.

Sono l’uomo! umano per la mia carne tutta

E per lo splendore dell’anima nuda e fiera

Dalla mia tiepida notte nel grembo materno

Fino al ritorno fecondo del mio corpo in polvere.

Questo mondo, ossa delle nostre ossa, e carne della nostra carne

Sobbalza al ritmo, sul quale suoniamo la nostra canzone,

E dall’Eden maledetto la sete insaziata

Fino alle sue profondità sconvolge la vita.

Quando avrò vuotato la mia coppa di miele

Di tutti i raggi luminosi del suo arcobaleno,

L’eterno riposo d’una notte senza fine

Non basterà a soffocare il mio sogno.

Ernesto si occupò troppo, tutta la sua vita. Era sostenuto solo dalla robusta costituzione che, però, non cancellava la stanchezza dello

sguardo. I suoi cari occhi stanchi! Non dormiva più di quattro ore e mezza per notte, e nonostante questo, non trovava mai il tempo di fare tutto quello che avrebbe dovuto. Neppure un istante interruppe la sua opera di propaganda: ed era sempre impegnato in anticipo, per le conferenze da tenere alle organizzazioni operaie. Poi venne la campagna elettorale alla quale si dedicò quanto è umanamente possibile. La soppressione delle case editrici socialiste lo privò del frutto dei suoi diritti di autore, e lo affaticò molto per trovare da vivere: perchè, oltre tutti gli altri lavori, doveva darsi da fare per guadagnarsi la vita. Traduceva molto per delle riviste scientifiche e filosofiche; rincasava tardi la notte, già stanco per la lotta elettorale, e si dedicava a quella occupazione fino alle prime ore del mattino. E sopratutto coltivava i suoi studi! Li continuò fino alla morte; e studiava pazzamente.

Nonostante questo, trovava il tempo di amarmi e farmi felice. Io fondevo tutta la mia vita con la sua. Imparai la stenografia e la dattilografia e diventai la sua segretaria. Mi diceva spesso che ero riuscita ad alleggerirlo di metà del lavoro; e io mi misi di nuovo ad imparare per capire bene le sue opere. Ci interessavamo l’uno all’altro, lavoravamo insieme e giocavamo insieme.

E poi avevamo i minuti di tenerezza rubati al lavoro; una semplice parola, una rapida carezza, uno sguardo d’amore; e questi minuti erano tanto più dolci, quanto più furtivi. Vivevamo sulle cime, dove l’aria è viva e frizzante, dove l’opera si compie per umanità, dove non potrebbe respirare il sordido egoismo. Amavamo l’amore, che per noi si coloriva delle tinte più belle. È certo, insomma che non ho fallito il mio scopo. Ho dato un po’ di riposo a quella creatura che si affaticava tanto per gli altri, ho dato la gioia al mio caro mortale dagli occhi stanchi!

IL VESCOVO.

Poco tempo dopo il mio matrimonio, ebbi la sorpresa d’incontrare il vescovo Morehouse. Ma devo raccontare i fatti con ordine.

Dopo il suo sfogo nell’adunanza del I.P.H., il venerando e dolce prelato, cedendo alle insistenze dei suoi amici, era partito in vacanza, ma era ritornato più deciso che mai a predicare il messaggio della Chiesa. Con grande costernazione de’ suoi fedeli, la sua prima predica fu in tutto e per tutto simile al discorso che aveva pronunziato davanti all’Assemblea. Ripetè, con numerosi esempi e pericolosi particolari, che la Chiesa si era smarrita allontanandosi dagli insegnamenti del Maestro, e che il vitello d’oro era stato inalzato al posto di Cristo.

Finì che, per amore o per forza, fu condotto in una casa di salute privata, mentre i giornali pubblicavano articoli patetici sulla sua crisi mentale, lodando la santità del suo carattere. Entrato nel sanatorio, vi fu tenuto prigioniero. Mi presentai più volte, ma mi si rifiutò sempre di lasciarmelo avvicinare. Fui impressionata tragicamente per la sorte di quel sant’uomo, assolutamente sano di corpo e di mente, schiacciato dalla volontà brutale della Società. Giacchè il vescovo era un essere normale, quanto puro e nobile. Come diceva Ernesto, la sua sola debolezza dipendeva da un’erronea conoscenza della biologia e della sociologia, così che non aveva saputo scegliere bene il modo per presentare le cose secondo il giusto valore.

Ciò che mi esasperava, era l’impotenza a difendersi di quel dignitario della Chiesa. Se continuava a proclamare la verità così come la

vedeva, era condannato all’internamento perpetuo; e ciò senza poter protestare. Nè il suo patrimonio, nè la sua posizione, nè la coltura potevano salvarlo. Le sue idee costituivano un pericolo per la Società, la quale non poteva concepire che delle conclusioni così pericolose potessero emanare da uno spirito sano: a giudicare dall’attitudine generale.

Ma il vescovo, che, sebbene mite e d’animo puro non mancava di acume, capì chiaramente i pericoli della sua situazione, si vide preso in una rete, e cercò di scappare. Non potendo contare sull’aiuto dei suoi amici, come quello che papà, Ernesto ed io gli avremmo volentieri dato, era ridotto a lottare con le sue sole risorse. Nella solitudine forzata del sanatorio, riprese coscienza di sè; ricuperò la salute. I suoi occhi cessarono di contemplare le visioni; la sua mente si purgò della fantastica idea che il dovere della società fosse quello di nutrire le pecorelle del Signore.

Come già detto, diventò sano, pienamente sano, e i giornali e la gente di chiesa salutarono il suo ritorno, con gioia. Assistetti ad una celebrazione. La predica fu dello stesso tenore di quelle tenute un tempo, prima del suo accesso di visionario. Ne fui delusa e scossa.

La lezione inflittagli l’aveva forse ridotto all’obbedienza? era dunque un vile? aveva abiurato per paura? Oppure la pressione era stata troppo forte, ed egli si era lasciato schiacciare dal carro di Juggernaut[75] , dell’ordine stabilito?

Andai a visitarlo nella sua meravigliosa abitazione: lo trovai tristemente mutato, dimagrito, col volto solcato da rughe, come non lo avevo veduto mai. Fu chiaramente sconcertato dalla mia visita. Parlando, si tirava nervosamente le maniche della veste; i suoi occhi inquieti giravano da tutte le parti per evitare i miei; la sua mente sembrava preoccupata; la conversazione, interrotta da pause strane, da bruschi cambiamenti di soggetto, era così incoerente, da imbarazzare. Era proprio l’uomo calmo e sicuro di sè che avevo un tempo paragonato a Cristo, con i puri occhi limpidi, lo sguardo diritto, senza debolezza, come la sua anima?

Era stato maneggiato dagli uomini, e da essi domato; il suo spirito era troppo mite; non era abbastanza forte per far fronte alla società organizzata.

Mi sentivo invasa da una tristezza indicibile. Le sue spiegazioni erano equivoche, egli paventava tanto visibilmente ciò che io avrei potuto dire, che non ebbi cuore di rivolgergli la minima domanda. Mi parlò della sua malattia con abbandono; parlammo apertamente della Chiesa, delle riparazioni dell’organo, e delle scarse opere di carità. Alla fine, mi vide partire, con tale piacere, che ne avrei riso se il mio cuore non fosse stato gonfio di lacrime.

Povero debole eroe. Se avessi saputo, però! Egli combatteva come un gigante, e non ne dubitavano nemmeno. Solo, interamente solo in mezzo a milioni di suoi simili, combatteva a modo suo. Sospeso fra l’orrore del manicomio e la sua fedeltà verso la verità e la giustizia, si aggrappava disperatamente a quest’ultima ma era così solo che non aveva neppure osato fidarsi di me. Aveva imparato troppo bene la lezione!

Non passò molto, che rimasi invece edificata. Un bel giorno il vescovo sparì, senza aver avvertito nessuno della sua partenza. Le settimane passavano senza che tornasse: corsero sul suo conto molte dicerìe; si disse persino che si era ucciso in un accesso di pazzia. Ma queste voci tacquero quando si seppe che aveva venduto tutto quello che possedeva, la sua casa in città, quella di campagna, a Menlo Park, i suoi quadri e le collezioni artistiche e perfino la sua cara biblioteca. Aveva, evidentemente, liquidato tutti i suoi beni segretamente, prima di partire.

Tutto questo accadde mentre eravamo noi pure in preda alle disgrazie. Solo quando fummo stabiliti nella nuova casa, avemmo il tempo di chiedere di lui. Improvvisamente tutto si chiarì.

Una sera, sull’imbrunire, mentre c’era ancora un po’ di chiaro, attraversai la strada per comperare delle costolette per la cena di Ernesto. Perchè, nel nostro nuovo ambiente, chiamavamo cena l’ultimo pasto del giorno.

Proprio mentre uscivo dal macellaio, un uomo varcava la soglia della drogheria vicina, che faceva angolo con la strada. Uno strano sentimento di familiarità mi spinse a guardarlo meglio. Ma l’uomo aveva già voltato l’angolo, e camminava frettolosamente. C’era, nell’insieme delle spalle e nella corona dei capelli argentei che si intravedevano fra il colletto e il cappello dall’ala rialzata, un non so che, che risvegliava in me vaghi ricordi. Anzichè riattraversare la via, seguii quell’uomo. Affrettai il passo, cercando di contenere le idee che si formavano, involontariamente, nella mia mente. No, era impossibile, non poteva essere lui, vestito a quel modo, con un vestito di tela usata, coi calzoni troppo lunghi, sfilacciati in fondo.

Mi fermai, ridendo di me stessa, e sul punto di abbandonare quel folle inseguimento. Ma quella schiena e quei capelli d’argento mi erano troppo noti. Lo raggiunsi, e, sorpassandolo, gettai uno sguardo di sbieco, sul suo viso, poi mi voltai bruscamente e mi trovai a faccia a faccia con «il vescovo».

Anch’egli si fermò pure bruscamente, attonito. Un grande sacco di tela che aveva in mano cadde sul marciapiede rompendosi, e una grande quantità di patate si sparse ovunque. Mi guardò con sorpresa e spavento, poi, sembrò vinto: le sue spalle si abbassarono ed egli trasse un profondo sospiro.

Gli stesi la mano, egli la prese; la sua era madida. Tossiva con aria imbarazzata, e la sua fronte s’imperlava di grosse gocce di sudore. Evidentemente, era molto turbato.

— Le patate — mormorò con voce spenta — sono preziose! — Le raccattammo e le rimettemmo nel sacco rotto, che egli teneva, ora, con cura, nel cavo del gomito.

Cercai di fargli capire quanto fossi felice di rivederlo, e l’invitai a venire subito a casa con me.

— Papà sarà contento di vedervi — gli dissi. — Abitiamo a due passi da qui.

— Impossibile — rispose. — Devo andarmene, arrivederci. — Si guardò attorno con aria inquieta, come se temesse di essere

riconosciuto e fece l’atto d’incamminarsi. Poi, vedendomi decisa a seguirlo, per non perderlo di vista, aggiunse:

— Datemi il vostro indirizzo, e verrò a trovarvi più tardi.

— No — risposi con fermezza. — Bisogna venire subito.

Egli guardò il sacchetto delle patate che gli dondolava dal braccio e i pacchetti che aveva nell’altra mano.

— Sinceramente, non posso — disse. — Scusate la mia scortesia. Se sapeste!

Credetti che cedesse alla mia emozione, ma un istante dopo era ritornato padrone di sè.

— E poi ci sono queste vettovaglie — continuò. — Si tratta di un caso pietoso, terribile. Si tratta di una vecchia donna, alla quale devo portare subito questo. Ha fame, bisogna che corra da lei. Capite? Verrò dopo. Ve lo prometto.

— Lasciatemi venire con voi — dissi. — È lontano?

Sospirò e cedette alla mia domanda.

— Ancora due file di case, più in là — disse. — Affrettiamoci.

Accompagnata dal vescovo, feci la conoscenza del quartiere in cui abitavo. Non avrei mai supposto che contenesse delle miserie così grandi! Naturalmente, la mia ignoranza proveniva dal fatto che non mi occupavo di carità. Ero convinta che Ernesto avesse ragione quando paragonava la beneficenza a un cauterio su una gamba di legno, e la miseria ad un’ulcera che bisognava levare, invece di mettervi su un impiastro. Il suo rimedio era semplice. Dare all’operaio il prodotto del suo lavoro, ed una pensione a coloro che sono invecchiati lavorando; e non ci sarà più bisogno di elemosine. Persuasa della bontà di questo ragionamento, io cospiravo con lui per la rivoluzione, e non spendevo la mia energia per sollevare le miserie sociali che nascono, costantemente, dall’ingiustizia del sistema sociale.

Seguii il vescovo in una piccola camera, lunga dodici piedi e larga dieci. Vi trovammo una povera vecchietta tedesca, di sessantaquattro anni, a quanto mi disse. Essa fu sorpresa di vedermi, ma mi fece un cenno cordiale senza smettere di cucire un paio di calzoni da uomo, che teneva sulle ginocchia. In terra, vicino a lei, ce n’erano una quantità di simili. Il vescovo, accortosi che non c’erano più nè legna nè carbone, uscì per comperarne.

— Sei cents, signora — disse, scotendo leggermente la testa, seguitando a cucire. Cuciva lentamente, ma senza smettere un istante. La sua consegna sembrava questa: cucire, cucire ancora, sempre cucire.

— Per tutto questo lavoro, pagano sei cents? — chiesi stupita. Quanto tempo vi impiegate?

— Sì, tanto mi danno, — rispose. — Sei cents per la finitura, e ciascuno richiede due ore di lavoro. Ma il padrone non sa questo — soggiunse vivamente, lasciando trasparire il timore di avere delle noie. — Non sono svelta: ho i reumi alle mani. Le giovani sono molto più abili di me: impiegano metà del tempo, per finire ogni pezzo.

«L’imprenditore è un brav’uomo: mi lascia portare il lavoro a casa, ora che sono vecchia e il rumore delle macchine mi stordisce. Se non fosse così gentile, morrei di fame...

«Sì, quelle che lavorano all’officina hanno otto cents. Ma che volete? Non c’è abbastanza lavoro per le giovani, e non si ha bisogno delle vecchie!... Spesso ho solo un paio di calzoni da finire; a volte, come oggi, ne ho otto da finire prima di notte.

Le chiesi quante ore lavorasse, e mi disse che dipendeva dalla stagione.

— In estate, quando le ordinazioni affluiscono, lavoro dalle cinque del mattino fino alle nove di sera. Ma d’inverno fa troppo freddo, non riesco a sgranchirmi le mani. Allora bisogna lavorare di più, qualche volta fin dopo la mezzanotte.

«Sì, la stagione estiva è stata cattiva. I tempi sono duri. Il buon Dio deve essere in collera. È il primo lavoro che il padrone mi abbia dato in tutta la settimana. E non si può mangiare molto quando non c’è lavoro! Ma sono abituata. Ho cucito tutta la vita; nel mio vecchio paese, un tempo, poi qui, a San Francisco, da trent’anni...

«Quando si può guadagnare il denaro per l’alloggio, tutto va bene. Il proprietario è molto buono, ma pretende l’affitto alla scadenza. Vuole solo tre dollari per questa camera. Non è caro. Eppure, ci si affatica a mettere insieme tre dollari tutti i mesi!

S’interruppe, senza smettere di cucire, tentennando il capo.

— Dovete limitare molto le vostre spese, dato il guadagno. Essa fece un cenno di approvazione.

— Quando ho pagato l’affitto, non c’è male. Naturalmente non posso comperare la carne, nè il latte per il caffè. Ma faccio sempre un pasto al giorno, e qualche volta due.

Aveva pronunziato le ultime parole con una punta di orgoglio, con un vago senso di vittoria. Ma mentre continuava a cucire in silenzio, vidi addensarsi ne’ suoi occhi buoni, una grande tristezza, e gli angoli della bocca abbassarsi. Il suo sguardo vagava lontano. Poi pulì vivamente i vetri appannati che non le permettevano di vedere bene.

— No, non è la fame che mi spezza il cuore, — spiegò. — Ci si abitua. Piango per mia figlia, uccisa dall’officina. È vero che lavorava molto, ma non posso capire come abbia potuto morire, perchè era robusta. Era giovane, aveva solo quarant’anni, e lavorava da trent’anni. Aveva cominciato presto, è vero, ma mio marito era morto, per lo scoppio di una caldaia. Che potevamo fare? Aveva solo dieci anni, ma era molto sviluppata, per la sua età. E la macchina da cucire l’ha uccisa; lei che lavorava più presto di tutte le altre. Ho pensato tanto a questo, e so tutto, perciò non posso più andare all’officina: la macchina da cucire mi fa male, mi pare che mi dica: l’ho uccisa io, l’ho uccisa io! Canta questo ritornello tutto il giorno. Allora penso a mia figlia e non posso assolutamente lavorare.

I suoi occhi stanchi si erano velati di nuovo, e dovette asciugarli prima di riprendere il lavoro.

Intesi il vescovo inciampare lungo la scala, ed aprii la porta. In quale stato era! Portava sulle spalle un mezzo sacco di carbone, e, sopra, della legna. Il suo viso era coperto di fuliggine, e il sudore, dovuto allo sforzo che egli faceva, gli sgocciolava dalla fronte. Lasciò cadere il carico in un angolo vicino alla stufa, e si asciugò la faccia con un fazzoletto di tela grossolana. Stentavo a credere ai miei occhi. Il Vescovo, nero come un carbonaio, aveva una camicia di cotone, a buon mercato, alla quale mancava perfino un bottone, e un abito simile a quello dei facchini. Era quanto di più incongruo vi potesse essere, nel suo insieme, quel vestito sdrucito in fondo, e trattenuto alla vita da una cintura di cuoio.

Se però il vescovo aveva caldo, le mani gonfie della povera vecchia, erano intirizzite dal freddo. Prima di lasciarla, il vescovo accese il fuoco, mentre io sbucciavo le patate e le mettevo a bollire. Dovevo imparare poi, col tempo, che c’erano molti casi simili al suo, e molti anche peggiori nascosti nelle orribili profondità delle case del quartiere. Rientrando, trovammo Ernesto in pensiero per la mia assenza. Passata la prima sorpresa dell’incontro, il vescovo si sdraiò in una poltrona, allungò le gambe coperte di tela azzurra, e mandò, certamente, un sospiro di sollievo. Eravamo, disse, i primi tra i suoi vecchi amici che rivedesse dopo la sua partenza: durante le ultime settimane, la solitudine gli era pesata enormemente. Ci raccontò molte cose, ma soprattutto espresse la gioia che provava nel compiere i precetti del suo Divino Maestro.

— Perchè ora veramente, — disse. — nutro le Sue pecorelle. Ed ho imparato una gran cosa: non si può curare l’anima finchè lo stomaco non è soddisfatto. Le pecorelle devono essere nutrite con pane e burro, patate e carne; solo in questo modo le loro menti sono pronte a ricevere un nutrimento elevato.

Mangiò volentieri il pranzo che avevo fatto cuocere. Non aveva mai avuto tanto appetito, alla nostra mensa. Parlammo dei giorni passati,

ed egli ci dichiarò che in vita sua non era mai stato tanto bene come nella sua nuova condizione.

— Vado sempre a piedi, ora. — disse, e arrossì al ricordo del tempo in cui scorrazzava in vettura, come se fosse stato un peccato difficile a farsi perdonare.

— La mia salute è buonissima, — aggiunse vivamente, — e sono felicissimo, veramente felicissimo. Ora, finalmente, ho coscienza di essere un eletto del Signore.

Eppure, il suo viso serbava un’impronta continua di tristezza, perchè ora si era caricato dei dolori del mondo. Vedeva la vita sotto una luce cruda ben diversa da come l’aveva intravista nei libri della sua biblioteca.

— E siete voi il responsabile di tutto questo, giovanotto, — disse rivolto ad Ernesto.

Questi sembrò imbarazzato e seccato.

— Vi avevo... vi avevo avvertito — balbettò.

— Non avete capito, — rispose il vescovo. — Non è un rimprovero, ma un ringraziamento che vi faccio. Vi sono grato d’avermi mostrato la mia vita. Dalle teorie sulla vita, mi avete condotto alla vita stessa. Avete squarciato i veli, e strappato le maschere. Avete portato la luce nella mia notte, ed ora io pure vedo la luce del giorno. E sono felice, a parte... — esitò dolorosamente, e come un velo di sofferenza gli oscurò lo sguardo, — tranne questa persecuzione. Non faccio male a nessuno. Perchè non mi lasciano in pace? Ma non si tratta neppure di questo, ma soprattutto del genere di persecuzione. Accetterei persino di essere scorticato sotto la sferza, bruciato su una graticola, o crocifisso con la testa in giù: ma il manicomio: mi spaventa! Pensate: in una casa di pazzi! È ripugnante! Ho veduto qualche caso, al sanatorio; erano pazzi furiosi. Mi si gela il sangue al solo pensarci. Essere rinchiusi per tutta la vita, fra urli e scene violenti! No, no, questo sarebbe troppo!...

Era commovente: le mani gli tremavano: tutto il corpo rabbrividiva e si contraeva, al pensiero della scena evocata. Ma ben presto riacquistò la calma.

— Scusatemi, — disse semplicemente, — sono i miei nervi. E se a tanto dovesse condurmi il servizio di Dio, sia fatta la Sua volontà. Chi sono mai, per avere il diritto di lagnarmi?

Guardandolo, quasi esclamavo: «Oh! grande e buon pastore, eroe! eroe di Dio!»

Durante la sera, ci diede nuovi schiarimenti sui suoi fatti e sulle sue gesta.

— Ho venduto la mia casa, o meglio le mie case, e tutti i miei possedimenti. Sapevo di doverlo fare di nascosto, altrimenti mi avrebbero preso tutto. Sarebbe stato terribile. Sono spesso meravigliato, per la gran quantità di patate, pane, carne, carbone e legna che si può comperare con una somma che va dai due ai trecentomila dollari.

E si rivolse a Ernesto:

— Avete ragione, giovanotto: il lavoro è pagato con un prezzo molto inferiore al suo valore. Non ho mai fatto il più piccolo lavoro in vita mia, tranne quello di esortare i farisei. Credevo di predicar loro il messaggio divino... e valevo mezzo milione di dollari. Non sapevo ciò che significasse quella somma prima d’aver visto quante vettovaglie si potessero con essa comperare. Allora ho capito qualche cosa di più: ho capito che tutti quei prodotti mi appartenevano, e che non avevo fatto mai niente per produrli. Mi sembrò chiaro, allora, che altri avevano lavorato per produrli e ne erano stati spogliati poi. E quando scesi in mezzo ai poveri, trovai coloro che erano stati derubati, coloro che erano affamati e miserabili in seguito a tale furto.

Lo riconducemmo alla sua storia.

— Il denaro? L’ho depositato in molte banche diverse e con nomi diversi. Non potranno mai togliermelo, perchè non lo scopriranno

mai. Ed è tanto utile il danaro! Serve per comperare tanti cibi! Ignoravo completamente, un tempo, a che cosa potesse servire il denaro!

— Vorrei averne un poco per la propaganda, — disse Ernesto, pensoso; — potrebbe fare molto bene.

— Lo credete? — disse il vescovo. — Non ho molta fiducia nella politica: temo di non capire nulla in materia. Ernesto era molto delicato in simili casi. Non insistette, quantunque vedesse chiaramente le difficili condizioni nelle quali si dibatteva il partito socialista, per mancanza di fondi.

— Vivo in una camera a buon mercato, — continuò il vescovo, ma ho sempre paura, e non sto a lungo nello stesso posto. Ho pure in affitto due camere in case operaie, in quartieri diversi della città. È un’originalità, lo so, ma è necessario fare così. Rimedio in parte cucinando da me; ma a volte trovo da mangiare per poco, nei caffè popolari. Ed ho fatto una scoperta, ossia, che i «Tamales»[76] sono eccellenti quando fa fresco, la sera. Soltanto, sono cari; ho scoperto una casa dove se ne possono avere tre per dieci soldi; non sono buoni come negli altri caffè ma riscaldano ugualmente. Ed ecco finalmente trovata la mia missione nel mondo, e lo debbo a voi, giovanotto. Questa missione è quella del mio Divino Maestro.

Mi guardò, con occhi lucenti:

— Voi mi avete sorpreso mentre stavo nutrendo una pecorella, lo sapete: naturalmente, manterrete il segreto, tutti e due.

Diceva questo con tono disinvolto che rivelava però, in fondo, un vero timore. Promise di ritornare da noi.

Ahimè! la settimana dopo, i giornali c’informavano del triste caso del vescovo Morehouse che era stato rinchiuso in un manicomio di Napa; pareva, però, che il suo stato lasciasse qualche speranza.

Inutilmente cercammo di vederlo, inutilmente facemmo pratiche perchè fosse sottoposto a un nuovo esame, o perchè il suo caso fosse oggetto di un’inchiesta. Non potemmo aver altre notizie di lui,

se non replicate dichiarazioni che non bisognava assolutamente contare sulla sua guarigione.

— Cristo aveva ordinato al giovanetto ricco di vendere tutto ciò che possedeva, — disse Ernesto con amarezza. — Il Vescovo ha ubbidito al comando, ed è stato rinchiuso in un manicomio. I tempi sono cambiati dall’epoca di Cristo! Oggi il ricco che dà tutto al povero è un insensato. Non c’è da discutere su questo. È il verdetto della Società.

CAPITOLO XIII.

LO SCIOPERO GENERALE.

Ernesto venne eletto alla fine del 1912. Era naturale, in seguito alla enorme attrattiva verso il socialismo, determinata, in gran parte dalla soppressione di Hearst.[77] L’eliminazione di questo colosso dai piedi di argilla, era stata un gioco da bimbi, per la plutocrazia. Hearst spendeva diciotto milioni di dollari l’anno per sostenere i suoi innumerevoli giornali; ma questa somma gli era rimborsata, e più che rimborsata, in forma di piccola pubblicità, dalla classe media. Tutta la sua forza finanziaria era alimentata da quest’unica sorgente, perchè i trusts non avevano niente a che fare con la réclame.[78]

Per abbattere Hearst, bastava, dunque, togliergli la pubblicità.

La classe media non era ancora totalmente sterminata: conservava un’ossatura massiccia, ma inerte. I piccoli industriali e gli uomini di affari che si ostinavano a sopravvivere, privi di potere, di anima economica o politica, erano in balìa della plutocrazia. Appena l’alta finanza fece loro cenno, essi tolsero la pubblicità alla stampa di Hearst. Costui si dibattè valorosamente: fece stampare i suoi giornali in pura perdita, rimettendoci di tasca sua un milione e mezzo di dollari al mese; e continuò a pubblicare annunzî che non gli erano pagati. Allora, per nuovo ordine della plutocrazia, la sua meschina clientela lo soffocò di avvertimenti ingiungendogli di smettere la pubblicità gratuita. Hearst si ostinò. Gli fecero delle intimazioni, e siccome persisteva nel suo rifiuto di obbedienza, fu castigato con sei mesi di prigione, per offesa verso la Corte, mentre veniva spinto al fallimento da un diluvio di azioni per danni e interessi. Non aveva

nessuna speranza di salvezza. L’alta Banca lo aveva condannato; ed essa aveva in mano sua i tribunali che dovevano confermare la sentenza. Con lui, crollò il partito democratico che egli aveva da poco irretito.

Questa doppia disfatta pose davanti ai suoi aderenti solo due vie: l’una che metteva capo al Partito Socialista, l’altra al Partito Repubblicano. Perciò noi raccogliemmo i frutti della propaganda, così detta socialista, di Hearst; giacchè la grande maggioranza dei suoi fedeli venne ad ingrossare le nostre file.

L’espropriazione dei fittavoli, che ebbe luogo in quel tempo, ci avrebbe procurato un altro serio rinforzo, senza la breve e futile vita del Partito delle Fattorie. Ernesto e i capi socialisti fecero sforzi disperati per conciliare i fittavoli; ma la distruzione dei giornali e delle case editrici socialiste costituiva un ostacolo formidabile, e la propaganda orale non era ancora sufficientemente organizzata. Avvenne dunque che politicanti del genere del signor Calvin, che non erano altro che fittavoli, da lungo tempo espropriati, sì impadronissero dei contadini, sciupandone la forza politica, in una campagna assolutamente vana.

— Poveri fittavoli! — esclamava Ernesto, con un riso sardonico. — I trusts li comandano, all’entrata e all’uscita.

Queste parole dipingevano bene quello stato di cose. I sette consorzî, agendo insieme, avevano fusi i loro enormi avanzi, e costituito un partito delle Fattorie. Le ferrovie, padrone delle tariffe e dei trasporti, i banchieri e gli speculatori di Borsa, padroni dei prezzi, avevano da tempo dissanguato i fittavoli costringendoli a indebitarsi fino al collo. Dall’altra parte, i banchieri, e gli stessi trusts, avevano prestato grosse somme ai campagnoli; perciò questi erano nella rete. Non rimaneva altro che gettarli a mare; e la Lega delle Fattorie vi si preparò.

La crisi del 1912 aveva già prodotto un terribile crollo di prezzi nel mercato dei prodotti agricoli, prezzi che furono ancora deliberatamente ridotti a prezzi di fallimento, mentre le ferrovie, con

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