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The Biomedical Sciences In Society: An Interdisciplinary Analysis Iain Crinson
This work is a republication of 2015 edition. The work is co-published by Association (The National Medical Journal of India) and Springer Nature Singapore Pte. Ltd.
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Foreword
Medicine is both an art and a science. Progress in medical science enables improvement of existing methods of diagnosis and treatment and, at times, leads to breakthroughs in treatment of diseases that were hitherto beyond remedy. Such progress depends on research—in the laboratory, in the ward and in the field. Vital information gained through research is of little use unless it is shared among the peer group. This book addresses the methods by which such information can be disseminated effectively—and in a manner that even the humblest professional or research student is stimulated to imbibe and use for the benefit of patients or for further study.
Many of us in India are educated in schools and work in institutions where English is a second language. Expression in this language does not come easily as we may think in our mother tongues and translate our thoughts into English each time we are required to communicate. This often leads to difficulties in understanding what we wish to convey. Special efforts are necessary to gain fluency in English and familiarity with its idiosyncrasies. This book has chapters that could help such aspects of communication.
Transmission of research-related information for permanent record is principally through journals and books. We also transmit information through papers read at meetings, seminars and conferences. Each mode has its own preferred style that must be mastered for successful communication. These styles have evolved over time. Currently, we disfavour long-winded sentences and opt for brevity and crispness. It is important to get to the point and convey the gist of our data, conclusions and suggestions as effectively as possible.
Most books and journals on biomedicine published in India have a long way to go before they reach international standards. We are also prone to look upon ethics in relation to writing and publication with indifference if not disdain. The consequent malpractices make our publications unwelcome to local and international scholars of repute.
The book you hold in your hands brings together principles and guidelines that will help you transmit your scientific findings and suggestions to your peers in a manner that is at once easy to understand and effective. The editors and authors have taken care to incorporate the latest advances in publication and have done their best to make this volume comprehensive. The standards laid down are those followed the world over.
When you have something important to communicate—that is, when you need to put pen to paper or start tapping your keyboard purposefully—this compilation of essays will stand you in good stead.
Sunil Pandya Jaslok Hospital
Mumbai, Maharashtra India
Indian Journal of Medical Ethics
Mumbai, Maharashtra India Foreword
Editors’ Note on the
Revised Edition
We believe we owe an explanation to our readers as to why a revised edition of this book is being issued so soon after the appearance of the first edition in October 2015.
The first edition was released by Dr. George Lundberg (the former editor of JAMA) during the first conference of the World Association of Medical Editors (WAME), held at New Delhi in October 2015 and attended by several contributors to this book. A limited number of copies were produced digitally, in time for release at the conference and distribution among the contributors and a few others. Our intention was to print more copies shortly thereafter.
However, on publication, two of our well-wishers (John Mackrell and Dinesh Sinha, who had assisted with the editing and production of the original edition) submitted the text to analysis that might almost be described as forensic. They proposed substantial revisions, and we asked our contributors to review their chapters in the light of those suggestions. While some updated their contributions, others went along with much of what had been suggested. We now have a book with greater conformity across chapters and many more cross-references between them.
For the limited number of readers who have access to copies printed for the conference, this book may be perceived as a revised edition. But for most of you, this will be the first version of the book now open (as indeed we are) to your valuable criticism.
June 2016
Peush Sahni Rakesh Aggarwal
Editors’ Note
Biomedical research is essential for humankind. In the past century, it has played a major role in increasing average human longevity by more than two decades. In addition, it has made it possible for us to eradicate some diseases (e.g. smallpox), brought us to the verge of eradicating others (e.g. polio) and has changed the outcome of several others (diabetes, cardiovascular disease, human immunodeficiency virus infection and hepatitis C). Dramatic as these successes are, new diseases are still emerging, for instance, H1N1 influenza and Ebola. Though the diseases we investigate may change, biomedical research will stay with humankind as long as it exists.
Communicating research findings to peers—at meetings and, more importantly, through publications—is an integral part and the final step of the research cycle. As has been said about scientific research, ‘If it ain’t published, it never happened’. However, it is quite common to come across research studies that fail at this step. Though the fate of some may be due to the poor quality of science, many fail due to problems faced during writing and publishing, particularly in low- and middleincome countries.
Medical schools and science faculties in universities give their students a good grounding in science, medicine, scientific experimentation and research methodology. However, they often do not prepare them well for the task of writing and publishing research. Thus, when biomedical scientists start writing up their research findings, they often find themselves adrift and rudderless. This book, Reporting and Publishing Research in the Biomedical Sciences, attempts to bridge this gap.
The late Professor S.R. Naik was in many respects a mentor to both of us. He was editor of the peer-reviewed Indian Journal of Gastroenterology, one of the few MEDLINE-indexed medical journals published in India at that time. He realized that a major impediment to running a journal in India was the poor quality of manuscripts, mainly because physicians and scientists had little training and poor skills in writing. He decided to take the problem ‘by the horns’ and organized workshops for authors in the science, and art, of writing their research work. Of course, he could not conduct the 1- to 3-day workshops alone. So he ‘coerced’ us and others (some of whom have written chapters for this book) to join him. He would at times spend his own money to travel to these workshops, just as we often spent ours. Thus, we participated in several workshops with him—teaching skills in writing and publishing to young and old alike while learning the ropes and catching the bug of ‘conducting writing workshops’.
As we moved from one workshop to another, we realized the need for a book which would consolidate all the information in one place. Indeed, Professor Naik, too, had felt such a need. After being diagnosed with terminal cancer at an early age, he spent his remaining few months editing Communication for Biomedical Scientists. The volume was published by the Indian Council of Medical Research and distributed free of cost. However, it has been out of stock for quite some time now, and we hope that this book will fill the vacuum. In a sense, this work is our tribute to Professor Naik and an expression of our gratitude for all that we learnt from him, in scientific writing and otherwise.
We have tried to get experienced writers, editors and researchers to write the chapters and have aimed to cover some of the recent developments in publishing that often stump the fledgling researcher. We are very grateful to all the authors, who have been so cooperative over the long gestation of this project. Their willingness to share their contributions with other authors has enabled us to bring information right up to date and avoid unnecessary duplication. We applaud their response to the consequent late changes and tight deadlines.
Praise, if any, is due entirely to our collaborators. The responsibility for any faults rests entirely with us, the editors. We will value any reader suggestions and try to incorporate them in subsequent editions of this book.
If this book eases the task of converting your research work into a manuscript, we will consider that our efforts have been worthwhile.
Last, but not least, we wish to acknowledge the support of Mr. Dinesh Sinha of Byword Editorial Consultants without whose help this project might never have come to fruition.
4 September 2015
Peush Sahni Rakesh Aggarwal
Preface
My personal experience with courses and books on biomedical communication began around 1986 at the All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), New Delhi, when Stephen Lock, who was then editor of the British Medical Journal (BMJ), brought with him three colleagues—Jane Smith, William Whimster and Alex Paton—to conduct a workshop on ‘better medical writing’. We had invited people interested in writing up research and were astonished when about 100 turned up. They sat through the day absolutely enthralled by the proceedings.
The BMJ team in a single day made us aware of the problems faced by both authors and editors in their efforts to produce good papers and good journals. For authors it meant a lot of hard work. This included first spelling out clearly and concisely why the work was done, how it was done, what were the results obtained and what did they mean. Was the paper important enough to influence medical practice in India or even elsewhere? There were discussions on whether Indian authors were being discriminated against by Western editors and reviewers, which might be why few papers from India appeared in journals with high impact factors. (The answer to this was not ‘no’ but ‘maybe’, and the reasons they said were complex—it was true the papers from India were not always put together well, but the subjects they dealt with also did not always have a wider relevance.)
Stephen Lock suggested that we publish more in, and concentrate on improving, our own journals, and that is where the idea of starting The National Medical Journal of India (NMJI) was born (the present editor of NMJI is involved in this book’s creation). The team also discussed the nitty-gritty of writing clearly and concisely, stressing that simple writing involved a lot of hard work with many, many revisions of the text. All of this would become easier, they said, if would-be writers had proper guidance from experts in the field either through personal contact or from their articles. I, for one, was introduced to many new ideas such as agreeing early on who a paper’s authors should be and their order of appearance, asking friends who were not involved in the work for help (colleague treatment), leaving the written piece alone for a week or so to ‘mature’ before returning to it and being realistic about choosing which journal to send it to and reading its ‘instructions to authors’ carefully.
We recorded the proceedings and published a small booklet, also called Better Medical Writing, which sold out quickly. There was obviously a demand for such guidance relevant to the Indian situation. A year later, Subhash R. Naik held a
similar workshop at King Edward Memorial (KEM) Hospital in Mumbai and brought out a book called Better Medical Communication. Subhash and his likeminded colleagues in medical writing and editing then organized a series of writing seminars all over India, which provided a tremendous impetus to both the quality and quantity of medical writing from India. Sadly, Subhash died early but not before he had edited another multi-author book called Communication for Biomedical Scientists. Now, two of his friends, Peush Sahni and Rakesh Aggarwal, have updated his original effort and are presenting another book here.
I really am very impressed by the result. Peush and Rakesh have brought together a team of 29 authors from 7 countries who have discussed not only how to write a paper but almost every other aspect of biomedical communication that there is. Here you will find detailed guidance not only on writing articles from the introduction to the references but also chapters on electronic publishing, podium and poster presentations and, of course, scientific fraud. A minor omission, and a suggestion for the next edition, is how to speak on a medical subject on television and how to create a short programme for the now ubiquitous and hugely influential ‘idiot box’ where health matters, I am told, are very popular with viewers.
I enjoyed reading the book and wished it had come out earlier. It would have saved much time and effort on improving my own papers, talks and posters as well as those of my residents. All I would need to do would be to tell them to go and buy this book, consult it over and over again and look after it with great care. It contains everything one needs to know about scientific communication in India and is an updated, modern, worthy and more comprehensive successor to the previous attempt.
So if you are in any way involved in biomedical communication, as I believe all of us will or should be sooner or later, this is the book for you to treasure as the allpurpose reference to me. It is also a major advance, I am proud to say, on Better Medical Writing of 29 years ago.
New Delhi, India
Samiran Nundy
Tribute to Professor S.R. Naik: A Scientist and Communicator
Professor Subhash R. Naik was head of the Department of Gastroenterology, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences (SGPGI), Lucknow, when he passed away more than a decade ago. It seems like yesterday. He was 59.
I first came in close contact with Professor Naik when, in 1982, he joined the Department of Medicine at the King Edward Memorial (KEM) Hospital, Mumbai, and established an academic Department of Gastroenterology. Five years later, he left to join the newly established SGPGI to set up and head the Department of Gastroenterology.
Five years seems a brief period for anyone to start and establish a new department. But Professor Naik was not just anyone. I have no hesitation in saying that he changed the face of academic gastroenterology at KEM. Eager students and the budding faculty were infused with new blood, boundless energy, lively teaching, fervent pursuit of research, encouragement to chase ideas and, most importantly, the refusal to take no for an answer. His students, including me, will always carry that stamp on them. Every successful teaching module in Mumbai in gastroenterology is modelled on what Professor Naik started. He replicated the model at SGPGI over the next 15 years and established that department as among the best in India.
His association with scientific endeavours and publications worldwide was well known. As editor for 6 years and active member of the board in different capacities for another 14 years, he helped establish the Indian Journal of Gastroenterology as the premier publication in the field from India. He remained till his last day a respected scientific voice in Indian gastroenterology.
As if that legacy was not enough, Professor Naik also held in Mumbai, in 1987, the first workshop on scientific communication. I had the privilege of working with him on this venture and went on to hold many similar workshops later. It is encouraging to see that since those beginnings, scores of similar workshops have been held in Mumbai and other parts of India. He, along with Dr. Rakesh Aggarwal, published what was probably the first Indian book in this field (Communication for Biomedical Scientists). Every endeavour on scientific communication in India brings back memories of Professor Naik, and I see this present effort as a renewed tribute to him.
Tribute to Professor S.R. Naik: A Scientist and Communicator
Those of us who enjoyed the privilege of his company remember him as a counsellor, guide, teacher and inspiration. I could say much more but wish to conclude by voicing my belief that Professor Naik was not only a fine ambassador for Indian science but a very fine human being.
Mumbai, India
Philip Abraham
About the Editors
Peush Sahni is a gastrointestinal surgeon at the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi. He has been involved in journal editing for the past three decades and is presently Editor of The National Medical Journal of India. He is also the President of the Indian Association of Medical Journal Editors and is actively associated with the World Association of Medical Editors. He has been teaching at workshops on writing of scientific papers, peer review, and journal editing for many years.
Rakesh Aggarwal is a gastroenterologist-hepatologist at the Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, India. He is an active researcher who has published several research papers, review articles, editorials, and book chapters. He has been involved in journal editing for more than two decades and is currently the editor of a major journal in his specialty. In addition, he has been involved in teaching at workshops on research methodology, writing of scientific papers, peer review, and journal editing for several years.
Contributors
Philip Abraham P.D. Hinduja Hospital, Mumbai, India
Amita Aggarwal Department of Clinical Immunology, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, India
Rakesh Aggarwal Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology and Department of Gastroenterology, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, India
Gitanjali Batmanabane Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research, Puducherry, India
Shobna J. Bhatia Department of Gastroenterology, Seth GS Medical College and KEM Hospital, Mumbai, India
Gourdas Choudhuri Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatobiliary Sciences, Fortis Memorial Research Institute, Gurgaon, India
Lorraine Ferris World Association of Medical Editors (WAME), Toronto, ON, Canada
Research Oversight and Compliance, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
Robert H. Fletcher Department of Population Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina Gillings School of Global Public Health, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
Department of Social Medicine, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
Suzanne W. Fletcher Department of Population Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina Gillings School of Global Public Health, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
Department of Social Medicine, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
Uday C. Ghoshal Journal of Neurogastroenterology and Motility and Department of Gastroenterology, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, India
Nithya Gogtay Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Seth GS Medical College and KEM Hospital, Mumbai, India
Trish Groves BMJ and BMJ Open, London, UK
Farrokh Habibzadeh The International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine Research and Development Headquarters, Petroleum Industry Health Organization, Tehran, Iran
Yvan J. Hutin European Centre for Disease Control (ECDC), Stockholm, Sweden
V. K. Kapoor Department of Surgical Gastroenterology, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, India
Rajeev Kumar Indian Journal of Urology and Department of Urology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
Christine Laine Annals of Internal Medicine and American College of Physicians, Philadelphia, PA, USA
Rakesh Lodha Indian Pediatrics and Department of Paediatrics, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
John Mackrell Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK
Bandana Malhotra Freelance Medical Editor, New Delhi, India
Ana Marušić Journal of Global Health and Department of Research in Biomedicine and Health, University of Split School of Medicine, Split, Croatia, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK
David Moher Clinical Epidemiology Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, ON, Canada
School of Epidemiology, Public Health and Preventative Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
Sita Naik Apollo Hospitals Educational Foundation, Hyderabad, India
Sanjay A. Pai Department of Pathology, Columbia Asia Referral Hospital, Bengaluru, India
Usha Raman Department of Communication, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India
Peush Sahni The National Medical Journal of India and Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery and Liver Transplantation, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
Larissa Shamseer Clinical Epidemiology Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, ON, Canada
School of Epidemiology, Public Health and Preventative Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
Dinesh Sinha Byword Editorial Consultants, Delhi, India
Margaret Winker World Association of Medical Editors, Winnetka, IL, USA
The IMRAD Structure
Gitanjali Batmanabane
IMRAD refers to the format in which most biomedical journals publish an original research paper. This framework for a scientific paper spells out how a manuscript should be presented. The letter I stands for Introduction, the M for Methods, the R for Results, the A for And and the D for Discussion. The origin of this format is somewhat hazy; however, Louis Pasteur is said to be the first person who published his work in this format. (1) The format was later made more popular by the famous British statistician Sir Austin Bradford Hill, (2) who worked with the Medical Research Council of the UK and was also a statistical consultant for the British Medical Journal
1.1 Is There a Need for a Format?
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, biomedical scientists published their work mainly in the form of essays or treatises. Those voluminous descriptions were not clearly demarcated into sections. This was acceptable at a time when the number of scientists, the amount of published work and the prospective readership were limited. But as the scientific enterprise expanded, the print runs for journals increased and their distribution became global. Editors became conscious of the high costs of publication and postage, and this prevented potential readers from having access to journals. The need for brevity in scientific writing was recognized as a means of increasing the number of papers published while containing the size of the journals. It is likely that the scientific community also felt the need for a more efficient format of writing and reading, so that they could quickly imbibe the everincreasing body of knowledge. The IMRAD format was thus introduced to contain
G. Batmanabane
Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research, Puducherry, India
P. Sahni, R. Aggarwal (eds.), Reporting and Publishing Research in the Biomedical Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7062-4_1
costs and make manuscripts more reader-friendly. It is now followed by almost all biomedical journals and is the format recommended by the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE).
1.2 Components of IMRAD
This format represents a sequence of writing components of a paper, which makes for logical presentation of a scientific work. It serves to make information in a paper more easily understandable. This ease of comprehension allows the readers to make quicker decisions about and based on the research paper they have read.
Bradford Hill said that four questions must be addressed in any original research paper (Box 1.1). The first ‘why did you start (the study)?’ can be tackled in the Introduction. The second question ‘what did you do?’ can be handled in the section on Methods. The third section, the Results, should contain the answer to ‘what did you find?’ and the fourth section, the Discussion, should debate the implications of the study and answer the question ‘what does it mean?’ [2].
The Introduction section (see also Chap. 2) provides the background to the study leading up to statement of the problem or limitation in the existing body of knowledge, the justification for the study and the objectives. The Methods section (see also Chap. 3) details the methodology followed, so that another researcher may be able to replicate the work, if necessary. The Results section (see also Chap. 4) provides the findings of the study, which are summarized as text, tables, figures or a combination of these, and the Discussion section (see also Chap. 5) ties all these components together and allows the researcher to state the implications of the work and argue their thesis in the light of what is already known (or not known). The conclusion drawn from the study also forms a part of the Discussion.
Box 1.1 Components of the IMRAD Formats and Question That Each Component Answers [1]
I Introduction Why did you start (the study)?
M Methods What did you do?
R Results What did you find?
A And
D Discussion What does it mean?
1.3 Advantages of IMRAD
The IMRAD structure provides a simple framework or template for scientists to write their scientific papers. It prevents unnecessary repetition, thus saving print space and readers’ time. Since the format follows the sequence in which scientific thought and work progresses, its use makes the contents of a paper easier to
understand. It also helps the reader find specific pieces of information. For example, details of a particular laboratory technique would be found in the Methods section.
1.4 Limitations
of IMRAD
Not all types of biomedical writing can be fitted in the IMRAD structure. Case reports and reviews (except systematic reviews) are difficult to fit into this framework. Some believe that adherence to a rigid format takes away the author’s prerogative to improvise and innovate in presenting their research. The Nobel laureate Peter Medawar criticized this structure for not providing a realistic representation of the thought process of the researcher [ 3 ]. For instance, this format may not be appropriate for qualitative research. Also, when the results of some initial procedures in a study determine the subsequent steps performed (e.g. when the results of an epidemiological investigation into an outbreak determine the nature of laboratory tests and follow-up studies undertaken), adherence to the IMRAD sequence may not represent the actual sequence in which various tasks were undertaken. It may appear inappropriate and artificial to describe subsequent experiments in the Methods section, before the results of initial work have been revealed.
1.5 Which Journals Do Not Follow This Style?
Some broad-based science journals such as Science and Nature do not strictly follow the IMRAD structure. These journals publish the Methods section at the end of the paper, and in a smaller font. However, even for such journals, it may help the authors to write the paper in the IMRAD format and then move the Methods section to a later position. Similarly, some journals combine the Results and Discussion sections. This innovation is often a necessity for journals that publish research papers with a large number of sequential experiments, as it is important to first explain the implications of initial experiments for the readers to understand the results of subsequent experiments.
1.6 Other Sections
A research paper also has other sections such as Title and Keywords, as also References—a listing of the published works consulted while preparing the manuscript (see also Chaps. 8 and 9). An additional section of the paper is the Abstract, which is a condensed description of the study (see also Chap. 7). In fact, because the IMRAD format is so successful in making a piece of research understandable, the Abstract should follow the IMRAD framework.
In conclusion, the IMRAD structure for reporting scientific work has stood the test of time. The fact that most journals use either IMRAD or a minor modification
of it implies that it may well outlive the lifetime of the current crop of researchers and scientific writers.
References
1. Day RA. The origins of the scientific paper: the IMRAD format. AMWA J. 1989;4:16–8.
2. Bradford Hill A. The reasons for writing. Br Med J. 1965;2:870–1.
3. Medawar PB. Is the scientific paper fraudulent? Saturday Review; 1 Aug 1964. p. 42–3.
G. Batmanabane
The Introduction Section
Uday C. Ghoshal
Most biomedical journals require authors to follow the IMRAD format (see also Chap. 1) while writing original research papers. The Introduction is the first section of the body of the paper. The different sections of a paper vary in length, with the Introduction section usually being shorter than the Methods and the Results sections.
The Introduction section should answer the first of the four questions posed by Sir Austin Bradford Hill: ‘Why was the study done?’ [1]. It should, in brief, familiarize readers with the latest knowledge on the subject so that they do not need to read any previously published papers. It introduces the subject of research, provides the context of the study and encourages those who are interested in the field to read the paper in its entirety. This section should also inform the reader about what motivated the authors to conduct the research.
The Introduction section of a biomedical paper should cover the following points: (1) the importance and magnitude of the particular problem (its prevalence or frequency, disease burden, etc.), (2) the lacunae in the existing literature, (3) the hypothesis underlying the study and (4) the aims of the study. While doing this, one must neither be too brief nor too detailed, and a middle path must be found. A ground rule could be to provide a brief description so that the reader can get an idea of the established facts mentioned in the literature, the gaps in knowledge in the light of which the new study was carried out and the original question addressed in the study. It is important to refer to original research reports and not just review articles. The Introduction section often ends with the hypothesis and the aim of the study.
U. C. Ghoshal
Journal of Neurogastroenterology and Motility and Department of Gastroenterology, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, India
P. Sahni, R. Aggarwal (eds.), Reporting and Publishing Research in the Biomedical Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7062-4_2
Box 2.1 provides an example of the Introduction section of a paper. In this example, the first sentence provides information on the frequency of the condition studied in the paper. The next few lines highlight the controversy in the literature available, citing data from a few studies. This part is an attempt to prepare the ground for the new study in the mind of the reader. It culminates in the fourth sentence of the second paragraph (‘Hence, there is a need …’), which points to a specific lacuna in the current information and stresses the need for further information. The next sentence further clarifies how the new information would be useful. The final sentence of the introduction lists the study’s various aims, as numbered points.
Box 2.1 Sample Introduction
Malabsorption syndrome (MAS) is a common condition in the tropics, including India. The aetiology of MAS in tropical areas differs from that in temperate countries1 and may be expected to vary over a time period of several years.2 In the past, tropical malabsorption (TM), popularly known as tropical sprue, was a common cause of MAS in India, and epidemics of TM were described from rural southern India.3 Sporadic cases of TM have been reported from other tropical countries such as Pakistan, Thailand and Malaysia, and even from temperate countries such as Britain. It is believed that in recent years, with the improvement in the socioeconomic status of the population and in sanitary conditions, as well as the increasing use of antibiotics, the frequency of TM may have declined even in tropical countries.4 Moreover, there may be a considerable overlap between post-infectious MAS, which is a subgroup of TM, and post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), a common condition in temperate countries. Coeliac disease (CD), once thought to be uncommon in tropical countries, including India, is being reported frequently as a cause of MAS among children and adults.5 However, data on the spectrum of MAS in Indian adults are scanty and contradictory.
It is difficult to differentiate between CD and TM. The response to antibiotics, a criterion used to diagnose TM, may be misleading as patients with CD may have secondary small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO) which, at least temporarily, may respond clinically to treatment with antibiotics.6 Thus, it has been proposed that the diagnosis of CD should not be made entirely on the basis of conventional criteria, but should also include a serological test.7 Hence, there is a need to determine demographic, clinical and laboratory characteristics that may help to differentiate TM from CD in adults with MAS in tropical countries. This may help clinicians to assess the likelihood of CD in a patient through the use of serological tests and the empirical institution of a gluten-free diet in patients with a high probability of the disease even in tropical countries. This study assessed (1) the spectrum of MAS among Indian adults, and (2) features that may help to differentiate TM and CD among them.
Adapted from Ghoshal et al. Indian J Med Res 2012;136:451–9
U. C. Ghoshal
As a thumb rule, the Introduction section should not exceed 1–2 pages of doublespaced, A4 size paper. Too long an introduction may discourage the reader from going through the full paper. It is interesting to note that the Introduction of the Nobel prize-winning paper on the structure of DNA by Watson and Crick was barely two sentences long (Box 2.2). Despite its brevity, it clearly conveyed the originality of the authors’ idea.
Box 2.2
‘We wish to suggest a structure for the salt of deoxyribose nucleic acid (D.N.A.). This structure has novel features which are of considerable biological importance.’ Watson JD, Crick FHC. A structure for deoxyribose nucleic acid. Nature 1953;171:737–8
The Introduction should be written in the present tense. It should clearly define the problem that is being studied. It also needs to convey why the authors chose the particular subject and its importance. If the authors or their group have done any related work in the past, it may be mentioned in this section. Research workers in various fields often try to improve upon their previous work, whether by using a better study design or methods or a larger sample size. If this applies to their study, it should be mentioned in the Introduction section. This helps to establish the research group’s credentials.
Important statements in the Introduction should be supported with appropriate references. However, this does not mean that a large number of papers should be cited to support each fact in this section. Only the main references that are relevant to the study hypothesis should be cited. Also, the specialized terms used in the paper should be clarified, and the full form of acronyms or abbreviations that are used repeatedly should be provided.
Sometimes, it is important to briefly present the principal method(s) used in the study, including any variation in the standard methodology, particularly if the main aim of the paper relates to the method used or if the authors have tried to make a variation in the method to improve its performance. Some authors, and even some journals, prefer to present the principal conclusion or new observations of the study in the Introduction. For most papers, however, this is not the case, and one should follow the style of the journal to which one wishes to submit the paper.
2.1 How to Write the Introduction
Some general rules of writing apply to all sections of a paper, including the Introduction section. For example, one should avoid writing in the passive voice. Similarly, it is best not to use complex and verbose sentences. It is useful to divide the text into paragraphs, and each paragraph should contain only one idea. The first sentence of a paragraph should introduce that idea and the last should be something
of a concluding sentence. For example, the first paragraph could present the magnitude of the problem, the second paragraph could present the controversy in the existing literature and the final paragraph, the aims of the study. The Introduction section of an original research paper must not be written like a mini-review of the subject. For example, one must avoid the temptation of starting with a historical background of the subject.
Since the Introduction section may be written first, it is important to review and edit it after the whole paper is ready. This helps the authors to verify whether it relates to the final results presented and discussed by them. At this stage, it may be useful to run through a checklist of dos and don’ts to verify whether all the important points have been covered and the usual pitfalls avoided (Box 2.3).
Box 2.3 Dos and Don’ts of Writing an Introduction Dos
1. Does it sufficiently review the relevant literature to familiarize the reader on the subject?
2. Does it state the limitations of the existing literature, or gaps in the current knowledge?
3. Does it state the controversy that the study planned to address?
4. Does it clearly state the study’s hypothesis and list the aims of the study?
Don’ts
1. Does it include unnecessary details, such as the history of the disease being studied (except in the case of papers dealing with the history of a disease)?
2. Is the text long and written in a verbose style, in the passive voice and past tense?
3. Are the sentences complex and do they not follow a logical sequence?
Finally, one must remember that it is only through practice that one masters the skill of writing biomedical papers. The words of the Greek philosopher, Aristotle, are relevant in this context: ‘For the things we have to learn before we can do them, we learn by doing them.’
Reference
1. Bradford Hill A. The reasons for writing. Br Med J. 1965;2:870–1.
The Methods Section
Amita Aggarwal
The key to a successful Methods section is to include the right amount of detail—too much, and it begins to sound like a laboratory manual; too little, and no one can repeat what was done.
Successful Scientific Writing, 2nd ed. [1]
The Methods section of a paper describes how a research study was done. This section is perhaps the most important part of a scientific paper as it describes the strategy and procedures used to answer the research question. Since the validity of the results obtained in a study depends on the approach and techniques used to generate data, a well-written Methods section helps the reader to place the study’s conclusions in a context and understand its conclusion better. Further, all good science should be replicable. Thus, this section should describe the study procedures in sufficient detail so that another researcher who wants to replicate the work can do so easily.
A. Aggarwal
Department of Clinical Immunology, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, India
P. Sahni, R. Aggarwal (eds.), Reporting and Publishing Research in the Biomedical Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7062-4_3
3.1 Contents and Organization
A Methods section should answer the following questions.
1. What was done in the study?
2. How was each of these steps done?
3. How were the data analysed?
4. Did the researcher have ethical clearance and the consent of the study subjects to carry out the research?
This section should present the procedures that were carried out in chronological order. Alternatively, this could be done in the sequence in which you propose to present the results. These days, several studies have a complex design, which involves several interventions, procedures and measurements. To make the Methods sections of papers for such studies easy to understand, it is useful to divide the section into several subsections. For instance, the Methods section in a paper on a twogroup, controlled drug trial could be structured as shown in Box 3.1. Of course, depending on the nature and complexity of the study, some of these subsections could be divided further into even smaller segments.
Box 3.1 A Suggested Method of Organizing the Methods Section of a TwoGroup Controlled Intervention (Drug) Trial
1. Type of study and overall study design
2. Main methods
(a) Characteristics of study subjects
(b) Interventions or exposures
• Method of assignment of subjects to the two groups
• Interventions in the treatment group
• Interventions in the control or comparator group
(c) Measurement of outcomes
• Types of measurements made
• Time points for making each measurement
• Tools used for and accuracy of each measurement
• Who made the measurements?
3. Statistical analysis
4. Ethical considerations (including consent)
3.2 The Beginning: Overall Study Design
The first subsection or paragraph should summarize the overall nature and the design of the study since the organization of the subsequent details in the Methods section will depend on that. Research studies can be of various kinds, including (1) primary research studies, such as clinical trials, surveys, laboratory experiments and evaluations of a new
A. Aggarwal
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No. 9. HOW TO BECOME A VENTRILOQUIST.—By Harry Kennedy. The secret given away Every intelligent boy reading this book of instructions, by a practical professor (delighting multitudes every night with his wonderful imitations), can master the art, and create any amount of fun for himself and friends. It is the greatest book ever published, and there’s millions (of fun) in it.
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games, sports, card diversions, comic recitations, etc., suitable for parlor or drawing-room entertainment. It contains more for the money than any book published.
No. 35. HOW TO PLAY GAMES.—A complete and useful little book, containing the rules and regulations of billiards, bagatelle, backgammon, croquet, dominoes, etc.
No. 36. HOW TO SOLVE CONUNDRUMS.—Containing all the leading conundrums of the day, amusing riddles, curious catches and witty sayings.
No. 52. HOW TO PLAY CARDS.—A complete and handy little book, giving the rules and full directions for playing Euchre, Cribbage, Casino, Forty-Five, Rounce, Pedro Sancho, Draw Poker, Auction Pitch, All Fours, and many other popular games of cards.
No. 66. HOW TO DO PUZZLES.—Containing over three hundred interesting puzzles and conundrums, with key to same. A complete book. Fully illustrated. By A. Anderson.
ETIQUETTE.
No. 13. HOW TO DO IT; OR, BOOK OF ETIQUETTE.—It is a great life secret, and one that every young man desires to know all about. There’s happiness in it.
No. 33. HOW TO BEHAVE.—Containing the rules and etiquette of good society and the easiest and most approved methods of appearing to good advantage at parties, balls, the theatre, church, and in the drawing-room.
DECLAMATION.
No. 27. HOW TO RECITE AND BOOK OF RECITATIONS.— Containing the most popular selections in use, comprising Dutch dialect, French dialect, Yankee and Irish dialect pieces, together with many standard readings.
No. 31. HOW TO BECOME A SPEAKER.—Containing fourteen illustrations, giving the different positions requisite to become a good speaker, reader and elocutionist. Also containing gems from all the popular authors of prose and poetry, arranged in the most simple and concise manner possible.
No. 49. HOW TO DEBATE.—Giving rules for conducting debates, outlines for debates, questions for discussion, and the best sources for procuring information on the questions given.
SOCIETY.
No. 3. HOW TO FLIRT.—The arts and wiles of flirtation are fully explained by this little book. Besides the various methods of handkerchief, fan, glove, parasol, window and hat flirtation, it contains a full list of the language and sentiment of flowers, which is interesting to everybody, both old and young. You cannot be happy without one.
No. 4. HOW TO DANCE is the title of a new and handsome little book just issued by Frank Tousey. It contains full instructions in the art of dancing, etiquette in the ball-room and at parties, how to dress, and full directions for calling off in all popular square dances.
No. 5. HOW TO MAKE LOVE.—A complete guide to love, courtship and marriage, giving sensible advice, rules and etiquette to be observed, with many curious and interesting things not generally known.
No. 17. HOW TO DRESS.—Containing full instruction in the art of dressing and appearing well at home and abroad, giving the selections of colors, material, and how to have them made up.
No. 18. HOW TO BECOME BEAUTIFUL.—One of the brightest and most valuable little books ever given to the world. Everybody wishes to know how to become beautiful, both male and female. The secret is simple, and almost costless. Read this book and be convinced how to become beautiful.
BIRDS AND ANIMALS.
No. 7. HOW TO KEEP BIRDS.—Handsomely illustrated and containing full instructions for the management and training of the canary, mockingbird, bobolink, blackbird, paroquet, parrot, etc.
No. 39. HOW TO RAISE DOGS, POULTRY, PIGEONS AND RABBITS.—A useful and instructive book. Handsomely illustrated. By Ira Drofraw.
No. 40. HOW TO MAKE AND SET TRAPS.—Including hints on how to catch moles, weasels, otters, rats, squirrels and birds. Also how to cure skins. Copiously illustrated. By J. Harrington Keene.
No. 50. HOW TO STUFF BIRDS AND ANIMALS.—A valuable book, giving instructions in collecting, preparing, mounting and preserving birds, animals and insects.
No. 54. HOW TO KEEP AND MANAGE PETS.—Giving complete information as to the manner and method of raising, keeping, taming, breeding, and managing all kinds of pets; also giving full instructions for making cages, etc. Fully explained by twenty-eight illustrations, making it the most complete book of the kind ever published.
MISCELLANEOUS.
No. 8. HOW TO BECOME A SCIENTIST.—A useful and instructive book, giving a complete treatise on chemistry; also experiments in acoustics, mechanics, mathematics, chemistry, and directions for making fireworks, colored fires, and gas balloons. This book cannot be equaled.
No. 14. HOW TO MAKE CANDY.—A complete hand-book for making all kinds of candy, ice-cream, syrups, essences, etc., etc.
No. 34. HOW TO BECOME AN AUTHOR.—Containing full information regarding choice of subjects, the use of words and the manner of preparing and submitting manuscript. Also containing valuable information as to the neatness, legibility and general
composition of manuscript, essential to a successful author By Prince Hiland.
No. 38. HOW TO BECOME YOUR OWN DOCTOR.—A wonderful book, containing useful and practical information in the treatment of ordinary diseases and ailments common to every family. Abounding in useful and effective recipes for general complaints.
No. 55. HOW TO COLLECT STAMPS AND COINS.—Containing valuable information regarding the collecting and arranging of stamps and coins. Handsomely illustrated.
No. 58. HOW TO BE A DETECTIVE.—By Old King Brady, the worldknown detective. In which he lays down some valuable and sensible rules for beginners, and also relates some adventures and experiences of well-known detectives.
No. 60. HOW TO BECOME A PHOTOGRAPHER.—Containing useful information regarding the Camera and how to work it; also how to make Photographic Magic Lantern Slides and other Transparencies. Handsomely illustrated. By Captain W. De W. Abney.
No. 62. HOW TO BECOME A WEST POINT MILITARY CADET.— Containing full explanations how to gain admittance, course of Study, Examinations, Duties, Staff of Officers, Post Guard, Police Regulations, Fire Department, and all a boy should know to be a Cadet. Compiled and written by Lu Senarens, author of “How to Become a Naval Cadet.”
No. 63. HOW TO BECOME A NAVAL CADET.—Complete instructions of how to gain admission to the Annapolis Naval Academy. Also containing the course of instruction, description of grounds and buildings, historical sketch, and everything a boy should know to become an officer in the United States Navy. Compiled and written by Lu Senarens, author of “How to Become a West Point Military Cadet.”
PRICE 10 CENTS EACH, OR 3 FOR 25 CENTS.
Address FRANK TOUSEY, Publisher, 24 Union Square, New York.
W O R K A N D W I N .
The Best Weekly Published.
ALL THE NUMBERS ARE ALWAYS IN PRINT.
READ ONE AND YOU WILL READ THEM ALL.
LATEST ISSUES:
281 Fred Fearnot’s Boy; or, Selling Tips on Shares.
282 Fred Fearnot and the Girl Ranch Owner, And How She Held Her Own.
283 Fred Fearnot’s Newsboy Friend; or, A Hero in Rags.
284 Fred Fearnot in the Gold Fields; or, Exposing the Claim “Salters.”
285 Fred Fearnot and the Office Boy; or, Bound to be the Boss.
286 Fred Fearnot after the Moonshiners; or, The “Bad” Men of Kentucky.
287 Fred Fearnot and the Little Drummer; or, The Boy who Feared Nobody.
288 Fred Fearnot and the Broker’s Boy; or, Working the Stock Market.
289 Fred Fearnot and the Boy Teamster; or, The Lad Who Bluffed Him.
290 Fred Fearnot and the Magician, and How he Spoiled His Magic.
291 Fred Fearnot’s Lone Hand; or, Playing a Game to Win.
292 Fred Fearnot and the Banker’s Clerk; or, Shaking up the Brokers.
293 Fred Fearnot and the Oil King; or, the Tough Gang of the Wells.
294 Fred Fearnot’s Wall Street Game; or, Fighting the Bucket Shops.
