Introduction to Attic Greek
Second Edition
Answer Key
Donald J. Mastronarde
University of California Press
Berkeley • Los Angeles • London
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Preface
This booklet provides the answers to the exercises appearing in the second edition of Introduction to Attic Greek by Donald J. Mastronarde (University of California Press, 2013). The Answer Key has been revised to match all the changes and additions made in the second edition.
Please note that in many of the exercises the answers given are not exhaustive of the possible correct answers. For instance, when an exercise asks the student to give one definition of the word, any one of the definitions supplied in the book is correct, but only one possible answer is indicated here. Similarly, sentences and passages to be translated from Greek to English may be correctly rendered with slightly different phrasing from what is given here. For Greek sentences composed by the student, there are of course many variations possible in word order and in treatment of details such as choice of conjunction for and or but, choice of synonym, and choice of equivalent constructions.
For most of the Greek-to-English sentences that were inspired by sentences in actual texts or taken unchanged or almost unchanged from an ancient text, a citation is provided.
When the first version of the Answer Key was prepared, Benjamin Acosta-Hughes checked the answers with great care. This time I have been assisted by Jeremy Simmons and copy editor Paul Psoinos. I alone am responsible for any errors or unclear answers that remain.
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I. [note: The references to §6 are optional parts of the answers.]
1. acute on P, U is long, §8 (short accented P has acute); §6 (acute may appear on A, P, or U )
2. circumflex on P, U is short, §8 (long accented P before short U has circumflex); §6 (circumflex may appear on P or U )
3. acute on P, U is long, §8 (long accented P before long U has acute); §6 (acute may appear on A, P, or U )
4. circumflex on U, U is long, §7 (long U may have circumflex); §6 (circumflex may appear on P or U )
5. circumflex on U, U is long, §7 (long U may have circumflex); §6 (circumflex may appear on P or U )
6. acute on U, U is long, §7; §6 (acute may appear on A, P, or U )
7. circumflex on P, U is short, §8 (long accented P before short U has circumflex); §6 (circumflex may appear on P or U ); (second accent due to enclitic) additional acute on U, §12c
8. acute on A, U is short, §9 (accented A has acute, U must be short); §6 (acute may appear on A, P, or U ); (second accent due to enclitic) additional acute on U, §12c
9. acute on A, U is short, §9 (accented A has acute, U must be short); §6 (acute may appear on A, P, or U )
10. acute on U, U is short, §7 (short accented U has acute in isolation); §6 (acute may appear on A, P, or U )
11. (first word) grave on U, U is short, §7 (short accented U has grave before another word); §6 (grave may appear only on U ); (second word) acute on U, U is short, §7 (short accented U has acute in isolation); §6 (acute may appear on A, P, or U )
12. acute on A, U is short, §9 (accented A has acute, U must be short); §6 (acute may appear on A, P, or U )
13. (first word) grave on U, U is long, §7 (long accented U may have grave before another word); §6 (grave may appear only on U ); (second word) acute on A, U is short, §9 (accented A has acute, U must be short); §6 (acute may appear on A, P, or U )
14. acute on U, U is short, §7 (short accented U has acute in isolation); §6 (acute may appear on A, P, or U )
15. circumflex on U, U is long, §7 (long U may have circumflex); §6 (circumflex may appear on P or U )
II.
1. δῶρᾰ
2. ἄνθρωπε
3. λαμβάνει
4. βούλεται
unit three
I.
1. acc. sing. of ἥλιος, ἡλίου, m., sun
2. nom. or voc. pl. of πόλεμος, πολέμου, m., war
3. dat. pl. of βιβλίον, βιβλίου, n., book
4. gen. sing. of παιδίον, παιδίου, n., child
5. dat. sing. of θεός, θεοῦ, m. (or f.), god (or goddess)
6. nom. or voc. pl. of νόσος, νόσου, f., sickness
7. dat. sing. of ψῆφος, ψήφου, f., pebble
8. acc. pl. of θάνατος, θανάτου, m., death
9. acc. sing. of νόμος, νόμου, m., law
10. dat. pl. of ἄγγελος, ἀγγέλου, m., messenger
9. παιδείᾳ
10. ἄνεμος
11. ἀγαθόν
12. καλὸν δῶρον
11. nom. or acc. or voc. pl. of μέτρον, μέτρου, n., measure
12. nom. or acc. or voc. pl. of δῶρον, δώρου, n., gift
13. gen. pl. of βίος, βίου, m., life
14. gen. pl. of ὁδός, ὁδοῦ, f., road
15. gen. sing. of ἵππος, ἵππου, m. (or f.), horse (or mare)
16. dat. sing. of ἄνθρωπος, ἀνθρώπου, m. or f., human being
17. acc. pl. of νόσος, νόσου, f., sickness
18. voc. sing. of ἄνεμος, ἀνέμου, m., wind
19. acc. sing. of λόγος, λόγου, m., word
20. dat. pl. of ἔργον, ἔργου, n., work
21. voc. sing. of ἀδελφός, ἀδελφοῦ, m., brother
22. gen. pl. of στρατηγός, στρατηγοῦ, m., general
23. dat. sing. of οἶκος, οἴκου, m., house
24. acc. sing. of στρατός, στρατοῦ, m., army
II.
1. ψῆφοι, f.
2. πολέμου, m.
3. παιδία, n.
4. νόσος, f.
5. μέτρον, n.
6. παιδία, n.
7. δῶρον, n.
8. ἥλιος, m.
9. θεοί, m. or f.
10. θανάτῳ, m.
III.
1. even or also among men
11. ἔργοις, n.
12. ἀνθρώπων, m. or f.
13. ἵπποις, m. or f.
14. ὁδῷ, f.
15. λόγων, m.
16. ἀγγέλους, m.
17. βίε, m.
18. νόμον, m.
19. λόγος, m.
20. ἔργου, n.
2. to or into or with respect to sickness
3. in speech or word but not in deed
4. to or for a god and a human
5. from a horse
6. a general and not a messenger (subject)
7. even or also with teachers
IV.
1.
21. ἀδελφοῖς, m.
22. στρατηγοί, m.
23. ἄνεμοι, m.
24. στρατοῦ, m.
25. οἴκους, m.
26. ἀγγέλοις, m.
27. παιδίῳ, n.
28. διδάσκαλον, m.
8. out of war and death
9. in an army
10. to or for laws and votes
11. into a road but not into a house
12. with a wind
13. of life and death
14. out of fear or as a result of fear
15. of children and teachers
unit four
I.
1. τὴν φιλίαν
2. αἱ ἡδοναί
3. τῆς παιδείας
4. τῶν φυγῶν
5. τῆς τιμῆς
6. τὰς γνώμας
7. τῶν πολέμων
8. ταῖς δίκαις
9. τὰς σκηνάς
10. αἱ θύραι
11. ἀδελφαί
II.
20. αἱ ἡμέραι
21.
22. ψυχή
(
) (
III.
1. dat. sing. of ψυχή, ψυχῆς, f., soul
2. acc. sing. of στρατιά, στρατιᾶς, f., army
3. nom. or voc. sing. of νίκη, νίκης, f., victory
4. dat. pl. of ἀγορά, ἀγορᾶς, f., marketplace
5. gen. pl. of τιμή, τιμῆς, f., honor
6. acc. pl. of ἀρετή, ἀρετῆς, f. virtue
7. nom. or voc. pl. of συμφορά, συμφορᾶς, f., event
8. gen. sing. or acc. pl. of θύρα, θύρας, f., door
9. acc. sing. of ἀρχή, ἀρχῆς, f., beginning
10. acc. pl. of θεά, θεᾶς, f., goddess
11. dat. pl. of δῶρον, δώρου, n., gift
12. dat. sing. of παιδεία, παιδείας, f., education
13. acc. pl. of λόγος, λόγου, m., word
14. nom. or acc. or voc. pl. of βιβλίον, βιβλίου, n., book
15. dat. sing. of τιμή, τιμῆς, f., honor
23. ταῖς ἀδελφαῖς
24. τῆς στρατιᾶς or τοῦ στρατοῦ
25. θεαί (or θεοί)
26. τὴν τιμήν
27. οἱ λόγοι
28. τῇ νίκῃ
29. τοὺς ἀνέμους
30. τῶν θυρῶν
16. dat. pl. of συμφορά, συμφορᾶς, f., event
17. voc. sing. of ἄγγελος, ἀγγέλου, m., messenger
18. gen. pl. of ἀγορά, ἀγορᾶς, f., marketplace
19. acc. sing. of θεός, θεοῦ, m. (or f.), god (or goddess)
20. gen. sing. of σκηνή, σκηνῆς, f., tent
21. dat. sing. of φωνή, φωνῆς, f., voice
22. nom. or voc. pl. of δίκη, δίκης, f., justice
23. acc. pl. of φυγή, φυγῆς, f., flight
24. dat. pl. of νίκη, νίκης, f., victory
25. acc. sing. of ἀδελφή, ἀδελφῆς, f., sister
26. gen. sing. of ἀρετή, ἀρετῆς, f., virtue
27. nom. or voc. pl. of ἡδονή, ἡδονῆς, f., pleasure
28. gen. pl. of ἀρχή, ἀρχῆς, f., beginning
29. nom. or voc. pl. of τιμή, τιμῆς, f., honor
30. dat. pl. of ἡμέρα, ἡμέρας, f., day
IV.
1. The general brings the books too to Aspasia.
2. She or he takes the pebbles or votes.
3. The teacher leads the children out of the tent.
4. Children do not have judgment and virtue.
5. Xanthippe remains in the house with her sister or the sister, but her brother or the brother drives the horses into the road.
6. The army flees from the country.
7. War brings death and disease to or for mankind.
8. She or he has honor as a result of the victory.
9. She or he dissolves the democracy.
10. The messenger entrusts the children to the teachers.
V.
1.
5.
VI.
1. ἀνάγκην
2. μάχαις
3. ἐπιθυμίᾳ
4. εἰρηνῶν
unit five
I.
1. πείθουσι(ν)
2. πέμπει
3. λέγετε
4. ἄρχουσι(ν)
5. ἐπιτρέπω
6. ἔχεις
7. μένομεν
8. λύει
9. ἄγει or φέρει
10. λείπεις
II.
5. εὐχῆς
6. σοφίαν
7. πληγαί
8. ἐλευθερίας
11. ἐθέλω
12. ἐθέλουσι(ν)
13. ἐλαύνομεν
14. γράφει
15. ἄγουσι(ν)
16. ἐπιτρέπετε
17. ἀποθνῄσκεις
18. οὐ πείθει
19. πέμπω
20. λέγομεν
1. you (s.) are driving or marching
2. we bear
3. I write
4. he or she or it receives
5. they remain
6. you (s.) have
7. I urge or persuade
8. we are fleeing
9. he or she or it sends
10. we lead
11. I do not have
12. they are in exile or flee
13. you (s.) release
14. he or she or it bears
15. we entrust
16. you (pl.) do not send
9. ἡσυχίᾳ
10. κεφαλῇ
11. δικαιοσύνην
12. σπουδῶν
21. ἄρχετε
22. ἐπιτρέπει
23. ἔχει
24. οὐ λαμβάνω
25. λείπουσι(ν)
26. λείπει
27. ἐλαύνετε
28. φεύγεις
29. οὐ φέρομεν
30. λέγει
17. they are leaving
18. I receive
19. you (s.) rule
20. he or she or it says
21. we release
22. I do not remain
23. you (pl.) are willing
24. they have
25. you (pl.) are driving or marching
26. I abandon
27. we begin
28. they are willing
29. you (pl.) hold office or begin
30. you (s.) say
31. he or she or it is abandoning
32. you (pl.) entrust
33. you (s.) remain
34. he or she or it is driving or marching
35. they are dying
36. I lead
III.
37. we have
38. he or she or it is not leading
39. you (pl.) do not receive
40. you (s.) bear
1. Peisistratus and Isaeus are persuading the generals but not the army.
2. We do not tell the story to the tyrant.
3. The goddess drives the sisters away from the house.
4. Are you dissolving or overthrowing the democracy?
5. From deeds and from speeches men have honor.
6. I am leading the horses out of the tent into the sun.
7. The general begins the war, and we have not victory but misfortunes.
8. Not justly or in justice do (the) tyrants write the laws.
9. The army leaves the marketplace and marches out of the country.
IV.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5. (ὁ) Ἰσαῖος καὶ (ἡ) Ξανθίππη πείθουσιν,
6. τὸν διδάσκαλον λαμβάνετε,
unit six
I.
1. πολίταις, m.
2. τραπεζῶν, f.
3. ἀλήθειαν, f.
4. μοῖραι, f.
5. δικαστοῦ, m.
6. κριτάς, m.
7. νεανίας, m.
8. δόξῃ, f.
9. ποιητά, m.
10. ναύτην, m.
11. δίκας, f.
12. ἑταίρων, m.
13. γνώμαις, f.
14. ὑγιείᾳ, f.
15. ναύτου, m.
16. τύραννον, m.
17. χῶραι, f.
18. βιβλία, n.
19. ὁπλῖτα, m.
20. θεαί, f.
.
.
21. γεφύρας, f.
22. δεσπόται, m.
23. τραπέζαις, f.
24. ὑγιείας, f.
25. ἀλήθεια, f.
26. νεανίαν, m.
27. ἱέρειαι, f.
28. πολίτῃ, m.
29. στρατιώτας, m.
30. γλωττῶν, f.
1. nom. sing. of ὁπλίτης, ὁπλίτου, m., hoplite
2. acc. sing of ὑγίεια, ὑγιείας, f., health
3. dat. sing. of θάλαττα, θαλάττης, f., sea
4. acc. pl. of στρατιώτης, στρατιώτου, m., soldier
5. dat. pl. of χώρα, χώρας, f., country
6. gen. pl. of γλῶττα, γλώττης, f., tongue
7. nom. or voc. pl. of πεῖρα, πείρας, f., attempt
8. gen. sing. of ἀρχή, ἀρχῆς, f., beginning
9. dat. sing. of φωνή, φωνῆς, f., voice
10. acc. pl. of δόξα, δόξης, f., reputation
11. dat. sing. of γέφυρα, γεφύρας, f., bridge
12. nom. or voc. pl. of πολίτης, πολίτου, m., citizen
13. gen. sing. of δεσπότης, δεσπότου, m., master
14. gen. pl. of ναύτης, ναύτου, m., sailor
15. nom. or voc. pl. of φυγή, φυγῆς, f., flight
16. nom. or voc. pl. of στρατιώτης, στρατιώτου, m., soldier
17. voc. sing. of πολίτης, πολίτου, m., citizen
18. dat. sing. of ὑγίεια, ὑγιείας, f., health
19. acc. sing. of ἱέρεια, ἱερείας, f., priestess
20. acc. pl. of δεσπότης, δεσπότου, m., master
21. gen. sing. of δόξα, δόξης, f., reputation
22. dat. pl. of γλῶττα, γλώττης, f., tongue
23. acc. sing of ὁπλίτης, ὁπλίτου, m., hoplite
24. acc. sing of πεῖρα, πείρας, f., attempt
25. nom. or voc. pl. of ναύτης, ναύτου, m., sailor
26. gen. pl. of ἡδονή, ἡδονῆς, f., pleasure
27. acc. pl. of θάλαττα, θαλάττης, f., sea
28. gen. sing. of νόσος, νόσου, f., sickness
29. dat. pl. of τράπεζα, τραπέζης, f., table
30. gen. sing. of κριτής, κριτοῦ, m., judge
31. dat. sing. of ἀλήθεια, ἀληθείας, f., truth
32. gen. pl. of ἑταίρα, ἑταίρας, f., courtesan
III.
1. on account of the misfortunes
2. with fear
3. on behalf of the priestess or in front of the priestess
4. (ranking) after the young man
5. instead of the sun
6. in front of the tent or stage building
7. with (the) voice
8. throughout the day
9. thanks to or because of the courtesans
10. away from the sea
11. with the hoplites
12. after the attempt
13. as a result of (the) friendship
IV.
1. The gods do not persuade the Fates.
14. with the gifts
15. among the jurymen
16. with Callias
17. among the brothers
18. because of the sickness
19. with Xanthippe
20. into or in respect to the war
2. The comrades tell the truth to the umpire.
3. Because of the deeds we are releasing the messenger.
4. You (s.) are leading the sailors toward the sea.
5. The generals together with the or their soldiers are abandoning the tents and the mares.
6. The jurymen do not take gifts or bribes.
7. The master is entrusting the tables to the priestesses.
8. In the marketplace Callias is telling the citizens the victories.
V. 1.
1. (a) in respect to the just account; (b) δίκαιον is acc. sing. masc. of δίκαιος, - α, - ον; (c) attributive modifying λόγον.
2. (a) through the large doors; (b) μακρῶν is gen. pl. fem. of μακρός, - ά, - όν; (c) attributive modifying θυρῶν.
3. (a) with the noble (or handsome or beautiful) gods (or goddesses); (b) καλῶν is gen. pl. masc. or fem. [depending on what the gender of θεῶν is taken to be] of καλός, -ή, - όν; (c) attributive modifying θεῶν.
4. (a) into the tent of the general; (b, c) no adjective form to identify.
5. (a) away from the enemy army; (b) πολεμίας is gen. sing. fem. of πολέμιος, - α, - ον; (c) attributive modifying στρατιᾶς
6. (a) with the good (or well-born) men; (b) ἀγαθοῖς is dat. pl. masc. of ἀγαθός, -ή, - όν; (c) attributive modifying ἀνθρώποις.
7. (a) on account of the shamefulness (or ugliness); (b) αἰσχρόν is acc. sing. neuter of αἰσχρός, - ά, - όν; (c) used as a substantive.
8. (a) The children of Isaeus are small. (b) μικρὰ is nom. pl. neuter of μικρός, - ά, - όν; (c) predicative modifying παιδία
9. (a) The just man is worthy of the office. (b) δίκαιος is nom. sing. masc. of δίκαιος, - α, - ον; (c) used as a substantive; (b) ἄξιος is nom. sing. masc. of ἄξιος, - α, - ον; (c) predicative modifying ὁ δίκαιος.
10. (a) Wicked men are deserving of evils or sufferings. (b) ἄξιοι is nom. pl. masc. of ἄξιος, - α, - ον; (c) predicative modifying οἱ πονηροί; (b) κακῶν is gen. pl. neuter of κακός, -ή, - όν; (c) used as a substantive; (b) πονηροί is nom. pl. masc. of πονηρός, - ά, - όν; (c) used as a substantive.
11. (a) Wise men speak the truth. (b) σοφοί is nom. pl. masc. of σοφός, -ή, - όν; (c) used as a substantive.
12. (a) The fate from the gods (or goddesses) is clear. (b) δήλη is nom. sing. fem. of δῆλος, -η, - ον; (c) predicative modifying μοῖρα
13. (a) The books of the umpires are sacred. (b) ἱερὰ is nom. pl. neuter of ἱερός, - ά, - όν; (c) predicative modifying βιβλία.
14. (a) Because of the good deed the juror releases the bad man. (b) ἀγαθόν is acc. sing. neut. of ἀγαθός, -ή, - όν; (c) attributive modifying ἔργον; (b) κακόν is acc. sing. masc. of κακός, -ή, - όν; (c) used as substantive.
15. (a) The citizens are writing the laws with wise judgment. (b) σοφῆς is gen. sing. fem. of σοφός, -ή, - όν; (c) attributive with γνώμης.
16. (a) The sister is enduring the misfortunes of her brother with friendship (or loyalty) and pleasure. (b, c) no adjective form to identify.
III.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
unit Eight
I.
1. away from the sea (that lies) beside the country
2. in charge of the slave women
3. against the soldiers in the house
4. after the slaves’ attempt
5. because of the noble habits
6. from the jurymen
7. in the time of Peisistratus
8. from (the presence or the side) of the general of the enemies
9. on account of the envy against the wise men
II.
1. διὰ τὸν πόνον
2. παρὰ τοῖς
3.
10. in addition to the gifts
11. toward the sun
12. from the friends
13. in the river
14. toward the road
15. upon the tables
16. alongside the road to the shrine
17. in addition to wealth
18. out of sleep
19. at the side of (or in the house of) the bad teacher
ΙΙΙ.
1. The god sends a panic and drives the soldiers out of the shrine.
2. Mankind has its sufferings from the gods. [In a particular context, θεῶν could be “goddesses” from θεά; but in a generic statement without context the generic masculine would be idiomatically assumed.]
3. Young men, carry the gifts to or for the worthy men.
4. Leave [sing. addressee] the enemies’ horses next to the bridge.
5. The messengers are telling the misfortunes of the army to the citizens (who are) in the marketplace.
6. The brother, who is in exile from his land for a long time, receives his livelihood (or sustenance) from his friends.
7. The slave woman to whom you (pl.) are entrusting the health of the children is wise and friendly.
8. The hoplite, who endures difficult things and avoids shameful things, does not abandon his comrades.
9. Citizens, do not begin a war, but in war do not have fear. IV.
1.
2.
3.
4.
6.
unit nine I.
1. ἄγειν
2. κελεύετε
II.
1. Urge the army to remain. or You (pl.) are urging the army to remain.
2. The sailor orders the soldiers to abandon their mares.
3. He or she is willing to entrust the difficult tasks to the handsome young men.
4. I do not wish to die in the sea.
5. You (s.) are ordering the hoplites not to harm the rich citizens. [This could also mean: “You are ordering the rich citizens not to harm the hoplites.” There is no way to decide which meaning is preferable except by the context, and in the absence of context, as here, by general likelihood.]
6. The god is unwilling to listen to the goddess who says bad things.
7. It seems best to the wise to speak the truth. [Not impossible: “It seems best to speak the truth to the wise.”]
8. It is necessary (or one ought or we ought) to drive the impious ones away from the tent of the children. [Not impossible: “It is necessary for the impious ones to march or ride away from the children’s tent.”]
9. The allies are commanding the foreigners to take the marketplace.
10. The immortals urge human beings not so say impious things.
11. Because of the fact that the enemy are remaining in the country the citizens are fleeing toward the sea.
12. It is easy for good men to write laws. [Not impossible: “It is easy to write laws for good people.”]
13. It is necessary for the sailors to await a fair wind. or The sailors ought to await a fair wind.
14. It is possible for or permitted to the generals to harm the enemy.
III.
3.
4.
5.
1. They are
2.
3.
6. You (s. [masc.]) are wicked.
7. We are not wise.
8. She is wise.
9. It is difficult.
II.
1. ἄξιόν ἐστι(ν).
2. αἴτιοί εἰσιν οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι. or οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι αἴτιοί εἰσιν, or
Ἀθηναῖοί εἰσιν αἴτιοι. or αἴτιοι οἱ Ἀθηναῖοί εἰσιν.
3. ἡ μάχη ἐστὶ μακρά. or ἡ μάχη μακρά ἐστι. or
or
4. ἀθάνατοί ἐσμεν
5. ναύτης εἰμί.
6. ὅσιος εἶ. or ὁσία εἶ. or εἶ ὅσιος. or εἶ
ὁσία.
7. δίκαιοί ἐστε. or δίκαιαί ἐστε.
III.
10. Be pious (pl. fem. addressees).
11. It is not a stone.
12. The beautiful exists.
8. ἡ ἐπιορκία οὐ δικαία ἐστίν. or οὐκ ἔστι δικαία ἡ ἐπιορκία. or ἡ ἐπιορκία ἐστὶν οὐ δικαία. or οὐ δικαία ἡ ἐπιορκία ἐστίν. or οὐ δικαία ἐστὶν ἡ ἐπιορκία. or ἡ ἐπιορκία οὐκ ἔστι δικαία.
9. αἰτία ἐστίν.
10. μικρά ἐστιν ἡ ψῆφος. or
μικρά. or
or
11. ὁ τύραννός ἐστιν ὀ στρατηγός. or
1. (a) The majority of the citizens are just. (b) genitive, partitive
2. (a) For (or in the eyes of) the wicked man the laws are not fine. (b) dative of reference
3. (a) The desire for wealth persuades human beings to suffer evils. (b) genitive, objective
4. (a) On the following day they write a peace treaty. (b) dative of time when
5. (a) The immortals are responsible for good things for mankind. (b) genitive, objective with αἴτιος
6. (a) The victory belongs to the Athenians. (b) genitive of possession
7. (a) The impious men are taking small stones from the river with which they are pelting the shrine. (b) dative of means or instrument
8. (a) There is no need to mention the enemy’s fear. (b) genitive, subjective
9. (a) Do fine things and avoid unjust deeds. (b) accusative, direct object
10. (a) In the previous battle most of the hoplites do not flee. (b) nominative, subject
2.
3.
4.
5.
7.
unit eleven I.
1. 1 pl. pres. act. ind. of σπένδω, we are pouring libations
2. 2 s. pres. m./p. ind. of μάχομαι, you (s.) are fighting
3. 2 pl. pres. m./p. ind. of κόπτω, you (pl.) are beating your breast [i.e., in mourning] OR you are being beaten; OR 2 pl. pres. m./p. impt. of κόπτω, beat your breast [i.e., in mourning] (pl.) OR be beaten (pl.)
4. 3 pl. pres. m./p. ind. of γράφω, they are indicting or they are being drawn or written
5. 2 s. pres. act. ind. of λαμβάνω, you (s.) are taking
6. 3 s. pres. m./p. ind. of γίγνομαι, she or he is being born or it is happening
7. pres. act. inf. of πράττω, to do
8. 1 s. pres. m./p. ind. of βουλεύω, I am deliberating
9. 3 pl. pres. m./p. ind. of ἔρχομαι, they are going
10. 2 s. pres. m./p. ind. of ἔχω, you (s.) cling to or you (s.) are being held
11. 3 s. pres. m./p. ind. of λέγω, it is being said or it is said
12. 2 pl. pres. m./p. ind. of οἴομαι, you (pl.) believe OR 2 pl. pres. m./p. impt. of οἴομαι, believe (pl.)
13. 2 pl. pres. act. ind. of πάσχω, you (pl.) suffer OR 2 pl. pres. act. impt. of πάσχω, suffer (pl.)
14. 3 pl. pres. act. ind. of εἰμί, they are
15. pres. m./p. inf. of πολιτεύω, to participate in politics
16. 3 s. pres. m./p. ind. of βούλομαι, she or he wants
17. 3 pl. pres. act. ind. of δικάζω, they serve as jurors
18. 1 pl. pres. m./p. ind. of σπένδω, we are making a truce
19. 2 s. pres. act. impt. of ἀποκτείνω, kill (s.)
20. 2 s. pres. m./p. ind. of αἰσθάνομαι, you (s.) perceive
21. 2 s. pres. m./p. impt. of ἔχω, cling to (s.)
22. 2 pl. pres. act. ind. of βλάπτω, you (pl.) are harming OR 2 pl. pres. act. impt. of βλάπτω, harm (pl.)
23. 3 s. pres. m./p. ind. of βάλλω, it is being thrown or she or he or it is being pelted
24. 2 s. pres. m./p. ind. of ἄγω, you (s.) are being led
25. 2 pl. pres. m./p. ind. of παρακελεύομαι, you (pl.) are exhorting OR 2 pl. pres. m./p. impt. of παρακελεύομαι, exhort (pl.)
26. 3 pl. pres. m./p. ind. of πυνθάνομαι, they are inquiring
27. 3 s. pres. m./p. ind. of δικάζω, she or he pleads a case
28. 1 pl. pres. act. ind. of ἀκούω, we hear
29. 3 s. pres. m./p. ind. of λείπω, she or he or it is being left
30. 2 s. pres. m./p. impt. of γίγνομαι, become (s.)
II.
1. ἐρχόμεθα
2. δικάζει
3. ἔχεσθε
4. βούλονται
5. παρασκευάζου
6. δικάζεται
7. σπένδουσι(ν)
8. βουλεύεσθε
9. παρακελεύῃ
10. πυνθανόμεθα
11. λύεται
III.
12. πυνθάνονται or ἀκούουσι(ν)
13. τάττεσθε
14. γυμνάζεσθαι
15. πολιτεύομαι
16. μάχονται
17. οἴῃ
18. ἄγεται
19. γραφόμεθα
20. γίγνονται
21. ἀρχόμεθα
22. πυνθάνεσθαι
23. οὐκ ἐθέλω
24. παρασκευάζειν
25. οἴεται
26. ἐσμέν
27. εἶναι
28. κόπτεται
29. φέρεσθαι or ἄγεσθαι
30. εὑρίσκεσθε
1. In the war against the foreigners (or the Persians) the Athenians are fighting against brave enemies.
2. Generals must deliberate.
3. They command the hoplites to position themselves (or be positioned) alongside the river.
4. Do not make a truce, but desire to fight.
5. By means of difficult toils victory comes about for the Athenians. or By means of difficult toils the Athenians get a victory.
6. They make a truce on the following day.
7. One must cling to one’s honor.
8. You are being harmed not by the enemy but by the soldiers who exhort (you) to flee.
9. It is not possible for (the) children to pour libations to the gods.
10. The sailors are being driven by the winds toward the land of the foreigners.
11. Hear the arguments or speeches, Athenians, and deliberate.
12. Fight, young man, beside your comrades, and win victory for yourself.
13. Most of the soldiers are unwilling to flee.
14. The children are being led into or toward the shrine by their teacher.
15. Be worthy of the office that the citizen entrust (to you).
16. It seems best to Isaeus to marry the sister of the poet.
unit twelve
I.
1. in front of the tents
2. under the power (or control) of the impious master
3. in accordance with the judgment of the judge
4. concerning the honor of the Athenians
5. on behalf of the same friends
6. under the power (or control) of the enemy
7. (up) along the road
II.
1. The wise fare well; the bad do not.
2. We want to have not war but peace.
8. throughout the previous day
9. in return for her toils
10. across (or over) the sea
11. under (or into) the tent
12. around the marketplace
13. against the umpires
14. before the battle itself
15. toward or against the foreigners
16. about (or over) victory
17. in accordance with the just account
18. by those in the shrine
3. The citizens pour libations to the gods who fight on behalf of the country. For they are responsible for (its or their) faring well.
4. The land across the river into which his children are going is beautiful.
5. By both the Athenians themselves and their allies the foreigners are now justly being harmed.
6. To do just things is difficult for most people but easy for the wise.
7. She or he exhorts the citizens to be pious both now and in the future.
8. Good men always want to have honor instead of wealth.
9. Peisistratus is now arranging the foot soldiers here beside the sea, while Isaeus and the sailors are easily going up the river. For it seems best to them to leave the army now or immediately.
10. The priestess is entrusting the majority of the slaves to her brother; but they immediately want to flee, for they are in a bad way.
11. The teacher orders the young men to bear their toils well, but they are not willing to obey him.
III.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6. ὁ μὲν τὴν ἀλήθειαν
7.
8.
9.
1. δοκοῦμεν
2. φοβοῦνται
3. ὠφελεῖς
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
10.
25. ποιοῦμεν
26. γράφῃ
II.
1. you (pl.) are ill or [unlikely] be ill (pl.) 2 pl. pres. act. ind. [or impt.] of νοσέω
2. they ask for 3 pl. pres. m./p. ind. of δέομαι
3. to seem pres. act. inf. of δοκέω
4. I am liked
1 s. pres. m./p. ind. of φιλέω
5. we seize 1 pl. pres. act. ind. of αἱρέω
6. she or he or it helps 3 s. pres. act. ind. of ὠφελέω
7. to arrive pres. m./p. inf. of ἀφικνέομαι
8. you (s.) are being conquered
9. they seem
2 s. pres. m./p. ind. of κρατέω
3 pl. pres. act. ind. of δοκέω
10. I dwell 1 s. pres. act. ind. of οἰκέω
11. you (pl.) are being wronged 2 pl. pres. m./p. ind. of ἀδικέω or [unlikely] be wronged (pl.)
12. she or he arrives
2 pl. pres. m./p. impt. of ἀδικέω
3 s. pres. m./p. ind. of ἀφικνέομαι
13. to terrify pres. act. inf. of φοβέω
14. you (s.) make 2 s. pres. act. ind. of ποιέω
15. we are afraid 1 pl. pres. m./p. ind. of φοβέω
16. she or he inquires
3 s. pres. m./p. ind. of πυνθάνομαι
17. you (s.) hear 2 s. pres. act. ind. of ἀκούω
18. you (s.) find for yourself or you (s.) are being discovered
2 s. pres. m./p. ind. of εὑρίσκω
19. to do wrong pres. act. inf. of ἀδικέω
20. it is necessary
3 s. pres. act. ind. of δέω or δεῖ
21. they conquer 3 pl. pres. act. ind. of κρατέω
22. they are being inhabited
23. we choose or we are being seized
24. you (pl.) love or love (pl.)
25. you (s.) engage in politics
26. help (s.)
27. it is being made or she or he makes for herself or himself
28. you (s.) seem
29. I am being aided
30. we are becoming
3 pl. pres. m./p. ind. of οἰκέω
1 pl. pres. m./p. ind. of αἱρέω
2 pl. pres. act. ind. or impt. of φιλέω
2 s. pres. m./p. ind. of πολιτεύω
2 s. pres. act. impt. of ὠφελέω
3 s. pres. m./p. ind. of ποιέω
2 s. pres. act. ind. of δοκέω
1 s. pres. m./p. ind. of ὠφελέω
1 pl. pres. m./p. ind. of γίγνομαι
III.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6. ἐκείνη
IV.
7.
9.
1. The foreigners whom those men are conquering dwell by the sea.
2. These women terrify the children; those are afraid of them.
3. On this day it seems best to the citizens to make peace with the enemy, for most of the soldiers are sick.
4. Those people do wrong to the good but help the bad.
5. The wise general has need of the following, I suppose: deliberating well before the battle and faring well in the battle.
6. This man easily wins honor for himself; so just and wise does he seem to the citizens because of the fine laws that he writes.
7. The sailors who arrive here always seem to aid the foreigners or the Persians.
8. While these brothers dwell in the same house, their sisters dwell in the shrine with the priestesses.
9. Do not choose in life the easy (things) but the noble. or Choose in life not the easy but the noble.
10. We beseech also the Athenians not shamefully to desert the Greeks there.
unit fourteen
I.
1. χάρι
2. γέρουσι(ν)
3. ὕδωρ
4. ποιημάτων
5. λέοντες
6. ὀδόντι
7. ἐλπίδες
8. φάλαγγος
9. ὄρνιθι
10. ἔριδας
II.
11. γιγάντων
12. κλῶπες
13. πρᾶγμα
14. Ἑλλάδι
15. φύλαξι(ν)
16. ἀσπίδος
17. πατρίδας
18. τέρατα
19. γράμμα
20. βουλευμάτων
1. gen. pl. of θώραξ, θώρακος, f.
2. dat. pl. of λέων, λέοντος, m.
3. dat. sing. of φῶς, φωτός, n.
4. acc. pl. of ὀδούς, ὀδόντος, m.
5. nom. or acc. or voc. pl. of βούλευμα, βουλεύματος, n.
6. gen. sing. of φάλαγξ, φάλαγγος, f.
7. acc. sing. of ἐλπίς, ἐλπίδος, f.
8. nom. or voc. pl. of ὄρνις, ὄρνιθος, m. or f.
9. dat. sing. of φύλαξ, φύλακος, m.
10. gen. sing. of ἔρις, ἔριδος, f.
11. nom. sing. of πατρίς, πατρίδος, f.
12. dat. pl. of ἀσπίς, ἀσπίδος, f.
III.
21. θώρακι
22. ὄρνιν
23. γίγαν
24. γράμμασι(ν)
25. φῶς
26. ὑδάτων
27. ὄρνιθες
28. χάριτι
29. φύλακες
30. φυγάδος
13. nom. or voc. pl. of κλώψ, κλωπός, m.
14. dat. pl. of ποίημα, ποιήματος, n.
15. nom. or acc. or voc. sing. of πρᾶγμα, πράγματος, n.
16. acc. sing. of χάρις, χάριτος, f.
17. acc. sing. of Ἑλλάς, Ἑλλάδος, f.
18. dat. pl. of φυγάς, φυγάδος, m. or f.
19. gen. pl. of ὕδωρ, ὕδατος, n.
20. acc. pl. of γίγας, γίγαντος, m.
21. gen. pl. of γέρων, γέροντος, m.
22. dat. pl. of ὀδούς, ὀδόντος, m.
23. gen. sing. of φῶς, φωτός, n.
24. dat. sing. of ὕδωρ, ὕδατος, n.
1. Because of the good omens we are not afraid of the war against those people.
2. It is bad to abandon one’s shield but good to save one’s life.
3. After this [literally, these things] the old men carry water to the young men who are fighting on behalf of the fatherland.
4. The sentinels whom the enemy capture are put to death.
5. Heracles must defeat both the lion in Nemea and the giants and the monsters throughout Greece.
6. Health is a good thing for human beings, but it is bad to feel ill or be in bad shape.
7. Worthy poems are not written by bad or wretched poets.
8. In wartime we want to hear the portents that the gods seem to send, but in peacetime we do not.
9. The sister of the exile does not remain in the house but is always beside the doors. And then the tyrant seizes her but is afraid to put her to death.
IV.
1.
2.
3.
4.
unit Fifteen I.
1. dat. sing. of ἔτος, ἔτους, n.
2. gen. sing. of Σωκράτης, Σωκράτους, m.
3. nom. or acc. or voc. pl. of τεῖχος, τείχους, n.
4. gen. sing. of πατήρ, πατρός, m.
5. dat. sing. of Ἕλλην, Ἕλληνος, m.
6. gen. pl. of δαίμων, δαίμονος, m. or f.
7. dat. pl. of ῥήτωρ, ῥήτορος, m.
8. acc. pl. of μήτηρ, μητρός, f.
9. voc. sing. of θυγάτηρ, θυγατρός, f.
10. nom. or acc. or voc. pl. of κράτος, κράτους, n.
11. gen. pl. of μέρος, μέρους, n.
12. dat. sing. of γῆρας, γήρως, n.
13. dat. pl. of τριήρης, τριήρους, f.
14. dat. sing. of ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός, m.
15. acc. sing. of ἅλς, ἁλός, m. or f.
16. acc. sing. of ἀγών, ἀγῶνος, m.
17. voc. sing. of Δημοσθένης, Δημοσθένους, m.
18. nom. or acc. or voc. pl. of γέρας, γέρως, n.
19. gen. sing. of πλῆθος, πλήθους, n.
20. nom. or acc. or voc. sing. of τέλος, τέλους, n.
21. gen. pl. masc. or fem. or neuter of τίς, τί
22. acc. pl. of ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός, m.
23. voc. sing. of πατήρ, πατρός, m.
24. acc. sing. of τριήρης, τριήρους, f.
25. gen. sing. of γῆρας, γήρως, n.
26. acc. sing. masc. or fem. or nom. or acc. pl. neuter of τίς, τί
27. dat. sing. of κράτος, κράτους, n.
28. nom. or voc. pl. of δαίμων, δαίμονος, m. or f.
29. dat. pl. of ἀγών, ἀγῶνος, m.
30. dat. pl. masc. or fem. or neuter of τίς, τί
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might once have been the scene of the celebration of religious ceremonies, of a very different character to those which distinguish the modern faith.
Although it was so early when we reached the church of Abbo, Walderheros proposed breakfasting. I accordingly dismounted, and after a gaze upwards at the largest tree I had seen since I left England, took my seat beneath its widely-extended branches, upon one of a number of small boulders which had rolled from the rocks above. A quantity of long strips of grilled mutton, was produced, and some teff bread, a large manuscript-like roll of which Walderheros carried tied up in his mekanet or girdle. This useful part of an Abyssinian dress is only worn by the men when engaged out of doors. It is one long piece of cotton cloth, about one cubit, or from the point of the elbow to the ends of the fingers, broad, and fifteen, twenty, or sometimes even thirty cubits long. A girdle similar to this was worn by the Jews. Sometimes in Abyssinia it is taken from the loins of a prisoner to secure his hands, exactly as it is said to have been done in Judea.
After breakfast we proceeded along the base of the large hill upon which Ankobar stands, the road winding around its south and west aspects. We then fell into the usual high road on the west of the town, which proceeds along the steep face of the valley, midway between its crest and the level of the stream below. We crossed, by gentle undulations of the road, several short projecting spurs, all of which seemed to be the productive farms of industrious individuals. Thatched residences of mud and sticks, with yellow stacks of grain, were perched upon their extremities, overlooking the sudden cliff-like termination of these subordinate ridges, cut by the action of the constantly running water of the Airahra.
Fording this river, we commenced the fatiguing ascent of the Tchakkah, and after little less than an hour’s trot were breathing ourselves at the “resting stone,” Koom Dingi. After a short halt, we continued our journey over the moor-like solitary fields that, unbroken by hedge, stone fence, or ditch, appeared in endless succession before us. But the reader must understand that, although the general appearance of the country is so flat, he is only reminded
of it by the long level lines that bound the view on each side, for, generally speaking, the road lies in broad shallow water-worn channels, which, like hollow ways with banks ten or twelve feet high, have intersected in all directions this formerly undeviating level country. I always fancied that at one time it must have been the bottom of a deeply rolling sea, and what adds considerably to this impression is, the almost total absence of trees, and the bald, gray, stony, appearance of the stratum of light coloured porphyritic trachyte which overlies the whole country, and which looks as if it had only been raised from the waters a short time before. This super stratum of rock is very easily decomposed, and forms a fertile soil for the cultivation of wheat and barley, but its general appearance, unless covered with the crops, is quite the reverse.
About half way to Angolalah we crossed two or three of the earlier tributaries of the Barissa, which is a small river that collects the waters falling to the west of Tchakkah, and conducts them to the Abi or Nile of Bruce. All streams to the east of Tchakkah descend precipitously to join the Hawash. The Barissa derives its name from having been, previous to the reign of the present Negoos, the “boundary” between the Gallas and the Christian inhabitants of Shoa. It passes to the west of Debra Berhan, flowing towards the north, and joins the Jumma in the district of Marabetee. The Jumma also receives the Tcherkos river, or Lomee wans, which is now the western boundary of the kingdom of Shoa, the district intervening between it and the Barissa, a distance of about sixteen miles, having been annexed to his dominions within the last few years by Sahale Selassee. The Jumma, after receiving the Barissa, and other streams, of the kingdoms of Amhara and of Shoa, joins the Abi near where that river, after flowing to the south from Lake Dembea, turns suddenly to the west, and forms the southern border of the province of Gojam.
We arrived at Angolahlah before noon, and Walderheros took me to the house of a friend of his, named Karissa. The weather, although only the latter end of June, was dreadfully cold, and being very tired and ill, I preferred rolling myself immediately up in my bedclothes, consisting of two Abyssinian tobes, which my servant had
carried with him in a skin-bag, rather than sit up to eat of some hard parched corn which was set before me by one of the women of the house.
In the mean time, Walderheros went to the palace to announce my arrival, and to request an interview with the Negoos. It was a long time before he returned, and I began to think, that like Mr. Krapf’s servant at Farree, he might have been imprisoned for aiding me in coming to Angolalah without permission. In about two hours, however, he made his appearance, bearing on his head a large conical covered straw basket, which contained a flat loaf of excellent wheaten bread. With one hand he steadied this load in its elevated position, whilst in the other, he carried by a strong loop handle of rope, a round earthenware pot, the contents of which were as yet a secret to me. Across one shoulder was also slung an enormous bullock’s horn, the diameter of the base of which was not less than seven inches, full of an agreeable sweet wine, called “tedge,” made of honey, and not at all a bad beverage. I was astonished at the ease with which he seemed to have procured these provisions; and the visions of my Dankalli servant in Adal and the representation I had seen of the Egyptian god, Harpocrates, similarly burdened, recurred to my mind, as the abundance of the land I was in, was illustrated by the appearance of Walderheros on his return from the palace. Besides the refreshments that he bore himself, he was followed by a stream of people, two of them carrying a tressel for my bed, another an oxskin to throw over it, then came others with fire-wood, also two women with large jars of water, and the procession closed by four men bearing a small black tent of coarse woollen cloth, which was set up in a very short time, for my accommodation.
When I had taken possession of my new quarters, the tent was thronged for the rest of the day by curious or busy people, some bearing messages for Walderheros from the palace; others, making anxious inquiries as to my reasons for coming to Angolalah; and not a few were begging of me to intercede for them with the Negoos, to reinstate them into his good graces, which, for some dereliction of duty it seemed, they had lost; and now hoped that by my mediation their sins would be forgiven. Two superior officers of the household
of the Negoos, also sat with me nearly the whole day, Waarkie, an Armenian, long resident in Shoa, and Sartwold the chief of the “affaroitsh,” or distributors of the rations to stranger guests. The former understood a little Arabic, and we managed to converse together very well. He told me, that instead of my being sent out of the kingdom, he was quite certain I should become a great favourite with the Negoos. The order sent for my removal from Aliu Amba, was occasioned by the ill-natured un-English representations of the officers of the Embassy who had told Waarkie himself, that I did not belong to their party, that they did not know who I was, and adding, to assist me still more, that I was very poor, and could give no presents to the Negoos. I felt very much hurt, and annoyed, at these unfair representations, and produced a letter which I had received from the Indian Government in Calcutta, addressed to the princes in Africa, who were friendly disposed to England. This I had previously kept back from a feeling of delicacy towards our representative at the Court of Shoa, but now determined to forward it to the Negoos by Sartwold, who readily consented to carry it up to the palace, Walderheros accompanying him to bring me back the answer. Waarkie, who could not read the Persian character, in which the letter was written, went in search of some Islam visitor at Court, who would be able to translate it for the Negoos.
As evening now closed in, I retired to rest; sometime after which my servant returned with the letter, and a couple of lemons sent by the Negoos, with a message that I should be called on the morrow to an interview with him.
Long before it was light, I was awakened by loud shouts of “abiad,” “abiad,” raised at short intervals, and apparently at some distance. On applying to Walderheros for an explanation of this uproar, he made me understand with some difficulty, that it arose from the petitioners for justice, calling upon the Negoos to hear them. It appears that after a case has been heard in the lower courts, if they may be so called, held before the governors of the town in which the conflicting parties reside, if either complain of his decision, an appeal may be made to the king himself. A company of the friends of the dissatisfied assemble, in as great a number as the
influence of the party or the justice of the case can collect. These sometimes, so early as midnight, take up a position on a height overlooking the town, and opposite to that on which the palace stands. Half-a-mile, at least, intervenes between the two places. Here they keep up a continual shouting “abiad,” “abiad,” (justice,) until a messenger from the Negoos comes to know the nature of their complaint, and to introduce them into his presence. On this occasion, I did not understand sufficient of the language to learn the particulars of the case, but as the Negoos is the most easily accessible, the most patient listener, and the most upright judge that I ever heard praised by word of mouth, or read of among the most laudatory history of kings, I have no doubt that the cry of his people that awoke me this morning was duly attended to, the case investigated, and the strictest justice awarded.
The Dankalli may well style Sahale Selassee, “a fine balance of gold,” for even now, when thinking of his character, the most lively pictures recur to my mind of instances of his kindness and feeling for the happiness of his subjects, which I have witnessed myself. Excepting the cruelty, and dissimulation, practised towards the unfortunate tribes of Gallas who surround his dominions, and which he has been taught to consider from his childhood, to be praiseworthy acts, which will secure the approbation of God; excepting this, nothing in his character can, I think, be justly assailed. The fears of his Christian, and the hopes of his Islam subjects, that he would renounce the faith in which he has been brought up, and profess Islamism, redounds considerably to his character as a reflecting man, and a proof of the really capacious mind he possesses; for none who are aware of the gross superstition and confusion most confused, of the tenets of the Greek Church as professed in Abyssinia, can feel surprised that a naturally sagacious mind, should refuse the trammels of absurdity and error, to embrace the reasonable simplicity of the profession of one true and only God, which is the real basis and great recommendation of the Mahomedan belief.
It is the false consolation of an easily-satisfied Christianity to believe, that the licentiousness, which an abuse of the Mahomedan
religion most certainly encourages, is the chief inducement which converts so rapidly, whole states to the profession of the Islam faith. A little observation soon proves, that although the sensual indulgences it sanctions, and the promises contained in the Koran, enlist the worst passions of man in favour of its continuance, when once that religion has obtained a firm hold upon the opinion of a people; still, that these causes have but little influence in effecting a change from a previous belief.
Wherever a patriarchal, or even a feudal government exists, there the mass of the people are directed in their conduct, and in their ideas of right and wrong, entirely by the leading minds that circumstances have made their superiors. The doctrine that “the king can do no wrong,” appears to be a traditional continuance of this blind confidence in the ruling powers which characterized the state of society in Europe, at an early date; and which is still, to this day, the universal principle of government in all native African states. In that Continent, sagacious and intelligent princes, concentrate the energies of extensive empires, but at their decease, revolutions occur to re-adjust the limits of power again, according to the capabilities of the various ambitious claimants that may spring up. The greatest minds obtain the largest dominion, and when these appear among the professors of superstitious religions, soon feel a contempt for the absurd pretensions and the moral falsehoods their superior mental powers instinctively detect. Too frequently, having no idea of a rational system of theology, but aware of the value of religion as an engine of state policy, they wisely profess and encourage the ancient faith. Let, however, a doctrine be preached that is more adapted to reason and common sense, and which promises equal security to the continuance of social order and of kingly rule: its professors in that case are always found to be received into the highest favour by wise and sagacious princes, who perceive in the new opinions upon an important subject, that satisfaction of the reason which the absurd representations of superstitious religion have only disgusted or amused. Such princes converted to a rational belief, have but to promulgate their adhesion to be followed by the whole of their courtiers, who again impose it upon their dependants, from whom the process passes on to their
slaves, and one universal obsequiousness characterizes the conversion of people so situated.
This was the principle that led whole states of Europe, in the earlier feudal ages, to be baptized together, and which, at the present time, is the chief cause of the fast progress of Mahomedanism in Africa. Princes of extraordinary powers of intellect are first converted, who, in the simple unembodied unity of the Deity perceive no absurdity, nor yet dare to deny. Atheism is a sin peculiarly of civilization, for the nearer man approaches barbarism the more predisposed he becomes to a belief in a Providence; and this, in fact, distinguishes him, in his most abject state, from the beasts of the field who defile the inanimate idols he in his ignorance bows down to and worships. The Christianity of Abyssinia is a religion spoiled by human intervention; it appears to be a faith too pure for the nature of the inhabitants, and they have accordingly disfigured it to reduce it to their condition. Abyssinians have, by their abuse of the revered name of the Redeemer of mankind, brought his religion into contempt; whilst the professors of Islamism respect Jesus as a prophet, and profess to worship the Deity he adored. Is it, therefore, to be wondered at, that princes of superior intellects should reject the former and adopt the latter faith, as we know to have been the case with the previously Christian King of Enarea, who, within the last few years, has professed the Mahomedan belief. Sahale Selassee, the monarch of Shoa, universally acknowledged to be the greatest of Abyssinian potentates, was on the verge of a similar repudiation of the religion of his predecessors, when the worthy and exemplary missionaries, Messrs. Isenberg and Krapf appeared in his country. I am too apt to feel the zealot, but every one must admit with me, that that important visit was not a human ordination, for Sahale Selassee’s conversion would have been the downfall of the Christian religion in Abyssinia. Even the political mission to Shoa, which has failed in its proposed objects, yet affords some consolation by supposing that the evidences of our wealth and power, demonstrated by the presents which were laid at his feet by our representative, will confirm him in his renewed attachment to our religion, which only requires his countenance, to contend successfully in Abyssinia against the encroachments of the Islam
faith, until fresh efforts shall be made by the friends of the Gospel in this country, more firmly to establish the pure faith of Christ in that benighted land.
Among more savage tribes, again, Islamism has other recommendations, for the missionaries of that religion, the merchants from the sea-coast who journey in to the interior of Africa, are immeasurably more affluent than the chiefs whose territories they visit. Besides, the imposing effect of publicly praying, the apparent devotion of their many genuflections and prostrations, the splendid finery of their large rosaries, added to which, their great ostentation of wealth where personal security is assured, soon influence the poor, ignorant, and wondering natives. The Islam factor is confessedly the greatest man among them; and his manners are copied, and his creed adopted, by the operation of the same human feelings, which in England or France make a lion or constitute a fashion, with this recommendation on the part of the savages, that their admiration is by far the most permanent.
CHAPTER IX.
Court dress.—Palace of Angolahlah.—Interview with Negoos.— Memolagee.—Invited to house of Tinta.—Supplies from palace.— Return to Ankobar.
June 30th.—This morning, after a breakfast of bread and cayenne pottage, which proved to be the contents of the little earthenware jar carried back from the palace the day before, I was sent for, to present myself immediately before the Negoos. Understanding that it was etiquette to appear before royalty either with the upper part of the body, above the waist, quite naked, or else, on the contrary, closely clothed up, I chose the latter alternative, and put over my blowse dress my black Arab cloak, and following the messenger, walked up the side of the low hill upon which the Palace of Angolahlah stands. This ridge, scarcely one hundred feet high, is a red ferruginous basaltic dyke, which has here protruded through the general surface rock of grey columnar porphyry. The rock of which it consists contains so much iron as to render the compass completely useless in taking bearings, and the oxidization, where it is exposed to the action of the atmosphere, occasions the bright red colour of the hill. The circumscribed, but nearly level summit, is occupied by the several courts of the royal residence, the palace buildings, long thatched houses, standing in the centre of all.
An irregular stockade of splintered ted (a juniper pine), twelve or fourteen feet high, is carried around the edge of the ridge, and the enclosed area, in its longest direction, exceeds three hundred yards. This is subdivided into courts, the first of which is entered from the town by a low gateway that scarcely affords passage to a person mounted upon a mule, although it is a privilege of the principal courtiers to ride so far before they dismount, when they visit the Negoos.
Through this court we passed, for about twenty yards, between two rows of noisy beggars, male and female, old, middle-aged, and young; who, leprous, scrofulous, and maimed, exhibited the most disgusting sores, and implored charity for the sake of Christ and the Virgin Mary. I was glad to escape from their piteous importunity, and I passed quickly through another row of palings by a narrow wicket into a second court, something more extensive than the other, where I found a crowd of people listening to an orator, who, with shoulders and body bare to his middle, was addressing three or four turbaned monks who sat in an open alcove, beneath the long projecting eaves of a thatched roof. This I was given to understand by Walderheros, who followed close behind me, was a court of justice, from whose decision, if the parties did not feel satisfied, they appealed to the King. As we passed through a third wicket, a small enclosure on one side attracted my attention, from the circumstance of several prisoners, shackled by the wrists and ancles with bright and apparently much-worn fetters, endeavouring to get a peep at me through the interstices of their wooden prison. In the next court was collected a great heap of stones, upon which a number of people were sitting; and here also I was desired to be seated, as I found out, among the noblemen of the country; for at first I objected to such a lowly couch, until I saw the Wallasmah, whom I knew to be the most powerful of any of the subjects of Sahale Selassee, sitting very contented, wrapt up in his white tobe, his black bald head, little eyes and snub nose, alone appearing from above its ample folds. There were many others of nearly equal rank, who were waiting to see the Negoos; so choosing the sunniest spot unoccupied, did in Shoa as I saw the Shoans do, and sat down with the rest upon the hard stones.
I had scarcely comported myself so unassumingly when its due reward followed, by being summoned immediately afterwards into the presence of the Negoos. I found his majesty in the next court, which was nearly circular, and surrounded by a low stone wall instead of the high, ragged palisades, that three times before fence his retreat about. Several long low houses stood around, serving as stores and offices, and conspicuous among them was the little round cottage, about twenty-two feet in diameter, that was then being
erected by Capt. Graham. One of the thatched houses was raised to a second story, open in front, each side of which was ornamented with trellicework of very rude carpentry. In this elevated alcove, upon a couch, covered with red velvet, and reposing upon large cushions of yellow-coloured satin lay the Negoos of Shoa, Sahale Selassee, whilst many-coloured Persian carpets covered the floor, and hung over outside into the court.
I uncovered my head after the most approved court fashion, at least as far as I knew anything of the matter, but a slight movement of the considerate monarch instructed me that he desired I should keep my cap on whilst standing in the sun, addressing me at the same time by an Arabic expression, signifying “How do you do.”
This mode of commencing the conversation rather puzzled me, for simple as was the salutation, I had forgotten the meaning of “kiphanter” and fancying it to be some Amharic word, turned for assistance to Walderheros, who, however, dropped his nether jaw, and looked a vacant “I don’t know; don’t ask me.” Waarkie, who stood with numerous other courtiers around the royal couch, came to the edge of the stage, and repeated the word, upon which, recollecting myself, I bowed in return, and taking out my letter I had received in Calcutta, held it up for Waarkie to take it, and hand to the Negoos, as I hoped from his being so conversant with Arabic, he might be able to decipher it without the aid of an interpreter. This, however, I soon saw he could not do, for upon looking at it, not being able to make anything of it the right way, he turned it upside down, to see if it would read any easier in that position. Two mollums, or learned Mahomedan scribes, attendants of the Wallasmah Mahomed, were now summoned, but they soon confessed themselves at fault with the Persian character. Very fortunately for my reputation, a large round Government seal occupied one-third of the paper, and some of the characters upon it being recognised as Arabic, the document at length was reported to be genuine, or I should have been set down as an impostor as well as an adventurer. The seal having thus impressed them with the official character of the letter, the mollums satisfied the King that they could make out that I was represented in it to be a good man, and after one of them
had been instructed to ask me what presents I had brought for the Negoos, they were ordered to depart.
Having understood from the members of the Mission, on my first arrival, that it was an invariable custom, on introduction to the monarch, to make him some present, I had accordingly provided myself with a few yards of rich Chinese silk velvet, and a curiouslyworked bead purse, which contained a stone ring, cut out of a piece of green-coloured jaspar. Each was handed up in succession to the Negoos for his inspection; after having been duly described and registered upon a strip of parchment by a scribe who stood at my elbow for that purpose. As each was presented, the Negoos slightly bowed, and said, in his own language, “Egzeer ista” (God return it to you).
A short conversation with his courtiers, who stood with the upper parts of the body completely uncovered, was followed by a request on the part of the Negoos, that I should ask from him whatever I desired. I begged to be allowed to remain in Shoa until after the rains, and then to have permission and his assistance to proceed to Enarea. A slight inclination of assent, with an abrupt recommendation of me to the care of heaven by his majesty, terminated the interview, and I retired, followed by Walderheros, who appeared highly delighted with the graciousness of my reception, and was evidently speculating upon the bright prospects before him from the opportunities I might have of pushing his fortunes at court, for the precincts of which he seemed to have a great predilection.
Immediately after returning to my tent, a large goat was sent to me by the Negoos, and an inconvenient command that I should remain for the day at Angolahlah. There was nothing that I desired less, for the cold weather, the thin shelter of the tent, and my expected attack of the fever paroxysm on this day, made me anxious to proceed at once, after my visit to the palace, to my comparatively comfortable quarters in Aliu Amba, where the climate was so much more temperate and agreeable. I sent Walderheros to report the circumstance of my being very ill, and he fortunately met Tinta, who was coming down to see me, having been appointed to act as my “balderabah.” This is an officer who attends to the wants of a
stranger guest, and is responsible to the Negoos for any neglect of the duties of hospitality. He also is the channel of communication between the monarch and his visitors, nor can any other person of the royal household undertake the duties of, or become the deputy of another in this office, so that it not unfrequently happens that an inconvenient detention in one of the courts of the palace takes place, if the balderabah happens not to be present to announce to the Negoos the presence or the business of his client. As the balderabah is always chosen from among the principal men about the court, the office is somewhat analogous to that of the patrons which characterized the state of society among the ancient Romans. The signification of the name “balderabah,” in the Amharic language is, the master or opener of the door.
Tinta came down, and after announcing to me that I had permission to remain in his town, and that he was appointed my “friend at court,” gave into my hand a little piece of parchment, about an inch and a half square upon which was written in the Geez language, “Give to this Gypt, eating and drinking,” nothing more, but which constituted me a “balla durgo,” that is, master or receiver of rations. “Gypt,” the Amharic for Egyptian, is the cognomen generally applied to all white men who visit Abyssinia, they being supposed to come from Egypt.[8]
The durgo, or rations, supplied to strangers whilst resident in their country, is a general custom among Abyssinian princes, and is of very great antiquity. It is considered that all persons visiting the kingdom come only as friends of the monarch, who, in the exercise of his hospitality, takes upon himself the whole expense of their sustenance, so that no excuse may be made for intriguing or interfering in the ordered state of things, as regards the rule or security of the kingly power. A deviation from the policy of noninterference on the part of the guest would then be justly considered an act of great ingratitude; nor when such a conservative principle is involved in the observance of hospitality towards strangers, can we be surprised at the indignation which marks several tirades in the productions of the ancient poets, when this custom was more
general than in modern times, against individuals who have thus erred in their duties to the hosts who have entertained them.
Moreover, when departing from an Abyssinian country, the audience of leave-taking is supposed to terminate with a blessing bestowed upon the king by the guest, who acknowledges in this manner the kindness with which he has been received. The blessing being withheld implies the reverse, and no little uneasiness and superstitious alarm would be occasioned in the mind of a monarch, by the idea that the stranger would revenge himself by a curse, for any neglect he may suppose himself to have been treated with.
These customs being borne in mind, to apply our knowledge of them usefully, we must compare them with similar observances which did, and still do, characterize some oriental courts; and readers perhaps will recall to mind some in the histories of ancient and modern Asiatic monarchies, that may have originated from some former connexion in one extensive empire, of the now very different and widely separated countries in which such customs are still retained. I shall content myself, however, with pointing out their strict accordance with similar usages at the court of Pharaoh, as recorded in Genesis, and which is well illustrated in the reception of the patriarch Jacob, at the court of that monarch. In the forty-seventh chapter of that book, Joseph from his connexion with the monarch, introduces his five brethren, but he first reports their arrival and obtains leave; and in nearly the same manner he acts as balderabah of Jacob, and the remainder of the family whom we find on their arrival were constituted balla-durgoitsh “receivers of rations,” for we read in the same chapter that Joseph “nourished his father, and his brethren, and all his father’s household with bread according to their families.” We are also told when Jacob retired from the presence of the monarch, “that Jacob blessed Pharaoh, and went out from before Pharaoh.”
At the hazard of being considered tedious, I shall here allude to two other instances of customs existing at the present day in Abyssinia, and which are intimately connected with the subject we are upon. The only public oath used by the inhabitants of Shoa, is of a remarkable character. “Sahale Selassee e moot.” ‘May Sahale
Selassee die,’ if such a thing be not true! is the constant ejaculation of a protesting witness, or a positive informant; and if upon a serious business, the immediate confiscation of property, and incarceration in prison, would be consequent upon a perjured imprecation made against the life of the Negoos. Joseph, accusing his brethren, in the fifteenth verse of the forty-second chapter of Genesis, says, “Hereby shall ye be proved: By the life of Pharaoh ye shall not go forth hence, except your youngest brother come hither;” and again, in the next verse, “or else by the life of Pharaoh surely ye are spies.” The very language substituting the name Sahale Selassee for that of Pharaoh, under similar circumstances, which would be used in the court of Shoa at the present day.
In the years 1830 and 1831, when cholera made its circuit of the whole earth, it visited the kingdom of Shoa. It was preceded for two successive years by a great failure of crops, both of grain and cotton, and the people in consequence, were reduced to the greatest extremity for food and clothing. Numbers fell victims from hunger alone, and to relieve their necessities, numerous acts of violence and robbery disturbed the usually peaceful state of society in Shoa. The Negoos, at this time, secured to himself the love of his subjects by the liberality of his frequent distributions of grain; but another calamity made its appearance, the cholera commenced its ravages, and he began to fear that his bounty must end by the exhaustion of his means. The famine increasing from want of the cattle which had died, to cultivate the land, the difficulty of obtaining food began also to be felt by those who had the means of purchasing it, and these intruding with their applications were supplied at a price, whilst the wretched poor were left to die. In this position, having nothing to dispose of but their labour, a starving multitude of some thousands appealed to the Negoos to grant them food, and in return to receive their freedom, or at least their services for life. This was granted, and even after the cholera had swept off nearly two-thirds of their number, above a thousand such individuals were found to be in bondage to the Negoos, and duly registered as slaves. This condition was certainly little more than nominal, for, except upon extraordinary occasions, such as constructing the bridge dams over the streams on the roads to Angolahlah, and to Debra Berhan, or
when employed building stone enclosures for the Negoos, a service scarcely ever exceeding three days in three months, this class of slaves were never called upon for regular or long-continued labour.
In the course of the ten succeeding years, however, children were born to these people, and the question then arose, as to whether they shared the bondage of their parents, or were free. This was brought to issue by the Negoos bestowing certain lands, upon which were domiciled several of these bondsmen, upon a courtier, who made a demand of service from the children, which the parents refused to admit as his right, and an appeal was made to the Negoos in consequence. The court of “Wombaroitsh,” or judges of an inferior kind, who relieve the king of all first hearings of cases, except in most important ones, and who sit in judgment in one of the courts of the palace, decided in favour of the children; but this decision, on an appeal by the courtier, was negatived by the Negoos himself, without any hearing of those unfortunates who were most interested. The “Wombaroitsh” put in a plea, however, founded upon the canons of their Church, and the numerous solicitations of the free relations of the bondpeople, induced the Negoos to acknowledge himself to have been in error, and to proclaim that the people alone, whom he had fed and clothed in the time of the famine, were his slaves for life, and that their children for the future must be considered free.
These circumstances I became acquainted with in consequence of having the daughter of one of these very bondsmen in my service, and who was old enough, at the time of the famine, to recollect the sad miseries that fell upon her own family during its continuance, until her father and two brothers sold themselves for their food, in the manner I have above related, to the future service of the Negoos.
Among others who addressed the Negoos in favour of the children, whose numbers amounted to scarcely more than five hundred, were the officers of the British Mission, a fact, however, of which I never heard until my arrival in this country, nor is it, I am afraid, very generally known to have been the case by the inhabitants of Shoa, who have no other idea but that it was the effect of religious feeling, and of the great sense of justice, for which their
sovereign, Sahale Selassee, is celebrated all over the eastern horn of Africa, and far into the interior towards the west.
I was never given to understand that the proclamation that announced the freedom of the children at all affected the condition of their parents, who, I believe, still are and will continue until death the bond servants of the Negoos.
When these circumstances were first related to me, I could not help being struck by the exact correspondence they exhibit, with the proceedings of Joseph acting as the steward of Pharaoh towards the starving Egyptians, during the infliction of the seven years’ famine upon that country; and which is another instance of the similarity of custom and of situation between that ancient people and the modern Abyssinians. The appeal, indeed, of the former to Joseph, expresses exactly the request made to the Negoos of Shoa by his subjects; “Wherefore shall we die before thine eyes, both we and our land? Buy us and the land for bread, and we and our land will be servants unto Pharaoh, and give us seed that we may live and not die, and that the land be not desolate.”
FOOTNOTES:
[8] It is rather a singular circumstance that in England we apply the term Gipsey to the descendants of an outcast people, and that a name of similar origin should designate ourselves among the only remnant of an Egyptian people that have preserved a national independency in the country whither they had fled. It reminded me of another ethnological fact I had observed in Aden, where the flaxen-haired, light-coloured Jews, so different in appearance from the darker complexioned Arabs among whom they lived, were oppositely contrasted with those dark-eyed, darkhaired descendants of Israel, who have retained these characteristics of an eastern origin, although long resident among the fair-skinned inhabitants of northern Europe
